ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

AND THE

BULLETIN OF THE SOCIETY OF

ECONOMIC GEOLOGISTS

VOL. 58 MAY, 1963 No. 3

EPIGENETIC, DIPLOGENETIC, SYNGENETIC, AND

LITHOGENE DEPOSITS 1

T. S. LOVERING

CONTENTS
PAGE

Abstract .............................................................. 315

Introduction ........................................................... 316
Epigenetic,diplogenetic,syn•enetic,and litho•ene defined .................. 316
Criteria for distinguishingsyngenetic,diplogenetic,epigenetic,and
lithogenedeposits................................................... 318
Spacerelations ........................................................ 318
Zonal relations ........................................................ 320
Compositionalrelations ................................................ 322
Isotopicvariations..................................................... 324
Discussion ............................................................ 326
Summary ............................................................. 328
References cited ....................................................... 329

ABSTRACT

Much of the disagreementover "epigenetic"and "syngenetic"deposits

is semantic;someoresand altered rocksare in part syngeneticand in part
epigeneticand for them the term "diplogenetic"is proposed. All these
terms are primarily time terms relatedto the contemporaneity of the de-
positand the enclosingrock, but in a secondarysensethey are spaceterms;
they do not, however,imply processof formationor sourceof the chemical
constituents. Process or source terms such as "magnintic," "hydro-
thermal," "sedimentary"are generally satisfactory,but the processterm
"lateral secretion" is nmv vague in meaning. A more precise term is
neededfor the processof mobilizationof elementsfrom a solid rock and
their transportation and redepositionelsewhere: for this processI propose
the term "lithogene" ("stone-born"), to stressthe sourceand processas do
"magmatic"and "sedimentary." Such depositscouldbe derivedfrom syn-
genetic,diplogenetic,or epigeneticdepositsthrough the action of meta-
Publication authorized by the Director, U.S. Geological Survey.
315
316 T. S. LOVERING

morphic,
hydrothermal,
supergene
or othersolutions.If onewishes,
how-
ever, to emphasizethe distancethe mobilized elementshave moved œrom
thesource
rock,theresulting
deposit
canbedescribed
bestasa locally
derivedlithogenedeposit("lateralsecretion"),
or as a regionally
derived
lithogenedeposit("productof regionalmetamorphism").
The classification
of manydeposits suchas epigenetic replacement
bodiesoœmagnetite in limestone,
andsyngeneticgoldin recentplacers is
not controversial;however,wherelargepartsof the mineraldepositare
madeup bothof syngenetic elements and introduced elements, the term
"diplogenetic"is appropriate.Examples include mineraldeposits in which
syngeneticcationsare unitedwith epigeneticartions,
as in fluoritereplace-
mentsin limestones, or wherethereverserelationshipholdsandepigenetic
cationsare unitedto syngeneticsulfuror otherartions--as maybe trueof
certainblack cupriferousshalesof the Mansfeldtype. Guidesfor dis-
tinguishing the varioustypesof mineraldeposits are discussed at length
and include:mineralogy;texture; isotopiccomposition of hydrogen,
carbon,oxygen,sulfur,and perhapsotherelements;form; age relations;
alteration;zoning;positionandquantitative adequacy of supposed source
rocks;lithology;structuralgeology;paleogeography; and regionalgeo-
logic relations. The criteria developedare used in a critical review of
severalexamples
of controversial
deposits--including
theAfricanCopper-
belt depositsandthoseof the graphiticschistsof Fenno-Scandia.
INTRODUCTION

ACCORDINO to Lindgren(20), p. 154, syngenetic

depositsare "those{ormed
by processessimilarto thosewhichhave{ormedthe enclosing rock and in
generalsimultaneouslywith it," whereasepigeneticdepositsare "thosein-
troducedinto a pre-existingrock." Lindgrenbelievedthat syngenetic de-
positsincludedchiefly aqueousand magmaticsedimentsor accumulations
o{
usefulmineralsformedby processes of differentiation,
magmaticsedimenta-
tion,or injection;typicalexamples wouldbe masses o{ chromitein peridotite,
titani{erousiron ore in anorthosite,
or contemporaneous deposits
suchas coal,
gypsum,salt, and placers,in sedimentarybeds. Lindgren regardedmost
other mineral depositsas epigenetic.

EPIGENETIC, DIPLOGENETIC, SYNGENETIC, AND LITItOGENE DEFINED

At first glancethe definitionsof syngeneticand epigeneticgiven above

appearclear-cut,and it seemsthat one shouldbe able to classany mineral
depositas either epigeneticor syngeneticif informationis availableas to
its origin and its relationsto the enclosingrock. Unfortunatelythis is not
alwaystrue. An elementof doubtarisesconcerning the properclassification
of manymineraldeposits. Thoseformedby either diageneticalterationin the
environment of sedimentation or deuteric alteration in an environment of
igneoussolidificationgenerally are classedas syngeneticdeposits. Mineral
depositsof syngeneticorigin that have been metamorphosedin place without
changein chemicalcompositionwould still properly be classedas syngenetic,
but if during metamorphismsomeof the elementsmovedwith attendantloss
or gain for the rock, the proper classification
may be controversial.
Althoughit is customaryin classifyingdepositsto consideronly the genesis
of the commerciallyvaluable elements,the depositscommonlyinclude other
 GENESIS OF DEPOSITS 317

