digital form processed and generated by

MAPPING computers.
Map
- is a graphic representation of all or a portion of
the earth’s surface or other celestial body, by
mean of signs and symbols or photographic
imagery at some given scale or projection, to
which lettering is added for identification.

CLASSIFICATION OF MAPS
1. Planimetric map - representation of the
earth’s surface in the two horizontal 5.
dimensions only. Photomap - reproduction of an aerial photographs
or a mosaic (an assembly of photographs) on
which grid lines, contours, boundaries,
placenames, and marginal information have
been added or overprinted.

2. Topographic map - representation of the

earth’s surface in three dimensions.

Meridian Arrow
- A needle or feathered arrow pointing north,
showing the direction of the reference meridian.
Map Titles
- Usually found in the lower right hand corner of
3. Thematic map - one that is made to deal with the sheet, and includes the purpose of the
a specific theme or subject. survey, the name of the owner of the
organization for whom the survey is made, the
location or area, the date of the survey, name of
the engineer or surveyor responsible for the
work, contour interval, the reference horizontal
and vertical datums, and the scale used.
Map Scales
- Scale refers to the relationship which the
4. Computer- distance between any two points on the map
generated map – cartographic information in
 bears to the corresponding distance on the
ground.
3 WAYS MAP SCALES ARE PORTRAYED
1. Equivalence Scale
- Scales expressed as an equivalence or by words
and figures.
2. Scale Ratio or Representative Fraction
- A fraction indicating a scale
3.
Graphic Scale
- A line subdivided into map distances
corresponding to convenient units of length on
the ground.
DIFFERENT PROCESSES IN THE
DUPLICATION AND REPRODUCTION OF
MAPS
CLASSIFICATION OF MAP SCALES
1. Large-Scale Maps – Maps having scales of
1:2,000 or larger and with contour intervals
ranging from 0.10 to 2.0 meters.
2. Medium-Scale Maps – Maps having scales
ranging from 1:2,000 to 1:10,000 and with
contour intervals ranging from 1.0 to 5.0
meters.
3. Small Scale Maps - Maps having scales
ranging from 1:10,000 or smaller and with
contour intervals ranging from 5 to 200
meters.
PROBLEMS:
COLORS USED IN THE MAP
1. Black – Is used for all man made or cultural
features, political, subdivisions, placenames,
gridlines, and letterings on the map.
2. Blue – Is used for water or hydrographic
features such as reservoirs, rivers, lakes,
canals, marshes, ponds, and wetlands.
3. Green – Is used as a surface tint or cover
overlay for wooded areas and other form of
vegetation. It is suited to show features such as
trees, grass, orchards, vineyards, forests,
meadows and crops.
4. Brown – Is used to show relief or height
features, and the configuration of the ground
surface such as those portrayed by contours,
contour numbers, hachures, cuts and fills.
5. Pink – Is used as a surface tint to portray built
up urban areas and the area coverage of large
cities.
6. Red – Is used to emphasize important roads
and public subdivision lines.
7. Gray – A color used sometimes in place of
brown.
1. Stenciling
2. Direct Contact Positives
3. Direct Contact Negatives
4. Photocopy Process
5. Film Photograph Process
6. Xerography
7. Micrographics
1. Determine the scale of a sketch whereon one
centimeter represent one hundred meters on
the ground.
 5. On a map with a scale of 1 cm. = 250 m. the
2. If the equivalence scale of a map is 5 cm. = 10
km, what is the scale ratio?
6. On a map of scale 1: 75,000 the map distance
3. The ground distance between two points on a
map is 4 kilometers. If the distance between
the same two points on the map is 8
centimeters, determine the scale of the map.
7.
4. On a map with a scale of 1cm = 3,000 m., the
measured length of a power transmission line
is 5.25 centimeters. What is the equivalent
ground length of the line?
measured length of an irrigation canal is 0.20
m. Determine the equivalent ground length of
the canal in kilometers.
measured between points A and B is 5.0 cm.
Determine the scale of a sketch of the same
area in which the drawn distance between the
same two points measures 2.5 cm.
A
graphic
scale is
to be
constructed for a map with a given fractional
scale of 1:25,000. Determine the length in
centimeters on the graphic scale which will
represent 1 km. on the map.

