➔ Periodic table (metals and non-metals; transition metals, noble gasses, trends, periods, groups)

1. Classification:
● The periodic table is a tabular arrangement of chemical elements, organized by their atomic number, electron
configuration, and recurring chemical properties.
● Elements are classified into metals, non-metals, and metalloids (semimetals).
2. Metals and Non-Metals:
● Metals: Found on the left and center of the periodic table, typically shiny, malleable, and good conductors of heat
and electricity (e.g., iron, copper, gold).
● Non-Metals: Located on the right side of the periodic table, generally lack metallic properties, may be solids,
liquids, or gasses at room temperature, and are typically poor conductors of heat and electricity (e.g., oxygen,
sulfur, carbon).
3. Transition Metals:
● Transition metals are located in the d-block of the periodic table (Groups 3-12).
● They are characterized by their ability to form multiple oxidation states and their tendency to form colorful
compounds.
● Transition metals often exhibit high melting points, density, and conductivity.
4. Noble Gases:
● Noble gases are located in Group 18 (Group 8A) of the periodic table.
● They include helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon.
● Noble gases are inert, meaning they have full valence electron shells and rarely participate in chemical reactions.
5. Trends:
● Periods: Horizontal rows on the periodic table. Each period represents a new energy level (shell) for electrons.
● Groups: Vertical columns on the periodic table. Elements in the same group have similar chemical properties due to
their identical valence electron configurations.
● Trends Across Periods:
● Atomic size generally decreases from left to right due to increasing nuclear charge.
● Ionization energy (energy required to remove an electron) generally increases from left to right.
● Electronegativity (ability to attract electrons) generally increases from left to right.
● Trends Down Groups:
● Atomic size generally increases down a group due to the addition of new energy levels.
● Ionization energy generally decreases down a group due to increased distance between valence electrons and the
nucleus.
➔ International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC naming and classification of: alkanes, alkenes,
alcohols, carboxylic acids and esters; structural formulas)
1. Alkanes:
● Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons containing only single bonds between carbon atoms.
● IUPAC names for alkanes are based on the number of carbon atoms in the longest continuous chain:
● Methane (1 carbon), ethane (2 carbons), propane (3 carbons), butane (4 carbons), etc.
● The suffix "-ane" is added to the stem of the corresponding alkane.
● Branches or substituents are indicated using prefixes such as "methyl," "ethyl," etc., and their positions are
specified with numbers.
2. Alkenes:
● Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons containing at least one carbon-carbon double bond.
● The longest continuous carbon chain containing the double bond is identified, and the double bond's position is
indicated by the lowest possible number.
● The suffix "-ene" is added to the stem of the corresponding alkene.
● Branches or substituents are named and numbered similarly to alkanes.
3. Alcohols:
● Alcohols contain a hydroxyl (-OH) functional group attached to a carbon atom.
● The parent chain is identified, and the position of the hydroxyl group is indicated by a number.
● The suffix "-ol" is added to the stem of the corresponding alkane.
● If there are multiple hydroxyl groups, prefixes like "di-" or "tri-" are used, and their positions are specified.
4. Carboxylic Acids:
● Carboxylic acids contain a carboxyl (-COOH) functional group attached to a carbon atom.
● The parent chain is identified, and the carboxyl group is located at the end of the chain.
● The suffix "-oic acid" is added to the stem of the corresponding alkane.
5. Esters:
● Esters are derived from the reaction between a carboxylic acid and an alcohol, resulting in the formation of an ester
functional group (-COO-).
● The alkyl group from the alcohol and the alkoxyl group from the carboxylic acid are named separately.
● The alkyl group is named first, followed by the alkoxyl group, with the suffix "-ate."

