VERTEBRAL COLUMN – consists of 26 bones called vertebrae.

5 major functions of vertebra

1) Support the weight of the head and trunk

2) Protects the spinal cord
3) It allows spinal nerves to exit the spinal cord.
4) It provides muscle attachment
5) Permits movement of the head and trunk

The vertebrae are divided into 5 regions.

• 7 cervical vertebrae - C1-C7

• 12 thoracic vertebrae – T1-T2
• 5 lumbar vertebrae – L1 – L5
• 1 sacral bone - S
• 1 coccygeal bone - CO

➢ CERVICAL vertebrae – located in the vertebral column region with the greatest range of motion.
These vertebrae support and move the head.
• Also unique in that the transverse process has Transverse foramina – through which the
vertebral arteries extend toward the head.

The first 2 cervical vertebrae include:

1) ATLAS (C1) derived from the Greek god who held his (head) on his shoulder.
• Directly attached in our head.
• (Does not have body and spinous process)
• Vertebral artery – supplies blood
• The superior articular facets are connected with the occipital condyle (yes and nodding).

2) AXIS (C2) – allows the significant amount of the head rotation.

• Shaking your head “no” occurs when atlas rotate. This rotation occurs around the highly
modified superior process of the axis called Dens (tooth-like).
• Transverse ligament -nag-hhold para hindi gumalaw yung nakaattach na monoaxial.
• Normal.

➢ THORACIC VERTEBRAE – is the least moveable of the five regions due to the articulation of the
thoracic vertebrae with the ribs.
• Support the thoracic cage, which houses and protects the heart and lungs
• Have the longest spinous process which project inferiorly.
• Their TRANSVERSE PROCESS are longer than the others
• The first 10 possess articular facets – for heads of the ribs
• (superior articular facets) special
 ➢ LUMBAR VERTEBRAE – Support the majority weight of the body.
• most common site of injury.

➢ SACRAL(sacrum) – is located between 2 hip bones

• 5 bones fused into 1 during adolescence
• It is part of pelvic girdle which provide stable support for our lower limbs.
• Median sacral crest – bumpy ridge formed by fusion of sacral spinous process.
• Sacral Hiatus – inferior surface of the sacrum opening. Hole or jan nag ggive ng medicine and
mga antitheologies.

➢ Coccygeal Region (coccyx) – is commonly referred to as the tailbone.

• Terminal portion of the vertebral column
• This bone is actually a fusion of typically 4 vertebrae but can vary from 3 to 5.
• Tail Bone Fracture / coccygeal fracture.

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THORACIC CAGE – commonly called the rib cage, protects the heart and lungs within the thorax.

Consist of: thoracic vertebrae, ribs associated costal cartilages, and sternum.

• 12 pairs of ribs
• 1-7 called TRUE RIBS – attached directly through costal cartilage to the sternum.
• 8-12 called FALSE RIBS – they do not attach directly to sternum. Joined to the costal cartilage of
7.
• Floating ribs - they are not attach to the sternum (rib 11 and 12 ).

STERNUM (breast bone) – has been describe as a sword shape and has 3 parts.

3 parts of the sternum:

• Manubrium (sword handle) – it was attached to the rib.

• Body - gladiolus (sword) is the blade.
• Xyphoid process – is the “sword tip”.

Sternal angle – the point at which manubrium and body joins in the rib #2.

Jugular notch – the superior margin of manubrium which can be felt on anterior base of the neck.

JUMSBOX

• JUgular notch
• Manubrium
• Sternal angle
• BOdy Xyphoid process
APPENDICULAR SKELETON – allows the movement of appendages and supports our weight in
an upright position.

Pectoral Girdle and Upper limb

Pectoral Girdle – consists of 2 pairs of bones that attach of the upper limbs to the body.
➢ Scapula – commonly known as “shoulder blade”.
• Scapular spine – extends from the acromion process across the posterior surface of
scapula.
• Acromion – shoulder tip. Process of the scapula.
• Coracoid process – “crow’s beak” provides attachment for some shoulder and arm
muscles.
• Glenoid fossa – located to the superior lateral portion of the bone, articulates with the
head of the humerus. Attached the humerus bone.

➢ Clavicle – commonly known as “collarbone.” is a long bone with a slight sigmoid (S-
shaped) curve. It easily felt in the living human.
• It attaches to sternum and scapula.
• Lateral end it articulates with the acromion process.
• upper arm to your axial skeleton.

Arm: Humerus – the part of the upper limb from the shoulder to the elbow.
Prominent marks of humerus;

• Greater tubercle – lateral side/ attached in the tissue.

• Lesser tubercle – anteriorly or medial side
• Surgical neck – common fracture site that often requires surgical repair.
• Deltoid tuberosity – the site of attachment of deltoid muscle.
Capitulum – humerus articulates with the radius.
Trochlea – medially the humerus articulates with ulna.
Medial epicondyle and Lateral epicondyle – this is where the Forearm superior Ulna and Radius
attachment site.
Olecranon fossa – posteriorly in the distal end is a large fossa (pailalim).
Forearm: Ulna and Radius – articulates with the humerus elbow joint.
➢ Ulna (pinky) – articulates with the humerus the C-shape called Trochlear notch.
• Trochlear notch – rotates over the trochlea of the humerus when bending the elbow.
Superior of olecranon process.
• Coronoid process – inserts into a fossa of the humerus when the elbow is bent.
• Olecranon process – inserts into the olecranon fossa of the humerus when the elbow is
straightened.
• Styloid process – small process. This is where the ligaments of the wrist attached.

