International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 53 (2012) 1–14

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International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijmactool

State of the art in hard turning

Gaurav Bartarya a,n, S.K. Choudhury b,1
a
Mechanical Engineering Department, Harcourt Butler Technological Institute, Kanpur 208002, India
b
Mechanical Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur 208016, India

a r t i c l e i n f o abstract

Article history: Hard turning is gaining grounds for machining hardened steels as it has several benefits over grinding.
Received 6 June 2011 There are several issues, which should be understood and dealt with, to achieve successful performance
Received in revised form of the process. Researchers have worked upon several aspects related to hard turning. The present work
24 August 2011
is an effort to review some of these works and to understand the key issues related to process
Accepted 25 August 2011
performance. The review shows that the type of tool material, cutting edge geometry and cutting
Available online 29 September 2011
parameters affect the process efficiencies in terms of tool forces, surface integrities integrity, and white
Keywords: layer. Adequate machine rigidity is a must essential to minimize the process inaccuracies. Also
Hard turning moreover, for finish hard turning, where the depth of cut is less than the nose radius of the tool, the
Machining
forces deviate from the conventional trends as the radial force component is the maximum and axial
White layer
force component becomes minimum. The present work finally lists down certain areas that can be
Tool wear
taken up for further research in hard turning.
& 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1. Limitations of hard turning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Literature review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1. On cutting edge geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.2. On tool wear and tool life in hard turning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3. Forces in hard turning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.4. Force and temperature modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.5. White layer in hard turning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.6. Surface integrity and fatigue life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.7. Lubrication and cooling methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.8. Regarding accuracy of the process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

1. Introduction turning can produce as good or better surface finish at signifi-

cantly higher material removal rates. Although the process is
Hard turning is performed on materials with hardness within performed within small depths of cut and feedrates, estimates of
the 45–68 Rockwell range using a variety of tipped or solid reduced machining time are as high as 60% for conventional hard
cutting inserts, preferably CBN. Although grinding is known to turning [1].
produce good surface finish at relatively high feedrates, hard Studies have shown that using the right combination of insert
nose radii, feedrate or the new insert technology, hard turning can
produce better surface finish than grinding. Multiple hard turning
n
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ919450612482. operations may be performed in a single setup rather than multiple
E-mail addresses: bartarya@iitk.ac.in (G. Bartarya),
choudhry@iitk.ac.in (S.K. Choudhury).
grinding setups (Fig. 1). This also contributes to high accuracy
1
Tel.: þ919935028406. achieved by hard turning.

0890-6955/$ - see front matter & 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2011.08.019
2 G. Bartarya, S.K. Choudhury / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 53 (2012) 1–14
Fig. 1. Grinding versus hard turning [2].
For the successful hard turning following requirements on
the part of the machine tool, cutting tools, coolant conditions, etc.
should be fulfilled [2].
(i) Hard turning is a high speed machining phenomenon with
surface speeds going normally as high as 250 m/min, some-
times even more than this. So the machine tool capabilities
should include high machine tool rigidity, high surface speed,
constant surface speed for profile to be finished as shown in
Fig. 1 and high accuracy with required surface finish.
(ii) As the machining involves a workpiece material of above
45 HRC, the forces generated are expected to be high, so as
per convention a harder tool material with low wearing
capabilities is required. Mostly the researchers have used
CBN, PCBN and coated CBN tool inserts for the purpose. Some
have used ceramics [3] as well as WC coated with TiN [4] or
CBN–TiN [5].
(iii) Hard turning is mostly preformed without coolants while
some of the researches favour the coolant to be used in hard
turning to minimize the white layer thickness [6]. The
elevated cutting zone temperature in hard turning causes
the instant boiling of coolant decreasing the tool life and
deteriorating surface finish by making thermal distortions.
Hence in most of the hard turning operations the coolant
is not used at all. However, the absence of coolant also
reduces the tool life and deteriorates surface finish to some
extent [7].
(iv) For continuous cuts, the high tool tip temperature occuring
in dry turning serve to anneal (soften) the pre-cut area,
which lowers the hardness value and makes the material
easier to shear. This explains why it is beneficial to increase
the speed when cutting dry. Cutting without coolant pro-
vides obvious cost benefits as well.
In hard turning, like in most cases of machining, the majority
of generated heat goes into the chip. Examining the chips during
and after the cut can reveal whether or not the process is well-
tuned. During a continuous cut, the chips should be blazing
orange and flow off like a ribbon. At high speeds chip takes away
most of the heat produced so tool and workpiece temperatures
are substantially reduced. At a cutting speed of 360 m/min chip to
workpiece temperature ratio was found to be 16 [8].
1.1. Limitations of hard turning
Although hard turning is an impressive process due to its
ability to replace grinding as finishing process, which is a costly
process due to machine cost, setup cost, lubricant cost and
hazards, but as far as the surface integrity of the product is
concerned, there are few limitations of the process [9] as
mentioned below.
 Low magnitudes of compressive residual stresses and the
stress profile with the position of maximum stress at a certain
distance beneath the surface. In general, the residual tensile
stresses exist at the surface.
 The process-induced white layer leading to substantial varia-
tions in component service performance.
 Dimensional, geometric form and surface roughness errors
resulting from tool wear. The other error-drive factors are
high cutting forces and thermal expansion on workpiece and
cutting tool.
The white layer is a very thin outer layer of material that is
harder than the underlying material. The white layer formation is
a phase transformation rich in retained austenite. If a white layer
forms during hard turning, it is typically because a dull insert
causes too much heat to be delivered into the part. It is most
commonly formed on bearing steels and is most problematic for
parts like bearing races that receive high contact stresses. Over
time, the white layer can delaminate and lead to bearing failure.
In spite of its limitations the process is very attractive on shop
floor as it replaces grinding for finishing the hardened work parts
like ball and roller bearings, crank pins, turning of small bores
during manufacturing of injection nozzles for gasoline engines
[10] and other automotive components.
2. Literature review
The researchers have worked upon many facets of hard turning
and came up with their own recommendations about the process.
The process is essentially a high speed, low feed and low depth of cut
finishing process. The cutting speeds, as reported in various works,
range between 100 and 250 m/min [4,11–15]. Some researchers
have reported speeds even higher than these [8], but most of them
adhered to the above range due to stability problems. Feed have been
in the range from 0.05 to 0.2 mm/rev, while depth of cut is not more
than 0.2 mm. Table 1 summarizes the cutting conditions, workpiece
and tool materials used for hard turning.
Researchers have tried to investigate the effects of different
shapes of inserts, tool materials and coatings on the process
performance during turning of hardened steels while many of
them have ventured to characterize the wear phenomenon during
hard turning. Good amount of research has been performed to
understand the effect of process parameters on force, surface
integrity, residual stresses and white layer formation through
experiments as well as modelling. The entire literature review has
been divided into eight sections so as to give proper attention
to the works that various researchers have come up with, to
characterize the process.
