Readings in the Philippine History

Chapter 5

Social, Economic, Political and

Cultural Issues
Chapter 5

Social, Economic, Political and Cultural Issues

In this chapter it discusses the different problems and current situation of the Philippines
development, affected by various factors such as; social, political, cultural and economic
issues. It also gives as a brief history of the economic and cultural issues related to the
development of new laws and bills in giving solutions to the problems and how to contribute
and help to the future developments.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
 Propose recommendation or solution to present day problems based on their
understanding of root causes, and their anticipation of future scenarios.
 Display the ability to work in a multi-disciplinary team and contribute to a group
endeavor in promoting Philippine patrimony.

Duration
Chapter 5: Philippine Agrarian Programs The
Philippine Constitution = 3 hours
Philippine Taxation = 3 hours
Indigenous People Education =3 hours
Philippine Local Histories =3 hours

Lesson Proper
CHAPTER 5– SOCIAL, ECONOMIC, POLITICAL AND CULTURAL ISSUES

5.1. COMPREHENSIVE AGRARIAN REFORM

A. Aquino, et,al. 2013

Republic Act 6657 or the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law (CARL), was signed into a
law by President C. Aquino on June 10, 1988 in response to peasants’ call for equitable
access to land. For a long period of time, the elite landlords brought by the feudal system
during the Spanish colonial government controlled the country’s agrarian system. Problems
of landlessness, massive poverty in rural areas and abuses of landlords led to the formulation
of a number of agrarian reform policies in the country.

CARL was the sixth land reform law in more than 50 years following land reforms laws
since 1933. In instituted the implementation of the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program
(CARP) which is meant to distribute lands to the farmers in a span of 10 years and usher in
new process of land classification, acquisition and distribution.

COMPREHENSIVE AGRARIAN REFORM LAW OF 1988

CARL covers all public private agricultural lands, regardless of tenurial arrangements and
commonly produced. In specific terms it includes all alienable and disposable lands of the
public domain devoted to or suitable for agriculture regardless of the agricultural products
raised. The worker-beneficiaries through cooperative or association may
collectively own the land when it is not economically feasible to divide. The distribution of
all the lands shall be completed within 10 years.

RETENTION AND DISTRIBUTION LIMITS

To take on its declared aim of establishing owner cultivator ship of economic-sized farms as
the basis of Philippine agriculture, CARL prohibits landowners over 15 years’ age, provide
that she/he is personally cultivating the land. In the same way the distribution limit for
qualified beneficiaries is three hectares of agricultural land. Beneficiaries may be agricultural
leases and share tenants, regular, seasonal or other farm workers, actual tillers or occupants
of public lands; collective or cooperatives of the beneficiaries or others directly working on
the land.

PROGRAM IMPLEMENTATION

The program was operationalized through two mechanisms: Land Tenure Improvement (LTI)
and Program Beneficiaries Development (pbd). LTI involves land acquisition and
distribution (LAD) and in detail, the major processes of survey, identification pf qualified
beneficiaries, processing of claim folders for landowners’ compensation, land valuation and
compensation, registration of land and issuance of Certificate of Land Ownership Award
(CLOA) to beneficiaries.

Over the 10-year period implementation, land acquisition is scheduled to take place in three
passes:

Phase 1: Rice and corn lands, private lands voluntarily offered, foreclosed lands by
government financial institutions, acquired lands by the Presidential Commission on Good
Governance (PCGG) and all others owned by the government to be distributed immediately
and implementation completed within four years.

Phase 2: Alienable and disposable public agricultural lands, arable public agricultural lands
under Agri-forest, pasture and agricultural leases; public agricultural lands to be opened for
new development and resettlement; and ll private agricultural lands greater than 50 hectares
to be distributed immediately and implementation completed within four years.

Phase 3: All private lands with large landholdings:

a. Landholdings above 24 hectares up to 50 hectares to begin on the fourth year and to
be completed within three years.
b. Retention limit of five hectares up to 24 hectares to begin on the sixth year and be
completed within four years.

PBD is undertaken through the establishment of agrarian reform communities (ARC) where
beneficiaries are provided with support services that would make their lands more productive
to improve their economic situation. These include, but not limited to, irrigation facilities,
infrastructure development and public works projects in agrarian reform areas and
settlements, credit support, financial assistance to small and medium scale industries,
extension services and research development and information dissemination.
LANDOWNER COMPENSATION

The level of compensation payable to the expropriated landowner is determined based on the
cost of acquisition of the land, the current value of like properties, the generated income from
the property, the sworn valuation of the owner and the assessment made by the government
assessor. Payments may be made in the form of cash, shares of stock in government-owned
or controlled corporations, tax credits of Land Bank of the Philippines (LBP) bonds. The
amount may be increased by 5% if the landowners voluntarily offer their lands for sale.
CARL is the most comprehensive agrarian reform law because it covers all public lands and
others lands suitable for agriculture regardless of tenurial agreement and crops produced. The
law also adopted various progressive provisions needed by small and marginal farmers to
have equitable land. Aside from transfer of ownership, it also provides access to support
services to ensure that socio-economic improvement of the program beneficiaries is
achieved.

COMPREHENSIVE AGRARIAN REFORM PROGRAM

Salmerano, et.al., 2017

WHAT IS CARP? WHAT IS CARPER?

CARP stands for Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program, a government initiative that
aims to grant landless farmers and frameworks ownership of agricultural lands. It was signed
into law by President Corazon C. Aquino on June 10,1988 and was scheduled to have been
completed in 1998.
Congress enacted a law Republic Act No. 8532 appropriating additional funds for the
program and extending the automatic appropriation of ill-gotten wealth recovered by the
Presidential Commission on Good Governance (PCGG) for CARP until 2008.

CARPER, or the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program Extension with Reforms, is

the amendatory law that extends yet again the deadline of distributing agricultural lands to
farmers for five years. It also amends other provisions stated in CARP. CARPER was signed
into law on August 7, 2009.

THE BENEFECIARIES

Landless farmers, including agricultural lessees, tenants, as well as regular, seasonal and
other farmworkers. The Department of Agrarian Reform (DAR) identifies and screens
potential beneficiaries and validates their qualifications.

 At least 15 years’ old

 A resident of the barangay where the land holding is located
 Own no more than 3 hectares of agricultural land

WHAT ARE THE GOVERNMENT OFFICES INVOLVED IN THE PROGRAM?

 DAR – Department of Agrarian Reform as the lead agencies.
 DENR – Department of Environment and Natural Resources, they are in charge
of the identification and distribution of covered land.
HOW MUCH LAND IS SUBJECT TO LAND REFORM?
An estimated 7.8 million hectares of land is covered by CARP.
HOW MUCH LAND HAS BEEN ACQUIRED AND DISTRIBUTED SO FAR?
As of December 31, 2013, the government has acquired and distributed 6.9 million hectares
of land, equivalent to 88% of the total land subject to CARP.

HOW MUCH LAND WAS DISTRIBUTED TO

BENEFECIARIES UNDER THIS ADMINISTRATION?

COMPREHENSIVE AGRARIAN REFORM PROGRAM EXTENSION AND

REFORM
Salmerano, et.al., 2017

WHAT IS CARP? WHAT IS CARPER?

CARP stands for Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program, a government initiative that
aims to grant landless farmers and frameworks ownership of agricultural lands. It was signed
into law by President Corazon C. Aquino on June 10,1988 and was scheduled to have been
completed in 1998.
Congress enacted a law Republic Act No. 8532 appropriating additional funds for the
program and extending the automatic appropriation of ill-gotten wealth recovered by the
Presidential Commission on Good Governance (PCGG) for CARP until 2008.

CARPER, or the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program Extension with Reforms, is

the amendatory law that extends yet again the deadline of distributing agricultural lands to
farmers for five years. It also amends other provisions stated in CARP. CARPER was signed
into law on August 7, 2009.

THE BENEFECIARIES

Landless farmers, including agricultural lessees, tenants, as well as regular, seasonal and
other farmworkers. The Department of Agrarian Reform (DAR) identifies and screens
potential beneficiaries and validates their qualifications.

 At least 15 years’ old

 A resident of the barangay where the land holding is located
 Own no more than 3 hectares of agricultural land

WHAT ARE THE GOVERNMENT OFFICES INVOLVED IN THE PROGRAM?

 DAR – Department of Agrarian Reform as the lead agencies.
 DENR – Department of Environment and Natural Resources, they are in charge
of the identification and distribution of covered land.

HOW MUCH LAND IS SUBJECT TO LAND REFORM?

An estimated 7.8 million hectares of land is covered by CARP.
HOW MUCH LAND HAS BEEN ACQUIRED AND DISTRIBUTED SO FAR?
As of December 31, 2013, the government has acquired and distributed 6.9 million hectares
of land, equivalent to 88% of the total land subject to CARP.

