CE323-T

BASIC SUBSURFACE FLOW DEFINITION

Hydrology

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Subsurface Flow Distribution of subsurface water

- It is the water beneath the
ground surface contained
in void spaces (pore spaces SUBSURFACE DISTRIBUTION
between rock and soil
particles, or bedrock OF WATER
fractures)

5 Source: Heath, 1995

Unsaturated Zone: Soil Water Zone
A. Soil Water Zone
- Encompasses the zone from the ground surface
down to the roots where water is drawn by
vegetation.
- It is also called soil-moisture belt
- Its thickness depends upon the type of
vegetation that is being fed
Unsaturated Zone: Soil Water Zone
A. Soil Water Zone
- It is classified in three main classes:
Unsaturated Zone: Intermediate Zone
B. Intermediate Zone
- Extends from the bottom of the soil water
zone down to the top of the capillary fringe
- Greatly varies in thickness from no
thickness to several hundred meters
- Infiltration water must pass through this
region
 Unsaturated Zone: Capillary Zone Saturated Zone Distribution of subsurface water
D. Saturated Zone
C. Capillary Zone D. Saturated Zone
- In saturated zone, water fills the pore spaces
- Zone of soil commencing from the water completely, and water is stored as in a reservoir,
- The saturated formation are classified into
table to the top of the capillary-rise zone having a hydrostatic pressure variation throughout four categories:
- Fully saturated at the equilibrium zone its depth with atmospheric pressure assumed to 1. Aquifer
- Thickness depends on the texture of soil so it exist at the water table 2. Aquitard
varies from region to region 3. Aquiclude
4. Aquifuge

1. Aquifer 2. Aquitard
It is a saturated formation It is a formation
of earth material which not through which only
FORMATION OF SATURATED only stores water but yields
it in sufficient quantity
seepage is possible and
thus, the yield is
ZONE relatively easily due to its
high permeability.
insignificant compared
to an aquifer.
Deposits of sand and gravel A sandy clay unit is an
form good aquifers example of aquitard.
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3. Aquiclude 4. Aquifuge
Formations like clay which is highly porous but It is a geological
not permeable due to very small size of pores formation which is
neither porous nor
permeable. UNCONFINED AQUIFER
Massive compact
rock without any
fractures is an
aquifuge.
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 Unconfined Aquifers Unconfined Aquifers Unconfined Aquifers
It is one which It is in direct contact with In unconfined aquifers, the water table goes
signifies the atmospheric through the down if water is withdrawn from the aquifer
absence of any zone of aeration. The storage and the water table moves up if water is
geological-layer hydraulic pressure head
added into the aquifer storage.
at any point within the
confining the
unconfined aquifer is
zone of equal to the depth of the
saturation (above point from the water
the water table). table.

Phreatic Aquifer Perched Aquifer

The water level in a large diameter dug wells
tapping unconfined aquifer represents water
table. This aquifer is also known as water table
aquifer or phreatic aquifer
A special case of unconfined aquifer. It is formed
when the infiltrated rain water is intercepted within
the zone of aeration by an impermeable layer and a
local zone of saturation is formed.
CONFINED AQUIFER

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Confined Aquifers Confined Aquifers Confined Aquifers

It is also called as The ground water table within a confined
artisan aquifer.
aquifer occurs under pressure (known as
It is the one which is confined pressure or artisan pressure) greater
overlain by an than atmospheric pressure.
impermeable layer.
The water in the When such confined aquifer is pierced by a
confined aquifer is not well, the water rises in the well due to release
in direct contact with of pressure within the confined aquifer.
the atmosphere.
 Confined Aquifer Recharge area
POTENTIOMETRIC LEVEL
It is the level upto which water will rise in the well.
This indicates the magnitude of pressure within
the confined aquifer. If the potentiometric level is
above the ground surface, a flowing well results. AQUIFER PROPERTIES
RECHARGE AREA
The area from which the infiltrated water enters
the confined aquifer is known as the recharge
area. 30

1. Porosity Sample Problem Solution

It is the amount of pore space per unit volume Calculate the porosity (n) of a 250 cm3 clod that Porosity = Vair + Vwater/Vtotal
of the aquifer material. contains 140 cm3 water when saturated. Porosity = 140cm3/250cm3
Porosity = 56%
It is expressed as:
n=V /Vv o
Where:
n is the porosity
Vv is the volume of voids
Vo is the volume of porous medium.

