Human Anatomy and Physiology CCST4083

Part 1
Chapter 4: Cytology

HKU SPACE Community College

Copyright 2020

http://www.slh.wisc.edu/cytology/lab/education/clinical/images/--hgsil.gif
 Cytology (Study of Cells)

Cells are the smallest living units of a multicellular

Chapter Outline organism

fotllid A cell is able to carry out metabolism, it contains

1. Cell surface
r pdeini plasma membrane + cytosol + nucleus + organelles
(Plasma membrane)
Membrane transporters
Specific structures
(i.e. microvilli)

2. Organelles and cytoskeleton

3. Cell types and shapes

Biochemical activities of cell are dictated by the

subcellular organelles and structures.

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https://biblematter.files.wordpress.com/2015/08/cell_diagram.png?w=640
I. The study of cells - compositions
The living cell
1. Cytosol (Intracellular Fluid)
Fluid surrounded by the plasma membrane
Contains various soluble substances
proteins
electrolytes/ions
desddǖw
nutrients, wastes

2. Organelles
的nuclei
the entities within a cell that have specialised
function
Cytosol + Organelles = Cytoplasm o
thing
tall
inside
3. Cytoskeleton (intracellular proteins)
Structural support, intracellular transportˇround
membrane
Varies among different cells Support all
Microvilli in small intestine
the
Contractile filaments in musclebecome
muscle
dli 3
http://www.lonestar.edu/library/kin_BiologyResearchGuide.htm
 II. The cell surface
1. The Plasma Membrane
The plasma membrane defines cell boundary
Separates intracellular and extracellular environments

Phospholipid bilayer with proteins and fats (cholesterol)

Fluid mosaic model:
proteins float and drift across the membrane freely (like iceberg floating in
the sea)

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http://images.tutorvista.com/content/biomembranes/fluid-mosaic-model.jpeg
 Cell membrane: a phospholipid bilayer
A phospholipid has
a hydrophilic (water-loving) head and
two hydrophobic (water-hating) tails

Cell membrane

http://www.bioteach.ubc.ca/Bio-industry/Inex/ 5
 Phospholipid is a fat molecule (lipid)

Phospholipid = 2 fatty acids + 1 glycerol + 1 polar head

3 types of lipids
- Triglycerides
喊粏
- Phospholipids jnmewwne

- Steroids pǜiud

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6
 Proteins on the Plasma Membrane
Proteins present in/on the cell membrane have specific functions
1. Transporters control the entry and exit of substances (ions, polar and big molecules)
Examples: carrier proteins and channels (i.e. glucose transporter and Na+ channel)
2. Anchors (cell junction proteins) allow cell to connect with another cell/ extracellular
grabwithother lpntein
州
the
9gn
structures) xchannelX w
品 receptor)
3. Receptors respond to chemical signals (e.g. insulin anchor

aniǜ
4. Enzymes - initiate chemical reactions (e.g. on intestinal cells for food digestion)
Tssf
5. Recognition proteins as antigens
Example: Antigens of ABO blood group. These antigens are glycoproteinsabsopteg
(proteins with carbohydrate chains attached).
Extracellular RECOGNITION
environment Ò PROTEIN

到 I
giii
消化
Membrane ninz 4solute

uci Intracellular connect an

cǐii
environment
州 canturna without anchors
gap 7
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http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/VL/GG/ecb/membrane_proteins.php
III. Inside the cell
Let s look at the organelles in the living cell
and examine their role/function(s)

2. Organelles
suspended in the
cytoplasm
different organelles
have different functions

8
http://linkage.rockefeller.edu/wli/reading/blobel_fig2.gif
 Nucleus
DNA

Double membrane
(nuclear envelope)
substances DNA in Nucleus
Nuclear pores allow through
pass
for transport of protein and RNA 1. Chromatin
2. Chromosome cdiudyau
Nucleoplasm (nuclear lamina) - condensed chromatin during cell
division
A network of fine filament that - A normal cell (diploid cell) contains 46
provides support to the nucleus chromosomes

Nucleolus AD
ribosomal RNA synthesis iy keep
明
池 - Sperm cells and eggs (haploid cells)
contain 23 chromosomes

RNA is important for protein synthesis

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http://linkage.rockefeller.edu/wli/reading/blobel_fig2.gif
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 DNA

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) contains the message as

instructions for protein synthesis
A gene a single protein production
Proteins are essential for growth, body function
and repair

In nearly all human cells (except reproductive cells),

DNA is packaged into 46 chromosomes (coiled
structures) in the nucleus

Double helix
Coils of DNA molecular chains form a double helix
Twisted and supercoiled for division