HOW MUCH LAND WAS DISTRIBUTED TO

BENEFECIARIES UNDER THIS ADMINISTRATION?
From July 2010 to December 2013, the administration has been distributed a total of 751,
514 hectares, or 45% of the total landholdings to be distributed to the farmer beneficiaries
left under this administration.
From this, DAR has distributed 412, 782 hectares and DENR has already distributed 338,732
hectares.
HOW MUCH LAND DOES THE GOVERNMENT STILL NEED TO ACQUIRE FOR
DISTRIBUTION FORM 2014-2016?
DAR still needs to acquire 771, 795 hectares, while DENR still needs to acquire 134, 857
hectares - a total of 906, 652 hectares.
HOW WILL THE GOVERNMENT ACQUIRE THE LANDHOLDING?
There are different modes of acquiring and distributing public and private agricultural lands.
For private lands under compulsory acquisition, the DAR will issue Notices of Coverage to
the original owners of the landholding. Notices of coverage will be issued to most of the
landholdings by June 30, 2014.
WHAT IS NOTICE OF COVERAGE?
A Notice of Coverage (NOC) is a letter informing a landowner that his/her land is covered by
CARP, and is subject to acquisition and distribution to beneficiaries. It likewise informs the
landowners of his/her rights under the law, including the right to retain 5 hectares.
After the period of time allotted for CARPER by law is passed (August 7, 2009 to June 30,
2014), how will the remaining landholdings, which are subject to compulsory acquisition,
de distributed to the beneficiaries?
As long as Notices of Coverage are issued on or before June 30, 2014, land distribution to
beneficiaries shall continue until completion, according to Section 30 of CARPER (R.A.
9700). Meaning, even after CARPER’s deadline, the law itself mandates the concerned
agencies to finish distributing lands to the beneficiaries up to very last hectare. This assures
to the farmers that the process of receiving their land will continue.
HOW DOES DAR INTEND TO DEAL WITH THE REMAINING LANDHOLDINGS
(771, 795) TO BE DISTRIBUTED?
DAR projects that it will be distributing 187, 686 hectares in 2014. 198,631 hectares in 2015,
and 385, 478 in 2016 of the remaining CARP able landholding to be distributed 551, 275
hectares are considered workable, while 220, 520 hectares are tagged as problematic.
Solutions for problematic landholdings will be worked out.

1.2. THE PHILIPPINE CONSTITUTION

Candelaria and Alphora, Jhon Lee and Veronica (2018
The Constitution of the Philippines (Filipino: Saligang Batas ng Pilipinas or Konstitusyon
ng Pilipinas, Spanish: Constitución de la República de Filipinas) is the constitution or
supreme law of the Republic of the Philippines. Its final draft was completed by the
Constitutional Commission on October 12, 1986 and was ratified by a nationwide plebiscite
on February 2, 1987.

Three other constitutions have effectively governed the country in its history: the 1935
Commonwealth Constitution, the 1973 Constitution, and the 1986 Freedom Constitution.

The earliest constitution establishing a "Philippine Republic", the 1899 Malolos Constitution,
was never fully implemented throughout the Philippines and did not establish a state that was
internationally recognized, due in great part to the eruption of the Philippine–American War
following its adoption.

STRUCTURE AND CONTENTS

Preamble
Article I – National Territory
Article II – Declaration of Principles and State Policies
Article III – Bill of Rights
Article IV – Citizenship
Article V – Suffrage
Article VI – Legislative Department
Article VII – Executive Department
Article VIII – Judicial Department
Article IX – Constitutional Commissions
Article X – Local Government
Article XI – Accountability of Public Officers
Article XII – National Economy and Patrimony
Article XIII – Social Justice and Human Rights
Article XIV – Education, Science and Technology, Arts, Culture and Sports
Article XV – The Family
Article XVI – General Provisions
Article XVII – Amendments or Revisions
Article XVIII – Transitory Provisions

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PHILIPPINE CONSTITUTION

A. THE 1897 CONSITUTION OF BIAK NA BATO

The Katipunan's revolution led to the Tejeros Convention where, at San Francisco de
Malabón, Cavite, on March 22, 1897, the first presidential and vice presidential elections in
Philippine history were held—although only Katipuneros (viz. members of the Katipunan)
were able to take part, and not the general populace. A later meeting of the revolutionary
government established there, held on November 1, 1897 at Biak-na-Bato in the town of San
Miguel de Mayumo in Bulacan, established the Republic of Biak-naBato. The republic had a
constitution drafted by Isabelo Artacho and Félix Ferrer and was based on the first Cuban
Constitution. It is known as the "Constitución Provisional de la República de Filipinas", and
was originally written in and promulgated in the Spanish and Tagalog languages.
The organs of the government under the Constitution consisted of three (3) divisions: (1) the
Supreme Council, which was authorized with the power of the Republic in which it was
headed by the President and the four different secretaries which was the interior, foreign
affairs, treasury, and war; (2) the Consejo Supremo de Garcia Y Justicia (Supreme Council of
Grace and Justice), which has the authority to create decisions and validate and refute the
sentences given by the other courts and to command rules for the administration of justice;
and (3) the Asamblea de Representantes (Assembly of the Representatives), which was to be
assembled after the revolution to create a new constitution and to choose a new Council of
Government and Representatives of the people.
The Constitution of Biak-na-Bato was never fully implemented, and was overtaken by the
Pact of Biak-na-Bato between the Spanish and the Philippine Revolutionary Army.

THE 1899 MALOLOS CONSTITUTION

The Filipino revolutionary leaders accepted a payment from Spain and went to exile in Hong
Kong. The Americans defeated the Spanish in the Battle of Manila Bay and Aguinaldo was
transferred to the Philippines by the United States Navy. The newly reformed Philippine
revolutionary forces returned to the control of Aguinaldo and the Philippine Declaration of
Independence was issued on June 12, 1898. On September 17, 1898, the Malolos Congress
was elected, which was composed of wealthy and educated men.
The document was patterned after the Spanish Constitution of 1812, with influences from the
charters of Belgium, Mexico, Brazil, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Guatemala and the French
Constitution of 1793. The Malolos Constitution, namely, the Kartilya and the Sanggunian-
Hukuman, the charter of laws and morals of the Katipunan written by Emilio Jacinto in 1896;
the Biak-na-Bato Constitution of 1897 planned by Isabelo Artacho; Mabini's Constitutional
Program of the Philippine Republic of 1898; the provisional constitution of Mariano Ponce in
1898 that followed the Spanish constitutions; and the autonomy projects of Paterno in 1898.
The Malolos Constitution was the first republican constitution in Asia. It declared that
sovereignty resides exclusively in the people, stated basic civil rights, separated the church
and state, and called for the creation of an Assembly of Representatives to act as the
legislative body. It also called for a parliamentary republic as the form of government. The
president was elected for a term of four years by a majority of the Assembly. It was titled
"Constitución política", and was written in Spanish following the declaration of
independence from Spain, proclaimed on January 20, 1899, and was enacted and ratified by
the Malolos Congress, a congress held in Malolos, Bulacan.
C. DURING AMERICAN REGIME
The Philippines was a United States Territory from December 10, 1898 to March 24, 1934
and therefore was under the jurisdiction of the Federal Government of the United States. Two
acts of the United States Congress passed during this period can be considered Philippine
constitutions in that those acts defined the fundamental political principles and established
the structure, procedures, powers and duties of the Philippine government.
Philippine Organic Act of 1902
The Philippine Organic Act of 1902, sometimes known as the "Philippine Bill of 1902" or
the "Cooper Act", was the first organic law for the Philippine Islands enacted by the United
States Congress. It provided for the creation of a popularly elected Philippine Assembly, and
specified that legislative power would be vested in a bicameral legislature composed of the
Philippine Commission (upper house) and the Philippine Assembly (lower house). Its key
provisions included a bill of rights for the Filipinos and the appointment of two non-voting
Filipino Resident Commissioner of the Philippines to represent the Philippines in the United
States House of Representatives.
Philippine Autonomy Act of 1916
The Philippine Autonomy Act of 1916, sometimes known as the "Jones Law", modified the
structure of the Philippine government by removing the Philippine Commission as the
legislative upper house and replacing it with a Senate elected by Filipino voters, creating the
Philippines' first fully elected national legislature. This act also explicitly stated that it was
and always had been the purpose of the people of the United States to renounce their
sovereignty over the Philippine Islands and to recognize Philippine independence as soon as
a stable government can be established therein.
Hare–Hawes–Cutting Act (193)
Though not a constitution itself, the Hare–Hawes–Cutting Act of 1932 was the precursor the
Tydings–McDuffie Act, which laid down the promise of independence to the Philippines
after 10 years of transition period and other provisions; however, because of infighting within
the Philippine Congress, it was not ratified and only became the basis for the creation of the
Tydings–McDuffie Act.
Tydings–McDuffie Act (1934)
Though also not a constitution itself, the Tydings–McDuffie Act of 1934 provided for
autonomy and defined mechanisms for the establishment of a formal constitution via a
constitutional convention.

D. THE 1935 CONSTITUTION

The 1935 Constitution was written, approved and adopted in 1934 by the Commonwealth of
the Philippines (1935–1946) and later used by the Third Republic (1946–1972). It was
written with an eye to meeting the approval of the United States Government as well, so as to
ensure that the U.S. would live up to its promise to grant the Philippines independence and
not have a premise to hold onto its possession on the grounds that it was too politically
immature and hence unready for full, real independence.
The Commonwealth Constitution was ratified to prepare the country for its independence.
This constitution was dominantly influenced by the Americans, but possess the traces of the
Malolos Constitution, the German, Spanish, and Mexican Constitution, constitutions of
several South American countries, and the unwritten English Constitution.
It originally provided for a unicameral legislature composed of a president and vice president
elected for a six-year term without re-election. It was amended in 1940 to provide for a
bicameral legislature composed of a Senate and a House of Representatives. The President is
to be elected to a four-year term, together with the Vice-President, with one re-election; the
right of suffrage for male citizens of the Philippines who are twentyone years of age or over
and are able to read and write were protected; this protection, later on, extended to the right of
suffrage for women two years after the adoption of the constitution.
The draft of the constitution was approved by the convention on February 8, 1935 and was
ratified by President Roosevelt in Washington D.C. on March 25, 1935. Elections were held
on September 16, 1935 and Manuel L. Quezon was elected as the first President of the
Commonwealth of the Philippines.
The original 1935 Constitution provided for a unicameral National Assembly, and the
President was elected to a six-year term without the possibility re-election. It was amended in
1940 to have a bicameral Congress composed of a Senate and House of Representatives, as
well the creation of an independent electoral commission and to grant the President a four-
year term with a maximum of two consecutive terms in office.
A Constitutional Convention was held in 1971 to rewrite the 1935 Constitution. The
convention was stained with manifest bribery and corruption. Possibly the most controversial
issue was removing the presidential term limit so that Ferdinand E. Marcos could seek re-
election for a third term, which many felt was the true reason for which the convention was
called. In any case, the 1935 Constitution was suspended in 1972 with Marcos' proclamation
of martial law, the rampant corruption of the constitutional process providing him with one
of his major premises for doing so.

