l METAL CASTING

INTRODUCTION
1r a st1 nr1 · ,, th
'- .,, 13 e pror:~": .'.3 , f pr0 rl ~1ct n g met a J obj ':!C t :J b y pourin g
molten met& l i nto a m0uld ~a \ it y an d bll o wing it t0 s
olidif y ,) Th ~
place ~-h~ r ~ m~tal c a sti n~ s "tre prod•.J ce d i s k no wn a s "F~~d ~y' ' •
Gener al l y met a l castin g s are pr o duced i n 2and and me tal
mou ld L ,
Onl y i ngot 3 and s mall objec ts are produc e d in metal mo uld z
,
whil~ c a st1· r1~s :, o f -11
<.I ~
;::, 1.
· z ea both simple and compl icat ~d , ar~
, C, '

produ ced u~u all y i n s and mould s .

Basic Ste ps in Ma ki ng Sand Castin gs

Th ere are fi v e basic ste ps in a sand castin g. They are-
1) Patter n and Core-b ox Makin g: Patter ns are requir ed to mak~
mould ~. Patte rns are p repare d in the patter n making sectio
n.
The p a tt ern may b e of wood, metal , . plast i c, etc. Also c o re -
b ox e £ are mad e to obt ai n desire ~ co~es .
2 ) Core -~akin g: Cores made of sand are used to obtain int~r 1or
s u r f ac e o f
castin gs. Co res are prepa red in a core-r o0m. Th e
core - b oxes are suppl ied ·from the patter n making sectio n.
3 ) Mould ing: ~ould i ng i.s the proce ss of obtain ing the cavity
to
~o u r molten metal . This is done by rammin g mould ing sa nd
a r0 u nd the patte rn kept in a mould box. When patte rn is
ta}:<::n o u t , t he shape o f the patte rn is left i n th e ramme d
~ind , ~ ec essary cores ar e then set i n t he mou ld c& v itf . Th
e
mo11l d i :; f in is hed . and c l e aned b e fore metal p ou ri n g .
• I

4 ) Meltin g and Pour i ng: The metal o f t h e r eq u i red compo s i tio n

i~ m~ l t e d i n a s ui t ahl~ furna ce , ta ken i n ln d le£ a n d po 11 red
l n~0 t h~ mo uld c av iti eg , Th e mould s o r e t hen allo ~ r d t n c oo l
, J ,.,... n ,~ o t-. h 8 t '3 o 1 i rJ ;i f i " rJ mc ta 1 r- o.. s t i 11 ~ 1 '3 0 b t r, .i n rd .
5 ) Cle an i ng and In s pectio n : 'fh r• '~o l i rli f i,-. ct r · n.<;ti. 11 ~ 111 th 1..• mn •tl 1

, •. r . :, { ' ( , ,.rr,,,, r•d r, 11d Lhr { I c I l I I 1,.t 1~ (" 1 t' f \ l l f' d 1 n

fr .f t J JII " ' J•r. t. i rJ(j,
 Fi n a ll y t h e c l ea n ed ca s ti n g s or e i n ~ p ~rt~ d to c h eck
f0r
::m ~· bl o w-h o l e s , f 1 a ws , c r a -::· I-. s ~ n d o l l 1 '! r '·-"• I l r_• rLI rJ O f n. r • t, .., • I t,, 0

i n s p ec ted c a s ting i s t h e n r e ad y fo r 11 se ,
I
Ad v antag es of Metal Casti ng Proce ss
1) Casti ng is the basic and ; ersa t il e manuf nctur i ni
p r oces s .
21 Diffi cult shape s can be cast e asil y ,
3) Casti ng provi des freedo m o f d e sign in te r ms of sh
a p e & si z e.
4) Some metal s that canno t be mach ined, can b e
p r od uce d by
casti ng to the requi red shape .
51 Heav y objec ts can be produ ced only b y casti
ng pro c e ss .
6) Mech anica l and meta llurg ical prop ertie s can be
obtai ned.

PATTERNS
Patte rns are the found ryman 's mould formi ng tool. ~ atte rn
i s essen tial to form the mould
cavit y in which molte n metal i s
p ou red. ~ A patte rn is us~d to form many mould cavit
ies and hence
ca s t ings. The quali ty and finis h of the casti ng depen
ds mainl y on
th e t ype of mate rial used for patte rn. desig n and ·cons truct i on
o f the . p a ttern . Hence , for produ cing high quali ty ~' nd preci sio n
;
ca s ti n g s, e xpens ive and ·. -~ . \ _,
speci al patte rns are used , while for
si mp le a nd small quan tity, patte rns made of wood, metal or
pl a ste r a r e p refer red.