2.1. On cutting edge geometry
Hard turning is a high speed cutting phenomenon involving
high-hardness tools like coated carbides, ceramics and CBN tools;
moreover many researchers have tried to see the effect of the
different available edge geometries on the process.
During machining of AISI 4340 with high and low CBN inserts
with chamfered and round (honed) edges [11], it was found that
tools with low CBN content provide better tool life for both types
Table 1
Work piece, tool materials and cutting conditions used by various researchers.
Workpiece material Tool materials used Cutting conditions
AISI 52100, AISI CBN (low and high Cutting speed ¼
4340, D2, D13 content), coated CBN, 100–400 m/min
steels etc, ceramics. Coated Feed ¼
hardened to 60 ceramics and carbide 0.05–0.2 mm/rev
HRC (approx.) are also used in some Depth of cut ¼
cases upto 0.2 mm
 G. Bartarya, S.K. Choudhury / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 53 (2012) 1–14
Fig. 2. (a) Waterfall and round hone micro-geometry edge design and (b) variable hone radius [18].
Fig. 3. Flank wear for different cutting edge geometries at various speeds and
feeds [17].
of cutting edges while edge rounding increases contact area
between the tool and the workpiece increasing heat dissipation
that in turn increases the tool life in case of high CBN content
inserts. Also interrupted cutting provides higher tool life than
semi-interrupted and continuous cutting.
While using tool with honed cutting edge (Fig. 2a) it was
analyzed that, increase in edge hone radius tends to increase
the surface roughness due to increase in ploughing component of
deformation. Edge hone radius also influenced the equivalent
thrust force. For smaller hone radius, the forces were smaller than
that of honed and chamfered edge [16]. While comparing cham-
fered and honed edge tools it was concluded that the cutting speed
has more significant influence on flank wear than the feedrate for
both the chamfered and honed edges [17] (Fig. 3). It was also found
that chamfered edges prompted higher forces than the hone edges.
A variable edge hone radius is better in many aspects as it reduced
heat generated along cutting edge, induced less plastic strain on
workpiece and reduced tool wear [18] (Fig. 2b).
Rotary uncoated and coated carbide tools [4,19] show superior
wear resistance, reduced tool temperature, with only flank wear
and without any crater wear present. Larger tool radius results in
more chatter requiring greater stability of machine. Coated
carbides rotary tools performed better than the carbide rotary
tools. Thermal analysis shows that self propelled rotary tools
(SPRT) provide cooling cycle to cutting tool thus producing a low
cutting temperature as compared to circular fixed tools [4].
While comparing conventional ceramic tool and wiper tool
geometry (Fig. 4a and b) used in hard turning of the hardened AISI
3
5140 steel, it was found that wiper tool geometry gives comparable
bearing properties to the machined surface at a feedrate double than
that used with conventional tool and the surface generated with
lower feedrate has better bearing capabilities [3]. For the same tool–
workpiece combination researchers found that wiper geometry
replaced crater wear with plastic deformation and micro-uniform
corner wear resulting in a shallower groove seen on the secondary
flank face [13]. High surface quality can be achieved using wiper
geometry [20,21]. While using conventional and wiper geometry
for coated and uncoated CBN tools [22] authors concluded that
cutting speed influences tool life more significantly than the feedrate
and wiper geometry inserts have lesser tool life as compared to
conventional ones within the range of cutting conditions used by the
authors. Similar results were obtained for ceramic tools [21] while in
[23] it is reported that the wiper geometry inserts performed better
for both surface roughness and tool wear.
The mechanical and thermal loads on the workpiece surface
increase with flank wear during the process. This favors the
formation of white layers and residual stress gradients in the
subsurface zone of hardened workpieces, whereby the life time of
the components is reduced. Special tool geometry was used to
hard turn case hardened 16MnCrS5 steel using CBN insert with
web on the flank face (Fig. 5) [24]. The modified geometry makes
the contact zone limited to the web portion only. They found that
the depth of minimum compressive residual stress in the surface
layer can be adjusted by means of web width of tool thereby
controlling white layer thickness to constant for defined cutting
time intervals.
From the works above, it is evident that while hard turning
different steels, the tool geometry has high influence on the
process. A chamfer strengthens the tool while wiper geometry
gives better bearing properties to machined surface but the tool
life is not commendable. A honed radius increases the tool life but
the friction is high at secondary edge due to small chip thickness
to edge radius ratio. The web on the flank restricts the flank wear
and in turn the depth of compressive residual stresses, but to
design a web for every tool workpiece material combination and
for different cutting conditions is a very tedious job.
2.2. On tool wear and tool life in hard turning
Tool wear and tool life are very important aspects of hard
turning as tool wear leads to white layer formation. Moreover, tool
life should be carefully observed as the hard turning is a finishing
operation requiring a surface finish comparable to grinding if not
better. The tool life criteria used in hard turning are usually based
on predetermined surface damage [12]. Over the years many
researchers have contributed in this area, to ascertain the modes
of tool wear and to establish the tool life in hard turning.
During turning of quenched tempered AISI 1045 and AISI 5140
steels with TiN coated carbide inserts at low speeds, adhesion
and micro-chipping are the basic wear mechanisms while at high
4 G. Bartarya, S.K. Choudhury / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 53 (2012) 1–14
Fig. 4. Comparison of inserts with (a) conventional geometry and (b) wiper shape (symbols. f—feed; ap—depth of cut; r—radius of the tool corner; r1 and r2—radii of
wiper curvature; Rz—valley-to-peak height) [13].
Fig. 5. Web on the flank face of the tool.
speeds diffusion and thermal fatigue cracking become severe [14].
By increasing cutting speed, temperature at the contact tool is
increased. Thus at elevated temperatures chemical wear becomes
a leading wear mechanism and often accelerates weakening of
cutting edge resulting in premature tool failure (chipping), namely
edge breakage of the cutting tool. Due to this carbide inserts have a
limited application to hard turning.
Various researchers have used ceramic tools for hard turning
of different types of steels [25–29]. It was found that during
machining quenched tempered steels using titanium based cer-
met tool, abrasion and adhesion were the main wear mechanisms,
but while machining ball bearing steel with the same tool, micro-
chipping, plastic deformation and cracking were the main wear
phenomenon occurred [25].
When turning martensitic stainless steel with coated cermet
and coated carbide tools, researchers found that for low feeds and
cutting speeds TiN based cermet had longest tool life while for
other conditions coated carbides outperformed cermets. Flank
wear, end clearance wear and catastrophic failure were the main
types of tool failure modes determining tool life [26].
In an effort to produce a surface finish comparable to grinding,
while turning D2 steel with ceramic tools, the researchers [27]
concluded that the tool wear was highly influenced by cutting
speed and to some extent cutting time; also, the excessive wear at
high cutting speeds deteriorated the surface finish. Specific
cutting pressure was found to be strongly influenced by feedrate
while surface roughness was highly influenced by feedrate and
cutting time. Results showed that a surface finish better than
0.8 mm could be achievable with appropriate choice of cutting
parameters allowing to eliminate the grinding process.