➢ Radius (thumb) – It articulates humerus head. Rotates over the capitulum of the
humerus when bending the elbow.
• Radial tuberosity – site of attachment for the biceps brachii muscle of the arm.
• Styloid process – radius is lateral and serve as an attachment location for the wrist
ligaments.
Wrist : Carpals – is the short region between the forearm and hand.
Composed of 8 carpal bones:
PROXIMAL ROW:

• Scaphoid – boat-shaped
• Lunate – moon shaped
• Triquetrum – three cornered
• Pisiform – “pea-shaped” which is located on the palmar surface of triquetrum.
DISTAL ROW:

• Hamate – hook of the hamate

• Capitate – head-shaped
• Trapezoid – four-sided geometric form with 2 parallel sides
• Trapezium – four-sided geometric form with no parallel side.
Hand: Metacarpal bones – 5 bones are attached to the carpal bones and make up the central
portion of the hand. The thumb(pollex) is the base or the starting of the count.
Phalanges – consists of small long bones. 14 phalanges = 27 bones in the hand.

• Thumb – has 2 phalanges. Called proximal and distal.

• Each finger has 3 phalanges
1. Distal
2. Middle
3. Proximal
Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb
Lower limb – support the body and are essential for the normal standing, walking, and running.
Pelvic girdle – is formed by the 2 hips (coxal bones) and the sacrum.
Pelvis – includes the pelvic girdle and coccyx.
Hip bone is a large bony plate formed from the fusion of 3 separate bone:
1) Ilium – the largest bone among the 2 hip bone
• Iliac crest – forms the most superior border of the ilium.
• Anterior superior iliac spine(ASIS) – the crest ends anteriorly.
• Posterior superior iliac spine (PSIS) – the crest anterior spine can be felt and
even seen in thin individuals.
• Greater sciatic notch – is on the posterior side of the ilium, just inferior to the
posterior inferior iliac spine. The sciatic nerve passes thru the greater sciatic
notch.
• Auricular surface – ilium joins the sacrum to form the “sacroiliac joint.”
• Iliac fossa – the medial side of the ilium consists of a large depression.

2) Ischium – more posterior than pubis. Has a thick “ischial tuberosity”. The ischium
also has a posterior “ischial spine” a site of ligament attachment.

3) Pubis – pubic area.

• The two pubic bones are joined by the “pubic symphysis” a thick pad
fibrocartilage.
• Obturator foramen – it passes a few nerves and blood vessels pass through: it is
otherwise closed by a ligament.
Acetabulum(vinegar cup)– crescent -shaped. the 3 individual bones converge near the center of
the hip socket.
Pelvis is subdivided into TRUE PELVIS and FALSE PELVIS.

• Pelvic inlet – the opening to the true pelvis.

• Pelvic outlet – inferior opening of the true pelvis.
• True Pelvis – anything below the circle.
Comparison of the Male pelvis and the Female pelvis:
Male pelvis – is usually more massive than the female pelvis. Greater weight and size of the
male body. narrow
Female pelvis – is broader and has a larger, more rounder pelvic inlet and outlet.

• Adapted to child bearing

• More wide arch
• Oval
Thigh: Femur – longest bone and single bone the femur has a prominent rounded head where it
articulates with acetabulum. Only bone in thigh
❖ Greater trochanter – lateral to the neck.
❖ Lesser trochanter – a smaller inferior and posterior to the neck.
❖ Medial condyle/ lateral condyle – it attaches in the tibia.
❖ Patella – kneecap. Is a large sesamoid bone located within the tendon of the quadriceps
femoris muscle group. It create smooth articular surface over the anterior distal end of
the femur.
Leg: Tibia and Fibula
1) Tibia (shinbone) – medial. Larger of the 2 and the major weight-bearing bone of the leg.
Siya lang naka dikit kay femur
1) Tibial tuberosity – point attachment for quadriceps

2) Fibula – lateral. Does not articulate with femur but it heads articulate with the proximal
end of the tibia. Naka dikit siya kay tibia
Ankle – consist of the distal ends of the tibia and fibula forming a partial socket that articulate
with the bone of the foot (talus).
o Medial malleolus – the distal tibia.
o Lateral malleolus – the distal fibula.
Foot: Tarsals, Metatarsal, and Phalanges
There are 7 TARSAL bones:
1. Talus - naka dikit sa fibula and tibia
2. Calcaneus – heel
3. Navicular –
4. Medial cuneiform
5. Intermediate cuneiform
6. Lateral cuneiform
7. Cuboid
METATARSAL BONE AND PHALANGES – of the foot are arranged in a manner in very similar to
the metacarpal and phalanges of the hand.
There are 3 primary arches in the foot:
In the foot formed by the position of the tarsal bones and metatarsal bones and held in place by
ligaments.
o 2 longitudinal arches – extends from the heel to the ball of the foot.
o Transverse arch – located at the connection between the five metatarsal ( 3 cuneiform
and cuboid)
Arches of the foot 2 main function:
1. Support the body upright position while walking or balance while walking.
2. Push body forward during walking.
Joints – articulation. Portion of the bone that join together Ex: temporomandibular joint is
between temporal bone and mandible.