Prop erties of Patte rn Mate rial

Th e i mp o r ta n t prope rt ie s of a good pa t tern ma ter i al
are-
l) It s houl d b e e as:v t o s h ape , wo r k and as s emble
.
2 ) I t s h o uld b e h a rd, st ro n g ,a n d ·d ur a b l e .
3l It s h ou ld have r esist anc e t o 'n br a. s i'on a n d ch e mic a l ac ti ons,
I) I t s hould be lig h t i n weig ht f o r ea
s y h a ndlin g .
~l It bhoul d be d i me nsio n a lly s tabl e .
\ \ \ '

PATTE RN MATERI AL S
r 111 . dI r r ,, 1' "' 1, t ty p ~ 0 o f motcr i n ls u se d f or pntte r n s a r e wood ,
mr- t I l• /l 11d fl I I (j \ ' lt ,, 1 fl l:', L ..
" r , 11l "0°
'
~ L l' cs ' r u bb ei"s a nd wax.
0
'

Wood : w,,o d i III I h,,,, n, n ~ l c v m111a nl r ~Hi€' d p n tt0rn mute rial , si n ce i t

mr> (" t , fll 11 •, l O j' I IH' r~qul t·f• mfl n t s of n '")C\tt e"n , 1' o
~ • obtai n b e s t
 •

r e s u lt R
- IJro n~_a
- ~ r•l~- sea~one d woo d 1.s
· use d , D1.'ffe r e n ·t t v,p·e• o f wood s
u sed to ma ke p a tt e rns a re Teak, Mahogany, Deodar, et c.
' ' I ,.- , • I .
Nowa d a ys compressed wood laminates lply~opds and laminated
bo a rds l a nd lnmina~ed wood impregnates ! like .plastic , rilled wood
laminate s) ar e finding wider applications for makinS patterns,
Thes e gi v e additional benefits like strength, hardness,
resistanc
'
e', , to wear and dimensional stability to the pattern,
More over , __fabrication of pattern with these materials is easier
and faster as compared to the basic wood, I ·r ,,,,-.r,-

The ad v antages of wooden patterns ar~ they are available in

: ' . •\
1', ' 1 ,1 ' .

plent ~ , the y 6an ~e ~orked and shaped easily, they are light in
.., :· .
: '
weight a nd they at~ cheaper th~ri other
\ ,·1,
materials,
.
. , 11 r· •; , ,_· I 1

The limitatiqns of these patterns are susceptible to

moisture, causing swell.ing and distortion, poor in strength, have
no resistance to wear and chemical actions and ·~en~e they are
'
suitable for small number of. patterns, . l'

Metal: Cast or machined metallic -patte~ns are w~dely used. The

different metals used are cast iron, aluminium, steel, ·brass an~
other alloys. Metallic patterns are. sui tabie i 'f or producing
castings in large quantity a~d repetitive : production: These are
: i

P referred when the patterns • -•re to be stored for years, surface

finish of the c asting and stability_ 6£ ·'t}\~i 'p~}; -t;.ie r~. ar.e more
impoI? tant. Cast irori and :'. oth:~,; ' '·\r~rrou~ allo? ,n~;tterns are used
.. . i ·:-. . ~·• .
for primary casting proce~s of producing ingots . ..
' I
\ -'
Plastics and. Rubpe_r s: The.~.mo;s ,~1t,ti,ng and thermo-plastics are also
used' as pattern material~. 0:~ ~r~?~ ets ~tyl= . tu~ed fo.r making
dur a bl e and long I service patt~~ris) whil e G hermopl~ stics are used
for s ho r t runs and · ·"whe're the patterns c an be melted and reused
' I

f o r maki n g pa tt e rns) ( Th,:_ commonly used th ~ oset s are ~:V and

0

po l ye ster resi n s , ) and · am ong (the t hermopla s tics , po lys t y rene a nd

~
wi d e 1y---- u s e d ,) -
ur e tha n e are widely us e d ) Amon g (t_ubb e r s , s i l ic.o n e r ubb e r s a r e
Pl as t i c s a nd rubber s a r e 1 i g h t , bu t a r e f r a g i le a nd
may n ot with s ta n d c h e mical a c ti on s ,
d, s p o ..sa b 1.~ ~ ~ <:::... 0 ~ e 0 --,r ~ .dc__ 4
.' I , ,~ ·,. f.ok4 ~-~:zr.,e~ ~ r vc , P<' l~rVI.., ,(-' \L..~, •'-Q
' I
 e

--
Plaster : Gypsum or plaster
strong, light and gi,·es
of paris with suitabl 0 a dd it i ves is
goo d sur f·ace f'1'n1's l1 , 'I'h e,v are , however ,
suitable for small castings onlr :)

Wax: Wax. is used in

m~ ~ -~La l ,. These are
a reusable patte.rn
investment casting. They ~ i , ·e
-- - -
good surface finish, light to
haotlle, suitable to form complex shapes and are reusable,

TYPES OF PArTERNS
The "~arious type~ ~f patterni (~~o¥ n in figure 1-1) are-
1 ) Solid Pattern 5) ,Ga,t ed ;pattern
2 ) Spl~t Pa ttern • f 6) ,FolJ.ow Board Pattern
' .. : ' .
3 ) Loose Piece Pattern. ! 7 Li,~,k~letpn Pa,t tern , ,.
4 ) Mat~b. , Plate , Pa;tter_n- .! .; 8) ~w~~~ Pattern
1

I ! •,

/ PATTERN ,~}~~QWArC;ES ,
Fqr _; 'P~t ally.ristca], find mechanical ,, reasons a number of
allowances a~e prqvided on a patt~~n. They are-
,.,. 1 )._ Shr.inkag.e .o r Cont_raction AJJ.owance :(It is a correction for
r,;

-
/ ' ·I t'"'" :• •:" (

solidificiticin - shrinkage ~f the casting and its contraction

during --~~~1r~~-- .to rc;;2~- {emper~tur~) - Th~-- total contract ion is
~ - - J I _' : •1 t • • !J t•

-
volumetric, but it {s · expressed linearly.
made bigger i ·n_ ~ ize ,.·•trh·a n the reqt1i'red :cas·ting siz,e ~)" •'
Thus, the pattern is

I ' ' ' ! '. i :• ••1 • ' ~.