elements,and their genesisis also impliedin whateverterm is used. Some

of the chemicalconstituents of the mineraldepositmay be syngenetic but a
substantialpart of it may representa contributionfrom a distant and later
source;i.e., the sulfurand iron may be purely of syngenetic origin whereas
the valuablemetallicconstituents may be of epigenetic origin. For a mineral
depositwhoseelements--valuable or not--are in part syngeneticand in part
epigenetic, I proposethe term "diplogenetic"--oftwofoldgenesis.
The term "syngenetic" shouldbe reservedfor only thosemineraldeposits
that were essentially contemporaneous with someor all of the adjacentrock
and in whichthe chemicalcomposition of a unit volume (1 cm3) remainses-
sentiallyunchanged from the time of origin--exceptfor dehydrationor minor
supergene alteration. Many geologistsnow use "syngenetic"to includede-
positsresultingfrom mobilizatiouand redepositionof someof the elements
in a rockunit longafter the rockwasformed;in this usagetime relationsare
abandoned and the volumeof rock throughwhichthe elementsmoveis un-
restrictedsolong as they remainin the samelithofacies;this conceptrequires
only that the mineraldepositsbe derivedfrom the host rock unit, which may
have an enormousvolume. As a rock unit may be 2 feet thick or 2,000
feet thick, and the mineral depositsmay be eonsyoungerthan the rock, this
popularconceptlosesthe original meaningof syngeneticcompletely,both in
its primary time senseand its secondaryspacesense. Suchdepositsare not
syngenetic--unlessthe reconcentratedelements remain within a unit volume.
Epigeneticdepositsmay be defined as those that were introducedinto
pre-existingrock and are composedof chemicalconstituentsthat moved more
than a centimeterfroIn where they were mobilized. It shouldbe emphasized
that neither the term "epigenetic"nor the term "diplogenetic"implies the
kind of solutionthat transportedthe exotic elements;the solutionmight be
liquid or gas,magmaticor meteoric.hot or cold.
A century ago it was •videly believedthat many ore depositswere forrned
by the processcalledlateral secretion,a term for the mobilizationof elements
from a solid rock and their precipitationin openingsassumedto be nearby.
The idea fell out of favor about 1900, but many studentsare again accepting
this processas real and at least locally important. Where rocks or mineral
depositshave been modifiedby the selectivemobilizationand recrystallization
of someof their chemicalconstituentsto forin a later generationof minerals
more than a centimeteraway from the placewhere the elementswere mobil-
ized, the resulting depositswill 1)e called "lithogene" from the Greek roots
"lithos"--a stone. and "genes"--born. Although the agent mobilizing the
elementsnfight be heated water originally resident in the rock and driven
froIn it during tectonicevents,it might be water from a different sourceand
yet one that did not contributemagmaticelementsto the final mineral deposit.
"Lithogene"emphasizes sourceenvironmentand processas do "sedimentary"
and "magmatic"rather than the time relationsimplicit in "syngenetic,""epi-
genetic,"and "diplogenetic."Althoughlithogenedepositscannotbe syngen-
etic because
they are later than their wall rocks,they may be eitherepigenetic
or diplogenetic.If the elementsmobilizedfrom the sourcerocks are pre-
318 T. oc. LOI,'ERLVG

cipitatedin differentrocksby syngenetic

elementssuchas strata-boundsulfur,
the resultingdepositis diplogenetic,
as it carriesboth syngeneticand epi-
geneticelements.
It is one thing to defineclassesof depositsand quite anotherto set up
criteria or gnidesfor satisfactorilydistinguishingamongthem. There is no
difficultyin classifyingas epigenetica typicalcrosscutting
vein or a magnetite
replacementof limestone. A slight questionmay arise in the mind of the
purist,however,whena depositof fluoriteis shownto consistof indigenous
calciumand exoticfluorine. Sucha replacementdepositin limestonewould
be unhesitatinglynamed epigeneticby nearly all mining geologists,and yet
the calciumwhich makesup slightly more than fifty percentof the fluorite
may not have moveda centimeterfrom the placewhere it was originally de-
posited in the limestone. Most sulfide replacementsof limestoneare uni-
versally interpretedas epigeneticnfineral depositsfor which both snlfur and
metal have beenintroducedlong after the origin of the limestone. This is not
true, however,of many sulfideore depositsin black shale,suchas White Pine,
Mansfeld,and the African Copperbelt. Carbonaceous shalescommonlycon-
rain appreciablequantitiesof the heavy metals, but generally far less than
are found in these deposits. If the syngeneticorigin of the sulfur is es-
tablished,the possibilitytenrainsthat the heavy metals have been introduced
by magmaticor other agents. In suchan event the depositsmight consistof
syngeneticsulfur and epigeneticmetals, and I wonld prefer to class them as
dil)logeneticdeposits.

CRITERIA FOR DISTINGUISItlNG SYNGENETIC, DIPLOGENETIC,

EPIGENETIC, AND LITHOGENE DEPOSITS

The geneticclassificationof any mineral depositobviouslydependson the

conclusions reached as to the source of its chemical constituents, and the
time relation of the mineralsto the enclosingrock. Such conclusions in turn
follow on interpretation of the large-and-small-scalespacerelations and com-
positionalrelations,which may include time-siguificantisotopes. Either or
both of thesebroad categoriesof spatial and compositionalassociationsmay
yield the decidingfactor in classification.
Most examplesof controversialdepositsare those in which some of the
metallic elementsof syngeneticdepositshave been redistributedto a greater
or lesserextent as shownby veinletsof lithogenemiuerals. or where epigenetic
depositsare in sedimentaryfaciesand both the sourceand the tectoniccontrol
are obscure.
SPACE RELATIONS

The fabric and texture of a rock are inclnded in spacerelations; and cri-
teria for distinguishingthe sedimentaryorigin of niinerals in the host facies
are adeqnatelytreated in lnany standard texts and hence need not be dis-
cussed here. .As will be shown in the follo•ving discussion, however, the
megascopicfabric and areal geologic features usually give clearer ansxvers
than detailed microscopy.
 GI'7.VESI,•'OF DEPOSITS 319