2. Specific Yield & Specific Retention
Not all the water held in
the pores is available for
extraction by pumping or
draining by gravity.
The pores hold back some
water by molecular
attraction and surface
tension.
2. Specific Yield & Specific Retention 2. Specific Yield & Specific Retention
Specific yield Sy is the actual volume of water Note that although clay and sand have high
that can be extracted by the force of gravity porosity, the specific yield of clay is very small
from a unit volume of aquifer material. compared to that of sand.
Specific retention or field capacity Sr is the
fraction of water held back in the aquifer.
The porosity is given by:
n = Sy + Sr
 Sample Problem 3. Storage coefficient or Storativity
In a certain alluvial basin of 100 km2, 90 mm3 In confined aquifer, it is the volume of water
of ground water was pumped in a year and the given by unit plan area of aquifer when
ground water table dropped by about 5 m piezometric surface falls by unity.
during the year. Assuming no replenishment,
In unconfined aquifer, it is assumed to be equal
estimate the specific yield of the aquifer. If the
to specific yield.
specific retention is 12%, what is the porosity
of the soil?
Hint: ΔS = A*d*Sy

3. Storage coefficient or Storativity Sample Problem

In artesian aquifer is given by: An artesian aquifer, 30 m thick has a porosity
of 25% and bulk modulus of compression 2000
Where: kg/cm2. Estimate the storage coefficient of the
S is the storage coefficient aquifer. What fraction of this is attributable to
γw is the specific weight of water the expansibility of water? Take Bulk modulus
n is the porosity of soil
b is the thickness of the confined aquifer
of elasticity of water = 2.4 x 104 kg/cm3
Kw is the bulk modulus of elasticity of water
Es is the modulus of compressibility of the soil grains of
the aquifer

4. Specific Storage 5. Darcy’s Law 5. Darcy’s Law

It is defined as volume of water released from The Darcy’s Law is given by: The apparent velocity of seepage is given by:
storage from a unit volume of aquifer due to V = Ki V = Q/A
unit decrease in pierometric head. Where: Where:
V is the apparent velocity of seepage V is the apparent velocity of seepage also known as
Storage coefficient per unit depth of confined i = - dh/ds is the hydraulic gradient in which h is the discharge velocity
aquifer is called specific storage Ss: piezometric head, and s is the distance measured in the Q is the discharge
S=S b s
general flow direction A is the cross-sectional area of the porous medium
K is the coefficient of permeability (hydraulic
Where
conductivity)
b is the depth of confined aquifer
 5. Darcy’s Law 5. Darcy’s Law 5. Darcy’s Law
The discharge Q is given by: Darcy law is valid for Re<1 where: Actual speed of travel of water in the porous
Q = KiA Re=Vd /v o
media is expressed as:
Where: Where: v = V/n
a
Q is the discharge Re is the Reynold’s number Where:
A is the cross-sectional area of the porous medium do is the representative particle size, usually do=d10 where va is the actual velocity
K is the coefficient of permeability (hydraulic do represents a size such that 10% of the aquifer material V is the apparent velocity
conductivity) is of smaller size. n is the porosity
i is the hydraulic gradient v is the kinematic viscosity of water

Sample Problem Solution Sample Problem

Water temperature in an aquifer is 60 deg F A confined aquifer has a source of recharge. K for the
and the rate of water movement = 1.2 ft/day. aquifer is 50 m/day, and n is 0.2. The piezometric
The average particle diameter in the porous head in two wells 1000 m apart is 55 m and 50 m
respectively, from a common datum. The average
medium is 0.08 in. Find the Reynold’s number
thickness of the aquifer is 30 m, and the average
and indicate whether Darcy’s law is applicable. width of flow is 5 km. Find the following:
The kinematic viscosity is 1.21*10-5 ft2/s a. The Darcy and seepage velocity in the aquifer
b. Average time of travel from the head of the
aquifer to a point 4km downstream

Solution Solution 6. Coefficient of Permeability

Also known as hydraulic conductivity reflects the
combined effects of the porous medium and fluid
properties. It is given by:
K = Cd2mγ/µ = Koγ/µ
Where:
dm is the mean particle size of the porous medium
γ = ρg is the unit weight of fluid
µ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid
C is the shape factor which depends on the porosity, packing,
shape of grains, etc
Ko is the specific or intrinsic permeability
 Sample Problem Solution 7. Coefficient of Transmissibility
Determine the coefficient of permeability from the
Coefficient of Transmissibility is defined to
following data:
Length of sand sample = 25 cm
find out the discharge so it is defined as
Area of cross section of the sample = 30 cm2 discharge per unit length of aquifer.
Head of water = 40 cm
Discharge = 200 ml in 110 s T has a unit of length2/time.

