Types of Cells

DOVECOT COLLEGE OF HEALTH SCIENCES
MICROBIOLOGY
TYPES OF CELLS
DR Kuku Kapenda Kapasu
Bsc.HB,MBChB UNZA,
MBA-HCM UNILUS (understudy)
DPPPR ZIDIS
DR KUKU Bsc.HB,MBChB UNZA,MBA-HCM

8/23/2018 UNILUS (understudy) DPPPR ZIDIS 1
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Types of Cells
• A cell is the basic living unit of the body
• There are two types of cells:
1. Prokaryotic cells
2. Eukaryotic cells
• Kingdoms animalia, plants, fungi, and protists as
compared to prokaryotic cells of bacteria
belonging to Kingdom Monera
• Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound
organelles unlike the prokaryotic cells

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Types of Cells
• Each organ is an aggregate of many different
cells held together by intercellular supporting
structures
• Each type of cell is specially adapted to perform
one or a few particular functions
• For instance, the red blood cells, numbering 25
trillion in each human being, transport oxygen
from the lungs to the tissues
• The entire body, then, contains about 100 trillion
cells
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TYPES OF MICRO-ORGANISMS
Micro-organisms are classified in five (5) groups
1. Bacteria (Gram negative, Gram positive)
2. Virus (RNA ribonucleic acid) (DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid)
3. Fungi (yeast, moulds, dermatophytes)
4. Protozoa (Malaria, moulds, Trypanosomes,
Amoeba)
5. Rickettsia (Pronazeki, Cruzi)

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Types of Cells
• A cell is the basic living unit of the body
There are two types of cells:
1. Prokaryotic cells
2. Eukaryotic cells

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• Each organ is an aggregate of many different
cells held together by intercellular supporting
structures
• Each type of cell is specially adapted to
perform one or a few particular functions
• For instance, the red blood cells, numbering
25 trillion in each human being, transport
oxygen from the lungs to the tissues
• The entire body, then, contains about 100
trillion cells
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Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells ("true
• Are cells that have nucleus")
no internal membrane • Do have internal
bound structures membrane bound
structures
• No membrane-bound
• Examples include
nucleus or other
nucleus, mitochondria,
membrane-bound rough and smooth ER,
organelles like Golgi apparatus
mitochondria

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Contrasting Features btn Pro/Eukaryotic

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FURTHER COMPARISON OF EUKARYOTIC AND
PROKARYOTIC ORGANISMS
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
• Organism Bacteria and cyanobacteria Fungi, plants and animals
• Cell size 1 – 10 μm in length 5 – 100 μm in length
• Metabolism Anaerobic and aerobic Aerobic
• Organelles Few or none Nucleus, mitochondria
Endoplasmic reticulum etc
• DNA Circular DNA in cytoplasm Very long linear DNA molecules
Many containing none coding
. regions;
Bounded by nuclear membrane
• RNA and RNA and protein synthesized RNA synthesized and processed in
protein in the same compartment the nucleus; protein synthesized in
the cytoplasm

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Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
• Cytoplasm No cytoskeleton: cytoplasmic streaming
. Cytoplasmic endocytosis Cytoskeleton composed
. and exocytosis protein filaments:
are absent present
• Cell division Chromosomes pulled apart .
. Chromosomes pulled .
. apart
by attachment to cell
. membrane by
. the cytoskeletal spindle
apparatus
• Cellular Mainly unicellular Mainly multicellular, with
Organization differentiation

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The Eukaryotic Cell
Eu means true
Caryo means nut or nucleus

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The Eukaryotic Cell
• Some have no cell wall (e.g. Kingdoms
Animalia)
• Others have a cell wall e.g. plants, algae, and
fungi
• Cell wall normally contains cellulose but may
also contain pectin, and lignin
• Fungi cell wall predominantly has chitin
which is not found in cell walls of other
microorganisms
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The cell