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http://askabiologist.asu.edu/sites/default/files/resources/plosable/Fountain_of_Youth/Cell_DNA_uncoiled.gif
 DNA- Base Pairs

on DNA chain
Nucleotide is a molecule with one base, one sugar and
one phosphate
2 DNA strands (chains) forming a double helix by
fitting the bases together (by hydrogen bonds)ycsepwate
A pairs with T/T pairs with A
C pairs with G/G pairs with C

http://www.iptv.org/exploremore/ge/what/images/cell5.gif
http://www.cropcircleconnector.com/images/Base-pairs.jpg
DNA is found in the nucleus as chromatin
DNA double helix twisted around the proteins
called histones and coiled into chromatin

Double stranded DNA

twisted into a spiral
called DNA double helix

The two strands of DNA are joined Complementary base pairing

by hydrogen bonds to become A T
a double stranded DNA
G C
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 How DNA works?
DNA provides the information (the sequence of amino
acids) to build proteins

Enzymes or hormones

Proteins productions occurs in 2 main phases:

1. Transcription
Occurs in nucleus
2. Translation
Occurs outside the nucleus
Occurs at the site called endoplasmic
reticulum with the existence of an organelle
called ribosome

The sequence of the DNA (base pair sequence)

determines the protein made

complementing
strand
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 Protein
Protein is the most abundant macromolecule R = side group, 20 variations
in a typical cell

Each amino acid (a.a) has an amine group and

an carboxyl group

molecule
Protein is formed by linking amino acids _polar
Amino acid
through peptide bonds structure
Common

2 a.a. form dipeptide

3 a.a form tripeptide
more a.a. form polypeptide

There are 20 different amino acids in our body

- they differ by their side groups (R)

14
 aw g

Protein Synthesis

Human bodies have >90,000 different kinds of proteins

A protein (polymer) are made from amino acids (monomers)
There are 20 different amino acids

(There are 9 essential amino acids that must be obtained from food)

than from
get
fhidlhrd

No need to remember the

names of amino acids

http://www.foodstolove.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/8113_1.jpg
make protein?

DNA :
transfer information (code) in DNA into RNA
DNA RNA
A U
T A
G C
RNA C G

Translation: code on RNA is read to make protein

A UG U A U
Protein a.a.1 a.a.2
a.a.: amino acid
come
a.a.3 a.a.4 a.a.5
Opǜd
a.a.6

16
 A prescription/recipe for a needed protein is required

The prescription = code (gene) inside the DNA

The code is transcribed or copied to mRNA
m-RNA = messenger RNA

Take one part of a strand of the DNA:

T-A-C-T-G-A-C-G-G-T-A-G-G-T-C-A-T-T

mRNA produced: (T is replaced by U)

A-U-G-A-C-U-G-C-C-A-U-C-C-A-G-U-A-A
 m-RNA leaves the nucleus and enters the
cytoplasm
Newly created m-RNA Proteins are formed in the
cytoplasm from amino acids:

m-RNA moves into cytoplasm

18
http://www.clinicares.com/images/Peptide.jpg
http://lc.brooklyn.cuny.edu/smarttutor/corc1321/images/instruc/3a.1translation.jpg
 Ribosomes
Sites of protein synthesis
Composed of a large and a small subunit
Free in cytoplasm or attached to rough

⼀
Endoplasmic Reticulum (rER)

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http://plantphys.info/plant_physiology/images/ribotransl.gif
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/ribosome.gif
 Translation: code on mRNA is read to make protein

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

anti condone

Messenger RNA

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Peptide_syn.png
20
 mutation
The universal
genetic code
Total: 64 codons (code on mRNA)
20 amino acids (a.a.)

One a.a. can have more than 1

codons
One amino acid may be
recruited by different
codons/tRNAs
Slightly change of the DNA and
then the codons on mRNA may
not affect the final a.a.
recruited

1 common start codon (AUG)

(start protein synthesis)

translation
3 stop codons (UAA, UAG, UGA) finish
(end protein synthesis) startcodon 21
http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/iGen3_06-07.html
m-RNA: (start codon)
A-U-G
A-C-U
G-C-C
A-U-C
C-A-G
U-A-A
(Stop codon)
Protein:

tzorn
Methionine- Threonine-Alanine-Isoleucine-glutamine

A protein containing amino acids is formed

Peptide bond formed 22

 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
A network of membranes that form hollow tubes,
flattened sheets and chambers called cisternae
cisternae
Extended from the outer membrane of the nucleus

Rough ER (rER)
Ribosomes attach to the outer surface for protein
synthesis (translation)
and then forms vesicles to transport proteins to
Golgi apparatus

Smooth ER (sER)
No ribosome on the surface
It is the site of
carbohydrate and lipid synthesis (e.g.
adipocytes)
detoxification (e.g. liver cells) Ribosome
storage of Ca2+ in some cells (e.g. muscle cells)
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http://kconline.kaskaskia.edu/bcambron/Biology%20117/Cells.htm
 Golgi apparatus
Also contain cisternae (pl.)
which are the stack of flat
membranous discs
membrane
Cis face receives proteins from dose.to
cell
cO
rER