E. THE 1943 CONSTITUTION

The 1943 Constitution was drafted by a committee appointed by the Philippine Executive
Commission, the body established by the Japanese to administer the Philippines in lieu of the
Commonwealth of the Philippines which had established a government-in-exile. In mid-
1942, Japanese Premier Hideki Tōjō promised the Filipinos "the honor of independence"
which meant that the commission would be supplanted by a formal republic.
The Preparatory Committee for Philippine Independence tasked with drafting a new
constitution was composed, in large part, of members of the prewar National Assembly and
of individuals with experience as delegates to the convention that had drafted the 1935
Constitution. Their draft for the republic to be established under the Japanese occupation,
however, would be limited in duration, provide for indirect, instead of direct, legislative
elections, and an even stronger executive branch.
Upon the approval of the draft by the Committee, the new charter was ratified in 1943 by an
assembly of appointed, provincial representatives of the Kalibapi, the organization
established by the Japanese to supplant all previous political parties. Upon the ratification by
the Kalibapi assembly, the Second Republic was formally proclaimed (1943–1945). José P.
Laurel was elected President by the National Assembly and sworn into office on October 14,
1943. Laurel was highly regarded by the Japanese for having openly criticized the U.S. for
the way that they governed the Philippines and because he had a degree from the Tokyo
International University.
The 1943 Constitution remained in force in Japanese-controlled areas of the Philippines, but
was never recognized as legitimate or binding by the governments of the United States, the
Commonwealth of the Philippines, or the guerrilla organizations loyal to them.
In late 1944, President Laurel declared war on the United States and the British Empire and
proclaimed martial law, essentially ruling by decree. His government, in turn, went into exile
in December 1944, first to Taiwan and then Japan. After the announcement of Japan's
surrender, Laurel formally dissolved the Second Republic.
The 1943 Constitution provided for strong executive powers. The Legislature consisted of a
unicameral National Assembly and only those considered to be anti-US could stand for
election, although in practice most legislators were appointed rather than elected.
Until the 1960s, the Second Republic and its officers were not viewed as a legitimate
Philippine government or as having any standing with the exception of the Second Republic-
era Supreme Court, whose decisions, limited to reviews of criminal and commercial cases as
part of a policy of discretion by Chief Justice José Yulo, continued to be part of official
records. This was made easier by the Commonwealth government-inexile never constituting
a Supreme Court, and the formal vacancy in the position of Chief Justice for the
Commonwealth with the execution of José Abad Santos by the Japanese. It was only during
the Macapagal administration that a partial political rehabilitation of the Japanese-era
republic took place, with the official recognition of Laurel as a former president and the
addition of his cabinet and other officials to the roster of past government officials. However,
the 1943 Constitution was not taught in schools, and the laws of the 1943–44 National
Assembly were never recognized as valid or relevant.

F. THE 1973 CONSTITUTION

The 1973 Constitution, promulgated after Marcos' declaration of martial law, was supposed
to introduce a parliamentary-style government. Legislative power was vested in a unicameral
National Assembly whose members were elected for six-year terms. The President was
ideally elected as the symbolic and purely ceremonial head of state chosen from amongst the
Members of the National Assembly for a six-year term and could be reelected to an unlimited
number of terms. Upon election, the President ceased to be a Member of the National
Assembly. During his term, the President was not allowed to be a member of a political party
or hold any other office.
Executive power was meant to be exercised by the Prime Minister who was also elected from
among the sitting Assemblymen. The Prime Minister was to be the head of government and
Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. This constitution was subsequently amended four
times (arguably five, depending on how one considers Proclamation No. 3 of 1986, see
below).
From October 16–17, 1976, a majority of barangay voters (also called "Citizens'
Assemblies") approved that martial law should be continued and ratified the amendments to
the Constitution proposed by President Marcos.
The 1976 amendments provided:

• for an Interim Batasang Pambansa (IBP) substituting for the Interim National Assembly;
• that the President would become Prime Minister and continue to exercise legislative
powers until such time as martial law was lifted.
The Sixth Amendment authorized the President to legislate on his own on an "emergency"
basis:
Whenever in the judgement of the President there exists a grave emergency or a threat or
imminence thereof, or whenever the Interim Batasang Pambansa or the regular National
Assembly fails or is unable to act adequately on any matter for any reason that in his
judgment requires immediate action, he may, in order to meet the exigency, issue the
necessary decrees, orders or letters of instructions, which shall form part of the law of the
land.
The 1973 Constitution was further amended in 1980 and 1981. In the 1980 amendment, the
retirement age of the members of the judiciary was extended to 70 years. In the 1981
amendments, the false parliamentary system was formally modified into a French-style semi-
presidential system and provided:

• that executive power was restored to the President;

• that direct election of the President was restored;
• for an Executive Committee composed of the Prime Minister and not more than 14
members was created to "assist the President in the exercise of his powers and functions
and in the performance of his duties as he may prescribe;" and the Prime Minister was a
mere head of the Cabinet.
• for electoral reforms and provided that a natural born citizen of the Philippines who has
lost his citizenship may be a transference of private land for use by him as his residence.
The last amendments in 1984 abolished the Executive Committee and restored the position of
Vice-President (which did not exist in the original, unamended 1973 Constitution).
While the 1973 Constitution ideally provided for a true parliamentary system, in practice,
Marcos made use of subterfuge and manipulation in order to keep executive powers for
himself, rather than devolving these to the Assembly and the cabinet headed by the Prime
Minister. The end result was that the final form of the 1973 Constitution – after all
amendments and subtle manipulations – was merely the abolition of the Senate and a series
of cosmetic rewording. The old American-derived terminology was replaced by names more
associated with a parliamentary government: for example, the House of Representatives
became known as the "Batasang Pambansâ" (National Assembly), departments became
"ministries", and their cabinet secretaries became known as "cabinet ministers", with the
President's assistant – the Executive Secretary – now being styled as the "Prime Minister".
Marcos' purported parliamentary system in practice functioned as an authoritarian
presidential system, with all real power concentrated in the hands of the President but with
the premise that such was now constitutional.

G. THE 1986 FREEDOM CONSTITUTION

Immediately following the 1986 People Power Revolution that ousted Marcos, President
Corazon C. Aquino issued Proclamation No. 3 as a provisional constitution. It adopted
certain provisions from the 1973 Constitution while abolishing others. It granted the
President broad powers to reorganize government and remove officials, as well as mandating
the president to appoint a commission to draft a new, more formal Constitution. This
document, described above, supplanted the "Freedom Constitution" upon its ratification in
1987. This is the transitional constitution that lasted a year and came before the permanent
constitution. It maintained many provisions of the 1973 Constitution, including in rewritten
form the presidential right to rule by decree. The Convention compose of 48 members
appointed by the President.

H. THE 1987 CONSTITUTION

Ruling by decree during the early months of her tenure as a president installed via the People
Power Revolution, President Corazon Aquino was granted three options: restore the 1935
Constitution, retain and make reforms to the 1973 Constitution, or pass a new constitution.
She decided to draft a new constitution and issued Proclamation No. 3 on March 25, 1986,
abrogating many of the provisions of the 1973 Constitution adopted during the Marcos
regime, including the unicameral legislature (the Batasang Pambansa), the office of Prime
Minister, and provisions which gave the President legislative powers. Often called the
"Freedom Constitution", this constitution was intended as a transitional constitution to ensure
democracy and the freedom of the people. The Freedom Constitution provided for an orderly
transfer of power while a Constitutional Commission was drafting a permanent constitution.
The Constitutional Commission was composed of forty-eight members appointed by Aquino
from varied backgrounds, including several former members of the House of
Representatives, former justices of the Supreme Court, a Roman Catholic bishop, and
political activists against the Marcos regime. The Commission elected Cecilia Muñoz Palma,
a former Associate Justice of the Supreme Court, as its president. Several issues were of
particular contention during the Commission's sessions, including the form of government to
adopt, the abolition of the death penalty, the retention of U.S. bases in Clark and Subic, and
the integration of economic policies into the constitution. Lino Brocka, a film director and
political activist who was a member of the Commission, walked out before the constitution's
completion, and two other delegates dissented from the final draft. The Commission finished
the final draft on October 12, 1986 and presented it to Aquino on October 15. The
constitution was ratified by a nationwide plebiscite on February 8, 1987.
The constitution provided for three governmental powers, namely the executive, legislative,
and judicial branches. The executive branch is headed by the president and his appointed
cabinet members. The executive, same with the other two co-equal branches, has limited
power. This is to ensure that the country will be "safeguarded" if martial law is to be
declared. The president can still declare martial law, but it expires within 60 days and
Congress can either reject or extend it.
The task of the Supreme Court is to review whether a declaration of martial law is just. The
legislative power consists of the Senate and the House of Representatives. There are twenty-
four senators and the House is composed of district representatives. It also created
opportunities for under-represented sectors of community to select their representative
through party-list system. The judiciary branch comprises the Supreme Court and the lower
courts. The Supreme Court is granted the power to hear any cases that deals with the
constitutionality of law, about a treaty or decree of the government. It is also tasked to
administrate the function of the lower courts.
Through the constitution, three independent Constitutional Commissions, namely the Civil
Service Commission, Commission on Elections, and Commission on Audit, were created.
These Constitutional Commissions have different functions. The constitution also paved a
way for the establishment of the Office of the Ombudsman, which has a function of
promoting and ensuring an ethical and lawful conduct of the government.