The pattern a.llowances required dif'f er from mewl to metal.
: ! \ , i ·, . ;11 ' ·

~ ome times d ouble allowanc-es are provided if a pattern is made in

-
wood) and then
terns"· . (Thi:Ds i -s beo.ause ··th'e: 1 metal
i~ some other rnetai, as i .n mak:i.ng ''master pat-
pattern cast, also 'shrinks ;
which is al so to' ' be compensa te.d) '' ·Al v-®\;1.,._;, 'f e,::,_ , -lo..v-;1e.st-:-· .S V'li.1<'i K<Je
2) Machine Finish
. '' :
Allowance:
"' ! I. ·/"H c:> _Ll)~y, (,~ .yqh. d e v~K\ "'.J
Machine finiBh allowance is the
r~t-teY(). . :
I , ' !- ! ( ' _I \ f • · • ; :• ' ~II _ ! !: JI I_ 1~ • ! '
excess dimension on ~~attern to gi~e o~e~~ ~ze on the casting, It
is necessary to provide stock for machining. lt depends upon the
' .. . : '. ' '; ; i. .i ( { ,.-
type of metal, design and method of ca3ting and cleaning.
. . ; ,: ' ·. : .: '. ,·!
3) Draft or Taper Allowance: D;raft is , .. the taper a llowed on
verti ca l fa c es of a pattern to permit its withdrawal witho u t
'I ,

a ffect ing the mould, For hand drawn patterns abo u t 10 to 2 0 mm

I , , , I I t I' ' ' I

I' . .
 5

1,1 11 1' 1 e ,,r or mn '-'" h J' nc c1r a1,· 11 p ::i Lt 0. rn ~;

dr aft pe1· n1e tr· e i's -_, 1 e d,
c"'°' ll"'1,

abo u t l _d eg r ~~ i s allow ed , .
I I•

4) Disto rtion Allow ance: This al l o wance i s ptovi ded on patt e rn s

whose castin gs tend to d'lst'~ rt ' on .. c ooli rig . GeneN 1.lly it is
I '
requi red for flat, lo~g, U and V shape d castin g s . To obtai n a
prope ~
-
casti ng,
--
patte rn itsel f
_
is
, ,,111_ _
~listor ted, which yield s a

casti ng of requi red shape ,

\ ,, I I

rappe d for easy

5) Rappi ng or Shake Allow ance: When ~ patte rn is
withd rawal s, the m6uld cavit y gets enlar ged. To take care of

this 't he patte rn s·f :ze is reduc ed, This allo\v ance is very
\.' \

impo rtant in case of large and preci sion~

- stin~ .

'i- PATTE RN COLOU R CO,DJNG . . I r,

ifica tion,
Patt~ rns are colou red to facil itate quick ident
be . machi ned
t yp e of metal to be cast, to decid e what port:i on to ' '
and t o ident ify core print s, loose piece s·, etc. The colou r

, . , .~1513 ~1911 is as Jhown

codin g recom mende d by IS below -
t ~.. _\ -

Surfa ce
• \ l I
.Colou r, ·
. • - I·

Surfa ce to be left as cast (,unma chin~ d) "

Steil Blue
Grey cast iron - : ,Red
Malle able cast iron· 1 .•: Gre y
Heavy metal casti ngs ' ! Orang e
Light metal casti ng_ $ ,, , 1_ .: ·-: Brown
Surfa ces to be machi ned '' ·'
·• I
Yello w.
, ·,· ;• 1 Black ,
Core print s
Black /Clea r varni sh
Patte rn joint s , J , J 11'
' Green
1
Seats for loose core print s
. 1 •• ·n Diago nal ila~k strip s
Stop offs
· 1'

MOU.IJDING 'SANDS
II
found ry for
~ould ing sand is the princ ipal mate rial used in
makin g mou lds. A g ood mould ing sand shoul d posse ss the neces sary
eithe r natur al
prop ertie s for makin g quali ty mould s. Thes e mny be
sands are used
o r synth etic ( prepa red ) types , Gene rally synth etic
c onv e nient and offer bette r q uali t ies than
s Jncc L l i ey are mo re

th e n0Lur1 .1l s a nd s .
 G

Ingredi e nts of Moulding Sands

Th e principa l in gre di e n t s o f mu u lcl in~ s and s a r e s ili r:.: c1 s and
grain s, c l a~· , moisture n 11d s p ec ial a ddi t i \ f:S ,

~ ilica Sand Grains : IL is the c hi ef c o n sLituent o f a moulding

sand, in gra. nular f orm. About 80-9 5% o f moul d ing s a nd i s t h e
,I
sili ca sand. Q ts main function is to form a good mouldi
. , ...
ng

material wit h high r e~ ct.2.!:lness, c hemic al and thermal stabi l it y

and permeabil ity . ) The y are specified according t o t heir a ve rage

size and s hape. The, ~l so includes

silica sand ~o some
2
impurities (max . 2%) like Al o , FeO, Cao, Mgo 2 , etc )'
2 3
Clay: About 2~% of the moulding sand canst i tute s clay . It acts

as a "binder'' with suit<).:b le water content .) Q_t binds the sand

partic].e s, and imparts

-
strength
sand. ( Bentoni te is the clay generally · used in foun~ri_es )
&. plasticity
~
to the moulding