➔ The atmosphere (characteristics gassesses; atmospheric composition, testing and treatment; extraction,
emission and environmental implications)
1. Characteristics of Gases in the Atmosphere:
● The atmosphere is primarily composed of gasses, including nitrogen (N2), oxygen (O2), argon (Ar), carbon dioxide
(CO2), and trace amounts of other gasses.
● Gasses in the atmosphere vary in density, pressure, and composition at different altitudes.
● The atmosphere provides vital protection from harmful solar radiation and regulates Earth's temperature through
the greenhouse effect.
2. Atmospheric Composition:
● Nitrogen (N2) is the most abundant gas in the atmosphere, accounting for about 78% of the total volume.
● Oxygen (O2) constitutes approximately 21% of the atmosphere.
● Argon (Ar) makes up about 0.93% of the atmosphere, while carbon dioxide (CO2) comprises about 0.04%.
3. Testing and Treatment of Atmospheric Gases:
● Atmospheric gasses are monitored and tested for various pollutants, including carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur
dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), ozone (O3), and particulate matter (PM).
● Air quality monitoring stations use sensors and instruments to measure pollutant concentrations in the
atmosphere.
● Treatment methods for air pollution include filtering particulate matter, catalytic converters to reduce emissions
from vehicles, and scrubbers to remove sulfur dioxide from industrial emissions.
4. Extraction of Gases from the Atmosphere:
● Certain glasses, such as nitrogen and oxygen, can be extracted from the atmosphere through processes like
fractional distillation or membrane separation.
● Nitrogen is commonly extracted for industrial purposes, such as in the production of ammonia for fertilizers and in
the food packaging industry.
● Oxygen extraction is essential for medical and industrial applications, including medical oxygen therapy and metal
 refining processes.
5. Emission and Environmental Implications:
● Human activities, such as burning fossil fuels, industrial processes, and agriculture, release pollutants into the
atmosphere, leading to air pollution and environmental degradation.
● Air pollution contributes to respiratory diseases, cardiovascular problems, and environmental issues like acid rain,
smog formation, and climate change.
● Greenhouse gasses, such as carbon dioxide and methane, trap heat in the atmosphere, leading to global warming
and climate change impacts, including rising temperatures, melting ice caps, and extreme weather events.

➔ Matter (states and properties of matter; particle/kinetic theory, diffusion; atomic structure [including
Isotopes]; electron configuration and valency)
1. States and Properties of Matter:
● Matter exists in three primary states: solid, liquid, and gas.
● Properties of matter include mass, volume, density, hardness, melting point, boiling point, and conductivity.
2. Particle/Kinetic Theory and Diffusion:

● The kinetic theory of matter states that all particles are in constant motion.
● In solids, particles vibrate in fixed positions. In liquids, particles move more freely but are still close together. In
gases, particles have the highest level of kinetic energy and move freely with little attraction between them.
● Diffusion is the process by which particles spread out from an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration due to random motion.
3. Atomic Structure:

● Atoms are composed of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by a cloud of electrons.
● Protons have a positive charge, neutrons have no charge, and electrons have a negative charge.
● The atomic number represents the number of protons in an atom, while the mass number represents the total
number of protons and neutrons.
● Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
4. Electron Configuration and Valency:
● Electron configuration describes the arrangement of electrons in an atom's electron shells or energy levels.
● The valence electrons are the electrons in the outermost shell of an atom and are involved in chemical bonding.
● The periodic table can be used to determine the number of valence electrons for elements in Groups 1 to 18.
● Valency is the number of bonds an atom can form with other atoms. It is determined by the number of valence
electrons an atom possesses.

➔ Pure and impure substances (types of mixtures [solutions, oils, alloys, emulsions]; separation techniques,
including: filtration, distillation [including crude oil], chromatography
Pure and Impure Substances:
● Pure Substances: Consist of only one type of substance with uniform composition and properties.
● Examples include elements and compounds.
● Impure Substances (Mixtures): Contain two or more different substances physically mixed together.
● Examples include solutions, oils, alloys, and emulsions.

Types of Mixtures:

​ Solutions:
● Homogeneous mixtures where one substance (solute) is uniformly dissolved in another substance (solvent).
● Examples include saltwater, sugar dissolved in water.
​ Oils:
● Typically immiscible with water.
● Examples include vegetable oil, mineral oil.
​ Alloys:
● Mixtures of two or more metals or a metal and a non-metal.
● Examples include brass (copper and zinc), bronze (copper and tin).
​ Emulsions:
● Heterogeneous mixtures of immiscible liquids stabilized by an emulsifier.
● Examples include mayonnaise, milk.

Separation Techniques:
​ Filtration:
● Used to separate solid particles from a liquid or gas using a porous barrier (filter).
● Example: Filtering sand from water.
​ Distillation:
● Separates components of a mixture based on differences in boiling points.
● Crude Oil Distillation: Separates crude oil into fractions (gasoline, diesel, etc.) based on boiling points.
​ Chromatography:
● Separates components of a mixture based on differences in solubility and affinity for a stationary phase.
● Types include paper chromatography, thin-layer chromatography (TLC), and gas chromatography (GC).