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Physical Structure of the Eukaryotic
Cell
• The cell is not merely a bag of fluid, enzymes, and
chemicals; it also contains highly organized
physical structures, called intracellular organelles
• The physical nature of each organelle is as
important as the cell’s chemical constituents for
cell function
• For instance, without the mitochondria more
than 95 per cent of the cell’s energy release from
nutrients would cease immediately
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CELL COMPONENTS
• All cells consist of a cell membrane, cytosol or

cytoplasm,and membrane-bound subcellular structures
known as organelles.
• Organelles include:
 The nucleus
 Mitochondria
 Endoplasmic reticulum
 Golgi bodies
 Ribosomes
 Lysosomes
 cytoskeleton
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• The organelles of eukaryotic cells are highly
specialized. For instance, the genetic material of
the cell is concentrated in the cell nucleus,
whereas “digestive” enzymes are located in the
lysosomes.
• Oxidative ATP production takes place in the
mitochondria.
• The nucleus contains a liquid known as
karyolymph, a nucleolus, and chromatin.
Chromatin contains deoxyribonucleic acids
(DNA), the carriers of genetic information.
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THE GOLGI APPARATUS
Cis or forming face
ictyosome (a stack of
flattened cisternae or
lamellae)
Trans or maturing face

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THE GOLGI APPARATUS
• The Golgi is involved in the modification,
sorting and packaging of macromolecules that
are synthesized in the cell
• Modification may include addition of
carbohydrates and phosphates

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THE NUCLEUS
DR KUKU Bsc.HB,MBChB UNZA,MBA-

8/23/2018 HCM UNILUS (understudy) DPPPR 20
ZIDIS (understudy
THE NUCLEUS
 The nucleus is bounded by the nuclear envelope (a
complex structure consisting of inner and outer
membranes separated by a perinuclear space.
 The envelope has nuclear pores which serve as a
transport route between the nucleus and
surrounding cytoplasm.
 The envelope is continuous with the ER at several
points and its outer membrane is covered with
ribosomes.
 A network of intermediate filaments, called the
nuclear lamina, lies against the inner surface of the
envelope and supports
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 Nucleolus is the region of the nucleus where Ribosomal RNA is
synthesised
 Nucleus contains multiple chromosomes, which are composed of
DNA and histones.
 Histones are proteins that control the folding and coiling of DNA on
chromosomes
 Dense fibrous material called chromatin can be seen within the
nucleoplasm of the nucleus of a stained cell. This is the DNA-
containing part of the nucleus.
 In nondividing cells, chromatin exists in a dispersed condition, but
condenses during mitosis to become visible as chromosomes.
 Many nuclear pores penetrate the envelope , each pore formed by
a fusion of the outer and inner membranes.

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Organization of a Eukaryotic Cell
• Its two major parts are the nucleus and
the cytoplasm
• The nucleus is separated from the
cytoplasm by a nuclear membrane
• Cytoplasm is separated from the
surrounding fluids by a cell membrane,
also called the plasma membrane

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• The different substances that make up the cell
are collectively called protoplasm
• Protoplasm is composed mainly of five basic
substances: water, electrolytes, proteins
(functional or structural), lipids, and
carbohydrates

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Membranous Structures of a Eukaryotic Cell
• Most organelles of the cell are covered by
membranes composed primarily of lipids and
proteins
• These membranes include:
- Cell membrane (a lipid bilayer)
- Nuclear membrane
- Membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum
- Membranes of the mitochondria, lysosomes,
and Golgi apparatus
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The Cell Membrane

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THE PLASMA MEMBRANE
STRUCTURE
• The cell membrane is a thin, flexible, elastic
structure only 7.5 to 10 nanometers thick.
• The basic lipid bilayer is composed of
phospholipid molecules.
• One end of each phospholipid molecule is
soluble in water; that is, it is hydrophilic.
• The other end is soluble only in fats; that is, it is
hydrophobic.

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• The phosphate end of the phospholipid is
hydrophilic, and the fatty acid portion is
hydrophobic
• It is composed almost entirely of proteins and
lipids.
• The approximate composition is proteins, 55
per cent; phospholipids, 25 per cent;
cholesterol, 13 per cent; other lipids, 4 per
cent; and carbohydrates, 3 per cent.
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FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL MEMBRANE
1. as a selective barrier that regulates the passage
of certain materials into and out of the cell and
facilitates the transport of specific molecules.
2. homeostasis- to keep constant the ion content
of cytoplasm, which is different from that of
extracellular fluid, which is the fluid that
surrounds the cell.
3. To carry out a number of specific recognition
and regulatory functions, playing an important
role in the interactions of the cell with its
environment.
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4. Transport-integral proteins act as carrier
proteins for transporting substances that
otherwise could not penetrate the lipid bilayer.
5. Protection of inner cellular contents