During hard turning of AISI 4340 (63 HRC) steel using Al2O3
and TiCN mixed ceramic tool, it was found that with increase in
speed the tool wear rate goes down [28]. This may be attributed
to lowering in yield strength of the material due to high cutting
temperature that results in lesser forces and hence lesser wear.
While hard turning of AISI 5140 steel with ceramic tool [29] a
transfer layer formation on insert and the notch wear was observed
along with the fracture on chamfer. The transferred steel layers on
Fig. 6. CBN flank wear evolution as a function of cutting speed and time [8].
the rake face of conventional ceramic insert were formed by
smearing from oxides of Fe, Cr, Si and manganese sulphide (MnS).
Work has also been done to predict the tool failure rate while
machining case hardened 1552 steel with ceramic insert [30] and
results show that the predicted rate of ceramic tool failure is 20% (in
the first few seconds of machining) and it increases with an increase
in cutting speeds. These results indicate that there will always be a
risk that the tool will fail at a very early stage of cutting.
CBN has been a popular choice of researchers for hard turn-
ing of various types of steels due to their various properties
[5,8,31–34]. While evaluating the performance of CBN–TiN coated
carbide inserts and PCBN compact inserts in turning AISI 4340
hardened steels, it was found that flank wear occurs mainly due
to abrasive actions of the martensite present in the hardened AISI
4340 alloy [5]. The crater wear of the CBN-TiN coated inserts
was found to be less than that of the PCBN inserts because of the
lubricity of TiN capping layer on the CBN–TiN coating. PCBN
shows greater tool life.
During hard turning with CBN it was observed that at lower
speeds abrasion was the predominant wear phenomenon while at
higher speeds abrasion and diffusion occur [8]. When augmenting
cutting speed, tool flank wear increased (Fig. 6) leading directly to
the degradation of the surface quality.
While reviewing hard turning works it was summarized that
there are four wear mechanisms namely, abrasion, adhesion,
diffusion and chemical reaction (BU layer), built-up layer being
 G. Bartarya, S.K. Choudhury / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 53 (2012) 1–14
not as hard as PCBN [31]. Steel containing large amount of
carbides is prone to higher tool wear as carbides are more
abrasive in nature than martensite. Also PCBN tool life initially
increases with increase in cutting speed then decreases. The
author also found that low CBN content tools perform better
than high content CBN tools. The same was also concluded by
other authors [35,36].
During machining of AISI 4340 steel with CBN tool abrasion at
low cutting speeds was observed (Fig. 7a). At moderate speeds a
protective layer was formed at the tool chip interface, acting as
diffusion barrier, and resulted in prolonged tool life (Fig. 7b). At high
speeds cutting temperature became the dominant factor instead of
the cutting force. The high cutting speed caused inhomogeneous
shear strain and a transition from continuous chip to saw-tooth chip
was observed. The friction force was found to increase due to very
irregular chip–tool contact. This, in turn, removed the protective
layer and serious diffusion was encountered (Fig. 7c and d). It
indicates that there should be an optimum cutting speed for CBN
tool to machine high-hardness alloy steel [32].
In an application other than hard turning, while machining
Inconel with CBN tool, the binder was observed to play a major
role in defining tool life due to diffusion phenomenon at high
cutting temperatures [33]. Inclonel diffused in the tool, making
compound with less resistance to abrasion. This new layer was
pulled off during machining, taking with it some of the elements
of insert (binder and grains).
Another work [37] considered abrasion, adhesion and diffusion
for their volume loss model to estimate flank wear in CBN.
Microstructure and hardness of the workpiece material play an
important role in flank wear progression [38,39]. While machin-
ing AISI 52100 (100Cr6) steel with CBN tools, researchers con-
cluded that wear depends not only on chemical composition of
CBN or nature of binder but also on hardness value and above all
the microstructure of workpiece material [38]. They also observed
that the thrust force was increased as penetration of tool was
difficult due to flank wear and suggested that it is better to
monitor flank wear in terms of thrust force. Crater wear appeared
at high speeds as binder was abraded by hard carbide particles
Fig. 7. Wear on rake face for various cutting speeds [32]. (a) At slow speed v¼58 m/min; (b) at moderate speed v¼82 m/min; (c) at high speed v¼ 130 m/min and
(d) magnification of certain part of (c).
5
(chromium carbide), which led to CBN grain detachment from the
bond. At high speeds coated CBN acted as uncoated, as hard
workpiece particles abraded the coating. However at moderate
speeds, coated inserts presented better results in terms of tool
life. The author also proposed a wear model taking into con-
sideration the workpiece hardness
 D
E F H
VT G f d ¼C
H0
where H0 ¼60, H is workpiece hardness, V, d and f are cutting
parameters. C, D, E, F and G are constants.
The microstructure of workpiece material plays a strong
correlation to flank wear [40]. The focus of this study was to
investigate the performance and wear behaviours of CBN tools in
finish dry turning of four different types of hardened steels,
treated to the same hardness of Rc ¼54. A large variation in tool
wear rate was observed in the machining of these steels. The tool
flank grooves have been correlated to the microstructure of these
steels, namely the presence of various carbides.
The correlation of the CBN tool wear with cutting parameters,
forces and surface finish have been established by various
researchers [15,41,42]. A good correlation between passive force
and tool wear was found while machining 100Cr6 steel with CBN
[15] and hence it was deduced that the passive force could also be
an effective measure for on-line tool condition monitoring.
While machining crank pin material with CBN it was found
that there was negligible effect of depth of cut while feed had a
little effect on the tool wear for the test conditions applied in the
work [41]. It was also concluded that low CBN content tools
perform better with respect to tool life. It was observed that when
the feed range increases at optimal speeds, tool life improves
slightly in the case of some grades of PCBN, such as A-grade (low
CBN) inserts. In the case of other grades of PCBN inserts, tool life
decreases with increasing feedrates.
When examining the effect of tool wear on surface roughness
during turning of AISI 52100 steel using low content CBN tool, it
was observed that wear has some deterministic features and not
random in nature [42]. In early stages, the plastic deformation
6 G. Bartarya, S.K. Choudhury / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 53 (2012) 1–14
exists while gradual abrasion makes the cutting edge recede. Also
there is good replication of tool on roughness profile therefore the
state of the cutting edge might be predicted with reasonable
accuracy through roughness parameters and skewness of profiles.
It has also been seen that the orientation of forces generated
by the cut changes in the course of the insert lifetime. The insert
having a better orientation of force at the start, (the more normal
to the cutting surface), is the one which has a better lifetime
measured by the flank wear [43].
