74. Natural Convection

Natural Convection 10
10.1. Physical Mechanism. 10.2. Definitions—Buoyance force—Volumetric expansion coefficient—Grashof number. 10.3. Natural
Convection Over a Vertical Plate. 10.4. Empirical Correlations for External Free Convection Flow—Vertical plate—Horizontal surfaces
—Inclined plates—Free convection on a long cylinders—Free convection on a spheres. 10.5. Simplified Equations for Air. 10.6. Natural
Convection in Enclosed Spaces. 10.7. Summary—Review Questions—Problems—References and Suggested Reading.
10.1. PHYSICAL MECHANISM The motion that results from continuous

replacement of heated air in the vicinity of hot body by
In natural convection, the fluid motion is due to the adjacent cooler air is called a natural or free
buoyancy forces within the fluid. The buoyancy forces convection current and the resulting heat transfer is
are developed due to density variation in the fluid caused called natural convection heat transfer.
by temperature difference between the fluid and Warm
adjacent surface. The larger the temperature difference air
in adjacent fluid, the larger the buoyancy force and
stronger natural convection currents and higher the heat Heat
transfer rate. Whenever a heated object for an example transfer
a hot egg, is exposed to atmospheric air, the air adjacent
to the hot egg gets heated and becomes lighter (less Cold
dense) and thus rises up as shown in Fig. 10.1. This soda
motion leads to the formation of the boundary layer on
the surface of the egg and the heat is transferred from Cool
the warmer boundary layer to outer atmospheric air by air
natural convection. The velocity of air is zero at the Fig. 10.2. The warming up of a cold drink in a warmer
boundary surface and it is significant outside the environment by natural convection
boundary layer. The natural convection is an effective way to heat
Warm the cold surfaces in the warmer environment and to cool
air the hot surfaces in the colder environment as shown in
Fig. 10.2. Here the direction of fluid motion is reversed.
There are many situations, where the heat is
transferred by free convection to the surrounding air.
Heat transfer from a heater to heat a room, heat transfer
from pipes, transmission line, condenser coil of a
refrigerator, electric transformer, electric motors and
Heat electronic equipments are some typical examples of
transfer
Cool Hot natural convection heat transfer.
air egg In free convection, the fluid motions setup by
buoyancy forces are much smaller than those associated
with forced convection, therefore, the heat transfer rate
Fig. 10.1. The cooling of a boiled egg in a cooler environ- in natural convection is also smaller.
ment by natural convection
333
334 ENGINEERING HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
10.2. DEFINITIONS 10.2.3. Grashof Number

The flow regime in natural convection is characterised
10.2.1. Buoyancy Force
by a dimensionless number called the Grashof number,
In gravitational field, there is a net force that pushes which is defined as the ratio of buoyancy force to viscous
the light fluid upward from the heavier fluid. The force acting on the fluid. It is denoted as Gr and is given
upward force exerted by a fluid on a body that is by
completely or partially immersed in it, is called the
buoyancy force. The magnitude of buoyancy force is Hot
surface
equal to the weight of fluid displaced by the body
Fbuoyancy = ρfluid g Vbody ...(10.1)
where ρfluid is the average density of fluid, g is the Friction
acceleration due to gravity and Vbody is the volume force Cold
portion of the body immersed in the fluid. In absence of fluid
other effects, the net vertical force acting on the body is
the difference between the weight of the body and Warm
buoyancy force, fluid
i.e., Fnet = mg – Fbuoyancy

= ρbody g Vbody – ρfluid g Vbody Buoyancy
force
= (ρbody – ρfluid) g Vbody ...(10.2)
Fig. 10.3. The Grashof number measures the relative
The net force is proportional to the density
magnitude of buoyancy force and friction force acting
difference between the fluid and body immersed in it. on the fluid
Thus a body immersed in a fluid experiences a weight
loss equal to weight of the fluid it displaces. It is known Buoyancy force g∆ρV gβ∆T V
Gr = = =
as Archimedes principle. Viscous force ρν 2 ν2
10.2.2. Volumetric Expansion Coefficient ∆ρ

where β∆T = ; the fraction of volume change of fluid
The density of a fluid changes as its temperature ρ
changes. Thus the knowledge of density variation with corresponding to temperature change ∆T at constant
temperature at constant pressure is essential. The pressure.
property which relates these properties is called the Using V = Lc3 and ∆T = Ts – T∞ then it is formally
coefficient of thermal (or volumetric) expansion. It is expressed as
defined as the ratio of fractional change in volume to
g β (Ts − T∞ ) L3c
change in temperature at constant pressure, and it is Gr = ...(10.5)
denoted by β and is expressed as ν2
where g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
F I
1 ∂v
β=–
H K
v ∂T p
β = coefficient of volumetric expansion, K–1
1
= for ideal gases
1 Tf
using v=
ρ Ts = surface temperature, °C,
 ∂(1/ ρ)   1 ∂ρ  T∞ = free stream fluid temperature, °C,
Then β = ρ = ρ − 2
 ∂T  p 
 ρ ∂T  p
ν = kinematic viscosity of fluid, m2/s,
Lc = characteristic length of geometry, m
1  ∂ρ  = height L for vertical plates and cylinders
β=–   ...(10.3)
ρ  ∂T  p = diameter D for horizontal cylinders and
For an ideal gas; spheres,
p  ∂ρ  p Surface area A
ρ= , and   =− = = s , for any other geometry
RT  ∂T  p RT2 Perimeter P
The role of Grashof number is same, that is played
1 −1
Therefore, β = (K ) ...(10.4) by Reynolds number in forced convection. The Grashof
T number provides the criteria to distinguish the type of
where T is the absolute temperature.
NATURAL CONVECTION 335
flow: laminar or turbulent in natural convection. The the plate temperature at the surface and gradually
critical Grashof number for flow over plates is considered decreases to temperature of surrounding fluid at a
to be 109. Therefore, the flow on a vertical plate becomes distance at the outer edge of the boundary layer.
turbulent, if Grashof number exceeds 109. Fig. 10.4
shows an interferometer produced map of interference Ts Temperature
fringes of constant temperature lines over a hot plate in profile
air. The smooth and parallel lines in (a) indicate the
laminar flow, whereas, the eddies and irregularities
in, (b) indicate the turbulent flow.
T
Velocity
profile
u=0 u=0
g
Boundary Stationary
layer fluid at T
Ts
x Cold
fluid
(a) Laminar flow (b) Turbulent flow Fig. 10.5. Typical velocity and temperature profile for
natural convection flow over a hot vertical plate at Ts,
Fig. 10.4. Isotherms in natural convection over a hot exposed to fluid at T∞
plate in air
Ts > T Ts < T
y
10.3. NATURAL CONVECTION OVER A VERTICAL
PLATE
Turbulent
The heat transfer rate in natural convection depends x

on geometry of the surface as well as on its orientation. T
It also depends on temperature variation on the surface Laminar
Ts
and thermophysical properties of the fluid. Fig. 10.5

Wall
Wall
shows development of the velocity boundary layer for
natural convection on a vertical plate.
u
Consider a heated vertical plate at temperature
Laminar
Ts
Ts, exposed to a stagnant fluid at temperature

T
T∞ (Ts > T∞) as shown in Fig. 10.5. The fluid adjacent to x
Turbulent
the plate is heated and its density decreases. The

buoyancy force, therefore, induces a free convection
boundary layer, in which heated fluid rises up, leaving
y
the space for fluid from the cold region. This boundary
(a) Hot wall (b) Cold wall
layer grows in the flow direction. The fluid velocity is
zero at the surface of the plate (y = 0) because of no slip Fig. 10.6. Free convection on vertical plates
condition at the surface. It is also zero at outer edge of
The boundary layer developed initially is laminar,
boundary layer (y = δ), because fluid is stationary beyond but after certain distance from the leading edge,
the boundary layer. The fluid velocity increases with depending on the fluid properties and temperature
distance from the surface, reaches a maximum value difference the turbulent eddies are formed and transition
and again gradually decreases to zero at the outer edge to turbulent layer begins and further, it becomes fully
of boundary layer. The temperature of the fluid equals turbulent as shown in Fig. 10.6.
Fig. 10.6 (a) shows the natural convection 4. Since the magnitude of the velocity is small,
boundary layers on a heated vertical wall, while thus the viscous dissipation is negligible at
Fig. 10.6 (b) shows convection currents, and boundary any y.
layers on a cold vertical wall. After incorporating above assumptions in
In order to develop the governing equation, we eqn. (10.9) and (10.10), the integral momentum and
choose x coordinate along the vertical wall and y energy equations for control volume shown in Fig. 10.7
coordinate perpendicular to the wall. The new force is to become
z FG ∂u IJ
z
be considered as weight of the element fluid (gravitational
δ
force), then the momentum eqn. (7.15) derived earlier d δ
becomes ; dx 0
u2 dy = – ν
H ∂y K y=0
+βg
0
(T – T∞) dy
∂uFG ∂u IJ
∂p ∂ 2u ...(10.11)
ρ u
H
+v =–
K – ρg + µ 2 ...(10.6)
LM ∂(T − T ) OP
z
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
d δ ∞
where – ρg represents weight force exerted on the
element per unit area in downward direction.
and
dx 0
u(T – T∞) dy = – α
N ∂y Q y=0
...(10.12)
The pressure gradient at the edge of the vertical The boundary conditions for velocity profile are
boundary layer in x direction (u → 0 and ρ → ρ∞) are u=0 at y=0
due to change in density. Thus ; u=0 at y=δ
∂p ∂u
= – ρ∞ g ...(10.7) =0 at y = δ.
∂x ∂y
Substituting eqn. (10.7) in eqn. (10.6), we get ; And the boundary conditions for temperature
FG ∂u ∂uIJ ∂ 2u profile are
ρ u
H ∂x
+v
∂y K
= (ρ∞ – ρ) g + µ 2
∂y
...(10.8) T = Ts at y=0
The density difference (ρ∞ – ρ) can be expressed T = T∞ at y=δ
in term of coefficient of volumetric expansion as ∂(T − T∞ )
=0 at y=δ
1 ∂ρ FG IJ ρ∞ − ρ ∂y
β=–
ρ ∂T H K p
=
ρ (T − T∞ ) ∵ q=0
Substituting, we get l d l
rudy + rudy dx
F ∂u + v ∂u IJ = βρg(T – T ) + µ ∂ u
ρ Gu
2 0 dx 0
H ∂x ∂y K ∞
∂y 2
FG u ∂u + v ∂u IJ = βg(T – T ) + ν ∂ u 2
or
H ∂x ∂y K ∞
∂y 2 ...(10.9)
dx s Control
volume
It is the equation of motion for free convection
boundary layer. l
The energy equation for the free convection is T¥
same as that for a forced convection system, eqn. (7.20) Ts
FG u ∂T + v ∂T IJ = α ∂ T
2
x r¥ l
rudy
H ∂x ∂y K ∂y 2
...(10.10)
0
Von Korman integral technique can also be

x
applied to natural convection from a vertical surface with r
the following assumptions : y
1. The density variation is within boundary layer
Fig. 10.7. Control volume in boundary layer for natural
only. The flow is laminar and steady.
convection flow over a heated plate at Ts, exposed
2. The buoyancy effects are confined to boundary to fluid at T∞
layer region only and velocity v in y direction The temperature porfile is approximated by
is almost negligible. quadratic equation
3. The analysis is made for Pr = 1 i.e., δth = δ. T = C1 + C2 y + C3 y2
and the velocity profile is assumed to be cubical parabola