Large-scalespacerelationsperhapsprovide the most generallyuseful

guidesfor interpretingthe age relationsof depositsto their enclosingrock.
Bain (2) has emphasizedthe value of large-scalegeologicpatterns in
distinguishingbetweenepigeneticand syngeneticdepositsin layeredrocks.
The generalprincipleshe advocates are not vitiatedby possibleerrorsin the
descriptionof individual examples.
Bain points out that distributionpatternsof syngeneticore bodiesin
layeredrocks correspondin area, symmetry,and metal variationwith the
rock faciesand its original structure,•vhereasthe patternsof epigeneticore
bodieseither correspondto antecedentor contemporaneous tectonicstructures
or else deviate systematicallyunder their influence. Even where epigenetic
mineral depositshave major featuresthat coincidewith syngeneticpatterns,
they commonlyhave other major featuresthat are discordantand generally
showa tectonicpattern. The metallicelementsof many syngeneticores,how-
ever, have beenredistributedslightlyby groundwater of varied origin, and
suchore bodiesacquiretectonicasymmetrywhile retainingtheir syngenetic
lithofacies.
Distinctionmust lie made betxveenphenomenathat are coextensiveand
contemporaneous with the facies (syngenetic)and thosein the faciesthat
coincidewith the intercept of specifictectonicstructuresor tectonicfacies
(epigeneticor diplogenetic). Although all depositsthat form crosscutting
tabular bodieswould seem to be clearly epigeneticor rarely diplogenetic,
a transitionalgroup gradesinto syngeneticdeposits. Many pegmatitebodies
have a sharplydefinedcontacton one side and grade imperceptiblyinto the
enclosingrock on the other side. Others have sharpcontactsbut their texture
and compositionindicatea nearby sourceand crystallizationduring the final
stagesof solidificationof the surroundingigneousrock. Pegmatitesthat are
syngeneticin a pluton, however, may cut acrossits edge and enter the en-
closingrock, where they are epigenetic. In somelate-stagemagmaticproc-
essesminor fractures may have been filled with minerals derived from their
wall rocks while fluids in nearby major channelswere transporting similar
material out of the consolidatingmagma into the country rock. Such a
lithogenetransitionfrom syngeneticto epigeneticdepositsis well illustratedby
the Iron Springsiron depositsnear Cedar City, Utah, describedby Mackin
(26, 27).
Decisionas to the lithogeneorigin of the network of minor veins in the
outer part of the Iron Springs intrusion dependsprimarily on relation of the
compositionof the veinlet fillings and the altered adjacent rock to the com-
positionof the intrusivemass;where the veinletsare lackingor widely spaced
the bulk composition of the alteredrock plusthe veinletsis the sameas that of
the unveinedrock of the inner part of the intrusion; the veinlets, which are
chiefly magnetiteand apatite, are decidedlydifferent from the rock between
the veinlets.
The regional pattern of the Tertiary auriferous gravels of the Sierra
Nevadais certainlyoneof the strongestargumentsfor their alluvialoriginand,
together•vith the typical placer fabric, clearly indicatesthe syngeneticorigin
320 T. •c. LOFERLYG

of thegold. Use of the regionalsettingin the interpretation of the originof

a controversial depositis well illustratedby Bain's (2) discussion of the
Kupferschiefer depositsof Germany. Part of the evidence he citesfor an
epigenetic origin are large-scale relations:the "coppershale"encirclesthe
saltbasinof Permianage,but the ore is ou the peripheryof Harz Mountains
andRichelsdorf Hills only; the concentrationof bothcopperandzincis in the
thick red bedsfilling rift troughsof Permianage, but the copperis on the
flanksof tectonicswellsand is independentof the islandsand shorelinesin
existencewhen the sediments•vere deposited;non-productive domainsand
the zinc-bearingareasare fartherdownthe flanksof the tectonicswells.
Bain'sevidence,if accepted,appliedonlyto the metalsin the ores,however.
and evenhere there is somedoubt. Accordingto Botcheft (5, p. 456) the
highestconcentrationof zincin theindividual
bedsof theKupferschiefer is in
the inferredtransitionzonefrom the gyttja to foul-bottomsapropelic sedi-
ments,a relationthat suggestsa syngenetic
originfor the zincbut notfor the
copper.As theoriginalsediments hadabundant syngenetic sulfur,theMans-
feldcopperdepositis probablydiplogenetic,
whereasthe zincdeposits may be
syngenetic.
Considerationof the Colorado Plateau uranium ores showsthat a first look
at regionalrelationsmay be deceptive.The widespread
distribution
of the
uranium ores of the Colorado Plateau in the Salt Wash Member of the
MorrisonFormationwasonceregardedas strongevidence of the syngenetic
originof theseore deposits;
but a still broaderregionalpictureshowsthat
uraniumore occursin manyother bedsboth youngerand older than the
MorrisonFormation,as well as alongtranscurrent fractures. Uranium de-
positsareof theraretypethatmayallowagedetermination fromtheisotopic
compositionof the oresthemselves.The workof Stieff,Stern,andMilkey
(39) sho•ved thatmostof thedateduraninite grainsin theColorado Plateau
oreswerefar youngerthanthe hostrocks;clearly,theyare epigenetic.
ZONAL RELATIONS