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FUNCTIONS OF THE CONSTITUENTS
OF THE CELL MEMBRANE
Membrane Carbohydrates
• The carbohydrate moieties attached to the outer
surface of the cell have several important
functions:
• Many of the carbohydrates act as receptor
substances for binding hormones, such as insulin;
when bound, this combination activates attached
internal proteins that, in turn, activate a cascade
of intracellular enzymes.
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Cell Membrane Proteins
• Most of these are glycoproteins.
• Two types of proteins occur: integral proteins
that protrude all the way through the
membrane and peripheral proteins that are
attached only to one surface of the membrane
and do not penetrate all the way through.
• Many of the integral proteins provide
structural channels (or pores) through which
water molecules and water-soluble
substances, especially ions, can diffuse
between the extracellular and intracellular
fluids.
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• Other integral proteins act as carrier proteins for
transporting substances that otherwise could not
penetrate the lipid bilayer.
• Sometimes these even trans-port substances in
the direction opposite to their natural direction
of diffusion, which is called “active transport.”
• Still others act as enzymes.
• Integral membrane proteins can also serve as
receptors for water-soluble chemicals, such as
peptide hormones, that do not easily penetrate
the cell membrane.
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The Mitochondria

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MITOCHONDRIA
• The basic structure of the mitochondrion is composed of an outer
and an inner mitochondrial membrane; the inner membrane
projects folds, termed cristae, into the interior of the
mitochondrion.
• These membranes enclose two compartments. The compartment
located between the two membranes is termed the
intermembrane space.
• The inner membrane encloses the other compartment—the
intercristae, or matrix, space.
• The cristae increase the internal surface area of mitochondria and
contain enzymes and other components of energy generation by
the cell.
• In addition, the inner cavity of the mitochondrion is filled with a
matrix that contains large quantities of dissolved enzymes that are
necessary for extracting energy from nutrients.
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MITOCHONDRIA
• Functions
1. To produce energy (ATP) for the cell and to
regulate cellular metabolism
2. Storage of calcium ions
3. Steroid synthesis

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The Endoplasmic Reticulum

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THE ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
 It is an irregular network of branching and
fusing membranous tubules, and many
flattened sacs called cisternae
 ER studded on its outer surface with
ribosomes is called rough endoplasmic
reticulum (RER) or granular ER.
 ER that lacks ribosomes is smooth ER (SER). It
produces large quantities of lipids
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THE ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
• Functions
1. R.E.R is involved in the synthesis of proteins
that are not destined for the cytoplasm or
proteins that are excreted from the cell, e.g
hormones and membrane proteins
2. S.E.R is involved lipid synthesis and
degradation and calcium ion storage.

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RIBOSOMES
 The ribosome can either be associated with the endoplasmic reticulum or
be free in the cytoplasmic matrix and.
 In eukaryotes, It is a dimer of a 60S and a 40S subunit
 When bound to the endoplasmic reticulum to form rough ER, it is
attached through its 60S subunit.
 Both free and RER-bound ribosomes synthesize proteins.
 proteins made on the ribosomes of the RER either enter its lumen for
transport, and often for secretion, or are inserted into the ER membrane
as integral membrane proteins.
 Free ribosomes are the sites of synthesis for nonsecretory and
nonmembrane proteins.
 Several ribosomes usually attach to a single messenger RNA (mRNA) and
simultaneously translate its message into protein.
 These complexes of mRNA and ribosomes are called polyribosomes or
polysomes.

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LYSOSOMES AND ENDOCYTOSIS
 A very important function of the Golgi apparatus and

endoplasmic reticulum is the synthesis of another
organelle, the lysosome.
• Lysosomes are roughly spherical and enclosed in a single
membrane.
 They are involved in intracellular digestion and contain the
enzymes needed to digest all types of macromolecules.
 These enzymes, called hydrolases, catalyze the hydrolysis of
molecules
 Digestive enzymes are manufactured by the RER and
packaged to form lysosomes by the Golgi apparatus.
 A segment of smooth ER near the Golgi apparatus also may
bud off lysosomes.
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LYSOSOMES AND ENDOCYTOSIS
 Lysosomes are particularly important in those cells that obtain
nutrients through endocytosis. In this process a cell takes up
solutes or particles by enclosing them in vacuoles and vesicles
pinched off from its plasma membrane.
 There are two major forms of endocytosis: phagocytosis and
pinocytosis.
 During phagocytosis large particles and even other
microorganisms are enclosed in a phagocytic vacuole or
phagosome and engulfed.
 In pinocytosis small amounts of the surrounding liquid with its
solute molecules are pinched off as tiny pinocytotic vesicles (also
called pinocytic vesicles) or pinosomes. Often phagosomes and
pinosomes are collectively called endosomes because they are
formed by endocytosis.