Moi_sture: (!he quantity of moisture present in the moulding sand

is in the range of ~ t~%. ) . i.s p.e.s ',\ ' kh!= . bonding

It fur,.~ action to
cla y, t hus briniing strength and plasticity to the sand. Mois-

ture in excess lowers · the ' strength of the moulding aggr~gate, but
offers eas iness · to prepar ~ and control. ~etter san~ ·propertie s
are obtained onl y when the moi'sture c~~nL4,~ optimum )

Special Additives: These are added to the moulding sands, to

obtain certain · specific propertie~ , as well a·s to· :enhance

.
the
l · : ,

e xis ting prqp_ertie- s , ·-Some spe,c ial_. addi tiv~es in use are-
a,, J Sea co al ( Coal dust) 1-10%: to improve surface _.finish.
bl P itch {coke by-produc t) and as~halt: , ijpto 3% : to improve
I '

surface finish and hot strength.

el Grap hi te and Silica flour u pto 2%: to imp ro ve refractor i-

ness, s urface finish a nd mouldabil it y .

ft ) Wood flour , c e r eal a nd ce llulos e upto 3%: to improve
co llapsibil it y , flowabi lit y , a nd gree n and dry stre ngths.
,,,e) Fuel oil upto 0.1%: t ~ improv e mould abi li ty .
~) ~cla sses , de x trin u pto 2%: to i mpro~e dry strength a nd edge
h ard n e ss .
A l Pe rlit e u pto 1. 5%: to impro,e th e rmal s tabi l itr .
 7

Classification of Moulding Sands

The y are c l assifi e d inl o t hr e e ~ a l e go r i " a ,t
r ! 1 u r .::l ,

synthet ic and spec i a l sand s .

Natural moulding sa.nd, ~~ s o c a ll ed "green s and'', i s obla il1e d

from river beds or dug from p it s. The y cont ain clay (5 -20% ) , and
can be used with additi ves, directl y for moulding. Natural sands

- -
are ,less refractory compared to_ synthgtic .sands.)
- -
than 2%
- clay
Synthetic sand, also called "high silica sand ", contain le ss
and . rest .§__i0 . They occur as deposits or at ri v er
- --- -
2
banks. They are also prod't.1ced .. b ~)•s rushing quartzite sand stone s)
.,

Special sands are useful i 'h · obtaining spec{cii1 • properties in

moulding sands . ,like high surf~ce , finish, high refractoriness,
etc. Zircon, olivine, chamotte and chrome magnesite are often
• : ~, I ,

used as ~p~cial sands. )

: '.: ,·
:_: .: 1
Prope1:ties .of Mciu lding San<3:s
J '. --~

1) Cohesiveness or : Str~ngth. -l . , ', .

tt 'fs ·the -a bilit..Y
,.J
w •• ~-! "•
of sand par-
,,- /

ticles to stick together. A ·good · ~6~ndry _sa~d should have

green strength, ,, dry streiigth, ··and ho\ streng~h.
j) Permeability, _ The property :9f - a sand to allow easy flow of
gases and moisture through it is called permeability, i.e.,
the sand must hav e sufficient porosity,
~) Flowabili ty. The sand must flow smoothl;f while preparing the
sand and the mould cavity ,
4,,) Adhesiveness. It is the property by which the sand p_ar-
ticles cling or adhere to the mould box surfaces, and adhere
to the neighboring particles.
5) Refractoriness. A sand must not fuse when it comes in
/
molfen metal; that is, the sand must have good
contact with
refractoriness.
V\l, I ~
·)
+o
'" 1 - --, _, ~ i(IqJ,-i ~ rn \~ , +u r«- l-;o u L
F~~ . I
"'°' i.,,11
,,6) Thermal stability. A foundry J and must retain its dimen-
s io n s under high temperature conditions, if not the mould
c a v i t y may distor t .
1) Collapsibility. Af t er t he solidifi c ation of t he molt e n
meta l , t he mo u l d mu s t be cosi l y c o ll n p sl b l~ . Th is h elps
8

f r ee c on l r G c t .i. o n ,_, f t h c rn e t n l & ".:' a s ,.- r e m0 , · a J o f t h e c a s 1, i n g .

8) Surf ace f inish, ..\ goo d s E1 11d m11 s l i mport 1.t f 1. n e '3 u r fac e
fi n i s h Lu t h e me tal cas l i n g ,
9} Reusabili t y, .\ f o und r ~ s and mu st b e reu ::; ab l e .
lO) Easy to prepare and control. A sand mu s t be easy t 0 prepar e
a nd c o n t rol it s properti e s,

FOUNDRY SAND TESTS & CONTROL

Va riou s tests are conduc t ed on foundr y sand s tp a scer t ain
its working qualities . The s a nd tests help to a greater e x t e nt
in controlli ng the sand propertie s ~ ·, and · hence to y ield sound
castings, The different tests carried out are described here.