Mineralzonesrepresent the spacerelationsof compositional

changesin
mineraldeposits andmaybequiteinstructive.A zonalarrangement of min-
eralsreflectschanges
in the physicalor chemicalenvironmentof ore deposi-
tion or in the composition
of the mineralizing
solutions.The variouszones
mayformsimultaneously, or theymayfollowoneanotherin timewith or
withoutinterruption--especially
•vherethe deposits
are of hydrothermal
ori-
gin. Markedgradients in the chemicalor physical conditions
duringthe
deposition
ofminerals
commonly
cause
notable
differences
in concentration
of
the elementsand couldalsocausea zonalarrangementof minerals,whether
ofepigenetic
or syngenetic
origin.A change
fromanoxidizing
to a reducing
environmentin sedimentarydeposits,for example,may causenot only a
markedchange in theconcentration
of heavymetalsin thesediments
butalso
a zonalarrangement of thesemetals. Recentoceanographicwork in the
Baltic Sea is germane.
Manheim(29) studied
the distribution
of elements
in sediments
from
 GEATESIS OF DEPOSITS 321

the Baltic Sea, which is noteworthyfor its salinity stratificationand the re.
sulting changefrom oxygenatedshallow water to stagnantwater at greater
depths--a changethat is reflectedin the redox potential of the underlying
sediments. The maximum heavy-metalconcentrationsare in the sediments
within the transitionzone from aeratedto stagnantconditions,rather than in
the most stagnantand organic-richparts of the basins. Manganese-iron
noduleswere concentratedwhere aerated bottom water overlay a moderately
reducingsedimentaryenvironmentas in near-shoreareasnot subjectto rapid
sedimentation. In two of the Baltic deeps, however, manganesewas con-
centratedin sapropelicsediments.which containedas much as 5.2 percent
MnO in a mixed manganese-calciumcarbonate. Close spacing of samples
showed that the heavy minerals in general were concentratedin the zone
transitionalto stagnantconditions,that is, transitionalfrom gyttia to sapropel.
In such a transition zone the content of heavy metals ranged as high as
250 ppm Cu, 250 ppm Zn, 32 ppm U, 80 ppm Mo. and 1.6 ppm Ag. The ratio
of copperto zinc increasedtowards the sapropelicor stagnantwater area, as
did the ratio of molybdenumto zinc. Molybdenum,in contrastto the other
heavy metals, showedmaximum concentrationin the centers rather than at
the edgesof the stagnantzones,probablybecausemolybdenum tendsto follow
the iron sulfide, which increasedas the sedimentsbecame more sapropelic.
Sulfur and organicmatter increasedthroughthe transitionzoneto maximum
valuesin the sapropelicsedimentsbeneaththe stagnantlayersof high salinity
(12 parts per thousand). As the sulfur was largely presentin pyrite, it too
increasedto a maximum in the center of the deeps.
White and Northcote (42) report a zoningof copperand zinc relative to
sulfide-richmudsat the easternend of BoundaryBay, B.C. As in the Baltic
Sea sediments, the copperis concentrated closeto the foul bottomand the zinc
maximumis in the lesssapropelicsedimentsborderingthoserichestin copper.
Malyuga (28) found certain ratios of cobaltto nickel to copperto be
highly characteristicof the peripheraleuxinic sedimentsof the Black Sea,
ratiosthat differedsharplyfrom thosein the calcareous oozerich in organic
matter in the deepcentralbasin. The rangesof valuesfor the three elements
is smallin the peripheralsedimentsand the ratio of Co:Ni:Cu closelyap-
proximates1:5:12; the coppercontentrangesfrom 30-200 ppmand averages
95 ppm. The proportionof cobaltin the deep-watercalcareous ooze(depths
from 5,600 to 7,200 feet) differed sharply, as here the Co:Ni:Cu ratio is
1:2.7:5, approximatelythe sameas the ratio in the water of the Black Sea;
in the oozethe averagecoppercontentdroppedto 65 ppm and had a rangeof
45 to 110 ppm,whereasthe cobaltcontentincreased.
Such facies-controlledratios together with the concentrationof the metals
in zonesthat are characteristicof syng'enetic sedimentarydepositsmay help
distinguishepigeneticfrom syngenetic metals.
The zonal arrangementof nonmetallicsyngeneticnfineral depositsin
evaporitebasinsis well known;on a regionalscalethe sediments commonly
changelaterallyfromlimestoneto dolonfiteto gypsumto haliteas the central
part of the basinis approached.In areaswherethe evaporitebasinwas
322 T. 5'. LOFERING

tilted while depositionwent on, an asymmetric but pronounced zoningmay

result,as it doesin the Death Valley evaporitepan of easternCalifornia?
There are very few reportsof zonationof sedimentary mineraldeposits
causedby the physicalfactorsthat operatein fornfingplacers,but this may
reflectlack of studyrather than the absenceof zoning. Accordingto P. K.
Theobald,Jr. (oral communication, 1962), the heavymineralsin river placer
depositsin South Carolinaare distinctlyzoned: in silt adjacentto sand,the
heavymineralsconsistalmostentirelyof ilmeniteand zirconin proportions
of about two to one; in the sand, however,zircon comprisesless than 5
percentof the heavy minerals,ilmenite decreasessomewhatand a substantial
proportionof other heavymineralsis present,includingmonazite,magnetite,
and other mafic minerals.
A zonal distributionof epithernmlmineral depositsis generallycentered
aroundsomeconduitor sourcearea. Suchan area commonlycanbe identified
either by late pre-mineralintrusionsor by higher temperaturehydrothermal
nfineralsthan thosefound in depositsat somedistancefrom this center. Al-
though a zonal arrangementof epigenetichydrothermalores is generally
ascribedto differential precipitationcausedby a temperaturegradient that
reflectsgraduallossof heat to wall rocksalong the ore channel,zonationmay
be causedby other factorssuchas changesin the compositionof the mineral-
izing solutionat the source (25). A steep pressuregradient causingex-
solutionof solventgasesor a suddendrop in temperature,as suggestedby
Barton and Toulmin (3), may be of major importancein determiningthe
actual site of ore depositionand hencein localizinga mineral zone.
Where depositioncontinuesfor some time and the solutionschange in
compositionat the source,the early more direct routes to the surfacemay
becomepluggedby depositionof the ores. The mineralizingsolutionswould
then follow channelsthat move progressivelyfarther from the original out-
let, and thus result in a zonal arrangementof the major ores around the
earlier ones. Such zones are common and are similar in ninny districts, as
Emmons (10) and many others have pointed out. Whatever nmy be the
causeof the zonal arrangementof the epigcneticores, the pattern and se-
quenceis fairly characteristicand differs from that of the facies-controlled
sedimentaryzonationconsideredearlier. The characterof the zonal arrange-
merit of minerals should, therefore, be helpful in classifyingdepositsas
syngenetic,epigenetic,or diplogenetic.