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THE CYTOSKELETON
• This is a network of structural proteins that
provides for the shaping of cells and also play
an important role in the movements of
organelles and intracytoplasmic vesicles.
• The cytoskeleton also participates in the
movement of entire cells.
• It is made up of microtubules, actin filaments
and intermediate filaments
• Plays an important role in cell division
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Secretory Granules

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The Prokaryotic Cell
Pro means before
Caryo means nut or nucleus

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BACTERIA
DEFINITION
• A bacterium is a minute unicellular organism only
seen by the use of a microscope.
• Bacteria are simple, cellular organisms lacking a
nucleus as well as other characteristics of
prokaryotes which distinguish them from
organisms that have nucleated cells.
A bacterium consists of single cells microscopic in
size. And each bacterial cell is a complete and
independent unit of life.

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STRUCTURE
Fig 1: Diagram of a bacterium

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Bacterial cell wall
• Rigid external cell wall that defines the shape of bacteria
and chemically complex
• Performs some functions as plant cell wall but are very
different
• Is not selectively permeable
• The main constituent of cell wall of most bacterial cell
wall is the polymer called peptidoglycan (murein)
• Gram positives have many layers of peptidoglycan,
combined with teichnoic acid components
• Gram negatives have a thin layer of peptidoglycan which
is out covered by a layer of lipid monomolecules usually
referred to as the outer membrane

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Capsule
• This is a layer of material (glycocalyse) outside
the cell wall
• Called a capsule if it’s well organized and
firmly attached to the cell wall
-called a slime layer if it’s not highly organized
and not firmly attached to the cell wall
• Useful in differentiating between different
types of bacteria within a particular species
e.g Haemophilus influenza type B
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Capsule
• CAPSULE/GLYCOCALYX They are amorphous
(irregular) material which surround many bacterial
species on their outer most layer and are usually
polysaccharides occasionally protein. They often
inhibit phagocytic, so their presence correlates with
virulence.
• Special capsule test may be used including antigen
antibody test
• Specific strains of bacteria posses unique capsule
molecules called antigens
• On nutrient agar capsulated bacteria usually produce
colonies which are smooth (S) glistening and mucoid
while non-capsulated ones produce rough (R) dry
colonies
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• Bacterial capsule and slime layer functions
include:
-May help attachment of bacteria to mucous
membrane and smooth surface may avoid
being washed away by secretion
-Help bacteria survive longer as the capsule
makes it difficult to be phagocytosed by
phagocytes
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Chromosome
• Not surrounded by nuclear membrane (hence
no nucleus, but nucleiod)
• No definite shape
• Little and no protein material
• Usually consists of a single circular DNA
molecule controlling the genetic information
needed for production of several thousands of
enzymes and proteins

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Cytoplasmic particles
• Within the cytoplasm are many submicroscopic
particles
• Mostly ribosomes and many occur in clusters called
polyribosomes
• Prokaryotic ribosomes have some functions such as
protein synthesis
• Some species have cytoplasmic granules
• These granules under a suitable stain may be seen
and may consist of starch ,liquids, sulfur, iron or other
stored substances

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Cell membrane (plasma membrane)
• Similar to eukaryotic cell membrane
• Chemically consists of protein and phospholipids
which act as channels across the cell and others as
receptors
• It is selectively permeable
• Thin and cannot be seen with a light microscope and
is observed in electron micrographs
• Many metabolic reactions takes place on the cell
membrane
• Mesosomes are inwards folding of the cell
membrane and believed to be sites where cellular
respiration takes place in bacteria
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Chloroplast
• Is an internal membrane that contain
chlorophyll and other pigments that trap light
for photosynthesis
• Found in photosynthetic bacteria and
cyanobacteria and also in plants
• These are cellular bacteria that use light as an
energy source

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Flagella
• Thread line protein appendages with a whisp-like
motion that enable bacteria to move or These
are hair like processes which propel bacteria.
They are organs of locomotion (movement)
• Flagella makes bacteria motile while non-
flagellated ones are non-motile
• Arrangement and number of flagella are specific
to species and may be used in classification
• Flagella arise from a basal body in the cell
membrane and protrude outwards through the
cell wall and capsule
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• Each consist of three ,four or more threads of
protein called flagellin twisted like loops
unlike eukaryotes whose flagella which
contains a complex network of microtubules
Types of flagella
• 1. Monotrichous. Single flagella at one end of
the bacteria cell.e.g vibrio cholerae
• 2. Amphitrichous-Two flagella one at each end
.e.g spirillum
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• 3. Lomphotrichous-If a turf of flagella arises at
one end of the cell or both ends.
• 4. Peritrichous-Flagella grow from many
surfaces of a bacteria e.g proteus,salmonella.