Preparati on of the Sand Sample ~nd Specimen

specimen of 5 cm dia · and 5 cm length is used for
A standard
determini ng the permeabi lity number, compressi on & shear strength
I

of the sand. The specimen i~ prepared· Using a sand rammer. It

consists of a sli-c:iing weight ( 14 lb. as per AFS standard) which
is used to ram the sand by dropping ·,i t fr·o,m a standard height. It
also has the ac)ce'ssori es like· the ste:e l tube for specimen ( of 5

cm inner d~a 1·, a base or pedestal & a stripping post (Fig. 1-2).

a) Moisture Content . Test

: ,_:. . , -·

~ o isture ~e~~ • is - · th~ most important test since moisture

content affects many propertie s of a moulding ,,~,and.
. \ ;i
This test is J

done b y dry ing, 50 gm , of the green · sand at about 11o · c, for 2

1;

hours in a dr ? ing oven. , The · dried sand sample is cooled to room

temperat' u r e in a desiccato r and welghed. The final weight of the

-\ i ;
c o o l e d s and i s noted down. The differenc e in weight of the sample
I

d i vi d e d b y 50 ~m gi v es the perc'entag e of moisture content in the

giv en g ree n s a nd. j r

Q t i s d es ir a bl e t o h ave t h e mo ist ure c o ntent between 4 to 8 %

t o obta in opti mum sa nd pr o pe r ties . Lo w o r high mo i s t ur e contents
d ec rpa se t h e s a nd st r e n gt h ~ Mois ture c ont ~ n t te s t is us e ful t o

co ntr ol t h P pe rc e ntag ~ o f moist u r e i n a give n sa n d .

 'j

Si n ce, t h e co nv e ntio n al me Lh od of moistu re dr:c> tP.r rn i n at .io n

ve b AP n
l a b or i o u s a nd ti me co n s umi ng , so me rece n t qui c k met h od s h a
s tur e
wi d ely u sed i n t h e p r ese n t d ay fo un drie s . Th e met h o d o f moi
is u s ed popul arl y . In t hi s ace t y l e n e gas ( C 1-1 l i c•
t ell e r 2 2 ~
ss u r e
gene r at e d b y reacti on with mois t ure i n the sand and it s pre
is used a s measu re of the moist ure conte nt.

b) Clay Conte nt Test 1.

n-
Cl ay is the bindin g ~ater ial iq a foundr y sand. It influe
The
ces the streng th, perme abilit y and prepa ration of the sand.
below -
.proce dure for the det~ r minat i on of the clay_ co~te nt is as
1) Take 50 gm of mould ing sand in a wash b9ttle .
2) To this add 475 cc of distil led water and 25 cc of 3% ~aOH.
es,
3) St ir the sand wit·h added S(;)lut; io.n const ant.ly for . 10__minut
using a mecha ni~ al stirre r ,
4 ) Fill the clay wash bottle with water :uptp the mark and

allo w to settle for 10 minut es.

5) Then using o luti_on o:ut by
a Siphon .pipe remov e the dilute d s _

·about 3/'1- th total conte nts. Care should be takep to see that
partic le is · remov ed ·.·. along, v.[ith.-, s9luti on. The
no · . s and 0 0

-
.
solut i on brings the clay rni x e .d in i -t due to stirri ng action
and
6) Again dilute the conten t s by adding water upto the mark
on
all o w to set tle for 5 minut es. Siphon out to remov e soluti
by 3 /4th the t otal c ont e nt.

Re p eat step numbe r 6 for about 4 -5 times to make the water

i n th e bo tt l e c lear and retain onl y pure silica sand. Take the
e rence in
s and g ra i n s i n a pan a nd dr y i n a oven. Div ide the diff
. ,,
nt in the
sampl e weig ht b y 5 0 t o get t h e pe t c e nt a g e of c l ay conte
given fou nd ry s a~d.

c ) Grain Finen ess Number (GFN)

Th i s test is carrie d o u t u sing a Sieve s h ~ k er, 11 s ta n dard

si e v es a nd a dry fou n dry sa n d sa mpl e . Th is t e st gives t h e

finen es<:: o f t h e s a nd g r ai n s . ~ ig h er t he g rain finene s s, lower

th e p e r mea bi l iLyof Lh o mou J d , ) Fcn· t:. h i R l e s t , c.fr i ed 50 g m sample

- - r1 ·0 111 t h e c la)' co nt e n t
of s ili c a SFlnd ( or Lhc c1n 11 cl 4 ,~11 i 11 n'· 1i cl u 0
0
 10

t e st) is k ept o n t h e top o f n serie s of e l e v e n s i e ve s a nd s h ak e n

for 1 5 mi nu tes , Th e ::; a nd re mai ned on ea c h s .i. e v e a nd Ll1 e bottom
pan is collected , Kei gh e d a nd it s ,percentages o f t h e t ota l
sample is calculated, Th e perc e nta ge of s and ret a i n e d in e ac h
sieve is multipl i ed b y a multipli e r {a c on s tant fac t o r g i ve n f or
each si eve) and the product is obtained, All the produ c ts a r e
added to get the t o tal product. (E_he ~ al product cl ~ v ide~ b y
total percentage of the sand gains reta i ned (i . e., 100) gives the
grain f t ne.ness ~ number,) A typi c al c alculation of grain fineness
number (based on US series equi v alent number) is shown below ~