Few works have compared the performance of various tool
materials during hard turning [44,45]. While comparing the tool
life of ceramics and CBN tools when machining hardened steels,
results showed that cutting velocity is predominant factor for tool
wear followed by tool hardness. Feed has the least effect on tool
wear [44]. CBN inserts show better performance than the ceramics.
When comparing performance of coated cemented carbide, mixed
ceramics and PCBN-H tools while turning W320 steel [45], experi-
ments showed that cemented carbides performed better at speeds
up to120 m/min while CBN-(High)tools are superior at high cutting
speeds (up to 200 m/min). Mixed ceramics did not perform well.
Adhesion, abrasion and plastic deformation were dominant wear
mechanisms, although chipping on the rake and flank faces and
catastrophic failure were also observed in some experiments. CBN at
low speeds are susceptible to high wear promoted due to chipping.
In another work [46] it was found that crater wear was the most
important phenomenon controlling the hard turning process by
modifying the tool geometry. At high cutting speed, chemical wear
on the tool rake face becomes an important factor of tool damage.
A builtup layer was formed at the rake face by oxidation of certain
elements of work material. This layer is the main cause of crater
formation since it is not stable and is removed periodically from the
tool rake face due to high shear stresses, taking away with it some
tool material from the rake face of the tool causing crater wear.
Although the CBN tools are hailed so much by the researchers
for hard turning of steels, these tools were found to be the bad
performers when machining Ti–6Al–4V alloy [47]. The perfor-
mance of CBN tools, in terms of tool life, at the cutting conditions
investigated was poor relative to uncoated carbide tools. This was
due to rapid notching and excessive chipping of the cutting edge
associated with a relatively high diffusion wear rate that tends to
weaken the bond strength of the tool substrate in CBN tools.
An increase in the CBN content of the cutting tool also led to a
reduction in tool life when machining Ti–6Al–4V alloy at the
cutting conditions within the range of investigations.
From above it can be concluded that abrasion and diffusion are
the main factors for the tool wear in CBN tools depending on the
cutting speeds and feedrates. Initially it is abrasion at low cutting
speeds and as the speed goes up, a protective layer is formed on
the tool as the diffusion sets in. On further increase in cutting
speeds severe hard particle abrasion and diffusion takes away the
binders and hard grains are pulled out of the matrix. Tool wear also
has a significant effect on surface roughness profile, so the cutting
edge state might be predicted with reasonable accuracy. CBN inserts
win the race in all respects as they exhibit better tool life at toughest
cutting conditions due to their high hardness and melting point
for hard turning steels [47], while some have concluded low
CBN content tools perform better than high-CBN tools. The main
advantage of the CBN tools is due to its stable hardness at high
temperatures (71800 HV at 1000 1C) and its lower solubility for
steel material of the machined workpiece [22].
2.3. Forces in hard turning
Cutting forces may provide a better understanding of the
machining process as they relate directly to the cutting conditions
and tool condition during machining.
Normally as the depth of cut is lesser than the nose radius of the
tool in finish hard turning, radial component of tool forces is found
most dominant [8,15,17,48,49]. But with variable hone edge radius,
the tangential force becomes more than radial force thus increasing
the efficiency of cut [18]. However, while finish hard turning of AISI
52100 (100Cr6) steel with CBN 7020 insert, when cutting was
limited within the tool nose, radial force component was found to
be predominant [8]. Such finding is in contradiction with what is
known from conventional turning that the radial force component is
0.3–0.5 times the cutting force component. Consequently, the radial
force cannot be neglected in characterizing static and dynamic
behaviours of such machining system.
At low cutting speeds, high cutting forces are encountered due
to low cutting temperature and built up edge (BUE) formation.
High speeds result in high cutting temperature thus reduced
forces due to thermal softening of the workpiece material [14,32].
In a study of hard turning it was observed that the passive
force is highest among all components of forces due to very small
depth of cut and nose radius [15]. While in a simulation work
where authors modelled the cutting forces as uncoupled chip
formation forces and forces due to flank wear, results showed that
the radial component of the forces were highest [48]. Some other
experimental works show the same results [49,50]. It was also
deduced that the radial force was highly sensitive to workpiece
hardness, negative rake angle and tool wear evolution [50].
Furthermore it was also observed that the cutting forces were
most influenced by the depth of cut than by the feed or speed.
It was observed that during hard turning the cutting forces
were higher at low cutting speeds and reduced when cutting
speed increased [14,32,50,51]. This may be due to the fact that at
high speeds the cutting temperature is very high that results in
thermal softening of the workpiece material thereby reducing
cutting forces required for machining. The ANOVA results [14]
show that the effect of feedrate is considerable on cutting force
but is negligible on thrust force.
The force modelling [51] shows that the cutting forces increase
with increase in feed, depth of cut and nose radius. Similar results
were found in [23,50] showing influence of depth of cut on
machining forces.
In another work while examining the influence of cutting
parameters on cutting forces and surface roughness during hard
turning of MDN 250 steels using coated ceramic tool [52], it was
concluded that cutting speed does not significantly influence
forces for speeds up to 144 m/min. However, the feed force was
affected by the depth of cut while thrust and cutting forces were
affected by both the feedrate and the depth of cut.
Many researchers observed that the force conditions in hard
turning were different from those in conventional turning; i.e. the
radial force was dominant rather than the tangential force for
most of the tool geometries except variable edge hone radius tool.
This deviation from the conventional process needs a careful
study as the cutting conditions in hard turning are fairly different
from conventional material turning i.e. the depth of cut and feed
are very low.
2.4. Force and temperature modelling
Finish hard turning is high speed machining process involving
high cutting temperatures. As the cutting conditions are different
than that for roughing and the workpiece material being much
harder than the normal engineering materials, it is worth observing
the force and temperature conditions closely. These observations
may be used to get the best results from the process for machining
components free from mechanical and thermal damages.
To predict the cutting forces correctly, an efficient flow stress
model is a necessity. The flow stress is greatly affected by the
 G. Bartarya, S.K. Choudhury / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 53 (2012) 1–14
hardness of the material being machined. A flow stress model
which also includes the hardness effect was developed of a
hardness-based flow stress and fracture models for machining AISI
H13 tool steel [53]. A non-isothermal viscoplastic numerical model
was implemented to simulate the influence of work material
hardness on the chip formation process. Predicted results were
validated by comparing them with experimental results from
literature.
Research works have shown that temperature of the tool was
greatly affected by the cutting speed whereas the influence of the
depth of cut and the feedrate on the temperature was not as
severe. A thermal analysis was done [54] to analyze the effect of
tool flank wear on the heat transfer, thermal damage and cutting
mechanics. The analysis of heat partition showed that the heat
generated at the tool–chip interface played an important role in
the heat flow across the tool–work interface, especially when the
flank wear was relatively small.
White layer formation seems to be a thermal process involving
phase transformation of steel, possibly activated by severe plastic
strain. work–tool friction on the flank face may be the primary heat
source for white layer formation. A thermal model to understand
the white layer formation [55] showed that the white layer was a
function of cutting speed only when the flank wear was fixed.