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Pili or fimbriae
• Hair like structure often observed in Gram-negative
bacteria
• Thinner than flagella and have a rigid structure
• Are not associated with motility
• Arise from cytoplasm and extend through cell
membrane, cell wall and capsule
• The functions of pili are according to species and are:
1. Allow bacteria to attach to other bacteria or
membrane surface such as intestinal lining
2. Provide site for attachments of other forms of
bacteria or viruses
3. For conjugation – transfer of genetic material from
one bacteria to another
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Pili help in conjugation

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CELL WALL
Bacteria are cells with a rigid cell wall which
surrounds the protoplasm. This consists of cell
membrane enclosing internal exponents and
structures.
It is rigid and surrounds the protoplasm. Cell wall
protects against osmotic pressure. It is porous
and permeable to substance of low
molecular weight. In Gram staining. It’s either
positive or negative depending on the types of
proteins.
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• The rigid exterior cell wall that defines the
shape of bacterial cells is chemically complex.
Thus it is quite different from the simple
cellulose plant cell wall although it performs
the same functions. The main constituent of
most bacterial cell walls is a complex
macromolecular polymer known as
peptidoglycan or murein consisting of many
polysaccharide chains. The thickness of this
wall and its exact composition vary with the
species of bacteria..
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• Certain bacteria grouped as gram positive cells
have many layers of peptidoglycan combined
with teichoic acid components. Gram negative
bacteria have a much thinner layer of
peptidoglycan but this layer is covered with a
complex layer of lipid macromolecules usually
referred to as the outer membrane

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MESOSOMES :are inwards folding of the cell
membrane and believed to be sites where
cellular respiration takes place in bacteria
NUCLEOPLASM: It is a single circular
chromosome which contain the bacterial DNA
RIBOSOMES: These are formed by invagination
of the cytoplasmic membrane of the cell
membrane.
INCLUSCON GRANULES: They are mainly fat
globules for storage of energy. These above are
found in all bacteria.

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SPORES: Some organisms contain spores. A
spore is a thick cell wall with many layers
surrounding the micro-organism especially
the nuclear material. It protects against
adverse environmental conditions which
threaten the bacteria. It can either be terminal
(situated at the end) sub terminal.

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CLASSIFICATION OF BACTERIA
This is the division of organisms into ordered
groups. The following characteristics are used:
1. ACCORDING TO MORHOLOGY OR SHAPE
(A) Spherical/Oval/Round
They are commonly referred to as cocci.
These are divided into several groups according to
the way they are arranged.

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 Staphylococci: they are arranged in clusters such
as staphylococco aureus which cause lobar
pneumonia, boils and carbuncles.
 Diplococci: arranged in pairs, e.g Gonococci
(Neisseria gonorrhoeae) which cause
Gonorrheoa. Meningococci (gonorrhoeae
meningitides) which cause a type of meningitis.
 Streptococci: arranged in chains which resemble
the string of beads. E.g streptococcal pneumonia
which cause lobar pneumonia.

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(B) Cylindrical or Rod Shaped
These are referred to as bacilli. They are straight
like rods. They may be singular or in chains e.g.
tuberculosis bacilli which causes tuberculosis.
(C) Curved Rod Shaped. These are rigid curved rods
or comma shaped termed vibrio cholera which
causes cholera.
 Organisms with spirals not uniformed called
spirilla. They are larger and longer.
 Organisms with spirals which are uniform and are
flexible and elongated are called spirochetes e.g.
treponema pallidum which causes syphilis.
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CLASSIFICATION TO OXYGEN REQUIREMENT
Oxygen is not always necessary in the

respiration of bacteria
a. Strict Aerobes/Obligate Aerobes
These can only grow in the presence of
oxygen, such bacteria can only be found in
places with oxygen e.g. mycobacterium
tuberculosis is found in the lungs. Others
are found on the surface of wounds, skin or
mucus membrane.