LM
d u0 (Ts − T∞ ) δ (T − T∞ )
= 2α s
OP
u = u1(a1 + a2 y + a3 y2 + a4 y3) dx N 30 δ Q ...(10.21)
where u1 = u(x), reference velocity where u0 and δ are function of x.
Then the velocity and temperature profiles are Let u0 = C1 xm and δ = C2 xn
given by Solution gives the value of constants C1 and C2 as
u y y FG IJ 2
LM 20 + ν OP RS g β(T − T ) UV
–1/ 2 1/2
u0
=
δ
1−
δ H K ...(10.13) C1 = 5.17 ν
N 21 α Q T ν W
s
2
∞
...(10.22)
g β (Ts − T∞ )δ 2
where u0 = u1
4ν
...(10.14)
FG 20 + ν IJ 1/4
RS g β(T − T ) UV −1/4
FG ν IJ −1/2
H 21 α K H αK
s ∞
T − T∞ y FG IJ 2
and C2 = 3.93
T ν W 2
and
Ts − T∞
= 1−
δ H K ...(10.15) Using constant C2, the thickness of velocity
boundary layer in natural convection over a vertical
Using the velocity profile, the location of surface is given by
maximum velocity is given by
δ 1
du d y y |RS FG IJ 2
|UV x
= 3.93(0.952 + Pr)1/4
Grx 1/ 4 . Pr 1/ 2
dy
= u0
dy δ
1−
δ |T H K |W The heat flux,
...(10.23)
=0=
1 4 y 3 y2
− + 3 =0 FG ∂T IJ 2k(Ts − T∞ )
δ δ2 δ q=–k
H ∂y K y=0
=
δ
= h(Ts – T∞)
or 3y2 – 4δy + δ2 = 0 ...(10.24)
4δ ± 16δ 2 − 4 × 3δ 2 4δ ± 2δ 2k
Its solution y = = or h=
2×3 6 δ
The Nusselt number
1 hx x 2x
δ y = δ or ...(10.16) Nux = =
3 kf δ
Since u = 0 at y = δ, therefore, the velocity u will
be maximum at y = δ/3 2
=
3.93 (0.952 + Pr) 1/ 4
Pr −1/2 . Grx −1/ 4
u0 1 4 FG IJ 2
umax =
3
1−
3
= u
27 0 H
...(10.17)
K Nux = 0.508 Pr1/2 (0.952 + Pr)–1/4 . Grx1/4
...(10.25)
On solution, the individual terms in momentum The eqn. (10.23) yields to
integral equation becomes
δ ∝ x1/4
z0
δ
u2dy = z δ
0
u02
y2
δ2
FG 1 − y IJ
H δK
4
dy =
u0 2 δ
105
...(10.18)
Thus as x increases, the boundary layer thickness
δ increases, and eqn. (10.25) results into
hx ∝ x –1/4
And for energy equation As x increases, the local heat transfer coefficient
z z
decreases. The average heat transfer coefficient
FG IJ FG IJ
z z
2 2
δ δ y y y
0
u(T – T∞) dy =
0
u0
δ H
1−
δ K (Ts – T∞) 1 −
H δ K dy
h=
1 L
hx dx =
1 L
C x–1/4 dx =
4
[C x3/4]x=L
L 0 L 0 3
u0 (Ts − T∞ ) δ
= ...(10.19) 4 4
30 = h or h ...(10.26)
3 x=L 3 L
Substituting in momentum eqn. (10.11)
F
d u0 2 δ I =–ν u g β (Ts − T∞ ) δ
The average Nusselt number for plate of height
GH
dx 105 JK δ
0
+
3
...(10.20) L is given by
NuL = 0.677 Pr1/2 (0.952 + Pr)–1/4 GrL1/4
and the energy eqn. (10.12), ...(10.27)
For air, Pr ≈ 0.72, the eqns. (10.25) and (10.27) 10.4.1. Vertical Plate
reduce to 1. Uniform wall temperature. The most useful
Nux = 0.378 Grx1/4 ...(10.28) correlation for a vertical plate maintained at uniform
NuL = 0.504 GrL1/4 ...(10.29) temperature Ts and exposed to a fluid at T∞ in natural
convection is proposed by Churchill and Chu as
Some more relations extracted from above
equations are the mean fluid velocity L
Nu = M0.825 +
0.387 Ra L
1/6 OP 2
27 MN {1 + (0.492 / Pr) 9 / 16 8 / 27
} PQ
umean = u ...(10.30) ...(10.37)
48 max
It may be used for entire range of RaL.
The local velocity of fluid
Some simplified empirical correlations for
FG 20 + PrIJ FG g β(T − T ) IJ
−1/2 1/2
laminar and turbulent natural convection are given
H 21 K H ν K
ux = 5.17 ν s ∞ ...(10.31)
2 below :
Laminar free convection :
The mass flow rate of fluid in boundary layer at
any location NuL = 0.59RaL1/4 for 104 < RaL < 109
...(10.38)
ρ δ ux Turbulent free convection
x =
m ...(10.32)
12 NuL = 0.13RaL1/3 for 109 < RaL < 1013
The total mass flow rate through the boundary ...(10.39)
2. Uniform surface heat flux. For free
= 1.7 ρν
m
LM GrL OP 1/ 4
convection over a vertical plate subjected to uniform heat
N (Pr) 2
(0.592 + Pr) Q flux qs at the wall surface has been studied and empirical
correlations have been proposed for average Nusselt
...(10.33)
number in laminar and turbulent regims ;
All the fluid properties are evaluated at the film
temperature Nu = 0.75 (GrL* . Pr)1/5 ...(10.40)
for 5 * 11
10 < Gr .Pr < 10 (laminar)
Ts + T∞
Tf = ...(10.34) Nu = 0.645 (GrL* . Pr)0.22 ...(10.41)
2 for 2 × 1013 < Gr*.Pr < 1016 (turbulent)
where the modified Grashof number Gr* is given by
10.4. EMPIRICAL CORRELATIONS FOR
g β qsL4c
EXTERNAL FREE CONVECTION FLOW Gr* = ...(10.42)
kν 2
Some analytical solutions for natural convection can only 10.4.2. Horizontal Surfaces
be obtained for simple geometries under some simplified The natural convection currents associated with heated
assumptions. Therefore, the correlations are developed horizontal surfaces are different from those, that
with the help of experimental data. Here some of the occurred on a vertical surface. The buoyancy force acts
recommended empirical correlations for determining normal to the surface and flow field depends on heating
natural convection heat transfer coefficient on certain configuration.
geometries are presented. The correlations are in the
1. Uniform surface temperature. Consider a
form of
horizontal heated surface at a uniform temperature Ts,
Nu = C(GrPr)n = C Ran ...(10.35) exposed to an ambient at T∞ (T∞ < Ts), as shown in
where Ra is the Rayleigh number, a product of Grashof Fig. 10.8.
and Prandtl numbers ; When heated horizontal surface is exposed to
surrounding air, the heated lighter fluid adjacent to the
g β(Ts − T∞ ) L c 3
Ra = GrPr = .Pr ...(10.36) surface tends to rise from the surface, but its motion is
ν2 supressed by the heavier, cooler fluid above it. After a
The values of constants C and n depend on the small disturbance, the natural convection currents are
geometry of the surface and flow regime. The value of n setup, then the heated fluid rises up and cooler fluid
is generally 1/4 for laminar flow and 1/3 for turbulent moves down to occupy the space vacated by the heated
flow. All the properties are evaluated at the film fluid as shown in Fig. 10.8 (a). On the contrast, if the
temperature Tf = (Ts + T∞)/2. heated surface is facing down, the transfer rate is
reduced in comparison with hot surface facing up. The The average Nusselt number for different
flow pattern of fluid on a cold horizontal surface facing configuration of horizontal plate is expressed in a form of
up is similar to that of the heated surface facing down,
Nu = C(Gr Pr)n ...(10.43)
and the flow with horizontal, cold surface facing down
is also similar to that of a heated surface facing up as h Lc g β ∆T L3c
shown in Fig. 10.8 (b). where Nu = and Gr = ...(10.44)
kf ν2
Lc = Characteristic length of the surface
As Surface area of the plate

= =
g P Perimeter of the plate
...(10.45)
The constant C and exponent n are listed in
Table 10.1. The physical properties of the fluid are
(a) Hot horizontal (b) Cold horizontal evaluated at film temperature Tf defined by eqn. (10.34).
surfaces (Ts > T¥) surfaces (Ts < T¥)
Fig. 10.8. Free convection from horizontal surfaces
TABLE 10.1. Constant C and exponent n used in eqn. (10.43) for natural convection
on a horizontal surface at uniform temperature
Orientation of plate Lc Range of Ra C n Flow regime

1. Hot horizontal surface facing As 1 < RaL < 200 0.96 1/6 Laminar
up or cold surface facing down P 200 < RaL < 104 0.59 1/4 Laminar
104 < RaL < 107 0.54 1/4 Laminar
107 < RaL < 1011 0.15 1/3 Turbulent
2. Hot horizontal surface facing As
down or cold surface facing up P 105 to 1011 0.27 1/4 Laminar
2. Uniform surface heat flux. Fujii and Imura The coefficient of volumetric expansion β is
studied the average Nusselt number for natural evaluated at T∞ + 0.25 (Ts – T∞).
convection on a horizontal surfaces subjected to uniform
heat flux qs and exposed to an ambient at T∞. The 10.4.3. Inclined Plates
following correlations are proposed for the cases in which The heat transfer coefficient for a downward facing heated
heated surface facing up and facing down. or upward facing cooled inclined plate at uniform
Horizontal surface with the heated surface facing temperature can be predicted from the correlation given
up for vertical plate by replacing gravitational term g by
gcos θ, where θ is the angle of inclination of the surface
Nu = 0.13 (GrL Pr)1/3 with vertical as defined in Fig. 10.9.
for RaL < 2 × 108 ...(10.46)
Nu = 0.16 (GrL Pr)1/3 vertical
for 5 × 108 < RaL < 1011 ...(10.47)