COMPOSITIONAL RELATIONS

Disregardingfor a momentpossibletectoniccomplications, the composi-

tion of many depositsis uniquelysyngeneticor epigenetic;e.g., halite on the
one hand and the complex base-metalmesothermaldepositson the other.
Questionsmay arise,however,wherethe regionalrelationsindicateeither a
similar concentrationor a complementary relation betweenthe compositions
of the mineral depositand the enclosingbed. A syngeneticorigin is sug-
gestedalthoughnot established either if (1) the elementsof the mineral de-
Oral communication frmn C. B. Hunt, 1958.
 GIiNES1.5' OF DE?OS1TS 323

posit are present within a given rock unit throughout a broad region and
merelychangein concentration by perhapsone order of magnitudeso that the
averagecompositionof the depositis essentiallythat of the surroundingrock,
or if (2) the concentrationof the ore mineralsin cavitiesis balancedby the
corresponding impoverishment of the intercavitymaterial as in the intrusive
at Iron Springs,Utah, referred to above.
The coppercontentof somepelagicsedimentsis more than 0.10 percent
(33, 14), and is even greater in someancientshelf depositsof black shale.
In many placesin the western United States black organic-richPaleozoic
shalescontainunusualamountsof heavy metals; Davidson and Lakin (8)
report that black sapropelicshalelayers of the MinnelusaFormation in South
Dakota containas muchas 0.15 percentcopperand 0.3 percentmolybdenum;
a contentof 0.5 to 1 percentzinc is commonin certainbedsof the Phosphoria
Formation, and in mostplacesthesebedscontainnearly an equivalentamount
of vanadium. In these organic-richblack shales,the copperand nickel con-
tents show a significantpositive correlation but they show little correlation
with the zinc contentof the rock; in fact, the highestcoppervaluenotedis in
a bed exceptionallylow in zinc. The beds also contain unusualamountsof
chromiumand strontium,ranging up to half a percent,but thesemetalsshow
no systematiccorrelationwith zinc or copper. Iron commonlyrangesfrom
2 to 7 percent,and the highestmolybdenumvaluesoccurwhere the iron con-
tent is above the average, relations that echo those observedin the Baltic
sapropels.
The compositions and the regionalrelationsof a metal-bearingbed to ore
depositsin or near it may indicatethat it is the sourceof epigeneticores,which
were concentratedby lithogeneprocesses long after the bed consolidated. Such
relations are so well illustrated by many of the sulfide depositsin graphitic
schistsin Finland and Scandinavia,well describedrecently by Marino (30),
that the pertinent featureswill be reviewed here.
The oresare in fracturesin sulfide-graphiteschistand in the country rock
nearby. Much disseminatediron sulfide in the schistis believedto be syn-
genetic, as also may be chalcopyrite,sphalerite, pentlandite, pyrite, and
pyrrhotite. _All these minerals are in thin "bedlets" that change within a
few decimeters from quartz-biotite schist rich in graphite and sulfide to
diopsideskarn with graphite and sulfide;both typesare in placesinterbedded
with fine-grainedblack marble, amphibolite,and quartz amphibolite. In the
sulfide-graphiteschist,as in similar depositselsewherein the world, an older
generation of disseminatedsulfide is cut by a younger generation of sulfide
veinlets. The two generationsare distinctlydifferent in minor elementcon-
tent. Marmo concludesthat all the sulfideswere once more or less evenly
distributed in the sulfide and graphite schistsbut locally were mobilized to
reappearafter short transport as nilnor concentrationsin vein and blebs of
a secondgeneration. These later sulfides are best describedas lithogene
althoughsomeof the sulfideblebsmay be syngenetic.
In the Kaustinen area in Finland, the sulfide-graphiteschist has clusters
of sulfide grains, predominantlypyrrhotite, up to several cubic meters in
volume. These clusters are in sheared or brecciated zones. Remobilization
324 T. X. LOI'ERING

of pyrrhotite occurredon a large scalesupposedlyunder hydrothermalcon-

ditions. Such depositscan no longer be consideredsyngeneticeven if one
acceptsMartao's interpretatiouof their genesisthat a sapropelwas recrystal-
lized under conditionsof regional metamorphism,and as the volume of the
sedimentsdiminished with the expulsion of water, the temperature rose,
causingthe water to act as a hydrothermalsolutionthat pickedup both sulfur
and heavy metals from the sapropelicsedimentsand to move them to nearby
openings. iEvell if these pyrrhotite deposits are assumedto be entirely
lithogene,assuredlythey must be classedas epigeneticdepositseven though
the source rock is known and is not more than a few hundred meters distant.
The genesisadvocatedby Marino is essentiallythat suggestedby Gray
(15) for many sulfideores in sedimentaryrocks,ores which typify lithogene
depositsderived from a local source. Where such epigeneticdepositsshow
transportationby hydrothernmlsolutionsinto rocks rich in syngeneticsulfur,
there is also the distinct possibilityof a diplogeneticorigin.