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b. Strict Anaerobes
These are able to grow only in complete absence
of oxygen.
They are found in deep wounds e.g. clostridium
tetani, clostridium welchii which causes gas
gangrene.
c. Facultative Anaerobes
These grow or survive in either presence or
absence of oxygen. Majority of micro-
organisms fall under this grouping.
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CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO GRAM STAINING
A stain is a substance used to give colour to tissues, cells

or micro-organisms to facilitate microscopic study and
identification. Those organisms retaining the stain are
called Gram positive while those losing it are Gram-
negative.
Gram positive
Cocci:
• Streptococci
• Staphylococci
• Anaerobic cocci
• Micro cocci

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• Bacilli
• Clostridia (tetani, Welchii and Botulinum)
• Bacillus
• Corynebacteria
• Listeria
• Lacto bacteria
• Myco bacteria

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Gram-negative
Cocci
• Neisseria
• Veillonella
• Branahanella
Bacilli (small ones)
• Bacteriodes, haemophillus, bordetella,
yorsima, brucella, pasturella.

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Bigger bacilli
• Pseudomonad
• Salmonella (typhi, paratyphi)
• Shingella (shiga, flexina, boyd, sonnei)
• Proteus
• Enterobacter
• Klebsiella

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Staining
• Various staining techniques are used to observe
bacteria morphology
• Some of the things observed include: shape, type
of cell wall, nuclear material, capsules, flagella,
endospores, fat globules and granules
• It basically differentiates Gram positive and Gram
negative bacteria
• The colour of the bacteria at the end of the gram-
staining procedure (either purple or red) depends
on the thickness and chemical composition of the
cell wall
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Gram Positives vs Gram Negatives

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The Gram Staining Procedure
• Is one of the most useful procedures in
microbiology
• Has 4 steps:
Step1: Flood the heat fixed smear with CRYSTAL
VIOLET (PURPLE DYE) for 30 min
- Result: All cells turn PURPLE
Step 2: Rinse gently with water and cover with
GRAM’S IODINE SOLUTION
- Result: All cells PURPLE
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Step 3: Wash of the iodine with water and
decolourize with ALCOHOL (ETHANOL)
- Result: Gram positives remain PURPLE
Gram negatives turn COLOURLESS
Step 4: Counterstain with SAFRANIN (bright red
dye)
- Result: Gram positives remain PURPLE
Gram negatives turn PINK OR BRIGHT
RED

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• Bacteria that can be stained by the Gram stain
procedure are called TYPICAL BACTERIA

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The Atypical Bacteria
• These are bacteria that CANNOT be stained by
the Gram stain technique
• They are also called the “NOT SO TYPICAL”
bacteria
• These include:
1. Mycobacteria sp: Mycobacterium tuberculosis,
Mycobacterium lepromatosis
2. Spirochaetes e.g. Treponema pallidum,
Leptospira sp

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3.Chlamydia sp e.g. Chlamydia trachomatis
4.Mycoplasma sp e.g. Mycoplasma pneumoniae
5.Rickettsiae e.g. Coxiella burnetti

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• The atypical bacteria need a different staining
technique to identify them
• For example the Mycobacterium species are
often identified using the alcohol acid-fast
stain called the Ziel-Neelsen (ZN) stain

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Ziehl-Neelsen (Z-N) stain
• This simple stain detects alcohol acid fast
bacilli (AAFB)
• This is how to perform the Z-N stain:
1. Fix the smear on the slide
2. Cover the fixed smear with carbol fuchsin
for 3 minutes
3. Heat, rinse with tapwater, and decolorize
with acid alcohol for 3–5 seconds
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4. Counterstain with methylene blue for 30
seconds
5. Rinse again with tapwater
6. Observe under the microscope (use the x100
oil immersion lens and x10 eyepiece lens)
• The bacilli appear as red, beaded rods, 2–4
μm long and 0.2–0.5 μm wide

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• Mycobacteria are "acid- and alcohol-fast
bacilli" (AAFB), often shortened to "acid-fast
bacilli" (AFB)
• The waxy coat of mycobacteria retains an
aniline dye (e.g. carbol fuchsin) even after
decolorization with acid and alcohol
• The fluorochrome stain is an alternative for
ZN stain
• Fluorochrome stain is phenolic auramine or
auramine-rhodamine and requires a special
fluorescence microscope