For downward facing heated surface or upward
facing cooled surface +q
Nu = 0.58 (GrL Pr)1/5 +q
for 106 < RaL < 1011 ...(10.48)
The physical properties of fluid are evaluated at
mean temperature defined as
Tm = Ts – 0.25 (Ts – T∞) ...(10.49) (a) Heated surface facing down (b) Cooled surface facing up
Here, for inclined surfaces, the fluid properties

are evaluated at mean temperature defined by
eqn. (10.49) as
Tf = Ts – 0.25 (Ts – T∞)
and β is evaluated at T∞ + 0.25(Ts – T∞).
–q
q
10.4.4. Free Convection on a Long Cylinders
1. Horizontal cylinder at uniform temperature. The
natural convection flow over the surface of a
horizontal cylinder shown in Fig. 10.10 is similar
(c) Upward facing heated surface, (d) Upward facing heated surface, to that occurs over a vertical wall, only the difference
GrL < Grc GrL > Grc
Fig. 10.9. Natural convection from surfaces
in various orientation
The characteristic length of the inclined plate is
the length along the plate and
g cos θ β ∆T L3
GrL = ...(10.50)
ν2
hL
RaL = GrL Pr, Nu = ...(10.51)
kf
When θ > 88°, the plate is slightly inclined with
the horizontal, and heated surface is facing downward,
then the correlations for horizontal plates may be used.
The orientation of heated surface facing up or
down affects the Nusselt number. The natural
convection from upward facing heated surface is more
complex than with downward facing heated plate. On
upward facing heated surface, for small value of GrL
(formed with g cos θ), the fluid motion parallel to plate Fig. 10.10. Natural convection around a horizontal cylinder
is similar to downward facing heated plate as shown in
Fig. 10.9 (c). But when the value of GrL exceeds a critical 50.9
value Grc, the boundary layer detaches itself from the 43.7
heated surface due to strong buoyancy force 36.5 29.3°C

perpendicular to the plate. The value of GrcPr depends
on θ and tabulated in Table 10.2. Further, the 58.1
correlations used for upward facing heated surface may

also be applied to downward facing cooled surface and
for such orientation (for angle between – 15 and – 75°), 65.3
72.5
a suitable correlation for average Nusselt number is 79.7
recommended
1 cm
86.9
Nu = 0.145 [(GrLPr)1/3 – (GrcPr)1/3] 94.1
+ 0.56 (GrcPr cos θ)1/4 ...(10.52)

11
valid for GrL Pr < 10 , GrL > Grc 101.4°C
The values of transition Grashof number Grc

depends on angle of inclination θ, it is listed in Table 10.2.
TABLE 10.2. Transition Grashof number
Grc used in eqn. (10.52)
θ, degree Grc
– 15 5 × 109
– 30 2 × 109 Fig. 10.11. Measured isotherms around a cylinder in air
– 60 108 when GrD ≈ 585 in natural convection
– 75 106
being that the surface of the cylinder is curved. Thus 2. Vertical cylinder at uniform temperature.
the Nusselt number and Grashof number are calculated The average Nusselt number for natural convection on
by using diameter D of cylinder as a characteristic a vertical cylinder is very similar to that for a vertical
length. For a wide range of Rayleigh number 10–3 < Ra plate, if the curvature effects are negligible. The
< 1013, the Churchill and Chu proposed the following correlation for vertical plate may be used for vertical
correlation for average Nusselt number for natural
cylinder given by eqns. (10.37), (10.38) or (10.39).
convection over a cylinder at uniform temperature at
Ts, exposed to ambient at T∞ ; 10.4.5. Free Convection on a Spheres
Nu = 0.6 +
LM 0.387 Ra D 1/6 OP
2
The natural convection around the spheres is very
MN {1 + (0.559 / Pr) 9 / 16 8 / 27
} PQ similar to that for horizontal cylinders. A simple
correlation for calculation of average Nusselt number
...(10.53)
for natural convection on a single sphere at uniform
gβ(Ts − T∞ ) D 3
where RaD = GrD Pr = Pr ...(10.54) temperature is given by Yuge as
ν2
Evaluate β at T∞ and all other properties at hD
Tf = (Ts + T∞)/2. NuD = = 2 + 0.43 RaD1/4 ...(10.56)
kf
A simple correlation for natural convection from
a horizontal isothermal cylinder is proposed by Morgan for 1 < RaD < 105 and Pr ≈ 1 and all properties at film
in the form temperature Tf , and characteristic length as diameter
hD D of sphere.
Nu = = C RaDm ...(10.55)
kf For a wide range of Rayleigh number Churchill
where the value of constant C and exponent m are recommended
function of RaD and are given in Table 10.3. All
properties are evaluated at film temperature Tf . 0.589 Ra D 1/4
NuD = 2 + ...(10.57)
TABLE 10.3. Constant C and exponent m used in [1 + (0.469 / Pr) 9 / 16 ]4 / 9
eqn. (10.55)
for RaD < 1011, Pr ≥ 0.7.
RaD C m All the properties at Tf except β at T∞.
10–10–10–2 0.675 0.058 The summary of correlations for average Nusselt
10–2–102 1.02 0.148 number in natural convection over various geometries
102–104 0.85 0.188 and orientations are presented in Table 10.4.
104–108 0.53 0.25
108–1012 0.13 0.333
TABLE 10.4. Summary of empirical correlations for the average Nusselt number for natural
convection over surfaces
Geometry Characteristic Range Nu

length Lc of Ra
Vertical plate 104–09 Nu = 0.59 Ra1/4
Ts 109–1013 Nu = 0.13 Ra1/3

L
L
R| 0.387 Ra 1/6 U| 2
Entire S|
Nu = 0.825 + V|
T [1 + (0.492 / Pr)9 / 16 ]8 / 27 W
range (complex but more accurate)
Inclined plate Use vertical plate equations as a

first degree of approximation
q L L Replace g by g cos θ for Ra < 109
Horizontal plate
(Surface area As and perimeter P)
(a) Upper surface of a hot plate 104–107 Nu = 0.54 Ra1/4
(or lower surface of a cold plate) 107–1011 Nu = 0.15 Ra1/3
Hot surface Ts
As
P
(b) Lower surface of a hot plate
(or upper surface of a cold plate) 105–1011 Nu = 0.27 Ra1/4
Hot surface Ts
Vertical cylinder Ts A vertical cylinder can be treated

L L as a vertical plate when
35L
D≥
Gr 1/4
Horizontal cylinder
Ts
R| 0.387 Ra 1/6 U| 2
D 105–1012 S|
Nu = 0.6 + V|
D
T [1 + (0.559 / Pr)9 / 16 ]8 / 27 W
1 0.589 Ra 1/ 4
Sphere D πD Ra ≤ 1011 Nu = 2 +
2 [1 + (0.469 / Pr)9 / 16 ]4 / 9
(Pr ≥ 0.7)
Example 10.1. Vertical door of a hot oven is 0.5 m high Ts = 200°C

and is maintained at 200°C. It is exposed to atmospheric Air
air at 20°C. Find (a) local heat transfer coefficient half
way up the door; (b) average heat transfer coefficient for
entire door ; (c) thickness of free convection boundary T = 20°C
LC = 0.5 m
layer at the top of the door.
Solution
Given : A vertical door of an oven
L = Lc = 0.5 m Ts = 200°C
T∞ = 20°C. Fig. 10.12. Schematic of vertical door
To find : The Rayleigh number

(a) Local heat transfer coefficient half way of RaL = GrL Pr = 9.76 × 108 × 0.687 = 6.71 × 108
door i.e., x = 0.25 m. Again the flow is laminar, using the eqn. (10.38)
(b) Average heat transfer coefficient. for determination of average Nusselt number
(c) Thickness of free convection boundary layer Nu = 0.59 RaL1/4 = 0.59 × (6.71 × 108)1/4
at the top of door i.e., x = Lc = 0.5 m. = 94.96
Assumptions : The average heat transfer coefficient h
(i) Heat convection from one side of the door only. Nu kf 94.96 × 0.0332
h= =
(ii) Negligible radiation heat transfer. Lc 0.5
= 6.30 W/m2.K. Ans.
(iii) Constant properties and steady state
conditions. (c) Thickness of free convection boundary layer
at x = 0.5 m using eqn. (10.23)
Analysis : The film temperature
δ 1
T + T∞ 200 + 20 = 3.93(0.952 + Pr)1/4
Tf = s = = 110°C x Grx 1/ 4 . Pr 1/ 2
2 2
δ
The properties of atmospheric air at 110°C from or = 3.93 × (0.952 + 0.687)1/4
Table A-4 0.5
ρ = 0.922 kg/m3, Cp = 1000 J/kg.K, 1
× 8 1/ 4 = 0.0303
µ = 2.24 × 10–5 kg/ms ν = 2.429 × 10–5 m2/s, (9.76 × 10 ) × (0.687) 1/2
kf = 0.0332 W/m.K, Pr = 0.687 or δ = 0.01517 m = 15.17 mm. Ans.
1 Example 10.2. Derive a relationship between Grashof
β= K–1 number and Reynolds number, assuming that the heat
383
(a) Local heat transfer coefficient at x = 0.25 m transfer coefficients over vertical plate for pure forced
The Grashof number at x = 0.25 m and natural convection are equal in laminar flow.
g β (Ts − T∞ ) L3c Solution