ISOTOPIC VARIATIONS

The isotopiccompositionof someof the elementsin a depositmay help to

interpret the age of the deposit,or the temperature of its formation, or may
be helpful in decidingwhether the deposithad a biogenicor an inorganic
origin. Radioactiveisotopesor decomposition productsmay indicatethe age
of the depositsor of the sourcebeds. The age of uraninitesfrom the Colorado
Plateaudepositsfor the mostpart seemsto approximate65 MY (39) whereas
the lead-leadage of the associated galenasuggeststhat its sourcewas in part
the lead from much older rocks (6).
The possibilityof usingthe O•8/O• ratio for interpretingthe temperatures
of formationof sedimentswas firmly establishedby Urey et al. (41) more than
a decadeago,and the work of Engel and his associates (11) showedthat the
variationsof the O•8/O • ratio in gangueand alteredwall rock clearly indicate
the differencebetweenhydrothermaland diageneticalteration. Furthermore,
the dolomiteand limestonethat recrystallizedat higher temperaturesshowed
zonationof O•8/O• isogramsconsistent with distributionaroundhydrothermal
conduits. The differencesin the isotopicratios of oxygen in the epigenetic
(hydrothermal)
dolomite
andsyngenetic
marinedolomite
weredecisive,
and
similar relationshipshave been found for the oxygen isotopesof hematite
formedat high temperatures and at low temperatures.This field of study
is underinvestigation by manyworkersand the resultsshouldgreatlyaid in
the task of interpretingtemperatureof depositionand its bearingon the age
relation of ores and their hosts.
The variation in ratios of the sulfur isotopesapparently will prove in-
creasingly
usefulfor the interpretation
of the originof the sulfur--especially
as to whether the sulfur is of inorganicor biogenicorigin. Harrison and
Thode(16) foundthatthefractionation
of sulfurisotopes
asshownin sulfides
is a function of the rate of reduction of sulfate. The biogenic reduction of
sulfatedepends
on environmental
factorssubjectto widevariationsuchasthe
concentrationof the metabolite,the temperature,the food source,the sulfate
 GENESIS OF DEPO,.,?ITS 325

concentration,and the pH. It is not surprising,therefore,that the S32/Sa4

ratios of biogenicsulfur commonlyshow a much greater range than do
the Sa2/S•4 ratios of sulfidesformed from magmatichydrothermalsolutions.
Love and Zimmerman (23) presentconvincingevidenceof the biogenic
origin of the first-generationpyrite in the Lower ProterozoicMount Isa
Shale of Australia. Nearly sphericalpyrite grains proved to be internal
molds of a fossil micro-organismwhose relic form was related to the zonal
structureof the grains. Four sampleof beddedpyrite yieldedS3•/S3' ratios
between21.77 and 21.97 (a spreadof about 1 percent); elevensamplesof
later pyrite gave ratios of 21.77 to 22.16 (a spreadof 2 percent). Jensen,
who carried out the analyses,is quotedas stating that the broad spreadsug-
gesteda biogenicrather than a hydrothermalorigin for the sulfur.
Sphericalpyrite suchas that at Mount Isa is regardedby many geologists
as characteristicof biogenicorigin. It is also typical of the Kupferschiefer
depositof Germany, and is known in the Lower Carboniferousshalesof
Scotland. These latter shales contain other fossil micro-organisms,which
suggestthat the pyrite was formed syngenetically in a subaqueous sediment
or at shallowdepthin the still-unconsolidated mud (21).
There thus seemsto be goodevidencethat the pyrite in theserocksis in
large part a biogenicsulfide of syngeneticorigin; the sourceand origin
of the heavymetalsin the oresis still unsettled,however,and a discussionof
the chemistryof strata-boundsulfide ore depositsof the Mount Isa type by
Davidson (7) presentspersuasiveevidencefor the epigeneticorigin of the
metals.
Jensen(18) concludesthat sulfur isotoperatios of specimensfrom many
hydrothermaldepositshave a comparativelynarrow spread, generally less
than ñ0.5 percentin ratio values (normal value of S•/S • is about 22.21),
but that ratios from a few hydrothermal depositsvary as much as 4 percent
or more, a range that is more characteristicof biogenicprocesses.Jensen
thereforesuggests that hydrothermaldepositsshouldbe dividedaccordingto
different ore-fluid sourcesinto magmatichydrothermaldeposits,metamorphic
hydrothermaldeposits,and ground-waterhydrothermaldeposits. The mag-
matic hydrothermaldepositsare formedfrom solutionscharacterized by the
small range in the Sa2/Sa* isotopesas contrastedto metamorphichydro-
thermal solutionswhich may be derived from heterogeneous sourcesand may
not have intermingledsufficientlyto homogenizethe solutionbeforethe depo-
sition of sulfide. This situation could result in a large variation in the sulfur
isotopes.Jensensuggests that Kennecott,andperhapsFranklin Furnaceand
the Joplin district, could be classedas metamorphichydrothermaldeposits,
but all would be epigenetic.
Althoughuraniumdepositsof the ColoradoPlateautype are now generally
ascribedto groundwaters (hot or cold), and are clearly epigenetic,the vari-
ation in sulfur isotopesof the associatedpyrite suggestsisotopicfractionation
throughbacterialactionon sulfatesolntions;as abouthalf the iron associated
with the depositsis introduced,someof the pyrite has a diplogeneticorigin
wherethe sulfuris an originalconstituent(36). Much of the pyrite, however,
replaced
wood (40), whichdoesnot providean originalsourceof eithersul-
326 T. 5'. LOI/'ERING