ATTEMPTS TO AMEND OR CHANGE THE 1987 CONSTITUTION

Further information: Constitutional reform in the Philippines

There are three possible methods by which the Constitution can be amended: a Constituent
assembly (Con-Ass), Constitutional Convention (Con-Con), or People's Initiative. All three
methods require ratification by majority vote in a national referendum. Following the
administration of Corazon Aquino, succeeding administrations made several attempts to
amend or change the 1987 Constitution.
The first attempt was in 1995. A constitution was drafted by then-Secretary of National
Security Council Jose Almonte, but was never completed because it was exposed to the
media by different non-government organizations. They saw through a potential change
regarding the protection of the people's interests in the constitutional draft.
In 1997, the Pedrosa couple created a group called PIRMA followed with an attempt to
change the constitution through a People's Initiative by way of gathering signatures from
voters. Many prominent figures opposed the proposition, including Senator Miriam
Defensor-Santiago, who brought the issue all the way to the Supreme Court and eventually
won the case. The Supreme Court ruled that the initiative not continue, stating that a People's
Initiative requires an enabling law for it to push through.
During his presidency, Joseph Ejercito Estrada created a study commission for a possible
charter change regarding the economic and judiciary provisions of the constitution. The
attempt never attained its purpose after various entities opposed it due apparently to the
attempt serving the personal interests of the initiators.
After the Estrada presidency, the administration of Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo endorsed
constitutional changes via a Constitutional Assembly, with then-House Speaker Jose de
Venecia leading the way. However, due to political controversies surrounding Arroyo's
administration, including the possibility of term extension, the proposal was shut down.
The next attempt was from then-Speaker of the House Feliciano Belmonte Jr. during
President Benigno Aquino III's administration. Belmonte attempted to introduce amendments
to the Constitution focusing on economic provisions aiming toward liberalization. The effort
did not succeed.
President Rodrigo Roa Duterte oversaw the possibility of implementing federalism on the
country. Following his ascension as president after the 2016 presidential election, he signed
Executive Order No. 10 on December 7, 2016, creating the Consultative Committee to
Review the 1987 Constitution.

1.3. TAXATION IN THE PHILIPPINES

Romeo C. Clemente, PhD.2010

According to the Department of Finance, Republic of the Philippines, taxes are mandatory
contributions of everyone to raise revenue for nation-building. The revenue is used to pay for
our doctors, teachers, soldiers, and other government personnel and officials, as well as for
building schools, hospitals, roads, and other infrastructures. It is our duty to pay our taxes.

ARTICLE VI, Section 28 of the Constitution states that “the rule of taxation shall be
uniform and equitable” and that “Congress shall evolve a progressive system of taxation”.

WHAT IS TAXATION
TAXATION is a process which the sovereign (government), through its law – making body
called congress, raises income purposely to defray or help pay the necessary expenses of the
government.
It is an inherent power of the state to demand enforced contributions for public purposes.
Being inherent power would mean innate function of the government and permanent
obligation of the citizens of the State unless the congress suspends the implementation or
revokes the taxation laws.
TAX as imposition is an enforced proportional contribution from person and property levied
by the law-making body of the State by virtue of Sovereignty for the support of the
government and all public needs.
NATIONAL TAXES are those imposed by the national government, with legal reference to
the National Internal Revenue Code
(NIRC) and other laws, particularly Tariffs and Customs Code (TCC).
LOCAL TAXES are those which local governments imposed for particular needs such as
the taxes collected locally, such as Residence Tax levied under the Local Tax Code and
Special Education Fund (SEF).
TYPES OF TAXATION
DIRECT TAXES (Individual Income, Earnings (like capital gain), Corporate Income and
Wealth) and INDIRECT TAXES (Consumption)

SPECIFIC KINDS OF TAXES IMPOSED BY NATIONAL INTERNALREVENUE

LAWS

INCOME TAX

WAGE which refers to the price paid of labor, or payment for the use or services of labor per
unit of time.
RENT which refers to income paid for the use of land.
INTEREST which refers to income paid for the use of capital.
PROFIT which refers to income earned by an entrepreneur for running a business.
1. Income Taxes
2. Estate tax and donor’s tax
3. Value added tax
4. Excise Taxes on Certain goods
5. Documentary Stamps Tax
6. Miscellaneous Taxes
7. Other Percentage Taxes: (Hotel, Motel, Canteens, Amusement and Winning prizes.

NATIONAL TAXES IMPOSED BY SPECIAL LAWS

1. Residence
2. Customs duties
3. Sugar adjustment Tax
4. Taxes on narcotics drugs
5. Special education fund tax (1% from Real Property Tax)
6. Travel tax
7. Private Motor Vehicle Tax
8. Energy Tax

CLASSIFICATIONS AND DISTRIBUTIONS OF TAXES

A. AS TO SUBJECT MATTER OR OBJECT

 PERSONAL, POLL, or CAPITATION – a tax of fixed amount imposed on persons

residing within a specified territory, whether citizens or not, without regard to their
property or the occupation or business in which may be engaged, eg.residence tax.
  PROPERTY – A tax imposed on property, whether real or personal, in proportion
either to its value are in accordance with some other reasonable methods of
apportionments, eg. Real estate tax.
 EXCISE TAX (PREVILEGE TAX) – A tax which does not fall within the
classification of a poll tax or a property tax. It is imposed upon the performance of an
act, the enjoyment of a privilege or the engaging in an occupation, profession or
business.

B. AS TO WHO BEARS THE BURDEN

 DIRECT a tax which is demanded from the person who also shoulders the burden of
the tax. It is a tax which the taxpayer cannot shift to another ex; individual, corporate,
residence and donor’s tax.
 INDIRECT a tax which is demanded from one person in the expectation and
intention shall indemnify himself at the expenses of the another, or tax imposed upon
goods before they reach the customers who ultimately pay for it.

C. AS DETERMINATION OF AMOUNT

 SPECIFIC – A tax of a fixed amount imposed by the head or number, or by some

standards of weight or measurement; it requires no assessment (evaluation) other than
listing or classification of the objects to be used, ex: taxes on wines, and firecrackers.
 AD VALOREM – (According to Value) A tax of a fixed proportion of the value of
the property with respect to which the tax is assessed. It requires the intervention of
assessors or appraisers to estimate the value of such property before the amount due
from each taxpayer can be determined, ex: Value-added, excise on luxury goods taxes
and custom duties.

D. AS TO PURPOSE

 GENERAL FISCAL/ REVENUE – A tax imposed for the general purposes of the
government. It covers almost all taxes.
 SPECIAL OR REGULATORY – A tax imposed for a special purpose, ex:
Protective tariffs or custom duties.

E. AS TO SCOPE OR AUTHORITY IMPOSING THE TAX

 NATIONAL – A tax imposed by the national government. Ex: Custom Duties.

 MUNICIPAL OR LOCAL – A tax imposed by the municipal or local government.
However, RA 5447 authorizes the levy by the national government of additional tax
of 1% on the assessed value of real property.
F. AS TO GRADUATION OR RATE

 PROPORTIONAL – A tax imposed based on a fixed percentage of the amount of

the property, receipts or other basis to be taxed.
 PROGRESSIVE OR GRADUATED – A tax of which rate increases as the tax or
bracket increases.
 REGRESSIVE –A tax of which rate decrease as the tax base or bracket increases.
The Philippines has no tax of this nature.

OBJECTS OF TAXATION

 PERSON – refer to an individual, a trust, estate or corporate. Under special revenue

laws, poll tax may properly be levied upon persons who are inhabitants or residents of
the state.
 REAL POPERTY – under general revenue laws, real estate is subject to taxation in
the state in which it is located whether the owner is a resident or non- resident, and is
taxable only in that place.
 TANGIBLE PROPERTY – As a modern rule, tangible personal property is levied in
the state where it has actual situs or where it is physically.
 INTAGIBLE PERSONAL PROPERTY – The credits, bills, receivable, bank
deposits, bonds, promissory notes, mortgage loans, judgment and corporate stocks as
forms of intangible personal properties are not determined with actual location,
however, the general rule is that they are taxed at the domicile of the owner.
 INCOME TAX - Income tax may properly be exacted from person are either
residents or citizens in the taxing jurisdiction and even from those who are neither
residents nor citizens provided the income is derived from sources within the taxing
state.
 BUSINESS, OCCUPATION, TRANSACTION – As far as the SITUS of business,
occupation, or transaction is concerned, the general rule is that power to levy an
excise tax depends upon the place where the business is done, or the occupation is
engaged in, or the transaction took place.
 GRATUITOUS TRANSFER OF PROPERTY – The transmission of property from
a donor to a done or from a descendant to his heirs may be subject to taxation in the
state where the transfer is (was) a citizen or resident, or where the property is located.
CLASSIFICATION OF INDIVIDUAL TAXPAYERS

 RESIDENT CITIZEN – A citizen of the Philippines who is residing therein.

 NON – RESIDENT CITIZEN – who is physically present abroad for an
uninterrupted period covering an entire taxable year.
 RESIDENT ALIEN – A non –citizen who resides in the Philippines (ex: actual
physical residence in the Philippines).
 NON – RESIDENT ALIEN – Neither a citizen one who is performing personal
services within the country.