Grx = Given : For laminar forced convection :
ν2
1 Nu = 0.664 Re1/2 Pr1/3 ...(i)
9.81 × × (200 − 20) × (0.25) 3
383 For laminar natural convection, eqn. (10.27)
= = 12.2 × 107
(2.429 × 10 −5 ) 2 Nu = 0.677 Pr1/2 (0.952 + Pr)–1/4 GrL1/4
The Rayleigh number ...(ii)
Rax = Grx Pr where Nu = average Nusselt number and is expressed
= 12.2 × 107 × 0.687 = 8.388 × 107 as
The boundary layer is laminar (Rax ≤ 109), thus hL
using eqn. (10.25) for calculation of local Nusselt number Nu =
kf
Nux = 0.508 Pr1/2 (0.952 + Pr)–1/4 ⋅ Grx1/4 For equal heat transfer coefficients in natural
= 0.508 × (0.687)1/2 × (0.952 + 0.687)–1/4 and forced convection; equating eqns. (i) and (ii)
× (12.2 × 107)1/4 = 39.11 Gr 1/4 Pr 1/2
The local heat transfer coefficient 0.664 Re1/2 Pr1/3 = 0.667
(0.952 + Pr) 1/4
Nu x kf 39.11 × 0.0332
hx = = (0.952 + Pr)
x 0.25 or Gr ≈ Re2
= 5.2 W/m2.K. Ans. Pr 2 / 3
(b) Average heat transfer coefficient It is the required relationship between Grashof
The Grashof number at x = Lc number and Reynolds number.
1 Example 10.3. A vertical plate 15 cm high and 10 cm
9.81 × × (200 − 20) × (0.5)3
383 wide is maintained at 140°C. Calculate the maximum
GrL =
(2.429 × 10 −5 ) 2 heat dissipation rate from the both sides of the plate in
= 9.76 × 108 an ambient of at 20°C. The radiation heat transfer
coefficient is 9.0 W/m2.K. For air at 80°C, take The average convective heat transfer coefficient
ν = 21.09 × 10–6 m2/s, Pr = 0.692, kf = 0.03 W/m.K.
kf 0.030
Solution hc = Nu = 38.167 ×
Lc 0.15
Given : A vertical plate is exposed to air on its
both sides = 7.63 W/m2.K.
The convective heat dissipation rate from two
L = 15 cm = 0.15 m, w = 10 cm = 0.1 m
sides of the plate
Ts = 140°C, T∞ = 20°C, Qconv = hc (2wL) (Ts – T∞)
2
hr = 9.0 W/m .K ν = 21.09 × 10–6 m2/s = 7.63 × (2 × 0.1 × 0.15) × (140 – 20)
Pr = 0.692, kf = 0.03 W/m. K = 27.48 W
The radiative heat dissipation rate from two sides
T = 20°C
of the plate
Qrad = hr (2 wL) (Ts – T∞)
0.15 m
Ts = = 9.0 × (2 × 0.1 × 0.15) × (140 – 20)
140°
C = 32.4 W
Total heat dissipation rate from the plate
= Qconv + Qrad = 27.48 + 32.4
0.1 m = 59.88 W. Ans.
Example 10.4. Water at the rate of 0.8 kg/s at 90°C
Fig. 10.13 flows through a steel tube having 25 mm ID and 30 mm
OD. The outside surface temperature of the pipe is 84°C
To find : Maximum heat dissipation rate from
and temperature of surrounding air is 20°C. The room
both sides of a vertical plate.
pressure is 1 atm and pipe is 15 m long. How much heat
Analysis : For a vertical plate, the characteristic is lost by free convection in the room ?
length You may use correlation
Lc = Height of plate = 0.15 m Nu = 0.53 (Gr Pr)0.25 for 104 < Gr Pr < 109
The film temperature = 0.10 (Gr Pr)1/3 for 109 < Gr Pr < 1012
Take properties of air as
Ts + T∞ 140 + 20
Tf = = = 80°C = 353 K ρ = 1.0877 kg/m3, Cp = 1.0073 kJ/kg.K
2 2
µ = 1.9606 × 10–5 kg/ms,
The coefficient of volumetric expansion
kf = 0.02813 W/m.K. (P.U., Dec. 2010)
1 1 Solution
β= = K–1
Tf 353 Given : A hot pipe passes through a room as shown
The Grashof number at Lc = L in Fig. 10.14.
g β (∆T) L c 3 p = 1 bar
GrL = Ts = 84°C
ν2
1 (140 − 20) × (0.15) 3
= 9.81 × × Water Ti = 90°C Di = 25 mm Do = 30 mm
353 (21.09 × 10 −6 ) 2 .
m = 0.8 kg/s
= 2.53 × 107 15 m
The Rayleigh number T = 20°C
h
RaL = GrLPr = 2.53 × 107 × 0.692
Fig. 10.14. Schematic for a pipe passing a room
= 1.751 × 107
The Rayleigh number is less than 109, thus the To find : Heat dissipation by natural convection
flow is laminar using eqn. (10.38) to room.
Nu = 0.59 RaL1/4
= 0.59 × (1.751 × 107)1/4 = 38.167 Ts + T∞ 84 + 20
Tf = = = 52°C
2 2
1 1 1 kair = 0.02814 W/m.K,

β= = = K–1
Tf + 273 52 + 273 325 1
β= = 3.077 × 10–3 K–1
The characteristic length 325
Lc = Do = 30 mm = 0.03 m Analysis : The Grashof number with characteris-
The Grashof number tic length Lc of plate :
g β (Ts − T∞ ) L3c g β ∆T L3c
GrL = Gr =
ν2 ν2
ρ g β(Ts − T∞ ) L3c
2
= (9.81) × (3.077 × 10 −3 ) × (80 − 24) × L3c
µ2 =
(1.822 × 10 −5 ) 2
1
(1.0877) 2 × 9.81 × × (84 − 20) × (0.03) 3 = 5.092 × 109 Lc3
325
= Ra = Gr Pr = (5.092 × 109 Lc3) × (0.703)
(1.9606 × 10 −5 ) 2
= 1.60 × 10 5
= 3.579 × 109 Lc3
The Prandtl number (a) When 0.2 m side is vertical : Lc = L1 = 0.2 m
µ Cp 1.9606 × 10 −5 × 1007.3
Pr = = = 0.702 Ra L 1 = 3.579 × 109 × (0.2)3 = 28.637 × 106
kf 0.02813 Thus the flow is laminar, and using eqn. (10.38)
The Rayleigh number
1/4
RaL = Gr Pr = 1.60 × 105 × 0.702 = 1.12 × 105 Nu L 1 = 0.59 (Ra L 1 )
Thus using given correlation = 0.59 × (28.637 × 106)1/4 = 43.176
Nu = 0.53 (Gr Pr)0.25 The average heat transfer coefficient :
= 0.53 × (1.12 × 105)0.25 = 9.70
kair 0.02814
The average natural heat transfer coefficient h1 = Nu L 1 = 43.176 ×
L1 0.2
Nu kf 9.70 × 0.02813
h= = = 9.1 W/m2.K = 6.075 W/m2.K
Lc 0.03
The heat transfer rate :
The heat dissipation rate by natural convection
Q1 = h1 As (Ts – T∞)
Q = h As (Ts – T∞) = h (π Do L) (Ts – T∞)
= 6.075 × (0.2 × 0.4) × (80 – 24)
= 9.1 × (π × 0.03 × 15) × (84 – 20)
= 823.0 W. Ans. = 27.216 W. Ans.
Example 10.5. Consider a rectangular plate 0.2 m × 0.4 m T = 24°C

T = 24°C
is maintained at a uniform temperature of 80°C. It is
placed in atmospheric air at 24°C. Compare the heat
transfer rates from the plate for the cases when the 0.2 m
Ts =
80°C
80°C
vertical height is (a) 0.2 m and (b) 0.4 m. L2 = 0.4 m
Ts =
Solution
Given : A rectangular plate of size 0.2 m × 0.4 m; 0.4
m
L1 = 0.2 m, L2 = 0.4 m 0.2 m
Ts = 80°C, T∞ = 24°C. (a) Rectangular plate with (b) Rectangular plate with
To find : Comparison of heat transfer rates when 0.2 m side vertical 0.4 m side vertical
the vertical height is Fig. 10.15. Schematic for example 10.5
(a) 0.2 m and (b) 0.4 m.
(b) For the different vertical orientation of the
Properties of fluid : The mean film temperature; plate of Lc = 0.4 m. The relevant Rayleigh number is
Ts + T∞ 80 + 24
Tf = = = 52°C = 325 K Ra L 2 = 3.579 × 109 × (0.4)3 = 229.0 × 106
2 2
The properties of air at 325 K from Table A-4 ; The boundary layer is laminar, hence using
ν = 1.822 × 10–5 m2/s, Pr = 0.703 eqn. (10.38)
Nu L 2 = 0.59 (Ra L 2 ) 1/ 4 (Q 1 − Q 2 ) (27.216 − 22.848)

× 100 = × 100 = 16%
Q1 27.216
= 0.59 × (229.0 × 106)1/4 = 72.58
Heat transfer is 16% higher when the vertical
kair 0.02814 side is 0.2 m instead of 0.4 m side. Ans.
and h2 = Nu L 2 = 72.58 ×
L2 0.4 Example 10.6. A hot plate of 15 cm2 area maintained
at temperature of 200°C is exposed to still air at 30°C.
= 5.10 W/m2.K
When smaller side of the plate is held vertical, the
The heat transfer rate : convective heat transfer rate is 14% higher than that
Q2 = h2 As (Ts – T∞) when bigger side of the plate, held vertical. Determine
the dimensions of the plate. Neglecting the internal
= 5.10 × (0.2 × 0.4) × (80 – 24)
temperature gradients of the plate. Also calculate the heat
= 22.848 W. Ans. transfer rate in both cases. Use relation
The percentage decrease in heat transfer : NuL = 0.59 (GrPr)1/4
Use air properties
Temperature °C ρ, kg/m3 Cp, kJ/kg.K µ, kg/ms kf , W/m.K
30 1.165 1.005 18.6 × 10–6 0.0267

115 0.910 1.009 22.65 × 10–6 0.0331
200 0.746 1.026 26.0 × 10–6 0.0393
(P.U., Dec. 2006)

Solution T¥ = 30°C
Given : A hot plate exposed to air ; T¥ = 30°C
A = 15 cm2 = 15 × 10–4 m2, Ts = 200°C,

