Statistical Mechanics

Comparison of Maxwell-Boltzmann, Bose-Einstein,

and Fermi-Dirac statistics

Prepared by:
Mohammad Idres Omer
Supervised by:
Professor: Dr. Tariq A. Abbas
(2023-2024)
Outlines
Introduction to classical and quantum statistics
Three kinds of identical particles
Pauli exclusion principle
Maxwell-Boltzmann(M-B) statistics
Bose-Einstein(B-E) statistics
Fermi-Dirac(F-D) statistics
Verification of exclusion principle
References
Introduction to classical and quantum statistics

Classical statistics deals with systems that follow classical mechanics and obey the laws
of classical physics. In classical statistics, systems are described by macroscopic
variables, such as position, velocity, or energy. Classical statistical methods, such as the
Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution or Gibbs ensemble, are used to analyze the statistical
properties of classical systems.

quantum statistics is concerned with systems that follow quantum mechanics, which is
the theory that describes the behavior of microscopic particles, atoms, and molecules.
Quantum statistics take into account the wave-particle duality of particles and the
indistinguishability of identical particles.
Introduction to classical and quantum statistics

Quantum systems are described by wave functions that evolve according to the

Schrödinger equation, and the properties of the system are represented by operators and

observables. Quantum statistical methods, such as the Bose-Einstein distribution for

bosons and the Fermi-Dirac distribution for fermions, are used to analyze the statistical

behavior of quantum systems.

Quantum statistics:
Developed by Bose, Einstein, Fermi and Dirac, Including two categories:

• Bose-Einstein (B-E) statistics, and

• Fermi-Dirac (F-D) statistics.

Classical statistics
• This branch is based on the classical results of Maxwell-Boltzmann
(M-B) statistics.
Three kinds of identical particles:

1. Identical particles of any spin which are seperated in the assembly and can be
distinguished from one another .the molecules of the gas are particles of this
kinds
2. Identical particles of zero or integer spin which can not be distinguished from
one another .thease particles are known as Bosons .they do not obey pauli 's
exclusion principles .photons, alpha particles etc.
3. Identical particles of half integer spin which cannot be distinguished from one
another these particles obey Pauli's exclusion principles. ex. Electrons…
Pauli exclusion principle

In quantum mechanics Pauli exclusion principle states

that two or more identical particles with half-integer
spins (i.e. fermions) cannot simultaneously occupy the
same quantum state within a quantum system. This
principle was formulated by Austrian physicist Wolfgang
Pauli in 1925 for electrons, and later extended to all
fermions with his spin–statistics theorem of 1940.
Fig 1: Wolfgang Pauli during a
lecture in Copenhagen (1929).
Wolfgang Pauli formulated the
Pauli exclusion principle
Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics

This one was first derived by Maxwell in 1860. and Boltzmann later, in the 1870.
Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution is a result of the kinetic theory of gases which provides a
simplified explanation of many fundamental gaseous properties,
including pressure and diffusion, their particles are Identical with distinguished from one
another,

Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics is used to derive the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution of

an ideal gas.

In Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics the configuration of particle A in state 1 and particle B in

state 2 is different from the case in which particle B is in state 1 and particle A is in state 2.
Particle behavior in Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution

• The motion of molecules is • 1844-1906

extremely perplexed
• Any individual molecule is
colliding with others at an
enormous rate
❖ Typically at a rate of a billion
times per second
• Austrian physicist
• Contributed to:
1. Kinetic Theory of
Gases
2. Electromagnetism
3. Thermodynamics
• Pioneer in statistical
mechanics

Fig 2:
Ludwig Boltzmann
Maxwell-Boltzmann Law of energy

According to this law, number of identical and distinguishable particles in a system at

temperature T, having energy ε is

Ni(ε) = (No. of states of energy ε).(average no. of particles in a state of energy ε)

where:
…(1) • εi is the energy of the i-th energy level
• ⟨Ni⟩ is the average number of particles in
the set of states with energy εi
Equation (1): represents the • gi is the degeneracy of energy level i, that is,
Maxwell-Boltzmann Law of the number of states with energy εi
energy • μ is the chemical potential,
• k is the Boltzmann constant,
• T is absolute temperature
Particle distribution in Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution

• It is applicable to an isolated gas of identical P = 𝑔𝑛

molecules in equilibrium which satisfied the
conditions, the gas is said to be ideal.

• Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution of the speeds

of an ideal gas particles can be derived from
the Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics and used to
derive relationships between pressure, volume
Fig(3): distribution of two particles in 3
and temperature. cells
The kinetic theory of gases
Maxwell–Boltzmann Distribution is a result of the kinetic theory of gases
• The number of molecules in the gas is large, and the average separation between the
molecules is large compared with their dimensions

• The molecules move randomly

• Any molecule can move in any direction

• The molecules interact only by short-range forces during elastic collisions,

so the molecules make elastic collisions with the walls of container

• There is no exist external forces, No forces between particles except when they collide.

• All molecules are identical

Bose-Einstein (B-E) statistics

This theory was developed (1924–1925) by Satyendra

Nath Bose who recognized that a collection of identical
and indistinguishable particles can be distributed in this
way.
The idea was later extended by Albert Einstein in
collaboration with Bose.
Fig 4
Bose–Einstein statistics apply only to the particles that do
not follow the Pauli exclusion principle restrictions.
Particles that follow Bose-Einstein statistics are
called bosons, which have zero or integer values of spin.
Bose-Einstein distribution law
Bose-Einstein distribution tell us how many particles have a certain energy. The
formula is:
g Equation (2): represents Bose-Einstein
…(2)
distribution law
Particle distribution in Bose-Einstein distribution
Any number of bosons can exist in the same quantum state of the system
Or Any number of particles can occupy a single cell in the phase space

Fig(5): distribution of
two particles in 3 cells

In such a system, there is not a difference between any of these particles, and the particles
are bosons. Bosons are fundamental particles like the photon.
Black Body Radiation
One of the applications of Bose-Einstein spectrum distribution

The ability of a body to radiate is closely related to its ability

to absorb radiation. A body at a constant temperature is in
thermal equilibrium with its surroundings and must absorb
energy from them at the same rate as it emits energy.

Fig 6: The cavity walls

A perfect black body is one in which absorbs completely all are constantly emitting
and absorbing radiation,
the radiation, incident on it.
and this radiation is
So it is a perfect emitter and a perfect absorber. known as black body
radiation
Fermi-Dirac (F-D) statistics
In quantum mechanics is one of the two possible ways in
which a system of indistinguishable particles can be
distributed among a set of energy states.

each of the available discrete states can be occupied by

only one particle. So it is obey Pauli exclusion principle.

It is accounts for the electron structure of atoms in which

electrons remain in separate states rather than collapsing
Fig 7
into a common state.

The theory of this statistical behavior was developed

(1926–27) by the two physicists: Enrico Fermi and Paul
Adrien Maurice Dirac.
Fermi-Dirac (F-D) statistics (2)

• Fermi–Dirac statistics applies to identical and indistinguishable particles

with half-integer spin (1/2, 3/2, etc.), called fermions.
• Fermi–Dirac statistics is most commonly applied to electrons, a type of
fermion with spin 1/2

In M-B, or B-E statistics there is no restrictions on the particles to present in any

energy state. but in the case of fermi- Dirac statistics, applicable to particles like
electron and obeying Pauli exclusion principle, applicable to electrons and
elementary particles.
Fermi-Dirac (F-D) distribution law

For a system of identical fermions in thermodynamic equilibrium, the average number of

fermions is given by the Fermi–Dirac (F–D) distribution.

g Equation (3): represents Fermi-Dirac

…(3) distribution law

Where:
kB is the Boltzmann constant
T is the absolute temperature
εi is the energy of the single-particle state i, and
μ is the total chemical potential
Particle distribution in Fermi-Dirac distribution

Particles are indistinguishable, only one particle may be in a given quantum

state

Fig(8): distribution of two particles in 3 cells

Verification of exclusion principle
Verification of exclusion principle (2)
Summary and Comparison between M-B ,B-E, and F-D

Maxwell-Boltzmann Bose-Einstein Fermi-Dirac

*Particles are identical *Their Particles are *Their particles are
and distinguishable indistinguishable indistinguishable
*The number of particles *Particles do not obey *Particles obey Pauli
is constant Pauli exclusion principle exclusion principle
*The total Energy is *Each state can have *Each state can have
constant more than one particle only one particle
*Spin is ignored like phonons and photons *Each particle has one
*Particles have integer spin half spin
References
• Books
1. Statistical Mechanics: Rigorous Results. David Ruelle. World
Scientific, (1999).
2. Statistical Mechanics of Disorder Systems - A Mathematical
Perspective. Anton Bovier. Cambridge Series in Statistical and
Probabilistic Mathematics, (2006).
3. Statistical thermal physics, Reif. 6th edition (December 30,
2009).

• Online Guides
1. https://web.stanford.edu/~peastman/statmech/statisticaldescr
iption.html#the-maxwell-boltzmann-distribution
2. https://web.stanford.edu/~peastman/statmech/statisticaldescr
iption.html#quantum-statistical-mechanics