TAX REFORM FOR ACCELERATION AND INCLUSION

By the Department of Finance, Republic of the Philippines
The TAX REFORM FOR ACCELERATION AND INCLUSION (TRAIN) is the first
package of the comprehensive tax reform program (CTRP) envisioned by President Duterte’s
administration, which seeks to correct a number of deficiencies in the tax system to make it
simpler, fairer, and more efficient. It also includes mitigating measures that are designed to
redistribute some of the gains to the poor.
Through TRAIN, every Filipino contributes in funding more infrastructures and social
services to eradicate extreme poverty and reduces inequality towards prosperity for all.
TRAIN addresses several weaknesses of the current tax system by lowering and simplifying
estate and donor’s taxes, expanding the value-added tax (VAT) base, adjusting oil and
automobile excise taxes, and introducing excise tax on sugar- sweetened beverages.
WHAT WILL THE TAX REFORM FUNDS GO?
EDUCATION. The tax reform will be able to fund investments in education, achieving a
more conducive learning environment with the ideal teacher-to-student ratio and classroom-
student-ration.

 Achieve the 100% enrollment and completion rates

 Build 113, 553 more classrooms
 Hire 181, 980 more teachers between 2007-2020

HEALTHCARE SERVICES. With the tax reform, we can invest more in our country’s
healthcare by providing better services and facilities.

 Upgrade 704 local hospitals and establish 25 local hospitals

 Achieve 100% PhilHealth coverage at higher quality of services
 Upgrade and/or relocate 236 rural and urban health units to disasterresilient
facilities
 Build 15, 988 new barangay health stations
 Build 2, 242 new rural health units and urban health centers
 Between 2017 and 2020, hire an additional 2, 242 doctors, 29,466 nurses,
1,114 dentists, 3, 288 pharmacists, 2,682 technologists, 911 public health
associates, and 2, 497 UHC implementers
INFRASTRUCTURES PROGRAMS. The additional revenue raised by the tax reform will
be to fund the infrastructure program of the Department of Public Works and Highways
(DPWH), which consists of major highways, expressways, and flood control projects.
Funding these major’s infrastructures projects is possible with tax reform for our country to
sustain high and inclusive growth. Funds will be raised for major infrastructures projects.

 Concretize 3, 714 km of national gravel roads

 10,473 km of national asphalts roads
 30, 209 km of local gravel roads
 Irrigate 1.3 million hectares of land
 Provide 7, 834 isolated barangays 23, 293 isolated sitios with road access
The tax reform program aims to provide the needed additional revenues that would fund our
country’s investment needs, promoting better lives for Filipinos.
TAX REFORM FOR ACCELERATION AND INCLUSION
TRAIN stands for Tax Reform for Acceleration and Inclusion. The goal of the first package
of the Comprehensive Tax Reform Program (CTRP) or TRAIN is to create a more just,
simple, and more effective system of tax collection, as per the constitution, where the rich
will have a bigger contribution and the poor will benefit more from the government’s
programs and services.
The major features of the TRAIN are as follows:
 Lowering the Personal Income Tax (PIT)
 Simplifying the Estate and Donor’s Tax
 Expanding the Value- Added Tax (VAT) Base
 Increasing the Excise Tax of Petroleum Products
 Increasing the Excise Tax of Automobiles
 Excise Tax on Sweetened Beverages

LOWERING PERSONAL INCOME TAX (PIT)

TRAIN lowers personal income tax (PIT) for all tax payers except the richest. Under
TRAIN, those with annual taxable income below 250,000 are exempt from paying PIT, while
the rest of taxpayers, except the richest, will see lower tax rates ranging from 15% to 30% by
2023. To maintain progressivity, the top individual taxpayers whose annual taxable income
exceeds 8 million, face a higher tax rate from the current 32% to 35%.
Husbands and wives who are both working can benefit from a total of up to 500,000 in
exemptions. In addition, the first 90, 000 of the 13th month pay and other bonuses will be
exempt from income tax. Overall, the effective tax rates will be lowered for 9% of tax
payers. Currently, a person who has a taxable income of 500, 000 annually is taxed at 32% at
the margin. TRAIN will bring this down to 25% in 2018, and will be further brought down
20% after five years.
Minimum of earners will continue to be exempted from income taxes as their income falls
below 250,000. In addition, the new tax structure will address the current problem wherein
going a peso above the minimum wage earners to accept incremental wage increases and
keeping them in an artificial minimum wage trap. The simplified tax system will increase the
take home pay of most individuals and encourages compliance. Self-employed and
professionals (SEPs) with gross sales below the VAT threshold now have the option to pay a
simpler 8% flat tax in lieu of income and percentage tax, while those above the VAT
threshold will follow the PIT schedule.
SIMPLIFYING THE STATE AND DONOR’S TAX
In the current system, the tax rates can reach up to 20% of the net state value and up to 15%
on net donations. TRAIN seeks to simplify this. Estate and donor’s tax will be lowered and
harmonized so it does not matter if the person passed away, donated a property, or simply
wants to transfer a property. This will result in loss revenues but the key here is to make the
land market more efficient so that the land will go to its best use.
ESTATE TAX. Instead of having a complicated tax schedule with different rates, TRAIN
reduces and restructures the state tax to a low and single tax rate of 6% based on the net
value of the state with a standard deduction of 5 Million and exemption for the first 10
million for the family home.
DONOR TAX. TRAIN also simplifies the payment of donor’s taxes to a single tax rate of
6% of net donations is imposed for gifts above 250,000 yearly regardless of relationship to
the donor.
EXPANDING THE VALUE ADDED TAX (VAT)
The Philippines has one of the highest VAT rates but also the highest number of exemptions
in the Southeast Asia region. Consequently, the Philippines collect the same amount of VAT
revenues as a percentage of the economy as that of Thailand despites only imposing 7% VAT
rate, while the Philippines is at 12%. TRAIN aims to clean up the VAT system to make it
fairer and simpler and lower the cost of compliance for both the taxpayers and tax
administrators. This is achieved by limiting VAT exemptions to necessities such as raw
agriculture food, education, and health.

INCREASING THE FUEL ECISE TAX

TRAIN increases the excise of petroleum products, which has not been adjusted since 1997.
The non- indexation of fuel excise tax to inflation has eroded the revenues collected by 140
billion per year in 2016 prices. The Duterte administration is also doing this to address
environmental and health concerns. By taxing dirty fuel correctly, we are also investing in a
more sustainable future for our country
INCREASING THE EXCISE TAX OF AUTOMOBILES
TRAIN simplifies the excise tax on automobiles, but lower- priced cars continue to be taxed
at lower rates while more expensive cars are taxed at higher rates. This excise will raise
revenue in a very progressive manner as the richer buyers tend to own more and expensive
cars compared to those who earn less.
INCREASING THE TAX OF SUGAR- SWEETNED BEVERAGES
The SSB excise tax will help promote a healthier Philippines. Along with the Department of
Health (DOH), DOF supports this as part of a comprehensive health measure aimed to curb
the consumption of SSBs and address the worsening number of diabetes and obesity cases in
the country, while raising revenue for complementary health programs that address these
problems. This is a measure that is meant to encourage consumption of healthier products, to
raise public awareness of the harms of SSBs, and to help incentives the industry to develop
healthier products and complements.
Why impose a tax on SBBs?
Most of the sugar-sweetened beverage, with some notable exceptions provide unnecessary or
empty calories with little or no nutrition. SSBs are not a substitute for healthy foods such as
fruits and rice. SSBs are relatively affordable especially to children and the poor who are the
most vulnerable to its negative effects on health.
SSB products are easily accessible and can be found in almost any store, unlike other
sweetened products. Most often, the poor and the children are not aware of their
consequences. Common examples of SSB products include carbonate beverages, sports and
energy drinks, and sweetened juice drinks. Under TRAIN, an excise rate of 6 pesos per liter
will be taxed on drinks containing caloric or non-caloric sweetener, and 12 per liter on drinks
containing high fructose corn syrup 3-in 1 coffee milk are exempt from this tax.
5.4. IP INCLUSION IN NATIONALIZED SPACES OF LEARNING
F. Roberto, et,al. , 2019

Students are in school as inheritors of the future. Through education, they are expected to
obtain the skills, knowledge, and experience necessary to solve tomorrow’s problems.
However, society’s greatest challenges can only be addressed when there is an awareness of
their existence. Justice does not prevail where truth is absent—and in the education system,
these gaps are all too familiar.

The lack of materials covering indigenous peoples’ (IP) struggles is one shortcoming of
Philippine education. With teaching capacity and relevant facilities found lacking, IPcentric
issues are rarely tackled in the classroom. As a result, indigenous people who cry out for
justice remain unheard—it seems hardly anyone is listening. It’s no wonder then that in the
2017 Philippine Education Summit, 11 IP representatives affirmed DepEd’s efforts to render
local education initiatives more inclusive of IP communities, especially of their history,
culture, and aspirations.

Although self-education on the plight of IPs is achievable, education on such plights remains
the responsibility of academic institutions. Recognizing this, Senator Sonny Angara authored
the Integrated History Law or RA 10908, thereby mandating the integration of the history,
culture, and identity studies of IPs and Filipino-Muslims in basic and higher education. In
order for schools to effectively do this, the act requires them to consult with experts in IP and
Filipino-Muslim fields of knowledge before anything else.

However, despite RA 10908’s implementation in 2016, the law has only been in effect in
select schools nationwide. According to the Department of Education, complying schools
have mostly hailed from Mindanao.

The Commission on Higher Education (CHED) has recently taken a step towards fasttracking
the bill’s implementation across the country. Last April, it released CHED Memorandum
Order (CMO) No. 2, Series of 2019, which similarly directs universities to integrate IP
studies into the relevant curricula. Constructed in accordance with the Integrated History
Law, the CMO strives to create what Angara believes is “a truly inclusive history that
accounts for all Filipinos.”