White layer is a retained austenite layer with 33% austenite that is
thrice more than that in bulk material. A strong dependency on
workpiece material was also observed. The material with greater
austenitic temperature barely showed white layer.
In a finite element analysis [56] using easy-to-implement
friction model to characterize the chip tool interaction, the friction
coefficient and flow stress were determined by force calibration
and material tests, respectively. The developed model successfully
predicted the temperature distribution and residual stress distri-
bution in the workpiece.
A thermal model [57] was developed using Oxley’s predictive
machining theory and then the model was modified and general-
ized to represent the workpiece material properties as a function
of strain, strain rate and temperature. They used material
constitutive law (Eq. (1)), and modified Johnson–Cook equation
(Eq. (2)) to represent material flow stress behaviour under
machining conditions. Forces and temperature were also pre-
dicted using the model.
e_ TT r m
     
s ¼ ðs0 þ Bfn Þ 1 þ C ln _ 1 ð1Þ
e0 T m T r
e_ TT r m
     
s ¼ ðs0 þ Bfn Þ 1 þ C ln _ DE
e0 T m T r
where B, C, D, E, m, n are constants in the (modified) Johnson–
Cook equation, T is measured or estimated temperature, Tm is
melting point temperature, Tr is reference temperature for mea-
suring s0, s0 is flow stress at reference temperature, Tr. e_ is strain
rate, e_ 0 is reference strain rate (for convenience, it was made
equal to 1).
Same researchers formulated an oblique chip formation force
model while considering effect of tool geometry [26]. Force due to
flank wear has also been modelled to accommodate effect of low
feedrate, small depth of cut and relatively large nose radius. The
total force during hard turning has been predicted by adding up
both the components modelled separately (uncoupled modelling).
Ploughing effect was also considered in another force model [58].
Another thermal model [59] to predict white layer in finished
hard turning took into account three heat sources, namely at
shear plane, at tool–chip interface and at tool–workpiece inter-
face. A mechanistic model was employed to estimate the chip
formation forces. Wear land forces were modelled using an
approach that assumes linear growth of plastic zone on wear
7
land and quadratic decay of stresses in elastic contact. Machining
forces and geometric characteristics such as shear plane, chip–
tool contact, tool–workpiece contact were used to approximate
the heat intensity and dimensions of shear plane rake face as well
as wear land heat source.
A simulation using Abaqus/Explicit to analyze thermo
mechanical effects on chip morphology for AISI 4340 hard steel
[60] showed that serrated chip formation was a result of softening
phenomenon. A fully coupled thermal stress analysis was adopted
with a zero conductivity value of machined material. Therefore
heat in workpiece was generated only by material strain and
friction.
A numerical simulation of the hard turning was made using
two dimensional FEA software AdvantEdge [61] for different
varieties of hardened steels with CBN or PCBN, which showed
high hardness, high abrasion resistance and chemical stability at
high temperatures, The simulation results showed that feed had
the most significant effect on the cutting forces. The material
properties model used in simulation contained the information on
deformation hardening, thermal softening and strain rate sensi-
tivity. A transient heat conduction analysis was undertaken to
analyze finite deformations. A constant coefficient of friction (0.5)
was assumed in the simulations. It was also observed that the
cutting force and feed force increased with increase in feed, tool
edge radius, negative rake angle and workpiece hardness.
A finite element model for hard facing of components [62]
estimated the increase in cutting temperature with cutting speed
as well as with feedrate, and the rate of increase was influenced
by the workpiece microstructure. The temperature for hard facing
of materials with finer structures increased more rapidly than
that of coarse carbides with higher speed and feedrate.
The literature review above shows that the researchers have
successfully tried to address the process through the modelling by
taking into account the flow stress, strain, strain rate, temperature
sources and friction conditions. Most of them used Johnson–Cook
model for material modelling while works based on other models
are also available [63].
2.5. White layer in hard turning
White layer (Fig. 8) being most noticed feature of hard turning,
needs special attention. A tool replacement may be needed
depending upon residual stress levels, white layer on workpiece
surface and/or due to deteriorated surface finish.
ð2Þ Three general contributory mechanisms can be identified [64],
which are associated or responsible for white layer formation.
These are:
(a) The mechanism of plastic flow producing a homogeneous
structure or one with a very fine grain structure.
(b) The mechanism of rapid heating and quenching resulting in
transformation products.
(c) The mechanism of surface reaction with the environment
such as nitriding, carburizing and oxide ploughing.
There are some other factors also that need to be considered
for white layer formation during hard turning. These factors are
pressure strain rate and cooling rate [64]. The specific cutting
pressure will have significant effect on transformation tempera-
ture. Since austenite has higher density than ferrite, pressure will
reduce the phase transformation temperature. A high strain rate
causes the heat generation decreasing the stress required for
deformation. Quench rate is another factor that influences not
only the transformation temperature but also the resultant hard-
ness for low carbon content.
8 G. Bartarya, S.K. Choudhury / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 53 (2012) 1–14
Fig. 8. Microstructural change at a hard turned surface of AISI 52100 steel, optical micrograph [55].
Fig. 9. Effect of cutting speed on white layer depth [64].
When machining 27MnCr5 steel with CBN (coated and
uncoated) tools, it was observed that a minimum feed exists for
hard turning below which, instead of cutting, a large part of
material is ploughed. This leads to material side flow [12]. It was
also deduced that the residual stresses were result of three
effects, namely mechanical, thermal and metallurgical. Increase
in the tool flank wear increased the tensile nature of residual
stress at the surface while maximum compressive residual stress
shifted deeper below the surface. So white layers might be termed
as consequence of high friction energy and heat generated either
by cutting process depending on the tool wear or by very high
cutting speed. Martensite in steel transformed into the austenite
to form the white layer due to high temperature conditions. Use
of the coated tools improved the surface integrity as the residual
forces shifted towards being more compressive.
While hard turning of H13 steel using CBN tool, white layers
were observed with hardness more than that of the bulk material
[64]. There was depletion of iron and chromium while increase in
carbon and oxygen content in the white layer. While tool wear
increased with the increase in cutting speed, the white layer
depth and hardness actually reduced (Fig. 9a and b). This may
be due to the fact that at high speeds the temperature of the
workpiece material reduces while that of the chip increases.
Reduction in the temperature of machined surface may be due
to faster chip removal and insufficient contact time. Due to this
lesser heat is conducted into workpiece while most of it is carried
away by the chip. This was also observed by Yallese et al. [8].
While analyzing white layer during the hard turning of AISI
52100 steel with CBN insert [65], TEM results suggested that
white layers produced at low-to-moderate cutting speeds were
largely due to grain refinement induced by severe plastic defor-
mation. Whereas the white layer formation at high cutting speeds
was mainly due to thermally-driven phase transformation. The
white layers at all speeds were found to be comprised of very fine
(nano-scale) grains compared to the bulk material.