fur or iron; the woodprobablyactedas an organicnutrientmediumfor sulfate-

reducingbacteriathat precipitatedextrinsiciron and sulfur froln moving
solutions.Biogenicsulfurof this sortmightbe muchlaterthanthe enclosing
rocksand thenwouldnot 1)esyngenetic but epigeuetic,
in spiteof the isotopic
compositionof the sulfur.
Isotopicfractionation
may be causedl•y hypogenechemicalexchangere-
actionas well as by supergene biogenicreductionof the sulfate,and Jensen
pointsout the markedconcentration of the heavysulfurisotopes in hypogene
sulfatemineralsas contrastedwith the lighter sulfur in associatedsulfides.
There is alsothe possibilityof differentialmobilizationby eitherhypogeneor
supergenesolutions,and the fractionationthat may take place during the
diffusionof hydrogensulfidethrougha fine-grainedbut permeablerock. The
changein the Sa2/Sa4 ratio due to this latter causewonld be gradual and
related to hydrothermalconduits,but Jensen (oral communication,Nov. 1,
1960) notessomeevidenceof sucha changein the pyritizedcaprocksof blind
ore bodies in the Tintic district.
Spinks(37) hassuggested
the possibility
of isotopicfractionation
through
auto-chromatographic action of finely divided material; he reports the frac-
tionationof strontiumisotopesfrom a saturatedSrSO4 solutioncontaining
Sr• and Sr•ø which was added to the top of a colunto packed with SrSO4
crystalsand then elutedwith inactivesaturatedSrSO4 solution. A 30 percent
isotopeseparationwas noted between the leading and tailing fractions for a
10 cm column of strontium sulfate crystals. Spinks concludesthat parallel
situationsoccurin nature when subsurfacewaters passover slightly soluble
compoundsand that the isotopicseparationSa2//S a4by this mechanismmay be
of geologicimportance. Certainit is that any processinvolvingrecrystalliza-
tion of the solid phasein the presenceof solutionscontainingone or more
of the elementsof the crystalin differentand nonequilibriumisotopicratios
will result in new crystalsthat have a different isotopicratio from the original
ones.

At the presenttime we have only made a beginningin the broad field of

isotopegeology,but someconclusions seemclear.
1. Where the ratio of S '•2 to S a4 is less than that of the meteoritic sulfur
standard(2221) and the rangeof valuesis snmll (not more than 0.5 percent
of the ratio of Sa2to Sa4) for a given deposit,the sulfur representsa well-
homogenizedsinglesourceand is ahnostcertainlyof epigenetichydrothermal
origin.
2. Where the range of Sa2to Sa4is large (2 to 4 percentor more of the
Sa=/Sa4ratio) someor all of the sulfuris probablyof biogenicorigin or rarely
may have nmltiple inorganicsources;sulfur of this sort may have been
transportedfrom its original sourceby juvenile, metamorphic,or ground
water to form epigeneticdeposits.

DISCUSSION

Most mineral depositscan be readily classedas epigenetic,syngenetic,or

diplogenetic,
buttheoriginof somemajordeposits
in sedimentary
rocksandof
 GENESIS OF DEPOSITS 327

a few in igneousrocksis unclear. Most of the debatablekinds are in car-

bonaceous sedimentaryrocksthat containan appreciableamountof iron and
coppersulfide--such
astheWhite Pine depositof Michigan,theKupferschiefer
of Germany, and the disseminatedcopper depositsof the Copperbeltin
Northern Rhodesiaand Katanga (9, 13, 34, 43, 2, 31, 22).
Studyof the sulfurisotopesof thesecontroversial depositsas well as those
of similar beddeddeposits(Mount Isa) leadsto the conclusionthat someor
all of the sulfur presentwas formed originallythrough the biogenicreduc-
tion of sulfate. The origin of the heavy metalsin suchdepositspresentsa far
more difficult problem. Even in depositsthat are wholly syngeneticthe
heavy metalsmay have comefrom an entirely different sourcethan the or-
ganic matter or the biogenicsulfidein euxinic sediments. Fraser (12) has
describeda depositof this type that is still forming. The organicmatter in a
peat swampin southeastern New Brunswick,Canada,containsup to 10 per-
cent copper (dry weight), which is probably moving in oxygenatedwater
through the bedrock into the covering ground moraine through which it
percolates upwardinto the swamp,there to be fixed in the accumulating peat.
Sucha deposit,I believe,shouldbe termeda two-sourcesyngeneticdeposit.
A similar two-sourcesyngeneticorigin for the controversialcopper-bearing
sapropelicsedimentsseemsunlikely, but deep artesiancirculationunder the
seamight be activatedby volcanicor magmaticemanationsas has beenpro-
posedby Oftedahl (32) and by Kraume (19) for the Rammelsberg deposit.
Evidenceof contemporaneousvolcanicactivity--suchas presentedby benton-
ite beds--is still lacking. Nevertheless,the amount of biogenic copper in
black shalesand modern pelagic sediments,which is more than one-tenth
percentin somesamples(as noted earlier), suggeststhat under favorable
conditionsshallow-watereuxinic sedimentscouldhave a one-sourcesyngenetic
coppercontentapproachingcommercialconcentration.
Transportationof the copperobviouslydid take place,but there is a wide-
spreadmisconception--which is persuasivelystatedby Davidson (7)--that
natural waters cannot transport appreciableamountsof copper to euxinic
basins. The idea derives from analysesindicating that rivers and streams
drainingcopperdistrictscarry only minute amountsin solution,and is sup-
posedlystrengthened by the assumption that eventracesof copperin solution
are lethal to organisms,includingthoseof sapropels. Actually, ionic solution
is an unimportantmechanism of coppertransportin rivers. Copperis readily
complexed bothby solubleandbv insoluble organiccompounds, andbacteria
capableof precipitatingmetalliccopperthrivein solutions
containingas much
as 1,500ppm Cu if the solutionsalsocontainabundantorganicnutrients(24).
Certainfungi cangrow in saturatedcopper-sulfate solutions(38) and higher
formssuchas the bryophytescalled"coppermosses"are sotolerantof copper
as to be almostrestrictedto the outcropsof copperores (35).
Dead organicmatter can absorbor complexthe copperand so make it
mechanically or chemicallymobile;live organismscan precipitateit as sulfide
or native metal. A wide variety of sulfidemineralswere preparedby Baas
BeckingandMoore (1) throughbacterialactionon varioussolutions of heavy
metals:metalliccopper,corellite,digenite,argentite,sphalerite,
and galena
328 T. $. LOVERING