U.S. Sieve Amount of sand retained Multiplier Product

gram percentage
I
6 3
-,
12 - 5
20 10
30 0.5 1.0 20 20.0
40 1.0 2.0 30 60.0
50 3.0 6.0 40 2 ·1 0. 0
70 8.5 17.0 50 850.0
100 10.2 20,4 70 1428.0
140 ,/
·rs. a 31. 6 100 3160.0
200 6.5 13.0 145 1885.0
270 200
Pan :L...Q. 9.0 300 2700.0
50.0 100.0 10343.0

Total Product 10 ~:l43

GFN = = = 103.43, say 103.
Total% of sand ;i.oo

d) Permeability ,
(germeability number • is defined as the volume of air in cubic
centimeters that will pass per minute •: under a pressure of 1 . gm
• J ; - -. ; ' : • '

per square centi~eter . through a sp~cimen . , of 1 square centimeter

in cross sectioIJ. and-· 1 cm deep .') .

The permeability ' o f a sand i~- dcit~rmined b y using ~ standard

cvlindri c al s pecimen '( 5 cm . diamete·r and 5 cm height l in the
permeability tester. The permeabilit y tester c onsist s of a
invert ed fl o ating bell in which 2000 cc of air is trapped, a
s p e cime n tub e , mercur y seal and a water manometer.
 1]

To car ry o ut Lh c t r s l, Lh c s p cc j mc n Lube 1;1 ith the ra mm ed

h o \, n i n f i g u r e 1 - 3 . T h e n
s Pe c i me n i s kept on t h c III c r c u r. :-' s e cd a s s
t h e t rap p ed a ir i s allo we d to flow t h roug h Lh e s peci me n by
s top wat c h is star te d.
ope ning t h e VH l ve . At t h e same mom e nt u
The ti me tak en for the flow of 2000 cc ai r is not e d down . Also
r.
the a ir pres sure is note d from the mano mete
g the rela tion ,
The perm eabi lity numb e r is calc ulat ed usin
V H 0.o oo -x s-
Perm eabi litv
.
Num ber, P N
=
PAT
f
x 't::. -x: -~◊ -2b~

wher e, V = Volu me of air = 2000 cc

H = Heig ht of the spec imen = 5 cm

p = Air pres sure , in gm/s q.cm
A = Cros s sect iona l area of spec imen = 20.2
68 sq.c m.

T = Time of air flow , in minu tes

e) Stre ngth Test s

Usu ally on a stan dard tens ile, com pres sion ,
sand spec imen
ied out in~ univ ersa l
shea r and bend ing stre ngth test s ·are carr
and shea r test s the
stre ngth test ing mac~ ine. For com pres sion
ramm er is requ ired , The
stan dard spec imen prep ared · in a sand -
n out usin g the strip ping post and used .
prep ared spec imen is take
t type s of spec imen s are
For tens ile and bend ing test s diff eren 2
. m.
d in term s of kg/c
used . Stre ngth valu es are usua lly expr esse

CORES AND CORE MAKING

sand shap es used to form the holl ow
( core s are usua lly
as hole s) or exte rior s (suc h as groo ves on
inte rior s (suc h
our of a cast ing that
pull eys) of a cast ing 0 They form the cont
s core s are used to form
is not mou lded with a patt ern, Some tim~
moul d cav ities with out patt erns . The core is left in the mou ld
cati on of the cast ing.
cavi ty and brea k remo ved afte r the soli difi
and ce ra mic mat eria ls in
Core s can also be made of meta l, plas ter
app lica tion .
a ddit ion to core sand s depe ndin g upon the
 ME 1 - 66{ a)

(a) Soli d
,....
I Loos e p1ec _e pif5c;l . {d) M l h plat e
(b) split Pa tt erns a c
(c) Loo se -p iece

Mou ld
I ~---_; c ___ J \

San d ~ -: •.·-:
(e) Gate d
(f ) Foll ow- boa rd Patt ern I
(g) swe ep
Fig. 1-1 . Typ es of pat tern s

Srr,o ed 1,._-; eJ

Ptdt5 I QI Curv1d

□
scol~
I
I
Sp~ci me11

Il
I l v (U

F ound3 fl()IJ.
(Q)]· Mano m6tw r

Soecim t n
1u bt

Send ra mmt r
r
12

It j , ,, Properties of Cores

The d esirab l e properti es o f a good s a n d c ore a r e -

. l/ I
l l Cores should be st rong and s hou ld r e tain their- ; s hap e while
hf\ndllng, i.e . , hi g h g r ee n s trengt h,
2 ) Cores sho uld h ave adel_lua Le dr y s tren•gtb and hardnes s •
3 ) Cores
s hould resis t e rosion by molten metal.
4 ) Cores
s hould ha v e permeabili ty and collapsibilit y .
5 l Cores
sho~ld have hi g h refr ac torines s~
6 l Cores should impart a g oo d s urfa ce fini sh to the cas tin g,