Hard turning is competitive in many cases compared to
grinding but the white layer formation is detrimental for the
component life. Properties of white layers from both the pro-
cesses are fundamentally different in four aspects namely surface
structure characteristics, micro-hardness, microstructure and
chemical composition [66]. A turned white layer is much more
strained than the ground white layer. The thickness ratio of dark
to white layer for a ground layer is much larger than for the
turned surface (Fig. 10). The micro-hardness profile for both the
processes may be the same but the ground white layer can be 40%
harder than the white layer in turning. A turned white layer is
etch resistant while the ground white layer is not. A turned white
layer has much more retained austenite than a ground one.
A real time acoustic emission (AE)based monitoring system to
monitor the surface damage, white layer and tool wear showed
that AE signals have good correlation with white layer and tool
wear [67]. White layer is a primary factor to induce high AE
frequency. A strong correlation exists between AE frequency and
surface finish. The presence of white layer increases the peak AE
amplitude and corresponding frequency.
In a study to analyze white layer using metallographic tech-
nique and to answer that whether white layers are advantageous
or causes damage to components, it was concluded [68] that
white layer thickness increased with flank wear due to increase
in temperature. Also, the steel with fine microstructure showed
thicker white layer than the steels with coarse microstructure.
An energy dispersive spectrometry (EDS) of machined surface
showed that the carbon content of the white layer increased with
time and with increasing layer thickness.
A study was conducted [69] to experimentally analyze the
feasibility of finding four distinct types of surface integrity that
 G. Bartarya, S.K. Choudhury / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 53 (2012) 1–14
Fig. 10. Surface structures of (a) hard turned and (b) ground surfaces [66].
might have potential effect on fatigue life of the component. The
depth of white layer and tensile residual stresses were observed
to be increased with the increase in wear (Fig. 9). The increase in
wear also caused the magnitude of compressive residual stress to
increase and shifted it deeper in the subsurface. While decrease in
feed made surface residual stresses more compressive and the
maximum compressive residual stress shifted shallower in sub-
surface. Small feed and sharp cutting tool can produce a favour-
able surface integrity for improving fatigue life of the component.
An FEA model was developed to investigate the white layer
formation during hard turning of AISI 52100 steel using CBN tool
under thermal conditions that promote martensitic phase trans-
formation [70]. The model was developed taking care of stress
and strain, transformation temperature, plasticity and effect of
volume expansion accompanying phase transformation tempera-
ture. The model showed the shift of peak residual compressive
stress into the workpiece, which is in agreement with previous
research.
Another model was developed for estimating maximum
workpiece surface temperature for hard turning of AISI1045
steel with carbide tool [71]. It was concluded that the white
layer formation occurs due to phase transformation at tem-
peratures below the nominal austenitization temperature of
the steel. The possible cause could be the plastic deformation.
Retained austenite was found in the white layers formed in all
the machining conditions used.
An investigation of white layer formation and hardening effect
in hard turning H13 steel with CrTiAlN and CrTiAlN/MoST-coated
carbide tool showed that coated tool resulted in lower workpiece
and tool temperatures due to low friction coefficient [72]. Coated
tools resulted in reduced and more homogeneous hardening
effects compared to uncoated tool. In addition, higher cutting
speeds produce negligible white layer.
White layer formation in nickel alloy was analyzed by
Ranganath et al. [73] and it was shown that the machined
surfaces contain a distorted layer with elongated grains. The ratio
of edge radius to uncut chip thickness was found to be the most
dominant factor in determining the amount of plastic strain in
the machined surfaces, forming white layer and bent grains in
low-speed machining of nickel alloys.
Another recent work [74] modelled white and dark layers
using hardness based flow stress and implemented in Finite
Element code. The model was validated with experimental results
and good correlation was found. It was found that white layer
increased with increase in both cutting speed and feedrate. In
contrast, dark layer decreased with increase in cutting speed,
while it remained almost constant or slightly decreased when
feedrate was increased.
The works above support in unison that white layer formation,
occurring only with a worn tool in service, is undoubtedly a phase
transformation process at near austenizing temperature (even
below that) accompanied with high strain rates. High strain rates
cause the white layer formation or phase transformation below
9
the austenizing temperature. The white layer formation shifts the
peak compressive stress well inside the workpiece subsurface. At
very high cutting speeds the flank wear increases but the white
layer thickness decreases as workpiece temperature goes down
due to chip carrying away most of the heat at higher speed.
Higher negative tool geometries, and high feedrates also tend to
increase white layer formation.
2.6. Surface integrity and fatigue life
A deteriorating surface finish can be a clue to changing surface
integrity that may affect the service life of component. As hard
turning is mostly used as a finishing process it is imperative to
study about the parameters affecting the surface integrity and in
turn fatigue life of the hard turned parts.
The theoretical surface roughness parameter, Ra, can be given
2 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
as Ra ¼ f =ð18 3r e Þ, where ‘f’ is the feedrate in mm/rev. and ‘re’ is
the insert radius [12].
A hybrid machining process using superhard and abrasive
tools to hard turn and improve the bearing properties of hard
turned surfaces is discussed in [9]. Mixed ceramics and CBN tools
were used for hard turning and then belt grinder with Al2O3
abrasives was used to induce compressive residual stress and
negative skewness to the surface thereby enhancing the bearing
properties of the hard turned surface.
Another work, comparing hard turning and grinding with and
without white layer [73], found that the high hertz pressure
induced by the cutting tool in turning was the determining factor
for the differences in residual stress. A high tensile residual stress
was found to be associated with the existence of a turned or a
ground white layer. The coupled effects of high hertz pressure and
rapid temperature change induced by tool wear played an
important role in the resultant tensile residual stress. Tensile
residual stress in the area of white layer by hard turning was
higher than that for the ground white layer. However, the residual
stress for the ground white layer was not compressive in nature
(as for the hard turned white layer) and remained tensile
throughout the entire depth measured.
Hard turning with a sharp cutting tool generates a unique
‘‘hook’’ shaped residual stress profile characterized by compres-
sive residual stress at the surface and maximum compressive
residual stress in the subsurface [75,76], but as tool wears out, the
nature of the surface residual stresses changes to tensile that
reduces fatigue life of component. This is one of the major areas of
concern in hard turning.
In a simulation work on residual stress [76], the key findings
were that ploughed depth was a major influencing factor in
producing the machining-induced residual surface (RS) profile
and a unique hook shaped RS profile was produced when the
ploughing depth reached a threshold (critical) value. The simula-
tion results were also validated by experiments.