TURNING LAW INTO ACTION

CMO No. 2-2019 builds on the Integrated History Law by providing clearer guidelines as to
its implementation and supervision. In effect, higher education institutions are provided two
ways to go about integrating IP studies into their respective curricula: Either by incorporating
IP topics, contexts, and concepts into subjects like history, political science, and the social
sciences; or by including readings about IPs and FilipinoMuslims in general education
subjects.
The Coalition of Ateneans for Indigenous People (CAIP) President Camille Bagaipo
reflected on CMO No. 2-2019’s objective, especially within the context of Ateneo. For
Bagaipo, implementation of the aforementioned CMO could realize “...a more inclusive
approach, which I think is within [Ateneo’s] means right now.” With that, she went on to
illustrate how an integrated University curriculum could achieve this inclusiveness. For
instance, the University’s course on Rizal and the Emergence of the Philippine Nation or
HI165 could discuss how Muslims and IPs figured into the Spanish Occupation. For the
University’s course on Philippine History or HI 166, the experience of Martial Law can be
analyzed from different regional, and often unheard, perspectives such as that of the IPs.
Achieving this is possible, since “we have notable professors who have been studying [IPs]”
said Bagaipo.

Another important clause in CMO No. 2-2019 establishes a monitoring protocol to ensure
compliance with the memo. The memo requires institutions to submit to their assigned
CHED Regional Office (CHEDRO) documents that show their plans and completed actions
towards complying with the order. These documents include the IP Education Monitoring
Forms 1 and 2, relevant course syllabi, and the relevant faculty to handle the IP course.
CHEDROs are then tasked to develop and maintain a Regional Registry of IP Educators and
prepare status reports on IP education.

CMO No. 2-2019 also provides for the Office of Programs and Standards Development to do
the same on a national scale. Continuous supervision of how schools integrate IP studies into
their respective curricula is crucial, given the depth of sensitivity and expertise needed to
teach IP issues in a nuanced manner. “One thing that CAIP really wants to get across this
year is that IP issues are very complex,” Bagaipo explained. “Even in my own journey of
being an advocate, there are things I realize that are not as broad or as simple as they seem to
be.”

“There are some Mindanaoan communities, for example, that don’t like being called
Lumad,” she maintained. “They want to be called their tribe, which is valid.”

If anything, the complexities of the situation will require a tremendous amount of effort if the
University, much less the country, is to ultimately realize inclusion of indigenous people.
With that, policymakers can perhaps turn to Australia’s education system to learn a thing or
two from its efforts on achieving inclusivity.

THE AUSTRALIAN PERSPECTIVE

In December 2015, the Australian government introduced the Aboriginal Languages and
Torres Strait Islander Languages Framework in an effort to guide the development of
teaching and learning of particular Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages, thereby
supplementing Australia’s current curriculum. The intent is that it will be utilized by state
and territory education jurisdictions, schools, and communities to develop language-specific
curricula and programs.

It is a timely policy, especially since research has indicated that classroom teachers devote
less than five minutes per week to teaching Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander curriculum,
languages, literature, and cultures, with many not engaged in these activities at all. In
learning Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages, Australians gain a distinctive means
of understanding the relationship between their land, environment, and people.

On the tertiary level, Australia has tapped the University of Melbourne to strengthen the
Australian student’s knowledge about Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander civilizations
across Australia and how they operate. The initiative is being led by prominent academic and
historian Professor Marcia Langton.

THE NEXT STEP FORWARD

In 2015, the Philippines’ Department of Education (DepEd) responded to the call for IP
inclusion with DepEd Order No. 32, s. 2015, otherwise known as the Indigenous Peoples
Education (IPEd) Curriculum Framework. With it, guidance to both public and private
schools will be provided as they localize, indigenize, and enhance the K to 12 Curriculum.
As of 2017, 7,767 public-school teachers and school heads have already undergone relevant
training on tools needed to instruct students on indigenous people.

Establishing an integrated approach to IP inclusion via the national curriculum will always be
easier said than done. However, if anything, it is arguably the retraining of educators across
all levels by collaborating with IP stakeholders—to thereby allow for understanding,
appreciating, and ultimately teaching of indigenous languages and cultures—that will often
be the logical step to be taken if we are to solidify any IP inclusive initiative, framework, and
policy.

INDIGENOUS PEOPLE EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES

Salmerano, et al. ,2017

The Philippines is home of around; 110 Indigenous people’s communities, approximately 15

to 20 million in population, more than 60% in Mindanao, 30% in Luzon and 10% in Visayas.
While varying in ways of life and cultural heritage, they share similar experiences of
discrimination and marginalization in the society.

INDIGENOUS PEOPLES RIGHTS ACT OF 1997 or Republic Act 8371 that recognizes and
protects the rights of indigenous communities.

IP’s NEED TO EDUCATE

 The need to understand the system of transacting business in the market place.
 The need to read street signs, newspapers, and legal documents, and to vote and
participate in activities outside their communities.
 The need for other livelihood options because the communities resource base (finding
employment)
 The need to access health services, and going to school is equated with being
“educated” and education means liberation from poverty.

IPS EXPERIENCES IN EDUCATION (School as a venue of discrimination)

 Prejudice
 Financial Inadequacy
 Comprehension difficulties
  Adjustment difficulties

IMPACT ON MAINSTRAIM SCHOOL SYSTEM

 Alienation of indigenous youth from their own communities, heritage, culture and
history.
 Misuse and abuse of cultural practices, and dying indigenous knowledge systems and
practices (IKPs)
 Graduates or schooled youth leaving the community or abusing the ancestral domain.
 Continued marginalization of communities.
 Dying spirit of tribe.

CULTURALLY –SENSITIVE EDUCATION INTERVENTION

Indigenized formal education
Use local language
Discuss concepts with local situations and examples Inclusion of
local knowledge in the topics.
Addition of underlying values like identity and self-determination.
Inclusion of elders or experts from the community as resource person.

GOALS OF INDIGENOUS PEOPLE EDUCATION

 CULTURE as process and product
 HISTORY life- stories woven into the tribe’s story, woven into the bigger story of
nation and the world
 HERITAGE a sense of being a descendants and ancestors
 SPIRITUALITY expression of faith life, values and beliefs

INDIGENOUS BOOKS AND KNOWLEDGE STORAGE SYSTEM

“This is a natural competency among the members of the indigenous community that cannot
be taught in any Master or PhD degree anywhere in the world. It can only be learned by
being part of the ancestry (blood) and living in and working in the ancestral domain so that
this competency (which includes psycho-emotional components) is nurtured and practiced”

DIFFERENT PROGRAMS OF THE GOVERNMENT IN PROMOTING THE

RIGHTS OF IPS IN EDUCATION SETTING

DepEd Order no.62 “Adopting the National Indigenous Peoples Education (IPED) Policy
Framework
DepEd Order no. 43 series of 2013 “Implementing Rules and Regulations of Republic Act
no. 10533 known as Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013, adopting the Indigenous
Peoples Education Curriculum Framework.

INDIGENOUS PEOPLES EDUCATION CURRICULUM FRAMEWORK

In relation to the global movement for Education for All (EFA) in which indigenous People
are part of this advocacy. Education enables the IPs to develop competencies such as basic
literacy and livelihood education for them to respond to the demand of the wider society.
However, the DepEd should address the following:
1. Respect and recognize Indigenous knowledge system and practices in school and
learning program.
2. To eliminate discrimination from peers and teachers.
3. The need for teachers serving in indigenous communities, to be adequately oriented
and appreciated and indigenous cultural practices and values are not discriminated as
“backward”, “inferior” or “primitive”.
4. The need to promote respect cultural expressions such as dance, chants, instruments,
and attire, so they are not misused or interpreted in such programs and related
activities.
5. Ensuring the learning programs promote among learners an affirmation and sense of
indigenous cultural identity that sustain inter-generational relationship and cultural
integrity in the community.

PHILOSOPHY: K to 12 Basic Education Curriculum centers on learners focus on lifelong,

leading a productive and full of life. For indigenous learners, making their education
meaningful and relevant. Focus on preserving and enriching their culture.
1. Anchor the context on ancestral domain, and community’s world view, and its
indigenous cultural institutions.
2. Includes the respects of community’s expression on spirituality as part of their
curriculum content.
3. Affirms and strengthen indigenous cultural identity.
4. Revitalized indigenous languages.
5. Advancements pf IP rights and welfare.

LEARNING RESOURCES

1. Artifacts, stories, dances, songs, musical instruments.

2. Mother Tongue (Local Languages or Dialect)
3. Instructional materials need to be reviewed by the IKSP holders and community to
protect intellectually property rights and keeping with related ethical principles and
practices.