T∞ = 30°C, Qs = 1.14 × Qb
where, Qs = heat transfer rate when small side is Ls Ts = 200°C
Ts = 200°C 15/Ls
vertical
Qb = heat transfer rate when bigger side is
vertical.
15/Ls Ls
To find :
(a) (b)
(i) Plate dimensions.
(ii) Heat transfer rate in both cases. Fig. 10.16
Assumption : Surface radiation effect are The Grashof number for smaller side (Ls) vertical,
negligible.
g ρ2 β ∆T L3s
Properties of fluid : The mean film temperature; Gr =
µ2
Ts + T∞ 200 + 30 FG 1 IJ × (200 − 30) × L
Tf = = = 115°C = 388 K (9.81) × (0.910) 2 ×
H 388 K
3
2 2 s
=
The properties of air at 115°C from given table (22.65 × 10 −6 ) 2
ρ = 0.910 kg/m3, kf = 0.0331 W/m.K, = 6.937 × 109 L3s
Cp = 1.009 kJ/kg.K = 1009 J/kg.K, Prandtl number:
µ = 22.65 × 10–6 kg/ms,
1 1 µC p 22.65 × 10−6 × 1009
β= = K −1 Pr = = = 0.69
Tf 338 kf 0.0331
Analysis : (i) Considering the smaller side of the Ra = Gr Pr
plate is (Ls) cm, then bigger side 15/Ls cm.
= (6.937 × 109 Ls3) × 0.69 = 4.789 × 109 Ls3
We also have, Qs = 1.14 × Qb Solution

hs A(∆T) = 1.14 hb A(∆T) Given: 2.5 kW plate heater of size 10 cm × 20 cm ;
or hs = 1.14 hb w = 10 cm = 0.1 m, Lc = 20 cm = 0.2 m
Thus using the given relation
Q = 2.5 kW = 2500 W, T∞ = 40°C.
hL
Nu = s s = 0.59 × (4.789 × 109 Ls3)1/4 To find : Surface temperature of the heater plate.
kf
Assumptions :
...(i)
1. Steady state conditions.
kf
or hs = 0.59 × (4.789 × 109 Ls3)1/4 ...(ii) 2. No radiation heat transfer.
Ls
3. Heat transfer from one side of the plate and
Similarly, for bigger side (15/Ls) cm vertical,
other side as insulated.
L R 15 U O 3 1/ 4
× M4.789 × 10 S V P
kf L s 9 Analysis : The heat transfer rate can be given by
hb = 0.59
15 MN T L W PQ s Q = hAs(∆T) ...(i)
...(iii) hL c
Using the values of hs and hb in equation (i), we get and given relation, Nu = = 0.13(GrPr)1/3
kf
1 L
(Ls3)1/4 = 1.14 s ×
15 RS UV 3/ 4
kf
Ls 15 Ls T W or h = 0.13
Lc
(GrPr)1/3 ...(ii)
Solving we get smaller side, Ls = 3 cm
Trial 1. Assuming the surface temperature as
15
Hence bigger side Lb = = 5 cm. Ans. 100°C
3
(ii) The average heat transfer coefficient with The properties at (100 + 40)/2 = 70°C can be used
smaller side vertical :
g β ∆T L c 3
0.0331 The Grashof number, Gr =
hs = 0.59 × × [4.789 × 109 × (0.03)3]1/4 ν2
0.03
= 12.344 W/m2.K (9.81) × 5.7 × 10 −4 × (100 − 40) × (0.2) 3
The heat transfer rate : =
(0.415 × 10 −6 ) 2
Qs = hs A (Ts – T∞)
= 12.344 × 15 × 10–4 × (200 – 30) = 1.5584 × 1010
= 3.147 W. Ans. Substituting in eqn. (ii),
The heat transfer rate with bigger side vertical : 0.668
Qs = 1.14. Qb h = 0.13 × × (1.5584 × 1010 × 2.55)1/3
0.2
Qs
or Qb = = 2.76 W. Ans. = 1480 W/m2.K
1.14
Example 10.7. A 2.5 kW plate heater of size The heat transfer rate with this value of
10 cm × 20 cm is held vertical with 20 cm side in a water convection coefficient
bath at 40°C. Assuming the properties of water remains Q = 1480 × 10 × 20 × 10–4 × (100 – 40) = 1776 W
constant and the heat transfer takes place by convection
only, find the steady state temperature attained by the which is less than the heater rating of 2500 W, hence
heater. our assumption was wrong.
Use relation Nu = 0.13(GrPr)1/3 Trial 2. Assuming heater surface temperature
The properties of water are as 120°C
Temp. Cp, kf , ν, m2/s Pr β, K–1 120 + 40

Then Tf = = 80°C
°C J/kg.K W/m.K 2
60 4179 0.659 0.478 × 10–6 2.98 5.11 × 10–4 The properties of water from given table ;
70 4187 0.668 0.415 × 10–6 2.55 5.7 × 10–4
kf = 0.675 W/m.K, ν = 0.365 × 10–6 m2/s,
80 4195 0.675 0.365 × 10–6 2.21 6.32 × 10–4
Pr = 2.21, β = 6.32 × 10–4 K–1
(P.U., Nov. 2008)
Grashof number, Solution

Given : An electrical heated plate insulated on
9.81 × 6.32 × 10 −4 × (120 − 40) × (0.2) 3
Gr = one of its side;
(0.365 × 10 −6 ) 2 L = 60 cm = 0.60 m, w = 60 cm = 0.60 m
= 2.98 × 1010 Ts = 50°C, T∞ = 30°C, θ = – 50°.
Substituting in eqn. (ii) To find : The heat transfer rate when
0.675 (i) heated surface facing up,
h = 0.13 × × (2.98 × 1010 × 2.21)1/3
0.2 (ii) heated surface facing down.
= 1771.5 W/m2.K Properties of fluid : The mean temperature
The heat transfer rate Tf = Ts – 0.25 (Ts – T∞)
Q = 1771.5 × (10 × 20 × 10–4) × (120 – 40) = 50 – 0.25 × (50 – 30) = 45°C = 318 K
= 2834.4 W The physical properties of air at 318 K from
Table A-4 ;
Which is higher than the heater rating, thus this
assumption was also wrong. ν = 1.751 × 10–5 m2/s, Pr = 0.704
Trial 3. Assuming heater surface temperature kair = 0.0276 W/m.K,
as 114°C 1
β = T + 0.25 (T − T )
114 + 40 ∞ s ∞
Then Tf = = 77°C
2 1 1
= = K–1.
The properties of water at 77°C by interpolation 30 + 0.25 × (50 − 30) + 273 308
kf = 0.673 W/m.K, ν = 0.38 × 10–6 m2/s Analysis : Characteristic length Lc = L = 0.6 m
Grashof number,
Pr = 2.312 β = 6.134 × 10–4 K–1
g β ∆T L3c
Grashof number Gr =
ν2
9.81 × 6.134 × 10 –4 × (114 − 40) × (0.2) 3 F I
1
Gr =
(0.38 × 10 −6 ) 2 =
(9.81) ×
H K
308
× (50 − 30) × (0.6) 3
= 2.467 × 1010 (1.751 × 10 −5 ) 2

= 4.487 × 108
The heat transfer coefficient from eqn. (ii)
(i) For hot surface facing up and inclined at – 50°.
0.673 From Table 10.2, we have
h = 0.13 × × (2.467 × 1010 × 2.312)1/3
0.2 Grc = 3.33 × 108
= 1684 W/m2.K Using the relation,
The heat transfer rate with this value of heat Nu = 0.145 [(Gr Pr)1/3 – (Grc Pr)1/3]
transfer coefficient
+ 0.56(Grc Pr cos θ)1/4
Q = 1684 × (10 × 20 × 10–4) × (114 – 40)
= 0.145 × [(4.487 × 108 × 0.704)1/3 – (3.33 × 108
= 2495 W × 0.704)1/3] + 0.56 × {3.33 × 108 × 0.704
Which is very nearer to the value of heater rating, × cos (– 50°)}1/4 = 71.39
thus keeping the heater surface temperature as [Note : It can also be obtained by replacing g by g cos θ
114°C. Ans. in eqn. (10.38)]
Example 10.8. Consider an electrical heated square Therefore, the value of average heat transfer
plate (60 cm × 60 cm) with one of its surface thermally coefficient,
insulated and the other surface dissipating heat by free kf 0.0276
convection into atmospheric air at 30°C. The heat flux h = Nu. = 71.39 × = 3.284 W/m2.K.
Lc 0.6
over the surface of the plate is uniform and results in a The heat transfer rate from the plate,
mean temperature of 50°C. The plate is inclined at an
Q = h As(Ts – T∞)
angle of 50° from vertical. Determine the heat loss from
the plate for the following cases: (a) Heated surface facing = 3.284 × (0.6 × 0.6) × (50 – 30)
up; (b) Heated surface facing down. = 23.64 W. Ans.
(ii) For the hot surface facing down, (θ = + 50°) ρ = 1.165 kg/m3, Cp = 1005 J/kg.K
the relation is µ = 1.865 × 10–5
kg/ms. ν = 16.0 × 10–6 m2/s,
Nu = 0.56 (Gr Pr cos θ)1/4 kf = 0.0264 W/m.K Pr = 0.72,
= 0.56 × [4.487 × 108 × 0.704 × cos (50°)]1/4 1
= 66.85 β= K–1
303
kf 0.0276 The characteristic length of the geometry
and h = Nu = 34.7 × = 3.075 W/m2.K A 0.4 × 0.5
Lc 0.6
Lc = s = = 0.111 m
P 2 × (0.4 + 0.5)
The heat transfer rate from the plate,
Grashof number
Q = h As(Ts – T∞) = 3.075 × (0.6 × 0.6)
× (50 – 30) g β ∆T L c 3
Gr =
= 22.14 W. Ans. ν2
1
Example 10.9. The size of CPU of a personal computer 9.81 × × (40 − 20) × (0.111) 3
= 303
is 40 cm wide, 50 cm deep, and 10 cm high. Its top surface
(16.0 × 10 −6 ) 2
is dissipating 25 W to its surrounding air at 20°C.
= 3.46 × 106
Calculate the temperature of the top surface.
Rayleigh number
Solution Ra = Gr Pr = 3.46 × 106 × 0.72 = 2.49 × 106
Given : T∞ = 20°C Q = 25 W L = 40 cm Thus for hot horizontal plate facing up from
w = 50 cm H = 10 cm. Table 10.1
C = 0.54, n = 1/4
L = 40 cm
Nu = 0.54(Gr Pr)1/4 = 0.54 × (Ra)1/4
= 0.54 × (2.49 × 106)1/4 = 21.45
w = 50 cm
25 W The heat transfer coefficient
Nu kf 21.45 × 0.0264
h= = = 5.10 W/m2.K.
H = 10 cm CPU Lc 0.111
Fig. 10.17. Top surface of a computer to dissipate 25 W Using values in eqn. (i)
25 = 5.10 × (0.4 × 0.5) × (Ts – 20)
To find : Ts, the top surface temperature.
we get Ts = 44.5°C
Assumptions :
which is greater than assumed value, thus repeating
(i) Steady state conditions,
calculation with 44°C
(ii) Uniform surface temperature,
44 + 20
(iii) The conduction and radiation heat transfer Tf = = 32°C (305 K)
from top and sides are negligible 2
The properties of air from Table A-4 ;
(iv) No monitor above the CPU.
ρ = 1.157 kg/m3, Cp = 1005 J/kg.K.
(v) Air as an ideal gas.
µ = 1.885 × 10–5 kg/ms, ν = 16.192 × 10–6 m2/s
Analysis : The convection heat transfer rate is
kf = 0.028 W/m.K, Pr = 0.7
given by
Q = h As (Ts – T∞) ...(i) g β (Ts – T∞ ) L c 3
RaL = Pr
ν2
The surface temperature Ts is unknown and it is
1
required to evaluate the properties of air for determi- 9.81 × × (44 − 20) × (0.111) 3
nation of heat transfer coefficient h. 305
= × 0.7
(16.192 × 10 −6 ) 2
We assume Ts as 40°C, then film temperature = 2.82 × 106
Ts + T∞ 40 + 20 Nu = 0.54(RaL)1/4 = 22.12
Tf = = = 30°C
2 2 Nu kf 22.12 × 0.028
The physical properties of air at 30°C from h= = = 5.58 W/m2.K
Table A-4 ; Lc 0.111
The heat transfer rate For four vertical surface of the cube, Lc = L = 0.1 m
Q = h As (Ts – T∞) RaL = 6.108 × 109 × (0.1)3 = 6.11 × 106
or 25 = 5.58 × (0.4 × 0.5) × (Ts – 20) Using the relation from Table 10.4
or Ts = 42.4°C NuL= 0.59 × (RaL)1/4 = 0.59 × (6.11 × 106)1/4
which is very close to the assumed value of 44°C, thus = 29.33
keeping the temperature of top surface as 42.4°C. Ans.
The average value of heat transfer coefficient on
Example 10.10. A block 10 cm × 10 cm × 10 cm in size vertical surfaces
is suspended in still air at 10°C with one of its surface
kair 0.03
in horizontal position. All surfaces of the block are main- hv = NuL = 29.33 × = 8.8 W/m2.K
tained at 150°C. Determine the total heat transfer rate Lc 0.1
from the block. (N.M.U., Dec. 2002) The heat transfer rate from 4 vertical faces :
Solution Qv = hv As (Ts – T∞)
Given : L = 10 cm = 0.1 m, = (8.8 W/m2.K) × (4 × 0.1 m × 0.1 m)
w = 0.1 m, z = 0.1 m, × (150 – 10)(K) = 49.28 W.
Ts = 150°C, and T∞ = 10°C. For top surface of the cube, the characteristic
length is
cm As 0.1 × 0.1
10 Ts = 150°C Lc = = = 0.025 m
P 2 × (0.1 + 0.1)
Ra = 6.108 × 109 × (0.025)3 = 95437.5
Using the relation from Table 10.4
10 cm
°C
Nu = 0.54(Ra)1/4 = 0.54 × (95437.5)1/4 = 9.49
10
= The average value of heat transfer coefficient on
T
10 cm top surfaces
0.03
hT = 9.49 × = 11.388 W/m2.K
Fig. 10.18. Schematic of cubical block 0.025
To find : The heat transfer rate from the top surface :
Heat transfer rate from the cubical block. QT = hT As (Ts – T∞)
Properties of fluid : The film temperature = 11.388 × (0.1 × 0.1) × (150 – 10) = 15.94 W.
Ts + T∞ (150 + 10) For bottom surface of the cube, the characteristic
Tf = = = 80°C = 353 K length is
2 2
The properties of air from Table A-4 ; As
Lc = = 0.025 m
ν = 2.107 × 10–5 m2/s, Pr = 0.697 P
kair = 0.03 W/m.K, Ra = 6.108 × 109 × (0.025)3 = 95437.5
1 Using the relation from Table 10.4
β= = 2.832 × 10–3 K–1.
353 Nu = 0.27(Ra)1/4 = 0.27 × (95437.5)1/4 = 4.75
Analysis : The Grashof number, The average value of heat transfer coefficient
g β ∆T L3c 0.03
Gr = hB = 4.75 × = 5.7 W/m2.K
ν 2 0.025
The heat transfer rate from the plate,
(9.81) × (2.832 × 10 −3 ) × (150 − 10) × L3c
= QB = hB As (Ts – T∞)
(2.107 × 10 –5 ) 2
= 8.763 × Lc3 109 = 5.7 × (0.1 × 0.1) × (150 – 10) = 7.97 W.
The Rayleigh number, Total heat transfer rate from the block
Ra = Gr Pr = (8.763 × 109 Lc3) × (0.697) Qv + QT + QB = 49.28 + 15.94 + 7.97
= 6.108 × 109 Lc3 = 73.2 W. Ans.
Example 10.11. A circular disc heater 0.2 m in diameter