Acoustic emission amplitude was found to be most consistent
and sensitive to fatigue damage than other AE parameters during
10 G. Bartarya, S.K. Choudhury / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 53 (2012) 1–14
Fig. 11. Effect of tool wear/white layer on residual stress profile [69].
a study of the effect of surface integrity on the rolling contact
fatigue (RCF) of the hard turned AISI 52100 components using
CBN tool [77]. A white layer induced by hard turning was very
detrimental to RCF as it increased tensile residual stresses
(Fig. 11). A component free of a white layer can have a life six
times that of a white layer component. As the white layer
increases in thickness, the fatigue life decreases. Surface residual
stresses and near-surface residual stress profiles are significant
factors for RCF, while the depth of maximum compressive
residual stress in subsurface is not critical.
Another work by Guo et al. [78] showed that Hard turning
with a fresh tool generated a ‘‘hook’’ shaped residual stresses
profile characterized by surface compressive residual stresses and
subsurface maximum compressive residual stresses. In compar-
ison to that a turned white layer surface by a worn tool generated
a high tensile stress in the area of the white layer, but became
highly compressive in the deeper subsurface than the turned one
without a white layer. The high tensile residual stresses at the
surface lead to a much shorter (7.6 times) fatigue life.
Matsumoto et al. [79] found that hard turning produced
compressive residual stresses in a deep subsurface, contributing
a long fatigue life. The effect of cutting parameters on residual
stress was investigated to find why deep residual stresses were
created. It was determined that the tool edge geometry was the
dominant factor deciding the residual stress profile.
It is possible to generate tailor made stresses on hard turned
surfaces by effectively controlling cutting parameters so as to get
prolonged service life of component [80]. It was observed that
increase in cutting speed increased the tensile residual stresses
on the surface. Also the heat generated at high speeds did not
penetrate deep in to the workpiece. Higher feed generated
compressive stresses while a high negative rake angle produced
more compressive stresses. The authors observed that the feed
and nose radius affected surface values the most. The same was
concluded by Ataollah et al. [81].
Feedrate and tool nose radius significantly affect surface
integrity and fatigue strength of the component during hard
turning [81]. The work showed that effect of residual stresses
on fatigue life was more pronounced than the effect of surface
roughness. It was observed that the residual stresses tend to
become more compressive as the feedrate increased and the
increase in tool nose radius resulted in decrease in compressive
residual stresses. So nose radius and feedrate were most critical
parameters to control residual stresses. An ANN model found
residual stresses sensitive to the cutting parameters, tool geome-
try and the tool material [82].
In a case of Hard machining simulation [83] of AISI 52100
bearing steel it was found that the microstructural phenomena
associated with white and dark layers formation influenced the
residual stress distribution. It showed that a better agreement
between the experimental and predicted residual stress in hard
turned components could be achieved if the microstructural
changes, generated during the machining operation, were incor-
porated in the developed residual stress model.
While examining the effect of CBN–TiN coating on the carbide
tool while hard turning AISI 4340 [84] it was found that CBN–TiN
coating combined thermal stability and super-abrasiveness of CBN
and good lubricating property of TiN. It was found that the surface
finish, comparable to mechanical grinding, can be achieved using
the CBN–TiN coated carbide tool. They also observed the occur-
rence of white layer but did not report any hardness difference
between the white layer and the bulk material as suggested by
other researchers.
To ascertain the effect of surface integrity in hard turning AISI
52100 steel on fatigue performance, Smith et al. [85] considered
five different types of surface conditions and observed surface
integrity and fatigue strength. Surface integrity of the specimens
was characterized using surface topography measurement, metal-
lography, residual stress measurements, transmission electron
microscopy and nano-indentation tests. High cycle tension–
tension fatigue tests showed that the presence of white layer
did not adversely affect fatigue life and that, on average, the hard
turned surface performed as well or even better than the ground
surface. The results obtained from this study suggested that the
effect of residual stress on fatigue life was more significant than
the effect of white layer. For the hard turned surfaces, the fatigue
life was found to be directly proportional to both the surface
compressive residual stress and the maximum compressive
residual stress.
To compare hard turned surfaces with ground surfaces, Waiker
et al. [86] prepared four types of surface topologies of turned and
ground surfaces at extreme machining conditions (gentle and
abusive) and compared in terms of 3D surface features of ampli-
tude, area and volume, spatial and hybrid parameters. During hard
turning surfaces formed are found to be anisotropic and repeatable
in nature while ground surfaces were random and isotropic in
nature. Gentle turned surfaces showed larger amplitude parameter
than abusive hard turning while gentle ground had lesser 3D
amplitude parameter than the abusive grinding.
Experimental investigations by Liu et al. [87] showed that the
tensile stresses could be produced under certain cutting condi-
tions. The machined superficial hardened layer depth showed an
increasing tendency with the improvement of workpiece hard-
ness while the surface roughness value showed a decreasing
trend for the workpiece hardness over 50HRC. ANN was success-
fully used to predict surface residual stresses [88]. Better surface
quality was produced with low feeds [89].
From above it can be deduced that a favourable surface
integrity is very important in finish hard turning as it can be
decisive in tool change. Components requiring good fatigue
strength can be severely affected if the hard turning process is
not controlled effectively. A worn tool and a high cutting speed
generate tensile residual stresses which can be detrimental while
deciding the fatigue life of the component. Hard turned surfaces
are more repeatable while the ground surface are more random in
nature due to random distribution and shape of cutting edges of
the abrasive grains that gives a upper hand to the hard turning.
According to some researchers white layer does not have any
significant effect on fatigue strength but it is residual stresses on
the machined surface which were detrimental while some have
directly observed white layer as the culprit for reducing fatigue
strength of component. But most researchers agree that a white
layer can be best characterized by tensile compressive stress,
which decreases as it is measured in subsurface.
 G. Bartarya, S.K. Choudhury / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 53 (2012) 1–14 11

2.7. Lubrication and cooling methods turning SAE 52100 using TiN coated CBN tool, it was observed
that the dry and MVO cuttings provided similar values of flank
Hard turning is mostly performed without coolant, but if wear most of the time, which is always smaller than the values for
lubrication and some cooling methods are used, it may prove wet cutting [94]. Based on this observation it was concluded that
beneficial for the process. It reduces abrasion and adhesion, dry cutting is the best option for hard turning operation as MVO
thereby reducing rate of flank wear propagation which is the demonstrated similar performance but at an extra cost.
major cause of increase in workpiece temperature and formation In another work comparing Dry, wet and mist lubrication [95]
of white layer at machined surface. it was reported that the tool flank wear and the cutting tempera-
Heat pipes were used during hard turning of crank pin using ture were effectively reduced due to the lubricant percolating in
mixed ceramic inserts [7] to cool the tool. A study about the mist and wet cutting. In dry cutting, the tool wear width was at its
diameter and length of heat pipe, magnitude of vacuum in heat maximum near the boundary of the depth of cut, whereas for the
pipe and the material of heat pipe was made to optimize the mist and wet cutting methods the tool wear was almost flat.