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• It highlights bacilli as yellow-orange on a dark
background
• Is more sensitive (but less specific) than ZN
stain
• Thus, is more widely used

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GROWTH AND REPRODUCTION OF BACTERIA
Growth
Bacteria like all cells require nutrients for the
maintenance of their metabolism and division.
Bacteria differ widely in their nutritional
requirements. Some can synthesize all they
require from the simplest elements. Others
including most pathogens are unable to do this.
They need already made supply of some organic
compounds. Other compounds can be
synthesized from the breakdown products of
complex micro-molecules e.g. proteins.
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MOST NEEDED ELEMENTS:
1. Hydrogen and Oxygen
These are obtained from water and from
breakdown products of macromolecules,
strong acids and alkaline are harmful to most
bacteria except the mycobacterium bacilli.

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2. Carbon
• Autotrophs
These are free living non-parasitic bacteria
which can use carbon dioxide from the
atmospheric air as their carbon source. Energy
for metabolism is either from sunlight when
they are called photo Autotrophs or organic
compound when they are called chemo
Autotrphs

(understudy
Heterotrophs: These are generally parasitic
bacteria like human pathogens. They derive
their carbon from nutrients readily made in
complex forms and freely available. The
principle sources of carbon are carbohydrates.
3. Nitrogen
The main source of nitrogen is ammonia usually
in the form of ammonium salt. This is available
either in the environment or produced by the
bacterium as a result of Deamination of amino
acids.
(understudy
4. Organic growth factors
These are products that can’t be synthesized by
many bacteria. An outside supply is required e.g.
some amino acids, purines.
5. Others
Bacteria also need other elements for growth and
their functioning e.g. potassium, calcium,
magnesium, copper, cobalt, manganese, zinc. These
are either as activators of reactions or enzyme
co-factors. Enzymes are used to breakdown the
more complicated foods into nutrients which are
more absorbable by the bacteria.
(understudy
ENVIRONMENTAL GROWTH REQUIREMENTS
1. Water: moisture is an absolute requirement for

growth. It also helps to dissolve food materials for
bacteria. It is a component of bacteria cell 80% of
water. It also determines the size of the population
that can be supported by the skin.
2. Oxygen: bacteria differ in their need for oxygen.
Anaerobes don’t even need a trace of oxygen, whilst
strict aerobes can only grow in the presence of
oxygen.
3. Carbon dioxide: this is required by all bacteria and is
usually available as a product of metabolism.
(understudy
4. Temperature: bacteria differ in their
requirements but the optimal temperature for
their normal growth is 37 degrees it can vary
from:
Psychrophiles: can only grow below 20 degrees
Mesophiles: can grow between 25-40 degrees
Thermophiles: can grow between 55-80
degrees, very low temperatures retard the
growth whilst high temperature will destroy
them except for spore forming organisms.

(understudy
STAGES OF BACTERIA GROWTH
1. Lag Phase: This is a stage of metabolic activity.
Bacteria undergo a period of adaptation and
active macro-molecular synthesis(making
certain components needed for survival in the
new environment). It increases in size without
multiplying/dividing immediately.
2. Exponential Phase (Logarithmic): Cell division
proceeds at logarithmic rate. Bacteria multiply
and each cell divides taking about 30 minutes.
(understudy
3. Stationary Phase: The growth rate decreases
so that the number of viable organisms remains
constant. This is reached when there is an
accumulation of toxic waste or when one or two
nutrients ran out. The cell dividing is equal to
the number of cells dying.
4. Decline Phase: The living bacteria decrease in
number. The number of cells dying greatly
outnumbers those which are producing and
eventually due to accumulation of toxic
substances, the cells die.
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THE IMPORTANCE OF PHASES
It is important so that we know when to give antibiotics
as most bacteria are susceptible to antibiotics during the
logarithmic phase. In the stationary phase bacteria
cannot be killed as this time they would have started
forming spores. During the decline phase bacteria would
have built resistance to antibiotics.
REPRODUCTION IN BACTERIA
The type of reproduction found in bacteria is asexual and
therefore, it does not involve the exchange of genetic
materials between two different bacteria.

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1. Binary Fission: The bacteria split into two
forming two new cells. When a parent cell
reaches its maximum size, it is ready to form
new cells, the nucleus doubles in amount, and
then division of cytoplasm occurs. The nuclear
material divides into two. Then the cell wall
dividing across the bacteria forming walls of two
new cells.
2. Mutation: this is a chemical change of the genes
of bacteria cell causing it to show new
characteristics.

