CHAPTER 1

THINKING LIKE A
RESEARCHER
Insert Group members:
CRITICAL THINKING
Critical thinking is essential in higher
education and academic pursuits. One
problem is that it is often equated with
criticism and critical-thinking skills.

However, critical thinking is an action

that involves analyzing information
based on current knowledge, avoiding
biases, and engaging with ideas.
 TIFIC AP
EN P
I

RO
SC
The scientific approach involves critical
thinking, avoiding biases, and following a

ACH
systematic method to study a topic. It requires
THE

us to challenge our personal beliefs and be

open-minded to contradictory evidence.

While it may be easier to rely on personal

beliefs and experiences, the scientific approach
helps us make rational decisions and tackle
modern problems.
 THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH &
DECISION-MAKING
The scientific approach helps us make better decisions
individually and as a society, improving human
welfare and influencing social change.

Social sciences were created for this purpose, although

the connection has not always been seamless as
envisioned (Scanzoni, 2005). Nonetheless, social
science has improved public policy and individual
decision making.
 THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH &
DECISION-MAKING
Eyewitness testimony is often persuasive, but it can be influenced by
slight variations in questioning. In response to this, the U.S. Attorney
General Janet Reno formed a working group in 1998 to improve the
criminal justice system. The group created the first set of instructions
for collecting accurate and unbiased eyewitness testimony.

Conflicting eyewitness reports in World War II regarding the location of

a sunken ship were initially dismissed as lies. However, cognitive
psychologists utilized research on memory decay to create a statistical
profile, which accurately pinpointed the ship within three nautical
miles in 2008 (Spiegel, 2011).
 THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH &
DECISION-MAKING
Research indicates that having too many choices can decrease
motivation and self-control. This insight was applied by
President Obama to limit minor decisions, such as what to eat
and what to wear allowing him to focus on more important
matters.

Personal beliefs and majority opinion are misleading.

However, the scientific approach can be used to overcome the
default way of thinking and make better decisions.
 THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH &
KNOWLEDGE
The scientific approach does not always lead directly to a
decision. However, it can be used to build our knowledge and
develop new ideas.

Scientific investigation that leads to increased knowledge,

improved theories, or the development of new ideas might not
have an immediate effect, but it may serve as a foundation for
future research that has real-life applications.
OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS
(THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD)

The goal of the scientific method is not proof, but rather the
goal is progress.

It is not linear but rather a cycle.

It is not isolated but rather integrated.

STEP 1 Identify Your Topic

Identify a topic that piques your interest. This involves

choosing a specific area of focus for your research that
aligns with your interests and goals.
 Finding, Reading, and
STEP 2 Evaluating Past Research

After identifying your topic, the next step is to conduct

a comprehensive review of existing literature related to
your chosen area of study. This involves finding
relevant research, reading through it, and critically
evaluating its findings and methodologies.
 Further Refining Your Topic and
STEP 3 Developing a Hypothesis or
Research Question
Once you have reviewed past research, it's important to
refine your topic based on the insights gained and
develop a clear hypothesis or research question. This
process involves narrowing down your focus and
formulating a specific question/s or statements to guide
your research.
STEP 4 Choosing a Research Design

In this step, you will explore different research designs,

including descriptive research, correlational research,
and experiments. Understanding the concepts of
variables, causation, independent variables, and
dependent variables is crucial in selecting an
appropriate research design for your study.
 Planning and Carrying Out Your
STEP 5 Study

After choosing a research design, you will need to plan

and execute your study. This involves developing a
detailed plan for data collection, ensuring that your
study is conducted in a systematic and ethical manner.
STEP 6 Analyzing Your Data

Once the data collection phase is complete, you will

analyze the data using appropriate statistical and
analytical methods. This step involves interpreting the
findings and drawing conclusions based on the data
collected during the study.
STEP 7 Communicating Results

The final step in the research process is to

communicate your findings to the broader community.
This may involve presenting your results through
reports, presentations, academic papers, or other forms
of dissemination, allowing others to benefit from your
research and contributing to the body of knowledge in
your field.
THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT
ETHICS
When researchers design and carry out their research
study, they must carefully consider the ethics of their
study. Conducting an ethical research study is more
than simplifying doing the right thing and avoiding
doing the wrong thing.
 ETHIC CODES
An ethics code both guides ethical both good decision making and delineates the
ethical standards that must be followed. Current international and federal ethics
codes for human research were created in response to some horrific research
conducted in the name of science. Two of the most infamous are the Nazi medical
experiments and the Tuskegee syphilis study.

Nuremberg Code
Common Rule
 ETHIC PRINCIPLES
Moral Values and Ideals

Academy of Criminal American Psychology American Sociological

Federal Common Rule
Justice Sciences Association Association

Beneficence and
Beneficence and Competence
Non-maleficence
Non- Integrity
Fidelity and
Respect maleficnence Professional and
Responsibility
Beneficence Respect Scientific
Integrity
Justice Honesty and responsibility
Justice
Openness Respect
Respect
Competence Social
responsibility

Note: These principles do not explain how to behave, but rather serve as guidelines in ethical decision-making.
 ETHIC STANDARDS
Rules that promote ethical principles

1 3
2 Draft a research
Consider ethical
Identify ethical proposal
principles
standards that
5
4 apply to your
study If the study is
Submit the approved uphold
proposal the ethical
principles
 INFORMED CONSENT
An Ethical Standard by which potential participants are
informed of the topic, procedures, risks, and benefits of
participation before consenting to participate.

This is done to respect the privacy and safety of the test

subjects.

Typically contains a brief rundown of what’s to be done

during the research period.
 INFORMED CONSENT
An Informed consent form contains the following
-The purpose of the study
-What the participants will do and how long will it last
-Benefits and Risks
-Safety and Privacy measures
-The option to not agree
- Contact information of the researchers
- A place to sign the form thus agreeing to partake in
the study.
 DECEPTION
Deception is a controversial topic In the field of research, on
one hand, it is useful in studying situations that rarely occur
such as emergencies (Hertwig & Ortmann, 2008), but on the
other hand, using such tactics can lead to trust issues
(Baumrind,1985) or worse it can ruin the integrity and validity
of your research.
 DECEPTION
The acceptability of deception varies by discipline. In the field
of Anthropology and Experimentation, deception is never used.
Deception remains a common practice in social psychology and
market research (Hertwig & Ortmann, 2008)

According to the APA Ethics Code of 2010, deception is allowable under these
certain circumstances
1. The usage of deception is necessary and justifiable for the potential
benefits of the study
2. The study is not expected to cause physical pain or significant emotional
damage
3. The researchers debrief the participants as soon as possible regarding the
deception.
 Debriefing
In the course of designing a research project, researchers may
find it useful to include a debriefing of the study for
participants at the close of the project. The debriefing process
is a requirement for studies that employ deception

Debriefing usually happens right after the participant

completes the study. This is important so that an appropriate
follow-up plan may be devised for those who have had
emotional or physical distress due to the study.
 Incentives For Participation

This method of getting data offers an incentive so that the

researcher may easily recruit participants. This may sound
reasonable since participants are to spend time and effort in
answering the survey of researchers, but it may also result in
coercion.
 Confidentiality

When a researcher keeps the responses from the research

private, confidentiality is achieved. Researchers should
respect the participant’s dignity and right to privacy. But
confidentiality does not mean anonymity.
The Big Picture, proof and progress in
science
Research does not prove something since it is impossible
to study the whole population. Instead, it shows a pattern

Once patterns are repeated and sufficient evidence is seen,

more and more questions will be asked thus enabling the
research process to keep cycling.