7. Coefficient of Transmissibility 7. Coefficient of Transmissibility Sample Problem

In an unconfined aquifer, the formula is given In confined aquifer, the formula is given by: When 3.68 million m3 of water was pumped out
by: from an unconfined aquifer of 6.2 km2 areal
extent, the water table was observed to go
down by 2.6 m. What is the specific yield of the
aquifer? During a monsoon season if the water
table of the same aquifer goes up by 10.8 m,
what is the volume of recharge?

Statification
Stratification is the formation of strata in rock.

The aquifer sometimes may be stratified with

STRATIFICATION different permeabilities in each strata. Two
kinds of flow situations are possible in such a
case.

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 Flow parallel to stratification
When the flow is parallel to
the stratification, equivalent
permeability Ke transmissivity
T of the entire aquifer of
thickness D = D1+D2+D3+...+Dn
are:
Solution
One dimensional confined ground water flow
between two water bodies (confined flow)
The assumptions are made in this analysis:
a. Aquifer is homogeneous
b. Aquifer is isotropic
c. Flow is steady
Flow normal to stratification Sample Problem
When the flow is parallel to On close investigation of a sample, it was found to be in
the stratification, equivalent three layers 20 mm, 60 mm, and 40 mm. The
permeability Ke and permeability of these layers are 3*10-3 mm/sec, 5*10-4
transmissivity of the entire mm/sec, and 17*10-4 mm/sec, respectively.
aquifer of length 1. Find the equivalent coefficient of permeability if the:
L = L1+L2+L3+...+Ln are: a. Flow is parallel to the stratification
b. Flow is normal to the stratification
B. Find the ratio of the equivalent coefficient of
permeability if the flow is parallel to the equivalent
coefficient of permeability if the flow is normal.
Equation of Motions
1. One dimensional confined ground water flow
between two water bodies (confined flow)
GROUNDWATER FLOW 2. Unconfined ground water flow between two
water bodies (unconfined flow)
EQUATIONS 3. Steady Radial Flow to a well in a confined
aquifer
4. Steady Radial Flow to a well in an unconfined
aquifer
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One dimensional confined ground water flow One dimensional confined ground water flow
between two water bodies (confined flow) between two water bodies (confined flow)
The discharge per unit In case of confined flow
width is given by: between two reservoir,
hydraulic grade line
varies linearly from h0
to h1:
 Unconfined ground water flow between two water Unconfined ground water flow between two water Unconfined ground water flow between two water
bodies (unconfined flow) bodies (unconfined flow) bodies (unconfined flow)
The assumptions are made in this analysis: The discharge per unit Water surface is a
a. Aquifer is homogeneous width is given by: parabola in case of
b. Aquifer is isotropic unconfined aquifer:
c. Flow is steady

Unconfined ground water flow between two water

bodies (unconfined flow) Steady Radial Flow to a well in a confined aquifer Steady Radial Flow to a well in a confined aquifer
Water surface is a This is the equilibrium At the edge of zone of
parabola in case of equation for the steady influence, s=0, r2=R, and
unconfined aquifer: flow in a confined aquifer. h2=H; at the well wall
It is known as Thiem’s r1=rw, h1=hw, and s1=sw.
equation: This is called dupits
formula:

Steady Radial Flow to a well in an unconfined

aquifer ASSIGNMENT NO. 1 ASSIGNMENT NO. 2
This is the equilibrium equation
A well diameter of 30 cm fully penetrated a confined A 45 cm diameter well penetrates an unconfined aquifer
for a well in an unconfined aquifer
aquifer of 25 m thick. After a long period of pumping at a of 30 m thick. Under the steady pumping rate for a long
(Thiem’s formula). As at the edge
steady state, the observations drawdowns at 25 m and 75 time, the drawdown at two observation wells 10 m and 20
of the zone of influence of radius
m distances from the center of the main well are found to m from the pumping well are 5m and 3.5m, respectively.
R, H=saturated thickness of the
be 5m and 1.5m respectively. If the coefficient of What will be the discharge (cu.m/s), if the permeability of
aquifer. Hence:
permeability of aquifer is 12m/day, the steady state the aquifer is given as 20 m/day?
discharge from the main well would be _ liter/min.
Hint: Use the formula for the steady radial flow to a well
R is normally between 300-500mm
hw is the depth of water in the
Hint: Use the formula for the steady radial flow to a well in a unconfined aquifer
pumping well of radius rw in a confined aquifer
Questions?

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