is exposed to ambient air at 25°C. One surface of the Ts = 130°C
disc is insulated and other surface is maintained at
130°C. Calculate the amount of heat transferred from
the disc when it is (i) horizontal with hot surface facing
up, (ii) horizontal with hot surface facing down, and
(iii) vertical. T = 25°C
Solution Fig. 10.19 (i) Horizontal disc facing down
Given : A circular disc in different configuration The heat transfer rate from the disc ;
exposed to air :
Q1 = h1 As (Ts – T∞)
D = 0.2 m, Ts = 130°C, T∞ = 25°C.
= 8.98 × (π/4) × (0.2)2 × (130 – 25)
To find : The heat transfer rate from the disc when ;
= 29.64 W. Ans.
(i) horizontal with hot surface facing down,
(ii) For horizontal disc facing up :
(ii) horizontal with hot surface facing up and,
The significant length remains same.
(iii) vertical.
Hence Ra = 4.734 × 109 × (0.05)3 = 591.81 × 103
Properties of fluid : The mean film temperature
Thus the flow is laminar, and for horizontal disc
T + T∞ 130 + 25 facing up the correlation from Table 10.2
Tf = s = = 77.5°C = 350.5 K
2 2 Nu = 0.27(Ra)1/4
The physical properties of air : = 0.27 × (591.81 × 103)1/4 = 7.488
ν = 2.08 × 10–5 m2/s, Pr = 0.697 The average heat transfer coefficient,
1 1 kair 0.03
kair = 0.03 W/m.K, β= = K −1 h2 = Nu = × 7.488 = 4.493 W/m2.K
Tf 350.5 Lc 0.05
Analysis : The Grashof number with character- T = 25°C
istic length Lc :
g β ∆T L c 3
Gr =
ν2
F 1 I × (130 − 25) × L
H 350.5 K
3
(9.81) × c Ts = 130°C
=
(2.08 × 10 − 5 ) 2
= 6.79 × 109 L3c Fig. 10.19 (ii) Horizontal disc facing up
The Rayleigh number, The heat transfer rate from the disc ;
Ra = Gr Pr = (6.79 × 109 Lc3) × (0.697) Q2 = h2 As (Ts – T∞)
= 4.734 × 109 Lc3. = 4.493 × (π/4) × (0.2)2 × (130 – 25)
(i) For horizontal disc facing down : = 14.82 W. Ans.
(iii) For vertical disc :
As (π / 4) D 2 D
Lc = = = = 0.05 m Lc = D = 0.2 m
P πD 4
Hence Ra = 4.734 × 109 × (0.05)3 = 591.81 × 103
Thus the flow is laminar, and for horizontal disc
facing down, the correlation from Table 10.2
Ts = 130°C
Nu = 0.54(Ra)1/4
= 0.54 × (591.81 × 103)1/4 = 14.977
T = 25°C
The average heat transfer coefficient of air,
kair 0.03
h1 = Nu = × 14.977 = 8.98 W/m2.K
Lc 0.05
Fig. 10.19 (iii) Vertical disc
Hence RaD = 4.734 × 109 × (0.2)3 = 37.872 × 106 Rayleigh number

Thus the flow is laminar, and for vertical disc, RaL = GrLPr
from Table 10.4; = 6.404 × 103 × 0.7 = 4.483 × 103
NuD = 0.59 (RaD)1/4 Flow is laminar.
= 0.59 × (37.872 × 106)1/4 = 46.28 Nusselt number
The average heat transfer coefficient, NuL = 0.59(RaL)1/4
kair 0.03 = 0.59 × (4.483 × 103)1/4 = 4.82
h3 = NuD = × 46.28 = 6.94 W/m2.K Average heat transfer coefficient
Lc 0.2
The heat transfer rate from the disc; kf 0.03
h = Nu L × = 4.82 ×
Q3 = h3 As (Ts – T∞) Lc 0.01
= 6.94 × (π/4) × (0.2)2 × (130 – 25) = 14.48 W/m2.K
= 22.9 W. Ans. For top surface (5 cm × 5 cm) of chip
A s 0.05 × 0.05
Example 10.12. A computer chip, square in horizontal Lc = = = 0.0125 m
position, produces heat, while functioning. It was found p (4 × 0.05)
that there are two cooling solutions : (i) air, and (ii) water. 3
 0.0125 
Calculate, which is the better, when chip temperature is Then Rat = 4.483× 103 ×  
127°C and exposed in air at 27°C. The chip protrudes from  0.01 
= 8.755 × 10 3
the base. The chip is 1 cm high and 5 cm × 5 cm in size.
For hot surface facing up from Table 10.1
Solution
Nut = 0.54 Ra1/4
Given : A computer chip with
= 0.54 × (8.755 × 103)1/4 = 5.223
Lc = L = 1 cm = 0.01 m
0.03
w = 5 cm = 0.05 m, z = 0.05 m ht = 5.223 × = 12.536 W/m2.K.
0.0125
Ts = 127°C, T∞ = 27°C
Heat convection rate to air from sides and top
To find : Better solution of cooling
surface of chip
Assumptions :
Q = hL × 4 side area × ∆T +
1. Steady state conditions.
ht × top surface area × ∆T
2. Heat transfer by natural convection from all
= 14.48 × (4 × 0.05 × 0.01) × 100
four vertical sides and top surface of chip.
+ 12.536 × (0.05 × 0.05) × 100
3. Constant properties.
= 2.896 + 3.134 = 6.03 W. Ans.
Analysis :
(ii) Properties of water at 350 K.
Mean film temperature
µf = 343 × 10–6 kg/ms, ρf = 973.9 kg/m3
Ts + T∞
Tf = = 77°C or 350 K kf = 0.668 W/m.K, Prf = 2.29,
2
β = 624.2 × 10–6 K–1
(i) Properties of air
ν = 20.92 × 10–6 m2/s, µf 343 × 10−6
ν= = = 3.522 × 10–7
kf = 0.03 W/m.K, Pr = 0.7 ρf 973.9
1 For sides Lc = 0.01 m
β= K–1
350 9.81 × 624.2 × 10 −6 × (127 − 27) × (0.01)3
For vertical 1 cm height of computer chip, Grashof GrL =
number (3.522 × 10 −7 )2
= 4.934 × 106
g β ∆TL3c
GrL = RaL = 11.30 × 106 (Laminar flow)
ν2 NuL = 0.59(RaL)1/4
1 (127 − 27) × (0.01)3 = 0.59 × (11.30 × 106)1/4 = 34.20
= 9.81 × ×
350 (20.92 × 10−6 )2 0.668
= 6.404 × 103 hL = 34.20 × = 2285 W/m2.K
0.01
For top surface Lc = 0.0125 m ν = 23.18 × 10–6 m2/s