Core S~nd Ingredients

The cor e sand ingredients a re sand grains, binders, water
and special additives;
A) Sands: A high silica sand co n ta iniqg very little or no clay · is
preferred as it hai hiih te~ractoriness. Excessive clay content
reduces permeabilit y ~nd ' 2&f lapsibili ty . In selecting a sand for
cores the fa ct ors ' to be ' ~onsidered are the shape, size, grain
'
distributidn and clay content of the -~and . . ,

2) Core Binders and Additives: Bind~rs are necessary to hold the

. .
sand particles together & impart strength to the mixture. They
:, I • • /,! " / ,.
also give - Pef~actopiness and ~~ ilap~ t b i li~y. The~ may be classed
as organic, inor_g~nic and metallo'- ·orga·n ic bin~i,ers. Organic
'., :· ! .,-,
binders ·are c ombustible, and are destro ye d by heat. Hence they
c ontri8-ute collapsibi,lity to the core . Inorganic binders are not
combustible but have good strength and resistance to erosion.
Organic Binders. Core oil, cereal, resins, plastics, pitch,
dextrin, molasses, etc., are used as diganic binders.
Core oil Upto .3% gives lit~le green strength but high
' 'J / I

b aked strength.
Drier s Added to hasten the c uring process. Ammonium
nitrate , ma n ganese dioxide a n d ot her metallo
organic co mpounds are u sed. Baki n g time may
be r e du ced by 20-80% by drier s .

Cereal Co mmonl y u sed for green stre n gt h (upto 2% ).

Pitc h Pit c h is a solid c oa l tar, a b y-pro du c t of

V
 lJ

mn 1'1 n 'l . L·1• l n ~1% j11 po ~vrle r for m g i v e s

c l' ler

i 11 , - r rn~ r. s p Pr mr-A h i lit y a nd c oll 9p -

l pt t' l%

:-- i h l Li t ~

Thfc'rm ose t ti n '! u rr o for mal d e h yd e

plR sti c-s - l'h c n o I l' o t' mH J clc h ydc n nd

giY e h ig h o n bok ing .

s L 1· r- n gl h
flo ur &. ir on
bc n Lo n itc , s ili c a
I no rga ni c Bin der s: Fi. r e c l n :v ,
ey are u sed to o bta i n gre en
oxi de- :.) t '0 i n org ani c b ind e r s use d. 'fh
th f i n is h.
st r e n gt h, bak ed st r e ng th, hot st r e n gt h a nd s moo
t opt imu m amo u n t of
3 ) Wa ter : Wate r is n ot a . bin der , but wi t hou
pro pe rly . The
add i tiv e s do no t fun cti on
wat er otl 1er bin der s and
. Low er
san d is in the ran ge of 2 to 8%
qua n tit y of ~a ter in cor e
str e ng th. Hig her wa ter
wa t e r co nte nt res ult s in lm,·er gre en
rin g cor e ma kin g, han dli ng , b~k ing and
co nte nt cau ses pro ble ms du
dra ,,· i ng pro bl ems ;,)

COR E MAKING
are -
ste ps in cor e ma kin g. The y
Th ere are fiv e im po rta nt
i v es mu st
: The cor e san d wi th the ad dit
1) Co re San d Pre pa rat ion
en gth . Co re
as to ob tai n uni for m str
~e mix ed hom oge neo usl y, so
ro lle r
lls and cor e mi xer s. In
san ds are mix e d in ro lle r mi
usl y.
mu lle rs and plo ug hs mix the ing red ien ts hom oge neo
mi lls , the
ma chi nes .
Mo uld ing : Co res are ma de ma nua lly or usi ng
2 ) Co re
.( ~"~
s are use d for lar ge sca le con tin uo us pro du cti on
~a ch ine
A cor e box
is es se nti al ~ the pre pa rat ion of ~ e s)
box "
sho uld be ma de
em ble s a pa tte rn in ma ny asp ect s. The cor e box
res
m the cor es~
suc h Kay tha t it can be Kit hdr aw n ea sil y fro
in
Fo r thi s pu rpo se a
tho ut dam agi ng the sha pe and the s urf ac e.
wi
and · shr ink ag e
Ki th su ffi cie ~t dra ft
c ore box mu st be p ro v ide d
ow anc e s for
chi nin g a nd /or _fi nis hin g all
all ow an ces . ~an y ti me s, ma
of co re box es are in
co re i s als o e ss e nti a _l . (:: iff ere nt typ es
the
co re b o x, str ick e l
lik e ha lf co re b ox . du rn l-" co r e box , s pl it
u se, d in
co r e bo x , e l c , Ga n g co re box es gre use
co r e bo.:-~, ga n g
r gc num ber o f co r es .
ma c hin es to pro du ce n l n
p
1 -I

(J' h e g r ee n s :1ncl co re mi x l u r e 1s rn mn,e d in to t h e co r e bo xes

h a , . i n g d e s ire d s h a p es :) Ge n e rc1l l ,· co r e sa n d .i. s ra mmed b ~· machi n -
- - - '

es , l i k e j o l t in g , s q u e e :: i 11 g , s l in g .i. 11 g 11 n d Lil O 1, i n ?: ma c hin es . The se

fun ction s imil a r to mo uld ma k i n g mac hin e s .

Medium sized and fra g il e co r es are o ften r ei nfor c ed wi t h

st e e l rods and wires to give s uffi c i e nt s trength while pr e paring .
In l a r ge cores perfor ated pipes or a rbors are us e d.