were preparedthrough bacterial sulfaterednctionin artificial sea water. Not

only can copperbe precipitatedbacteriallyin the laboratory,but it is also
precipitatedbiogenicallyin manycopper-bearing bogs.
The zonal relation of coppermineralsin the Roan Antelopearea of the
African Copperbeltsuggests higherratiosof sulfurto copperto the west (34,
13); sucha zoningwould be in harmonywith the expectedchangein sedi-
mentaryfaciesif the old shorehad lain to the eastwhile a highly euxinicbasin
existedfarther west--the explanationsuggestedby Garlick. The undoubted
mobilizationof copper,during or after metamorphismof the sediments,moved
the copper only a matter of several inchesfrom the adjacent wall rock ac-
cording to Garlick; if his observationsand interpretations are correct, the
copperhere still would be classedas an epigenetic,locally derivedlithogene
depositaccordingto the definitionsgiven earlier. It should be pointed out,
however, that Garlick attributes the mineralization of the Kipushi mine to
entirely different causesand believes that the genetic picture for the dis-
similar disseminatedcopperdepositsis quite different from that of the re-
placement of the limestone that overlies the tillite at the base of the
Kundelungu. The biogenicorigin of the sulfidesulfur of the Roan Antelope,
Mufulira, and N'Changa depositsis said to be established(31) whereasthe
sulfidesof the Kipushi mine show Sa•/Sa4values that are characteristicof a
hydrothermalnonbiogenicorigin (4).
The movement of copper during mobilization would seem to be much
greaterthan one centimeterin mostplacesin the Copperbelt,however (34, 25,
and suggeststhat the snpposedlysyngeneticcommercialdepositsare either
epigeneticor diplogenetic.
The zoning of the copperand the zinc in the Kupferschieferdepositsof
Germany as describedby Bain (2) would seem to support his explanation:
copper-bearingwater movedinto the sapropelicsedimentsafter they were de-
posited,and copperwas precipitatedas a sulfide--an explanationapparently
agreeablealsoto Davidson(7) and to Love (22). I would call suchdeposits
diplogenetic,however, as Love presentsconvincingevidencethat the pyrite,
which is replacedby the copperminerals,is syngenetic.

SU X[ MARY

A few of the more important guidesthat may help in classifyingdeposits

in sediments are summarized below:

Characteristicsof epigeneticdeposits:
1. The ore depositcutsacrossdifferentrock facies;
2. Its compositionprecludesthe presenceof relict chemicalcomponentsof
the walls of the deposit;
3. The Sa2/Sa4 ratio has a narrow range less than 0.5 percent of the
Sa2/Sa4ratio of meteoricsulfur (22.21:1);
4. The zonal arrangementof metalsis typical of hypogenedepositsand is
centeredaround an intrusiveor conduitindicatedby a zone of higher tem-
peraturealteration;
 GENESIS OF DEPOSITS 329

5. Isogradsof OX*/Oxøshow-a zonalarrangementindicatinga centerof

higher temperatures--aconduit--related to alterationand ore deposition;
6. Radiogenic isotopesshow the ores to be much younger than the
enclosingrocks.
Characteristics
of syngeneticdeposits:
1. The ore depositis confinedto one rock facies or the transition zone
from onefaciesto another. Concentration wherea facieschangesdoesnot of
itself indicatea syngeneticdeposit,but may merely indicate a chemicalor
physical gradient that caused precipitation of elementscarried in epigenetic
solutions;
2. The veinlets or other discrete concentrationsoccur in the facies, and
the quantity and compositionof the crosscuttingminerals must be permissive
of lithogeneorigin from the rock no more than a centimeteraway;
3. The Sa2/S34ratio has a relatively wide range, commonlymore than 2
percentof the Sa2/Sa4range of meteoriticsulfur;
4. Any zonal arrangementof the cation and the anion should be facies
controlled,compatiblewith that foundin sedimentarybasins,and independent
of postsedimenttectonics;
5. If the ore mineralsare clearly detrital, the depositmust be syngenetic.

Characteristics
of diplogeneticdeposits:
Mineral depositsthat have spacerelationscharacteristicof epigeneticores
and a compositionthat indicatesa syngeneticcomponentare probablydiplo-
genetic. Where the syngeneticcomponentis apparent, the epigeneticcon-
tribution may sometimesbe inferred from O•s/O •ø isogradsarounda conduit
for the deposit,or by Pb/Pb ratios that are characteristicof later deposits,
or by the age as shown by radioactiveisotopes. Conversely,when the epi-
geneticcharacterof the mineral depositis evident from spacerelationsthe
syngeneticcharacter of some elementsmay be inferred if they are present
both in the depositand the unalteredhost rock in similar concentration,or if
a wide rangein the isotopicratios of associatedsulfidesis established.
Characteristicsof lithogenedeposits:
The minerals are later than the enclosingrock, commonly are facies
controlled, and contain abnormally high concentrationsof chemical con-
stituents characteristic of the associated facies. The amount of the ore and
ganguein the mineral depositcouldbe furnishedby demonstrable
comple-
mentarylossesfor elementsin the countryrocks.
U.S. G•ozoc•c^z SURW¾,
DENVER•COLORADO)
December 4, !962

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* Contribution from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, New Series, no. 758. This
paper is based in part on results of research carried out for the Office of Naval Research and
the Bureau of Ships of the Navy Department.