Protein transported across the

cisternae and packaged into
vesicles for export or to form
lysosomes at the trans face
Lysoymes 巇蝄
During transport, the proteins Functions of Golgi apparatus
are modified (e.g. addition of
carbohydrate or lipids) 1. Modifies and packs protein for export
2. Renews and modifies the plasma membrane
3. Forms lysosomes (contain digestive enzyme)
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http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/golgi/images/golgifigure1.jpg
 Lysosomes in the Intracellular Environment
Lysosome is an acidic structure with digestive (hydrolytic) enzyme
May fuse with endocytosed material for degradation
May fuse with old damaged organelles for destruction
provide an isolated environment for destruction of unwanted materials inside the cell

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http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v6/n9/images/nrn1725-i1.jpg
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 Mitochondria
Double membrane and oblong-shaped organelles
Outer membrane surrounds the organelle
Inner membrane folds into structures called

wife
cristae to increase the surface area eugmesunht

Matrix contains enzymes to metabolize/breakdown

carbohydrates
Cristae contain protein complexes for the
generation of energy Adenosine Triphosphate
(ATP)

Function of mitochondria
produce energy (ATP) through aerobic respiration

27
http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/sciences/zoology/animalphysiology/anatomy/animalcellstructure/Mitochondria/Mitochondria.htm
 Cytoskeleton
1. Cytosol
fluid that surrounded within the plasma membrane
contains various substances
proteins
ions ([K+] is higher than the extracellular environment )
nutrients
wastes

2. Organelles
suspended in the cytoplasm
different organelles have different functions

3. Cytoskeleton
a network of intracellular protein filaments and tubules
a dense supportive web
composed of microfilaments, intermediate filaments and microtubules
⼀
structural support, determine its shape, movement, intracellular transport

28
 1. Microfilaments (thin filaments -6nm)
also called actin filaments

壞
made of a protein called actin
form membrane skeleton
allow the cell tomn
hold its shape, move
itself, and move its organelles
an important component of the
cytoskeleton
participate in the cell junctions

2. Intermediate Filaments
thicker than microfilaments, function
as tension-bearing elements to help
cell maintain shape and rigidity
3. Microtubules (25 nm in diameter)
give the cell its shape, resist stress carry out a variety of functions, ranging
and participate in the cell junctions

⼀ 州thetwin
from transport to structural support

⼼
囉壑
http://gleesonbiology.pbworks.com/f/1221958626/cytoskeleton.jpg
29
 比
Centrioles ⼼⼼
朤
made up of nine bundles of microtubules
found in animal cells only
appear to help in organizing cell division

Many cells have surface extensions called

microvilli (digestive tract epithelium), cilia
(shorter), and flagella (longer)
bundles of microtubules form central
filaments and peripheral filaments 絨⽑also
aid in absorption, movement (locomotion),
moving particles and detecting stimuli

Cilia
surface extensions
move fluid or materials past an immobile cell
as well as moving a cell or group of cells
a pair of central filaments surrounded by
nine peripheral filaments

o
http://wikis.lib.ncsu.edu/images/5/50/Cilia.jpg
P.38 & 43, Saladin, (2010) Human Anatomy, 3rd Ed (McGrawHill Pub)
Psanwǐg 30
 A1 Nmg
Four General Categories of Specialized Cells
1.
1 shape
Epithelial cells 固定
Shape: squamous (flat), cuboidal (square)
columnar
2. Connective-tissue cells
Shape: varies, rely on which kind of
connective-tissue cells
3. Muscle cells (myocytes)
Shape: fusiform (spindle)
4. Neurons
Shape: stellate (radiating pattern)
⼆
Is
Squamous Cuboidal Columnar
四
個定
囖
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https://dr282zn36sxxg.cloudfront.net/datastreams/f-
d%3A654135d3e20d3e7132ebb4a8fcbc70d2bd5e318b05811dea917bb82a%2BIMAGE_THUMB_POSTCARD%2BIMAGE_THUMB_POSTCARD.1
 Epithelial cells

skin NN mwsn
Squamous Cuboidal Columnar

Polygonal Spheroid
Like a fried egg
sunny side up
Stellate

Where found?
Lining of esophagus
surface layer of skin
Discoid Fusiform (spindle) Fibrous
Inner lining cells of the
Liver cells
stomach and intestine

http://www.bcb.uwc.ac.za/sci_ed/grade10/mammal/epithelial.htm
END 32
http://www.cameron.edu/~rong/Saladin%20Art/Review%20Worksheet%201/CellShapes_Fig_2_3.jpg