(understudy
3. Transformation: The mature organism divides
into smaller proportion after inco-operating
foreign DNA into its own DNA common in
viruses.
4. Budding: The elongation of a cell in one
direction and forming new cell walls at the
growing point.

(understudy
SPORE FORMATION
Spore: this is a thick cell wall with many layers
surrounding the micro-organism especially
nuclear material. It is a solution against the
adverse environmental condition which threatens
the bacteria.
UNFAVOURABLE CONDITIONS
• Inadequate nourishment
• Extreme heat (dryness) or cold temperature
• Chemicals disinfectants
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Therefore bacteria with spore are able to
withstand dryness, heat, boiling, strong
chemicals and sunlight. They can then
germinate when favorable growth conditions
occur.
TYPES OF SPORES:
1. Terminal spore: these are situated in the
terminal end of the bacteria cell protecting
the bacterial material.
2. Endospore: spore situated inside the bacteria
cell protecting
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the nuclear material.
Organisms that form spores
• Clostridium group
• Anthrax bacilli
NB
The spores require prolonged antibiotic so
that the conditions are unsuitable for bacteria
growth.
Autoclaving is a method of sterilisation that
kill spore forming bacteria.
(understudy
Spores (endospores)
• An endospore is a dormant, tough, and non-
reproductive structure produced by certain
bacteria, mostly Gram positives e.g. Bacillus,
Clostridium
• The name "endospore" is suggestive of a spore or
seed-like form (endo means within), but it is not
a true spore (i.e. not an offspring).
• In endospore formation (sporulation), the
bacterium divides within its cell wall.
• Endospores enable bacteria to lie dormant for
extended periods, even centuries.
(understudy
Spores (endospores)
• Sporulation genetic material is enclosed in

several protein coats that are resistant to
heat, dying and most chemicals
• Revival of spores millions of years old has
been claimed.
• When the environment becomes more
favorable ( nutrient rich surface), the
endospore can reactivate itself to the
vegetative state.
(understudy
The End!

(understudy

Types of Cells

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Types of Cells

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DOVECOT COLLEGE OF HEALTH SCIENCES

DR KUKU Bsc.HB,MBChB UNZA,MBA-HCM

DR KUKU Bsc.HB,MBChB UNZA,MBA-HCM

DR KUKU Bsc.HB,MBChB UNZA,MBA-HCM

DR KUKU Bsc.HB,MBChB UNZA,MBA-HCM

DR KUKU Bsc.HB,MBChB UNZA,MBA-HCM

DR KUKU Bsc.HB,MBChB UNZA,MBA-HCM

DR KUKU Bsc.HB,MBChB UNZA,MBA-HCM

DR KUKU Bsc.HB,MBChB UNZA,MBA-HCM

DR KUKU Bsc.HB,MBChB UNZA,MBA-HCM

DR KUKU Bsc.HB,MBChB UNZA,MBA-HCM

• All cells consist of a cell membrane, cytosol or

Trans or maturing face

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DR KUKU Bsc.HB,MBChB UNZA,MBA-

DR KUKU Bsc.HB,MBChB UNZA,MBA-HCM

DR KUKU Bsc.HB,MBChB UNZA,MBA-HCM

DR KUKU Bsc.HB,MBChB UNZA,MBA-HCM

DR KUKU Bsc.HB,MBChB UNZA,MBA-HCM

DR KUKU Bsc.HB,MBChB UNZA,MBA-HCM

DR KUKU Bsc.HB,MBChB UNZA,MBA-HCM

DR KUKU Bsc.HB,MBChB UNZA,MBA-HCM

DR KUKU Bsc.HB,MBChB UNZA,MBA-HCM

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 A very important function of the Golgi apparatus and

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DR KUKU Bsc.HB,MBChB UNZA,MBA-HCM

DR KUKU Bsc.HB,MBChB UNZA,MBA-HCM

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DR KUKU Bsc.HB,MBChB UNZA,MBA-HCM

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Oxygen is not always necessary in the

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A stain is a substance used to give colour to tissues, cells

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DR KUKU Bsc.HB,MBChB UNZA,MBA-HCM

DR KUKU Bsc.HB,MBChB UNZA,MBA-HCM

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1. Water: moisture is an absolute requirement for

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