THE MANAGING MUSLIN MINORITY IN THE PHILIPPINE

Federico V. Magdalena

THE HISTORY OF ISLAM IN THE PHILIPPINES

The Muslims in the Philippines constitute the largest ethnic minority, and are estimated to
comprise about 5 percent of the total Philippine population of 103,754,346 as of 2017.1 This
means there are 5,187,717 Muslim Filipinos, though this number is disputed by some sectors.
The positionality and religious status of Muslims are influential, as they are separate from the
mainstream Catholic nation, which is the first, and largest, Christian community in Southeast
Asia. They have contributed much to the political and economic development of the
Philippines. The Philippine Muslims have a unique history that antedates modern Philippine
history by at least 100 years, based on available historiography centering on the Sulu
sultanate as we shall explain below. This history is yet to be integrated fully to Philippine
history instead of just brief mentions in some textbooks for a better appreciation that the
Muslims are also part of the Philippine nation.
Let us recount how Islam began in the Philippines, and what factors shaped the construction
of the Philippines as a nation-state. This study is divided into five major parts: (1) the history
of Islamic development and how it changed the course of the Philippine state, (2) the
Philippine state’s traditional approach toward Philippine Islam and its adherents, and the
mechanisms of religious control throughout history, (3) changing attitudes and policies
concerning Islam, along with possible departures from traditional approaches of control, as
may have been influenced by foreign relations with Islamic countries, (4) Philippine-Saudi
relations, and (5) conclusions or implications, with some policy suggestions for strengthening
bilateral relations with the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
The history of the Muslims in the Philippines (also called the Moro in earlier times and
during the 1970s), is older and more entrenched than that of other Philippine groups or
peoples. They directly helped shape the Philippine nation during the colonial periods (both
the Spanish era, 1565–1898; and the US era, 1900–1946), as well as after its independence in
1946. In fact, Islam antedated the formation of the Philippine state by about 100 years, as it
was introduced around 1380 in Mindanao and Sulu by Islamic missionaries, who were
known as the makhdumin, according to Philippine historian Cesar Majul.
Before the twentieth century, Mindanao and Sulu were largely under the domain of two
groups of indigenous peoples: Islamized natives and heathens (the latter were designated as
“pagans” in Western writings). The entire Sulu Archipelago had been wholly dominated by
the Tausug Muslims, while at least half of western Mindanao was effectively united under
the dominion of the Maguindanao and Maranao Muslims. The central and eastern side of this
large island was inhabited by various non-Muslim tribal groups (called Lumad), who had
trading relations with the Muslims. Some of these tribal communities gradually adopted the
Islamic faith,2 except for those in the eastern and western regions where Christianity was
introduced during the 300 years of colonial domination by Spain. This picture of the southern
Philippines (Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago) is evident in the earlier writings of scholars
such as Ferdinand Blumentritt, who made a thorough ethnography of the Philippines,
including the south, with the help of Philippine national hero Jose Rizal. A map Blumentritt
drew of that ethnography in 1890, suggests the ethnic distribution of peoples in the
Philippines. Here, one can see that the south is heavily populated by Muslims (green) and
other indigenous peoples (yellow), with a small group of Christians (red) in the eastern
section of Mindanao. The same is true for the island of Palawan, which is partly influenced
by Islam by way of Sulu.
The first political entity that emerged is the sultanate in Sulu (1450), which was founded by
Sayeed Abubakar Abidin, or simply Abubakar, an Arab who was better known as Sharif ul-
Hashim (Majul, 1977). His father, Sayeed Zainal Abidin, was a direct descendant of the
Hashim clan, of which the Prophet Muhammad was a part of. Abidin belonged to the 14th
generation of Hussain, a grandson of Prophet Muhammad. Having been accepted to live with
the Sulu people (Tausug), Abubakar married Paramisuli, a daughter of a local chieftain, and
begot sons and grandsons as heirs to the throne. Several rulers of Sulu emerged,3 and they
maintained a single, extremely powerful sultanate that reigned in the Sulu area from the 15th
to the 19th centuries (Warren, 1980). Today, there are at least nine competing claims to the
sultanate of Sulu from among the descendants of Abubakar.
The Sulu Sultanate once held sway over North Borneo (now Sabah) as part of his dominion.
In 1878, Sabah was leased to the British North Borneo Company. When that company
dissolved, it turned over Sabah to Great Britain, which then relinquished this vast tract of
land to Malaysia on its way to full independence (see Magdalena, 2012). Until recently,
Malaysia has been paying an annual lease to the sultan’s heirs, sustaining the long-held claim
that Sabah is still a property of the Sulu Sultanate, though it no longer holds sovereignty over
it due to legal technicalities.
Another sultanate had emerged in Mindanao by 1520, established by Sharif Kabungsuan
from the Johore (now part of modern Malaysia) nobility. He was part Malay, as shown by his
appellation bungsu, meaning “youngest.” Kabungsuan’s father was also an Arab, Sultan
Betatar of Taif, Arabia, the ninth generation progeny of Hassan (son of Fatima, daughter of
the Prophet). After marrying a daughter of a local datus, or chief, Kabungsuan was later
crowned sultan, the first Islamic ruler in Maguindanao, central Mindanao. Later, however,
another contending sultanate emerged in Buayan, also part of Maguindanao, because of a
power struggle. Today, these political dynasties centering on the sultanate are known by their
location as “up-river” (locals refer to this as sa raya) and “down-river” (sa ilud) sultanates.
The up-river sultanate has remained under the rule of the Sultan of Maguindanao, while the
down-river sultanate is controlled by the Rajah of Buayan.
Many more sultanates sprung up in the Lake Lanao region in central Mindanao, largely
through the influence of Sharif Kabungsuan. Unlike the sultanates of Sulu and Maguindanao,
however, the system of political governance in Lanao is multifaceted and has multiple
centers. The Lanao sultanates were known as the Four Principalities, or Pangampong, and
each principality has ruling Royal Houses or Panorogonan, that number at least 16. These
Royal Houses roughly approximate that of an established sultanate in Maguindanao or Sulu.
The leaders of these Royal Houses sport the titles “datu,” “sultan” and sometimes “rajah”
(for a Hindu prince). Today, the Lanao sultanates have proliferated, especially the supporting
villages, which also claim to have other sultans (pegawid).
All these sultanates from Sulu and Mindanao eventually lost their powers upon the
establishment of a modern republican government set up by the Americans, and upon the
birth of the Philippine state in 1946. Though many still claim to be sultans or descendants of
these traditional leaders, they do not carry power as in the past except for the honorary title
and symbol of prestige in the community.
Among the Moro, religion and polity are rolled into one. The political leaders are also pious
persons who set themselves as examples to be emulated by their followers. Being a very
organized and cohesive community, the Muslims defended their faith against all foreign
intruders, Westerners and Filipinos alike, who came to their shores to subjugate them. They
opposed the Spanish and American colonialists until the end of their colonial regimes, not
having been colonized or converted to the Roman Catholic religion, which most lowland
natives accepted with little or no resistance.
It is perhaps valid to argue that the more than 350 years of colonial presence in the
Philippines were marked by conflict and violence between the Moro and foreign invaders,
including the Christianized Filipinos, who were coopted by the colonialists. Majul (1977)
described the Moro-Spanish relations as punctuated by “wars” that never went away. Though
the Spanish reign in the Philippines was quite long, it did not leave a significant legacy
among the Moro, who resisted all efforts to penetrate their homeland, and convert them to
Christianity.
The coming of the Americans was the consequence of their victory during the US-Spanish
war of 1898. Their entry into Mindanao did not appease the Moro, who continued their
defiance as evidenced by the major conflicts in Mindanao and Sulu between 1902 and 1913,
the period when most districts in Mindanao and Sulu were placed under the Moro Province
government under the US Department of the Military.4 Notable among these conflicts are the
Battle of Bayang (1902), the Bud Dajo massacre of 1906, and the Bud Bagsak encounter in
1911, whose details we explain below. Aside from these major battles, there were scores of
skirmishes and military operations against the recalcitrant Moro, who opposed colonialism
and never yielded to American authority.
AGREEMENT ON PEACE BETWEEN THE GOVERNMENT OF THE
REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES AND THE MORO ISLAMIC
LIBERATION FRONT

The Government of the Republic of the Philippines and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front
herein referred to as the “Parties” to this Agreement; Determined to establish a peaceful
environment and a normal condition of life in the Bangsamoro homeland;
Reaffirming the General Cessation of Hostilities dated 18 July 1997 and the General
Framework of the Agreement of intent signed between the Parties on 27 August 1998, and
committing to reach a negotiated political settlement of the Bangsamoro problem, and
enduring peace and stability in Mindanao;
Recalling the Tripoli Agreement of 1976 and the Jakarta Accord of 1996 between the
Government of the Republic of the Philippines (GRP) and the Moro National Liberation
Front (MNLF), and the OIC Resolution No. 56/9-P (IS) on 12 November 2000 of the Ninth
Session of the Islamic Summit Conference in Doha, State of Qatar, urging the GRP and the
MILF “ to promptly put an end to armed hostilities and to pursue peace talks towards finding
a peaceful resolution to the existing problem in Mindanao;”
Noting that the basic elements/principles for the resumption of peace talks between the MILF
and the GRP panels have been facilitated by the Government of Malaysia, as set forth in the
Agreement on the General Framework for the Resumption of Peace Talks between the
Government of the Republic of the Philippines and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front signed
on March 24, 2001 in Kuala Lumpur Malaysia; Further recalling Article VI of the said
Agreement on General Framework for the Resumption of the Peace Talks between the GRP
and the MILF signed in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia in which Parties agreed to undertake relief
and rehabilitation measures for evacuees, and joint development projects in the conflict
affected areas; and Recognizing that peace negotiations between the GRP and the MILF is
for the advancement of the general interest of the Bangsamoro people and other indigenous
people; and, recognizing further the need for a comprehensive, just and lasting political
settlement of the conflict in
Mindanao, the Parties welcome the resumption of the peace talks and, consequently, Have
agreed as follows:

A. SECURITY ASPECT

In accordance with the incremental characteristic of the peace process and agreement on the
General Framework for the Resumption of the Peace Talks, the Parties, as represented by
their respective Peace Panels, consider that normalization in conflict affected areas can be
achieved if certain principles and guidelines of conduct and action are adhered to by the
Parties. That among these are:
1. All past agreements of the Parties shall be implemented in accordance with the
Agreement on the General Framework for the Resumption of the Peace Talks signed in
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia on 24 March 2001 for the progressive resolution of the Bangsamoro
problem with honor, justice, and integrity for all sectors of society.
2. The negotiation and peaceful resolution of the conflict must involve consultations
with the Bangsamoro people free of any imposition in order to provide chances of success
and open new formulas that permanently respond to the aspirations of the Bangsamoro
people for freedom.
3. The Parties agree to invite representatives of the Organization of Islamic Conference
(OIC) to observe and monitor the implementation of all GRP-MILF Agreements. The Parties
further agree to strengthen the GRP-MILF Agreement on the General Cessation of Hostilities
dated 18 July 1997. Upon signing this Agreement, a Monitoring Team shall be constituted
with representatives from the OIC.