3 kf = 0.0321 W/m.K, Pr = 0.688.
 0.0125 
Rat = 11.30 × 106 ×   Assumptions :
 0.01 
= 22.07 × 10 6 1 Radiation heat transfer is negligible.
Nut = 0.54 (Rat)1/4 2. Heat transfer from both sides of plate.
= 0.54 × (22.07 × 106)1/4 = 37.012 3. Transient heat conduction.
4. Constant properties.
0.668
ht = 37.012 × = 1977.94 W/m2.K Analysis : (i) The characteristic length
0.0125
Lc = L = 0.5 m
Heat transfer to water by free convection
The Grashof number,
Q = 2285 × (4 × 0.05 × 0.01) × 100
+ 1977.94 × (0.05 × 0.05) × 100 g β ∆T L c 3
GrL =
= 457 + 494.5 = 951.5 W. Ans. ν2
Hence water is better coolant. Ans. (9.81) × (2.68 × 10 −3 ) × (180 − 20) × (0.5)3
=
(23.18 × 10 −6 )2
Example 10.13. A hot plate 1 m × 0.5 m at 180°C is = 978.95 × 10 6
kept in still air at 20°C. Find :
Rayleigh number,
(i) The heat transfer coefficient.
RaL = GrL.Pr = (978.95 × 106 × 0.688)
(ii) Initial rate of cooling of the plate in °C/min. = 673.52 × 106
(iii) Time required to cool the plate from 180°C to The boundary layer is laminar, hence using the
80°C, if the heat transfer is due to convection only. relation,
Mass of the plate is 20 kg and specific heat is NuL = 0.59 (RaL)1/4 = 0.59 × (673.52 × 106)1/4 =
400 J/kg.K. Assume that the 0.5 m sides is vertical. 95
Solution The average value of heat transfer coefficient
Given : L = 0.5 m, w = 1 m, kf 0.0321
h = NuL = 95 ×
Ts = 180°C, T∞ = 20°C Lc 0.5
m = 20 kg, C = 400 J/kg K. 2
= 6.1 W/m .K. Ans.
T = 20°C (ii) The initial rate of cooling can be obtained by
energy balance as
m=
2 Rate of decrease of internal energy = Rate of heat
L = 0.5 m Ts = 0 kg
180°
C
convection from the plate
Cp =
400
J/kg dT
.K
or –mC = h As (Ts – T∞)
dt
w= dT 6.1 × (2 × 1 × 0.5 m 2 ) × (180 − 20)
1m or =
dt 20 × 400
= – 0.122°C/s
Fig. 10.20
= – 7.322°C/min. Ans.
To find :
(iii) The time taken by plate to cool to 80°C :
(i) Heat transfer coefficient,
(ii) Initial rate of cooling of plate in °C/min, T − T∞
= exp −
LM
h As t
= exp −
OP
h As t LM OP
(iii) Time required to cool the plate to 80°C. Ti − T∞ N
ρ VC Q
mC N Q
Properties of fluid : The mean film temperature
F
T − T∞ I
T + T∞
Tf = s =
180 + 20
= 100°C = 373 K
or t=–
mC
h As
ln GH
Ti − T∞
JK
2 2
The properties of air, 20 × 400 80 − 20 LM OP
β=
1
= 2.68 × 10–3 K–1,
=–
6.1 × 2 × 1 × 0.5
× ln
180 − 20 N Q
373 = 1286 s = 21.43 min. Ans.
Example 10.14. Estimate the heat transfer rate from a The average Nusselt number
100 W incandescent bulb at 140°C to an ambient at 24°C. Nu = 0.60 (Gr Pr)1/4
Approximate the bulb as 60 cm diameter sphere.
Calculate the percentage of power lost by natural = 0.60 × (1.503 × 106 × 0.699)1/4
convection. = 19.21 W/m2.K
Use following correlation and air properties ; The average heat transfer coefficient
Nu = 0.60 (GrPr)1/4
Nu kf 19.21 × 30.38 × 10−3
The properties of air at 82°C are h= =
Lc 0.06
ν = 21.46 × 10–6 m2/s,
kf = 30.38 × 10–3 W/m.K, = 9.73 W/m2.K.
Pr = 0.699. (M.U., May 2002) The heat dissipation rate by natural convection
Solution Qconv = h (πD2) (Ts – T∞)
Given : The heat convection rate from a 100 W = 9.73 × [π × (0.06)2] × (140 – 24)
bulb (sphere)
= 12.76 W
D = 60 mm = 0.06 m, Ts = 140°C
Percentage of power lost by natural convection
T∞ = 24°C, Qgen = 100 W.
Q conv 12.76
= × 100 = × 100
Q gen 100
= 12.76%. Ans.
Example 10.15. Two horizontal steam pipes having
diameters 100 mm and 300 mm are so laid in a boiler
house that the mutual heat transfer may be neglected.
Ts = 140°C
The surface temperature of each of the steam pipe is
480°C. If these pipes are exposed in an ambient at 30°C.
Light
Calculate the ratio of heat transfer coefficients and heat
losses per metre length of the pipes.
T = 24°C
Solution
Given : Two horizontal steam pipes exposed in a
boiler house.
Fig. 10.21. Schematic of an incandescent bulb D1 = 100 mm = 0.1 m, Ts = 480°C
To find : Percentage power lost by natural convec- D2 = 300 mm = 0.3 m, T∞ = 30°C.
tion.
To find :
Assumptions :
(i) Ratio of heat transfer coefficients over two
(i) Negligible radiation heat transfer.
pipes.
(ii) Steady state condition and constant proper-
ties. (ii) Ratio of heat losses per metre length of two
steam pipes.
Analysis. The film temperature
Ts + T∞ 140 + 24 Analysis : In natural convection heat transfer,
Tf = = = 82°C = 355 K the Nusselt number is expressed as
2 2
1 1 Nu = C(Gr Pr)1/n
β= = K–1
Tf 355
Characteristic length, Lc = D = 0.06 m
L g β ∆T D
=CM
3 O
Pr P
1/ 4
g β (Ts – T∞ ) L c 3 N ν 2
Q
Gr = Nu ∝ D3/4
ν2
1 (140 − 24) × (0.06) 3 hD 1
= 9.81 × × or ∝ D3/4 or h ∝ 1/ 4
355 (21.46 × 10 −6 ) 2 kf D
= 1.503 × 10 6
(i) The ratio of heat transfer coefficients 10.5. SIMPLIFIED EQUATIONS FOR AIR
h1 FG IJ
D2
1/4
FG 300 IJ 1/4
At atmospheric pressure and moderate temperature,
h2
=
D1H K =
H 100 K range, some simplified expressions given in Table 10.5,
= 1.316. Ans. can be used for natural convection on isothermal
(ii) Similarly Q = h(πDL) ∆T surfaces exposed to air. The use of these relations can
be extended to CO, CO2, O2, N2 and the flue gases for
Q1 h1D 1 100
Ratio = = 1.316 × the temperature ranges from 20°C to 800°C. For more
Q2 h2 D 2 300 precise approximation, the expressions presented in
= 0.438. Ans. Table 10.4 must be used.
TABLE 10.5. Simplified relations for free convection to air at atmospheric pressure and
moderate temperature
Sr. Geometry Characteristic Type of Flow Range of Correlation

No. Length, Lc Gr Pr h=
1. Vertical Planes and Height, L Laminar 104 ≤ Ra ≤ 108 1.42(∆T/L)1/4

Vertical Cylinders Turbulent 108 ≤ Ra ≤ 1012 1.31(∆T)1/3
2. Horizontal Cylinder Diameter, D Laminar 104 ≤ Ra ≤ 108 1.32(∆T/D)1/4
Turbulent 108 ≤ Ra ≤ 1012 1.24(∆T)1/3
As
3. Horizontal Plates
P
(i) Heated surface facing Laminar 104 ≤ Ra ≤ 107 1.32(∆T/Lc)1/4
down or cold surface
facing up Turbulent 107 ≤ Ra ≤ 1011 1.52(∆T)1/3
(ii) Heated surface facing Laminar 105 ≤ Ra ≤ 1010 0.59(∆T/Lc)1/4
up or cold surface
facing down
Example 10.16. 1 cm O.D. horizontal copper tube carries Assumptions :

liquid freon at – 30°C. If 2 m length of this tube must (i) Negligible convection resistance at the inner
pass uninsulated through the still air at 40°C, determine side of tube.
the heat leakage when outside tube surface emissivity is (ii) Constant properties.
0.8. Use the following properties and correlations for
D = 1 cm = 0.8
determination of convection coefficient ;
Air properties : β = 3.597 × 10–3 K–1 , Pr = 0.69, Freon
ν = 1.66 × 10–5 m2/s, kf = 0.028 W/m.K –30°C
Correlation for free convection ; L=2m

T = 40°C = 313 K
h = 1.32(∆T/D)1/4 for 103 < Ra < 109
h = 1.24 (∆T/D)1/3 for 109 < Ra < 1012. Fig. 10.22
(J.N.T.U., Nov. 2003) Analysis : The Grashof number with characteris-
Solution tic length Lc = D
Given : Horizontal copper tube carries liquid gβ∆T D3
Gr =
Freon : ν2
D = 1 cm = 0.01 m, L = 2 m,
(9.81) × (3.597 × 10 −3 ) × (40 + 30) × (0.01) 3
T∞ = 40°C = 313 K, ε = 0.8, =
(1.66 × 10 −5 ) 2
Ts = – 30°C = 243 K,
= 8963.78
To find : The heat loss from the tube.
The Rayleigh number, To find :