• Articulation of 2 adjacent bones.

Cubital – joint for elbow.
Joints are classified structurally:
1.) Structural classification -fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial.
• Fibrous joint – are articulationg surfaces of two bones united by fibrous connective
tissue. They have no joint cavity and little to no movement.
• Sutures – fribrous joints between the bones of the skull.
- Fontanels – soft spot. They allow flexibility in the skull during birth process as well as
growth of the head after birth.
• Syndesmoses – are fibrous joints in which the bones are separated by some distance
and held together by ligaments. Ex: fibrous membrane connecting most of the distal
parts of the radius and ulna.
 • Gomphoses – pegs fitted into socket and held in place by ligaments. Joint between tooth
and its socket.

2) Functional classification – a degree of motion.

• Synarthroses (nonmovable joint)
• Ampiarthroses (slightly moveble joint)
• Diarthroses ( freely movable joint)
Cartilaginous joints – hold 2 bones together by pad of cartilage like fibrous joints.
- This joint little or no movement
Subdivided on basis type of cartilage:

• Synchondroses – contain hyaline cartilage.

• Symphyses – contain fibrocartilage.
Synovial joint (knee joint)– contain synovial fluid and allow considerable movement between
articulating bones.
- Most of the joint appendicular.
- Considerable movement.
• Articular cartilage – provides smooth surface where the bones meet.
• Meniscus – flat pad of fibrocartilage. Improve joint stability and reduces wear on the
articular cartilage.
• Joint cavity – space around the articular surfaces of the bones in the synovial joint.
• Joint capsule – it surrounds the joint cavity filled with synovial fluid.
• Synovial membrane – is the inner layer of the capsule.
• Synovial fluid – a viscous lubricating film that covers the surfaces of a joint.
- Complex mixture of polysaccharides, protein,lipids, and cells derived from serum
(blood fluid) filtrate and secretions form synovial cells
• Bursa – pocket like extension. Contain synovial fluid and provide cushion between
structures that would otherwise rub against each other.
• Bursitis – inflammation of bursa may cause terrible pain around the joint and restrict
movement.
- blood vessels do not actually enter the cavity. Because the cartilage does not contain
blood vessels , nutrients and oxygen diffuse from the surrounding vessels into
cartilage. NERVES DO NOT ENTER THE CARTILAGE OR JOINT CAVITY.
o Uniaxial(movements at synovial joint) one axis
o Biaxial (2 axis situated at right angles to eachother)
o Multiaxial (occurring several axis)
Types of Sinovial Joints: according to the shape
1. plane joint ( uniaxial)– gliding joint consist of 2 flat bone.
2. Saddle (biaxial)– consist of 2 saddle shaped articulating surfaces oriented at right
angle.
3. hinge joint (uniaxial) – convex cylinder in one bone
4. pivot joint (uniaxial) – restricts movement to rotation around the axis. Consist of
relatively cylindrical process that rotates within the ring composed of partly of the
bone
5. ball and socket joint (multiaxial)– consist of ball (head) at the end of one bone and a
socket in an adjacent bone into which portion of the ball.
6. Ellipsoid joint (biaxial) – condyloid part. Is a modified ball and socket joint
Types of Movement:
Elbow and Knee joints:

• Flexion – bending movement that decreases the angle of the joint.

• Extension – straightening movement that increases the angle of the joint.
• Hyperextension – joint 180 degree. Looking up in the stars
• Plantar flexion – movement of the foot toward the plantar surface as when standing on
the toes.
• Dorsiflexion – movement of the foot toward shin as when walking on the heels.
• Abduction – “bring together “movement away from median or midsagittal plane. Ex:
Jumping jacks
• Pronation – rotation of the forearm so that the palm is DOWN.
• Supination – rotation of the forearm so that the palm is faces UP.
• Eversion – turning the foot so that the plantar surface ( bottom of the foot) faces
laterally.
• Inversion – turning the foot so that the plantar surface face medially.
• Rotation – turning structure around its long axis as in shaking the head “no”
• Circumduction – freely moveable joints , such shoulder.
Other addition movements:

• Protraction – movement in which a structure such as mandible, glides anteriorly.

• Retraction – the structure glides posteriorly.
• Elevation – movement of a structure in superior direction. Closing mouth involves
elevation of the mandible.
• Excursion – movement of the structure to one side. As in moving the mandible from side
to side.
• Opposition – movement unique to the thumb and little finger
• Reposition – returns the digits to the anatomical position
When bone of a joint forcefully pulled apart it results to sprain.
Separation - of the bone exists when the bones remain apart after injury to joint.
Dislocation – when end of one bone is pulled out of the socket in ballad n socket ellipsoid and
pivot. Loose joints