B. REHABILITATION ASPECT

1. The observance of international humanitarian law and respect for internationally

recognized human rights instruments and the protection of evacuees and displaced persons in
the conduct of their relations reinforce the Bangsamoro people’s fundamental right to
determine their own future and political status.
2. The MILF shall determine, lead and manage rehabilitation and development projects
in conflict affected areas, except when public funds are involved, in which case Government
procedures and rules will be observed.
3. The Parties shall safely return evacuees to their place of origin; provide all the
necessary financial/material and technical assistance to start a new life, as well as allow them
to be awarded reparations for their properties lost or destroyed by reason of the conflict. 4. In
order to pave the way for relief and rehabilitation of evacuees and implementation of
development projects in the areas affected by conflict, the Parties agree to implement the
GRP-MILF Agreement on the General Cessation of Hostilities dated July 18, 1997.

C. ANCESTRAL DOMAIN ASPECT

On the aspect of ancestral domain, the Parties, in order to address the humanitarian and
economic needs of the Bangsamoro people and preserve their social and cultural heritage and
inherent rights over their ancestral domain, agree that the same be discussed further by the
Parties in their next meeting.
D. ACTIVATION OF COMMITTEES
Immediately upon signing of this Agreement, the Parties hereby agree to activate working
committees for the purpose of discharging their mandates, particularly the implementation of
all agreements between the Parties.
E. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The Parties acknowledge the leadership of President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo in pursuing an
all-out peace policy in Mindanao. The Parties express their collective appreciation and
gratitude to the Great Leader of the Great Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya,
Colonel Muammar Gaddafi, and to the Chairman of the Gaddafi International Foundation for
Charitable Associations, Saif Al Islam Gaddafi, for hosting the Formal Opening of the
Resumption of the GRP-MILF Peace Talks in Tripoli, Libya; to His Excellency Dato Seri Dr.
Mahathir Mohammad, Prime Minister of Malaysia and His Excellency Abdurrahman Wahid,
President of the Republic of Indonesia, for their full and continuing support.
Done on this 22nd day of June 2001 corresponding to 30 Rabi’ ul Aw’al 1422 in the presence
of the representatives of the Gaddafi International Foundation for Charitable Associations,
the Government of Malaysia and the Government of the Republic of Indonesia.
For the GRP: JESUS G. DUREZA Chairman, GRP Peace Panel
For the MILF: AL HAJ MURAD EBRAHIM Chairman, MILF Peace
Panel Witnessed by: SAIF AL ISLAM GADDAFI Chairman of the Gaddafi International
Foundation for Charitable Associations

1.4. LOCAL HISTORIES: UNESCO WORLD HERITAGE IN THE

PHILIPPINES
Jane Dacumos, 2013

The Philippines has a rich history beginning from its earliest days as one of the busiest
trading posts in South East Asia and later, in the trans-Pacific galleon trade. A period of
Spanish colonization spanning three centuries then made an indelible impression on the
country. This mercurial era, along with the American occupation, played a vital role in
shaping the Philippines and its people. A vivid past has left its mark all over the archipelago
in many different forms that present-day visitors to the country are now discovering.

The rich Philippine heritage can be experienced, not only in textbooks and museums, but also
in beautifully preserved historical sites across the country. A simple textbook description of a
historical event comes to life upon a visit to the place where it unfolded. Isla ng Corregidor,
or simply, Corregidor, is now a tranquil island where the epic dramatic Battle of Corregidor
took place during the last world war. In a country like the Philippines, where history is kept
alive, one doesn't need to go far to travel back in time.

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) seeks to
encourage governments and people from across the globe to recognize and preserve places
which show a deep cultural heritage by recognizing these places as World Heritage Sites.
Here are ten heritage sites in the Philippines recognized by the UNESCO World Heritage
Centre:
TUBBATAHA REEF NATIONAL MARINE PARK

Covering 130,028 ha, including the North and South Reefs, Tubbataha Reef is an atoll coral
reef that can be found 98 nautical miles southeast of Puerto Princesa City, Palawan. Due to
its biodiversity, it was named a World Heritage Site by the United Nations Educational
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in 1993.
The 33,200-hectare Tubbataha Reef National Marine Park is home to hundreds of species of
marine life and serves as a nesting place for birds and marine turtles. The site is an excellent
example of a pristine coral reef with a spectacular 100-m perpendicular wall, extensive
lagoons and two coral islands.

BANAUE RICE TERRACES

The Banaue Rice Terraces is a product of almost two millennia of Ifugao agricultural
engineering. In the past, the marvelous place was also known as the “Eighth Wonder of the
World.” It was proclaimed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1993, and cited as the
“priceless contribution of Philippine ancestors to humanity.”
For 2,000 years, the high rice fields of the Ifugao have followed the contours of the
mountains. The fruit of knowledge handed down from one generation to the next, and the
expression of sacred traditions and a delicate social balance, they have helped to create a
landscape of great beauty that expresses the harmony between humankind and the
environment.
 BANAUE RICE TERRACES PUERTO PRINCESA

PUERTO PRINCESA SUBTERRANEAN RIVER NATIONAL PARK

In 1999, the Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park was declared a UNESCO
World Heritage Site. It is found about 50 kilometers from Palawan’s capital city, Puerto
Princesa. The Subterranean Park is known to be the world's longest navigable underground
river, which also displays a spectacular limestone karst landscape. The place is a significant
habitat for biodiversity conservation with a full mountain protecting the forests and the sea
ecosystem.
One of the river's distinguishing features is that it emerges directly into the sea, and its lower
portion is subject to tidal influences. The site contains a full mountain-to-sea ecosystem and
has some of the most important forests in Asia

VIGAN CITY
The city of Vigan was named a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1999, due mostly to the fact
that the place has been carefully preserved to show the fusion of old Asian and Spanish
architecture. Its architecture reflects the coming together of cultural elements from elsewhere
in the Philippines, from China and from Europe, resulting in a culture and townscape that
have no parallel anywhere in East and South-East Asia.
At present, the famous cobblestoned street of Calle Crisologo is conserved by the local
government by prohibiting any motor vehicle to travel along the road.

VIGAN, ILOCOS SUR APO REEF

APO REEF NATIONAL PARK

Apo Reef National Park, found in Sablayan, Mindoro Occidental, showcases the second
largest contiguous coral reef in the world and the second largest in the Philippines. Apo Reef
is the largest of the three islands that make up the park; the other two islands are Apo Island
and Pandan Island. It became part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site’s tentative list when
it was submitted in 2006.

MOUNT IGLIT-BACO NATIONAL PARK

The Mount Iglit-Baco National Park is the only known habitat of the Philippine tamaraw. It
was proclaimed as a national park by virtue of R.A. 6148 dated 11 November 1970. The park
is a protected area on Mindoro island and was submitted to the UNESCO World Heritage
Site’s tentative list in 2006.

MOUNT IGLIT SAN AGUSTIN CHURCH, PAOAY

BAROQUE CHURCHES OF THE PHILIPPINES

These four churches, the first of which was built by the Spanish in the late 16th century, are
located in Manila, Santa Maria, Paoay and Miag-ao. Their unique architectural style is a
reinterpretation of European Baroque by Chinese and Philippine craftsmen.

CHURCH OF SAN AGUSTIN IN PAOAY, ILOCOS NORTE

The Church of San Agustin, also known as Paoay Church, was built by Augustinian friars in
1694 and was finished only after 200 years. It reflects a unique combination of Gothic,
Baroque, and Oriental architecture. The ancient church was declared by former president
Ferdinand Marcos as a national treasure, and subsequently became part of the group of four
baroque churches recognized as World Heritage Sites by the UNESCO World Heritage
Centre.

SANTO TOMAS DE VILLANUEVA CHURCH IN MIAG-AO, ILOILO

The Santo Tomas de Villanueva Church was built in 1797 by the Augustinian Missionaries in
Miag-ao, Iloilo. It was specifically designed to serve as a fortress to protect the people from
the Muslims (‘’Moros’’) who invaded Christianized villages during the early times. The
church is one of the four baroque Philippine churches recognized by the UNESCO World
Heritage Centre in 1993.
 SANTO TOMAS DE VILLANUEVA NUESTRA SENORA DELA
ASUNCION NUESTRA SEÑORA DE LA ASUNCION IN SANTA
MARIA, ILOCOS SUR

‘’Nuestra Señora de la Asuncion’’ or the

Church of the Assumption was built on top
of a hill in Santa Maria, Ilocos Sur and can
be reached by climbing a flight of 82 steps.
The church has a red façade with exposed
brickwork. It was declared a National
Historical Landmark on 26 September 1982.
On 11 December 1993, it was declared as a
World Heritage Site by the UNESCO along
with three other baroque churches spread
throughout the Philippines.

SAN AGUSTIN CHURCH IN

INTRAMUROS, MANILA

The San Agustin Church is the oldest existing church in the Philippines. It lies inside the
walled city of Intramuros in Manila. Together with three other baroque churches, it was
recognized in 1993 as one of the four Baroque Churches of the Philippines which were
declared World Heritage Sites by the UNESCO World Heritage Centre. The legacies of the
Spanish ‘’conquistadores’’ Miguel López de Legazpi, Juan de Salcedo, and Martín de Goiti
are kept in the church.
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WEBSITES

http://nine.cnnphilippines.com/news/2017/07/25/Duterte-threatens-to-bombLumad-
schools.html

http://davaotoday.com/main/human-rights/attacks-on-lumad-schools-continue/

http://chuvachienes.com/2009/07/31/complete-transcript-of-president-corazon-caquinos-
speech-before-us-congress/

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4ZnnvbKyNCQ[/youtube