➔ Bonding (structure and bonding, properties, chemical formulas, chemical reactions and the conservation
of mass; balancing equations, the mole concept and chemical calculations; reaction kinetics [rates, and factors
affecting rates/collision theory]; equilibria/reversible reactions; energy changes in reactions, endo- and
exothermicity; combustion of fuels)
1. Structure and Bonding:

● Ionic Bonding: Transfer of electrons between atoms, resulting in the formation of ions held together by
electrostatic forces.

● Covalent Bonding: Sharing of electrons between atoms to achieve a stable electron configuration.

● Metallic Bonding: Delocalized electrons within a lattice of positively charged metal ions, leading to properties like
conductivity and malleability.
2. Properties and Chemical Formulas:
● Properties of substances are determined by their bonding type and arrangement of atoms/molecules.
● Chemical formulas represent the types and numbers of atoms in a compound, with subscripts indicating the ratio
of each element.
3. Chemical Reactions and Conservation of Mass:

● Chemical reactions involve the breaking and forming of chemical bonds to create new substances.
● Balancing equations ensures that the number of atoms of each element is the same on both sides of the equation,
conserving mass.
4. The Mole Concept and Chemical Calculations:
● The mole concept relates the mass of a substance to its number of particles, with one mole of any substance
containing Avogadro's number of particles.
● Chemical calculations involve using mole ratios to determine quantities of reactants and products in a reaction.
5. Reaction Kinetics:
● Reaction rates measure the rate of change in concentration of reactants/products over time.
● Factors affecting rates include concentration, temperature, surface area, and presence of catalysts.
● Collision theory states that reactions occur when reactant particles collide with sufficient energy and proper
orientation.
6. Equilibria and Reversible Reactions:
● Equilibria involve a dynamic balance between forward and reverse reactions, where the rates of the two reactions
are equal.
● Le Chatelier's Principle states that if a system at equilibrium is disturbed, it will shift to counteract the disturbance.
7. Energy Changes in Reactions:
● Endothermic reactions absorb heat from the surroundings, resulting in a decrease in temperature.
● Exothermic reactions release heat into the surroundings, resulting in an increase in temperature.
8. Combustion of Fuels:
● Combustion reactions involve the rapid oxidation of a fuel in the presence of oxygen, producing heat, light, and
often carbon dioxide and water as products.
● Fuels are substances that release energy when burned, commonly used for heating, cooking, and powering
engines.

➔ Types of chemical reaction (acids and bases, neutral solutions, acid/base reactions, pH and indicators,
formation of salts, uses of salts; redox reactions, reactivity series; extraction of metals, and corrosion,
electrochemical cells
1. Acids and Bases:
● Acids are substances that donate protons (H⁺ ions) in aqueous solutions, resulting in an increase in the
concentration of hydronium ions (H₃O⁺).
● Bases are substances that accept protons or donate hydroxide ions (OH⁻) in aqueous solutions, resulting in a
decrease in the concentration of hydronium ions.
● Neutral solutions have a pH of 7, indicating a balance between the concentrations of hydronium and hydroxide
ions.
● Acid-base reactions involve the transfer of protons from acids to bases, resulting in the formation of water and a
salt.
2. pH and Indicators:
● pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution, determined by the concentration of hydronium ions.
● pH indicators change color depending on the pH of the solution, allowing for qualitative determination of acidity or
basicity.
3. Formation of Salts:
● Salts are formed through the reaction between an acid and a base, resulting in the displacement of hydrogen ions
by metal ions.
● The cation comes from the base, while the anion comes from the acid.
● Salts have various uses, including in food preservation, water softening, and as fertilizers.
4. Redox Reactions and Reactivity Series:
● Redox (oxidation-reduction) reactions involve the transfer of electrons between reactants.
● Oxidation involves the loss of electrons, while reduction involves the gain of electrons.
● The reactivity series is a ranking of metals based on their tendency to lose electrons (oxidation) and react with
other substances.
5. Extraction of Metals and Corrosion:
● Metals are extracted from their ores through processes like smelting, roasting, and electrolysis.
● Corrosion is the degradation of metals due to chemical reactions with their environment, often involving oxygen
and moisture.
● Preventive measures against corrosion include coating metals with protective layers and using sacrificial anodes.
6. Electrochemical Cells:
● Electrochemical cells convert chemical energy into electrical energy through redox reactions.
● In a voltaic (galvanic) cell, spontaneous redox reactions generate electrical energy, while in an electrolytic cell,
electrical energy drives non-spontaneous redox reactions.