Th·e cor~s after moulding are to be t r ansfer re d o n to a cor e

plate. A co re pl~te is a fl at plate usu a ll y made o f metals or
other heat resisting material s .

3) Core Venting : Cores mus t be vented properly before they are

assembled and sent - for b a king. Co r e ventirtg is essential to
prov ide . easy · escape for the gases and steam produced when the
•· r._,.::; m·o l ten me ta l . surrounds the core. Though sufficient permeability
is provided by the use of special additives, like wood flour,
venting is required to make a smooth wa y for the ga~~s. Venting
is done by maki~g ad~qu~te channels using scratchers into the
sur,face ~'~t . . -the
-
core
. 1-· , ••.
interiors. This type of v enting is - made in
cores · which are made by joining' two hal ve s. ~ In cores made with
: single pieces, vent h~les ;;e ~ ~de ~ith 8 ~ii~~ ~o~~ rbds 1 . which are
presen.t as -~_n tegral parts of the core box .

4) Car~ Baking : Green -cores c).re bc1.ked in ovens in the temperature

range of 150 to 400 ° C. Baking is carried out in order to remove
moi s ture, impart dry and hot strength, and 1 : to · ,bring. c h '=mical
changes in binders. Proper
I
baking is essential for a core to
function satisfactorily. Under-baked c6res · release gas v.nd may
c a use many defects in the casti ngs. Over-baked c ores may collapse
too earl y , and ma y br eak before the solidification of the metal.
Depending upo n t.he numb er of cores , b a king can be done in
diffe r e n t o ve n s . The d if f ere n t co re dry e r s are as .follows .

Bat c h Type Ovens

I n t hi s , t he c ores ar e bak e d in bat c h es . A se t o f prepared
co r e s is plo c0 d 111 draw e r s o r r ac k s wh ic h are c h a r ge d into a
 17

~ u p p o t· L t n g- n r !? As n nd n o co n ce n trati o n o f c hapl et
in c l u d <> l n r g r•
rn <' l .:1 1 I•) c hill l o c fl ·l i.z c d p o in t ..:; i n t h e c a s ti n g . P a d jato r c hapl ets

ti l '(.' It $(' d 1' 0 1· tl-d n - wn l l ,., rl e n s l i n g s like i n r a diat or t ube s I heat

exc h a n ge r s ), Th c8e nre p l Rce d i n t he l ocat i n g h ol es i n p a t tern s

a nd t h e n Lh e pa tt er n l s r a mmed up wi th
sand . Th e flat s qua re e nd s

a r e t hu s he ld in the sa nd a nd pro, id e
g ood s uppo rt to the c ore.
r es l-4 a , b & c .
The u se o f c hapl e t s i s lllu st rote d in figu

TYPES OF CORES
Th e c l ass ified base d on thei r shap e and th eir
c ore s are
s a r e-
po s ition in the moul d, Common t y pes of core
cal & plac ed hori zon-
1) Hor izon tal core : It is usua lly cyli ndri
ends of core rest
tal at the part ing line of the moul d. The
in the core seat s (fig ure 1-5a ).
2) Ver tisa l core : This is plac ed in a
vert ical posi tion both in
1-5b ).
cope and drag halv es of : the moul d (fig ure
3) Bala nced core : It is used when cast ing is to have one
e on the patt ern.
open ing and only one core prin t is avai labl
free side s if the
It requ ires chap lets to supp ort on the
core is larg e (fig ure 1-5c ).
4) Cove r core : When the patt ern is moul
ded in the drag , and the
e .top, a cove r core
core is requ ired to be susp ende d from th_
is used (fig ure 1-5d ).
5) Hang ing core : It ~s the core whic h
hang s from the cope and
the drag . The core
doe sn't have any supp ort ._at the botto m in
1-5e ).
may be susp ende d usin g ~ire or rod (fig ure
p-of f core ". rt is usec; l
6) Wir.e core : It is also call ed as "sto
cast ing (fig .l-5 f}.
when a hole or rece ss is requ ired in the
ern in
7) Ram -up core : Som etim es, the core is set with the patt
a c ore is call ed
the moul d befo re the mou ld is ramm ed. Such
as "Ram -up core '' (fig ure 1-5g ),
Wh e n t here are no core prin ts, then core s are
8) Kiss core :
a nd drag . Such a
h e ld in posi t ion by th e pres sure of cope
cor e is ca l le d a s "Ki ss co r e " ) They are s uita ble when a
~

g (fi g ur e 1-5h ).
numb er of hol es are re quir e d in a cast in
 · Aloldin9 .l>oord / ' ' ' <,
... . (b)
~ , <<
'}:f'\(~%f!t(;tf J)·: vroq

'-

Fig. 1-4. Use of chaplets

: - . - - .. -.·
(a) Balanced core (b) Cover core (c) .hanglng core

·:-.-·~·.-.:·:··..- :· ~· . -..... :.. ~

\tw:-·_·._--~:-:·><<t-- .. .
:. # , :

·- - · ~ · ·.·
' \ " : .' •• : ., ..

:~: :•.; >:_ ·.-·._ ·_ .: :.:

(;i 'R·a-~\-~ =~~-re (f) Kiss core
(d) Wing core
Fig. 1-5. Types of cores