8. Determine the length in centimeters of a 1,000
m. equivalent graphic scale on a map whose
scale ratio is 1:10,000
PLANE TABLE SURVEYS
Plane Table
- Is a field mapping instrument which consists of
a board attached to a tripod in such a way that it
can be leveled or rotated to any desired
direction.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. Foresight - A procedure wherein a distant
point is sighted with the alidade and a line is
drawn from the plotted point occupied by the
table to the point sighted.
2. Backsight - A procedure wherein a sight is
taken from the position of the plane table at a
known and plotted point to another known and
plotted point.
3. Orientation - The process by which the plane
table is set up and aligned so that the lines on
the drawing paper are parallel to the lines on
the ground which they represent. May be
accomplished using the compass, by
backsighting and by resection.
4. Radiation - The process by which a series of
points are located in relation to the plotted
position of the plane table.
5. Traversing - A procedure in which the plane
table is transferred successively from one
traverse station to another. At each station the
plane table is oriented, after which a backsight
is taken to a previously occupied station, then
a foresight is also taken on the succeeding
station for purposes of determining horizontal
distances and/or difference in elevation.
6. Resection - The process of locating a plane
table station on the map by sighting on two or
more previously plotted points whose
positions are visible from the plane table
station.
7. Intersection - The process of locating a point
by drawing intersecting rays or lines from two
or more plotted positions of the plane table
station.
METHODS OF SURVEYING WITH PLANE
TABLE
1. RADIATION - Method of locating series of
points in relation to the plotted position of the
plane table through series of lines from its
location extending towards the ground
stations.
2. INTERSECTION – Method used for locating
nonaccessible points, by sighting at the point
from each of two plane table stations which
are plotted and drawing rays where the
intersection will give the location of the point.
3. TRAVERSING – The plane table is moved
successively from one station to another
measuring ground distance between stations
by a tape, then, the plane table is oriented by a
 compass or backsighting on the previous plane
table station.
4. RESECTION – Method of orientation used
when the table occupies a position not yet
located on the map. This is done by sighting
on two or more previously plotted points
whose positions are visible from the table.
TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS
Topography or Hypsography
- The configuration or shape and roughness of
the ground.
Different methods of representing relief
1. Spot Heights - Elevations of important
features and critical points such as road
junctions, peaks, summits, sags, and highway
crossings.
2. Hachures - Are series of short lines drawn in
the direction of the slope.
3. Form Lines - Are lines drawn when not enough
vertical control is available or when the
surface is too irregular or intricate to contour.
It is usually represented as dashed lines and
do not portray any actual elevation, and are
only used to show the shapes of the terrain
rather than relief.
4. Contour Lines - Are traces of lines of level
surfaces with different elevations. The most
widely used method of quantitatively
representing relief.
5. Layer Tinting - Parts of a map lying between
two particular contours are colored in order
that the distribution of high and low land can
be seen at a glance.
6. Shading - Old method used to show relative
elevations by illuminating the map by an
overhead light and placing different shades of
gray tints based on the shadow cast by
elevated portions of the land.
7. Relief or Terrain Models – This is a
representation of the terrain done in three
dimensions to suitable horizontal and vertical
scales. A miniature of the terrain it represents.
8. Ridge or Stream Lining – This method is
mainly used to emphasize the location of low
and high ground.
9. Subaqueous Contours – This is the method of
portraying relief of the ground underwater.
Different Types of Contours
1. Index contours - Heavier lines at regular
intervals on a topographic map normally twice
the gauge of the standard contours. They are
usually drawn every fifth contour and carry
the contour number or elevation designation.
2. Intermediate contours - The four lighter
weight contours found between the index
contours.
3. Depression contours - Drawn to show low
spots such as excavations around which
contour close.
4. Supplemental contours - Dashed lines or lines
of dots usually drawn one-half the specified
contour interval. Used for map areas that are
so flat that the contours are far apart.
5. Approximate contours – Used on areas
inaccessible on the ground and difficult to
 interpret, or contours from aerial photographs
when heavy clouds or shadows occur.