above parameters for a better performance. Cooling though heat The works presented above seldom show agreement with each
pipe resulted in decrease in flank and crater wear on the tool. other as there is no consensus about whether using cutting fluids
The effect of cryogenic cooling during hard turning AISI 52100 can influence the process positively or not. While some researchers
and AISI D2 steels conventionally with CBN and ceramic tools has are affirmative others are in disagreement with them over the issue.
been discussed by Schwach et al. [69]. The effect of cryogenic,
liquid nitrogen spray cooling, tool and workpiece materials, as well
2.8. Regarding accuracy of the process
as machining speeds on white layer formation were investigated. It
was found that with cryogenic cooling inexpensive ceramic tools
For any process to be accepted by the industry it should be
performed well and resulted in thinner white layer than conven-
robust and accurate as far as the performance is concerned. Few
tional CBN dry hard turning. It was also observed that hard turning
researchers have investigated process accuracies and the sources
without coolant include surface softening and more fluctuation of
of errors to establish the reliability of the hard turning process as
residual stresses. Liquid nitrogen cooling resulted in retention of
a substitute to finish grinding.
material hardness, flatter stress gradients and elimination of
The possible error driver factors and error sources (Fig. 12)
tensile stresses in case of hard turning with alumina inserts.
were analyzed by Zhuo et al. [96] in a precision hard turning. Tool
The effect of using solid lubricants on hard turning AISI 52100
wear, cutting forces and temperature induced by the cutting
steel with mixed ceramic inserts was examined by Singh et al.
process on the cutting tool and workpiece are found to be the
[90]. Graphite and molybdenum disulphide were used as solid
major error drive factors in hard turning.
lubricants. These lubricants assisted hard turning process to
In an attempt to analyze the geometrical accuracy achievable in
produce lower surface roughness values than in dry hard turning.
hard turning [97] investigations were performed in a working
It was found that molybdenum disulphide performed better than
environment in order to determine the attainable size, form and
graphite. Surface roughness value went down initially with
positional accuracy obtained with hard turning. In the parts
increase in speed and then started increasing when increasing
produced in series, size deviations, out-of-roundness, cylindricity
cutting speed further. This might be due to increase in tool wear
error and parallelism error of the bore’s generatrices were mea-
rate at higher speeds. Surface roughness was found to be
sured. The causes discussed for inaccuracies were same as reported
increasing with increase in feedrate. Surface finish first improved
by Zhuo et al. [96]. It was observed that as compared to grinding,
with increase in effective rake angle. On further increasing rake
cylindricity error, like out-of-roundness, was higher for hard turn-
angle it deteriorated due to increase in forces. Increase in nose
ing but still workable, while the parallelism was better in hard
radius also improved surface finish.
turning. But on the entering side, the diameter is smaller due to
Many researchers have made comparisons of the performance
insufficient conduction of the intensive heat. Flatness error, while
of various cooling techniques with dry hard turning [91–94].
being adequate in hard turning, was very high in grinding. Also the
While comparing between dry, wet and minimum fluid applica-
axial run out was much higher in grinding. Thus hard turning
tion during hard turning it was found that dry machining leads to
seemed to be a better option while the ground gear did not fulfil
the lowest values of tool wear and surface roughness, while the
minimal quantity of lubricant technique does not provide any
advantage over dry turning [91].
The performance of minimal fluid application in hard turning of
AISI 4340 steel using TiC coated tools was compared with dry and
wet turning [92]. A specially formulated cutting fluid was applied
as a high velocity, thin pulsed jet at the immediate cutting zone at
an extremely low rate of 2 ml/min, at a high pressure and pulse
rate using a fluid application system developed for this purpose
during turning of hardened steel. It was observed that that a
coolant-rich (60%) lubricant fluid with minimal additives is the
ideal formulation for hard turning with minimum fluid application
(HTMF). It resulted in reduced cutting forces and tool chip contact
length. It increased cutting ratio, thereby reducing the chip thick-
ness. It also promotes effective heat transfer and hence reduced
cutting temperature along with better surface finish. Research on
minimum fluid application by Varadarajan et al. [92] as well as by
Kumar et al. [93] showed that the cutting performance mainly
depended on fluid application parameters such as nozzle pressure,
number of pulses and amount of cutting fluid in each pulse.
During the experiments with different coolant conditions,
namely dry, wet and minimum volume of oil (MVO) while hard Fig. 12. Major error driver factors and error sources in precision hard turning [96].
12 G. Bartarya, S.K. Choudhury / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 53 (2012) 1–14
the requirements prescribed in the drawing because of its large
flatness error.
While comparing performance of machine tool with polymer
concrete bed to the one with cast iron bed during hard turning
[91], it was found that the outstanding damping and high rigidity
of the polymer concrete bed had a beneficial effect on both tool
wear and workpiece surface finish during hard turning.
While hard turning of AISI H11 hot worked steel it was
observed that cutting pressure and resulting forces influence the
deformation of the machined workpiece, its dimensional accu-
racy, the formation of chip and the tool nose [98].
In manufacturing of the bores, heat removal is more difficult than
when machining external surfaces. So there may be chances of
thermal distortions. A finite element method based computer model
was developed for the simulation of thermal deformation in the hard
turning of small bores [10]. The model predicted the workpiece
temperature field and thermal distortion of the workpiece on the
diameter for different length-to-diameter ratio of the bore. The effect
of cutting speed, feed and cutting tool wear were also considered.
FEM modelling indicated that thermal distortion did not have a
significant effect on the machining accuracy, as the deviation in
diameter caused by the heat remained below 0.001 mm.
From above it is evident that with effective control on error
sources, hard turning can achieve the level of accuracies desired
for the finishing levels. It can even surpass the grinding capabil-
ities if executed carefully. Hard turning can be employed for
machining small bores of injection nozzles also [10] without any
thermal distortion. That is why hard turning is now increasingly
replacing finish grinding of the components.
3. Conclusions
The following facts were observed after reviewing the works
discussed above:
 Radial force seems to be dominant in hard turning which
makes it different from the conventional machining but
effective investigation about force and friction conditions are
still to be taken up. No work related to modelling addressing
the dominance of radial force could be found.
 As in most cases, actual cutting involves a very small amount
of multiphase material being removed, hence the force mod-
elling should be performed on microstructure level as the tool
would be removing different phases simultaneously. But no
literature could be found discussing the modelling of hard
turning process at microstructure level as it has being done for
micro machining processes [34,39,99].
 It has been concluded by many researchers that the white layer
formation is due to phase transformation to martensite and that
the hard turned surfaces have tensile residual stresses, but a
very little work has been done in order to reduce these tensile
stresses on the machined surface that too without compromis-
ing the cutting parameters required for a specified surface finish.
 There are very few works reported using coolants for hard turning
while most works do without it. If used effectively the coolant
may help in checking the white layer thickness and tensile
residual stresses as it may slow down the flank wear growth
rate. There is a disagreement between researchers about the use
of coolants so the area is still open for further investigations.
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