CONTOUR INTERVAL

- The constant vertical distance between two

adjacent contour lines.
- Selection of contour Interval
1. Relative cost
2. Purpose of the map
3. Nature of the terrain
4. Scale of the map

Characteristics of Contours

1. All points on any one contour have the same

elevation.
2. Every contour closes on itself, either within or
beyond the limits of the map. Problem Exercises:
3. A contour which closes within the limits of the 1. The map distance between two points X and Y
map indicates either a summit or a is 18 cm. and their elevations above sea level
depression. are 720.84 m. and 809.32 m. respectively.
4. Contours on the ground cannot cross one Considering uniform ground slope between X
another except where an overhanging cliff, a and Y, compute the map distance from X
vertical ledge or wall is represented in the where each of the following contours will
map. cross the line between the two points: 740,
5. Contours are spaced evenly on a uniform 760, 780, and 800m.
slope.
6. Contours are straight and parallel to each
other on a plane surface.
7. Irregular contours signify rough, rugged
terrain.
8. The horizontal distance between two adjacent
contours indicates the steepness of the slope
of the ground.
9. Contours cross curbs, crowned slopping street
in U-Shape curves.
10. As a contour approaches a stream, the
contour turns upstream until it reaches the
shoreline.

Locating Contour Lines by Interpolation

Interpolation - The process of locating contour lines

proportionally on the map between plotted points.

Methods of contour interpolation

1. By Estimation
2. Rubber band method
3. Analytical method
4. Triangle and scale method
5. Template method
Methods of Obtaining Contours
TWO MAJOR CLASSIFICATIONS
1. Direct methods
- The method in which the contours to be
plotted are actually traced out in the field. The
procedure involves the location and marking of
a series of points on each contour line. These
points are surveyed and plotted in the field and
the appropriate contours are drawn through
them. An example for this is the trace-contour
method.
1.1 Trace contour method
- One of the most accurate and direct method of
locating contours. - The procedure consists of a
series of rod readings taken along the same
contour line from successive setups of the
instrument.
2. Indirect Methods
- Comprise those in which the points located
with regards to position and elevation are not
necessarily situated on the contours to be
shown, but serve, on being plotted, as basis for
the interpolation of the required contours.
2.1 Coordinate Method
- The method of locating and plotting the
contours of a given area by utilizing a grid or
coordinate system. The general procedure are
as follows:
1) On a grid system lay out the area by
establishing corner and perimeter
stakes.
2) Determine the elevation of ground
points located at the intersection of
the grid lines.
3) Plot the points of known elevation to
the desired scale in plan.
4) Draw the contour lines by
interpolation.
2.2 Controlling - Point Method
- The method considered to be one with the
most universal application and is used to
practically every type of terrain and condition
encountered in topographic mapping. In this
method, points are chosen at random or along
selected lines.
2.3 Cross-Profile Method
- The method principally used in locating
contours along a route or other narrow area of
terrain. It is a modification of the method of
cross-sectioning as used in route surveys.
2.4 Photogrammetric Method
- Method where contours may be plotted from
aerial photographs of the terrain with a
minimum of ground survey for control.
SLOPE
- The rate of rise or fall of the ground surface is
known as its slope.
Methods of Expressing Slope:
1. Percent or Grade – The slope is calculated by
dividing the difference in elevation by the
 horizontal distance and multiplying by 100% m. Determine the slope between the points in
to get the slope in percent. percent, gradient, degrees, mils and grads.
2. Degrees - Slope is expressed as the angle in
degrees that a line makes with the horizontal.
It is expressed as Tan -1 (DE/HD).
3. Gradient – Slope is determined by dividing the
difference in elevation by the horizontal
distance and expressing the numerator as one
unit.
4. Mils - Method commonly used by the military
of expressing slope for computing field
artillery firing data, sketching and in
reconnaissance surveys. It is the unit of
measurement equal to 1/6400 of a circle.
5. Grads – A unit of angular measurement based
on the centesimal system. One grad equals
1/400 of a circle.

Problem Exercises:
1. The accompanying sketch shows a tract of
land which has been subjected to a
topographic survey. The elevation of critical
points are as indicated in the sketch. Assuming
uniformity of slope from corner to corner and
from the center to each corner, plot the
contour lines by the graphical method. The
contour line with an elevation of multiples of
10 m. should be shown as an index contour
and drawn twice the thickness of the
intermediate contours. Contour interval is 2
meters.
2. The difference in elevation between two
ground points A and B is 48.72 m., and the
horizontal distance between them is 154.63