Ra = Gr Pr = (8963.78 × 0.69) = 6185 (i) Natural convection heat transfer rate, then
The Ra lies between 103 and 109, hence using the (ii) Emissivity of the pipe surface.
relation,
Assumptions :
1/4 1/4
 ∆T   40 + 30  1. Steady state conditions.
h = 1.32   = 1.32 ×  
 D   0.01  2. Stefan Boltzmann constant as 5.67 × 10–8
= 12.074 W/m2.K W/m2.K4.
The heat loss rate from the horizontal pipe by 3. Room walls are at 30°C.
convection ; 4. Constant properties.
Qc = h(πDL)(Ts – T∞) Analysis : The film temperature
= 12.074 × (π × 0.01 × 2) × (40 + 30)
= 53.1 W Ts + T∞ 200 + 30
Tf = = = 115°C
The heat loss rate from horizontal pipe by 2 2
radiation ; 1 1 1
Qr = σ ε As(Ts4 – T∞4 ) β= = = K–1
Tf + 273 115 + 273 388
= 5.67 × 10–8 × (0.8) × (π × 0.01 × 2)
The characteristic length
× (3134 – 2434)
= 17.41 W Lc = D = 0.2 m
The total heat loss rate from the pipe The Grashof number
Qc + Qr = 53.1 + 17.41 = 70.5 W. Ans. g β (Ts − T∞ ) L3c
Gr =
Example 10.17. A pipe carrying steam runs in a large ν2
room and is exposed to air at a temperature of 30°C. The
pipe surface temperature is 200°C. The pipe diameter is 1 (200 − 30) × (0.2) 3
= 9.81 × ×
20 cm. If total heat loss rate from the pipe per metre 388 (24.93 × 10 − 6 ) 2
length is 1.9193 kW/m, determine the pipe surface = 5.53 × 107
emissivity. Use correlation
The Nusselt number
Nu = 0.53 (Gr Pr)1/4
Nu = 0.53(Gr Pr)1/4
and properties of air at 115°C
= 0.53 × (5.53 × 107 × 0.687)1/4 = 41.61
kf = 0.03306 W/m2.K, ν = 24.93 × 10–6 m2/s
The heat transfer coefficient
Pr = 0.687. (P.U., May 2001)
Nu kf 41.61 × 0.03306
Solution h= = = 6.88 W/m2.K
Lc 0.2
Given : A hot pipe is exposed in a large room.
The heat dissipation rate by free convection,
D = 20 cm = 0.2 m, L=1m
Qconv = h (πDL) (Ts – T∞)
Ts = 200°C, T∞ = 30°C
= 6.88 × (π × 0.2 × 1) × (200 – 30)
Q = 1.9193 kW/m = 1919.3 W/m
= 734.77 W/m
kf = 0.03306 W/m.K, ν = 24.93 × 10–6 m2/s
The heat dissipation rate by thermal radiation
Pr = 0.687
Qrad = Q – Qconv
and relation for Nu. = 1919.3 – 734.77 = 1184.53 W/m
Q = 1.9193 kW/m The radiation heat transfer rate is expressed as
T¥ = 30°C Qrad = σ ε As(Ts4 – T∞4 )
where T is in K, and
Steam ∴ 1184.53 = 5.67 × 10–8 × ε (π × 0.2 ×1)
× [(200 + 273)4 – (30 + 273)4]
D = 20 cm Ts = 200°C = 1482.94 ε
Fig. 10.23. Steam pipe in a room or ε = 0.798. Ans.
Example 10.18. Beer cans (diameter 65 mm, length The cooling rate,
150 mm) are to be cooled from an initial temperature of Q1 = h1 As (∆T)
20°C by placing them in a bottle cooler with an ambient = 5.47 × (π × 0.065 × 0.15) × (20 – 1)
air temperature of 1°C. Compare the initial cooling rates,
= 3.18 W. Ans.
when the cans are laid horizontally, to when they are
laid vertically. (N.M.U., Nov. 1997) (ii) For the vertical orientation, the cylindrical
cans can be approximated as vertical wall of L = 0.15 m.
Solution The relevant Rayleigh number
Given : Beer cans are to be cooled as : RaL = 2.225 × 109 × (0.15)3 = 7.51 × 106
D = 65 mm = 0.065 m, L = 150 mm = 0.15 m The boundary layer is laminar, hence using
Ts = 20°C, T∞ = 1°C. relation
To find : NuL = 0.59(RaL)1/4
(i) Heat transfer rate from horizontal cans. = 0.59 × (7.51 × 106)1/4 = 30.88
(ii) Heat transfer rate from vertical cans. kf 0.024
(iii) Comparison of heat transfer rate from cans and h2 = NuL = 30.88 × = 4.94 W/m2.K.
L 0.15
in above two orientations. The cooling rate,
Properties of fluid : The film temperature Q2 = h2 As (∆T)
Ts + T∞ 20 + 1 = 4.94 × (π × 0.065 × 0.15) × (20 – 1)
Tf = = = 10.5°C = 283.5 K
2 2 = 2.87 W. Ans.
The properties of air are :
(iii) The percentage change in cooling rate, when
ν = 15.55 × 10–6 m2/s, α = 0.19 × 10–4 m2/s cans are laid horizontally
3
ρ = 1.25 kg/m and kf = 0.024 W/m.K Q1 − Q2 3.18 − 2.87
β = 1/283.5 = 3.527 × 10 K–1.
–3 = × 100
Q1 3.18
Analysis : The Grashof number with character- = 9.6% higher. Ans.
istic length Lc ;
Example 10.19. A pipe 8 cm diameter is covered with
g β ∆T L3c 3 cm thick layer of insulation, which has surface
Gr =
ν2 emissivity of 0.9. The surface temperature of the
insulation is 80°C and the pipe is placed in air at 20°C.
(9.81) × (3.527 × 10 −3 ) × (20 − 1) × L3c
= Considering heat loss by radiation and natural
(15.55 × 10 −6 ) 2 convection, Calculate,
= 2.719 × 109 Lc3 (i) Heat loss from 5 m length of pipe,
The Prandtl number, (ii) The overall heat transfer coefficient,
ν 15.55 × 10 −6 (iii) Heat transfer coefficient due to radiation.
Pr = = = 0.818
α 0.19 × 10 −4 The properties of air are
The Rayleigh number,
Ra = Gr Pr = 2.719 × 109 L3c × 0.818 T°C ρ kg/m3 Cp kJ/kg.K µ × 106 kf W/m.K
Ns/m2
= 2.225 × 109 Lc3
(i) For horizontally laid cylinders : 20 1.205 1.005 18.1 0.0259
Lc = D = 0.065 m 30 1.1625 1.005 18.6 0.02673
50 1.092 1.007 19.57 0.02781
RaD = 2.225 × 109 × (0.065)3 = 611.0 × 103
80 1.00 1.009 21.1 0.0305
Thus the flow is laminar, and relation from
Table 10.4 90 0.972 1.009 21.5 0.0313
NuD = 0.53(RaD)1/4 The following correlations may be used :
= 0.53 × (611.0 × 10 3)1/4 = 14.82 Nu = 0.53(Gr Pr)1/4 for 104 < Gr Pr < 107
The heat transfer coefficient, = 0.15 (Gr Pr)1/3 for 107 < Gr Pr < 109
kf 0.024 = 0.22 (Re)0.6 for 103 < Re < 105.
h1 = NuD = 14.82 × = 5.47 W/m2.K.
D 0.065 (P.U., May 2002)
Solution The heat dissipation rate by radiation

Given : An insulated pipe is exposed to air : Qrad = σ ε As (T4s – T∞4)
D1 = 8 cm, L = 5 m, where T is in K and σ = 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2.K4
D2 = 8 cm + 2 × 3 cm = 14 cm = 0.14 m Qrad = 5.67 × 10–8 × 0.9 × (π × 0.14 × 5)
ε = 0.9, Ts = 80°C = 353 K, (3534 – 2934) = 915.42 W
T∞ = 20°C = 293 K. The total heat dissipation rate by natural
To find : convection and radiation
(i) The heat dissipation rate by natural Q = Qconv + Qrad = 875.23 + 915.42
convection and thermal radiation for 5 m long insulated = 1790.66 W. Ans.
surface of pipe.
(ii) The overall heat transfer coefficient
(ii) Overall heat transfer coefficient, and
Q = U As(∆T)
(iii) Radiation heat transfer coefficient.
1790.66 = U × (π × 0.14 × 5) × (80 – 20)
or U = 13.57 W/m2.K. Ans.
T + T∞ 80 + 20
Tf = s = = 50°C (iii) Radiation heat transfer coefficient.
2 2
The properties of air at 50°C from Table A-4 are Qrad = hr As (Ts – T∞)
ρ = 1.092 kg/m3, Cp = 1.007 kJ/kg.K, 915.42 = hr (π × 0.14 × 5) × (80 – 20)
–6 2
µ = 19.57 × 10 Ns/m , kf = 0.02781 W/m.K. or hr = 6.94 W/m2.K. Ans.
1 1 1 Example 10.20. A two stroke motor cycle petrol engine
β= = = K–1 cylinder consists of 15 annular fins. If outside and inside
Tf + 273 50 + 273 323
diameters of each fin are 200 mm and 100 mm,
(i) The characteristic length of the geometry respectively. The average fin surface temperature is
Lc = D2 = 0.14 m 475°C and they are exposed in air at 25°C. Calculate the
The Grashof number heat transfer rate from the fins for the following
conditions :
ρ2 g β (Ts − T∞ ) L c 3
Gr = (i) When motorcycle is at rest.
µ2
1 (ii) When motorcycle is running at a speed of
(1.092) 2 × 9.81 × × (80 − 20) × (0.14)3 60 km/h.
= 323
(19.57 × 10 −6 ) 2 The fin may be idealised as a single horizontal
= 15.569 × 106 flat plate of the same area.
The Prandtl number Solution
µC p −6
19.57 × 10 × 1007 Given : Fins as horizontal flat plate
Pr = = = 0.708
kf 0.02781 Nfin = 15, Do = 200 mm, Di = 100 mm
Rayleigh number Ts = 475°C, T∞ = 25°C.
Ra = Gr Pr = 15.569 × 106 × 0.708 = 11.03 × 106
To find : Heat dissipation rate from fins in
which is greater than 107, thus using
(i) natural convection, and
Nu = 0.15(Gr Pr)1/3
(ii) forced convection.
= 0.15 × (15.59 × 106 × 0.708)1/3 = 33.4
Nu kf Ts + T∞ 475 + 25
33.4 × 0.02781 Tf = = = 250°C = 523 K.
h= = = 6.63 W/m2.K. 2 2
Lc 0.14
The heat dissipation rate by natural convection. The thermophysical properties of air at 250°C
Qconv = hAs (Ts – T∞) kf = 0.0427 W/m.K, ν = 40.61 × 10–6 m2/s
= 6.63 × (π × 0.14 × 5) × (80 – 20) 1 1
Pr = 0.677, β= = K–1.
= 875.23 W. Tf 523
Case I : Motorcycle at rest : Nu = 0.027 Re0.805 Pr1/3

The characteristic length for horizontal fin = 0.027 × (41.04 × 103)0.805 × (0.677)1/3
= 122.02
As π (D o 2 − D i 2 )
Lc = =2× kf 0.0427
P 4 π (D o − D i ) h = Nu = 122.02 ×
Dh 0.1
D + D i 0.2 + 0.1 = 52.1 W/m2.K
= o = = 0.15 m
2 2 The heat dissipation rate from fins surface
The Grashof number Q = h [2 × (π/4) (Do2 – Di2)] Nfin (Ts – T∞)
Gr =
g β ∆T L3c LM 2 × π × (0.2 2 OP
– 0.12 ) × 15 × (475 – 25)
ν2 = 52.1 ×
N 4 Q
1 (475 − 25) × (0.15) 3 = 16.572 × 103 W = 16.57 kW. Ans.
= 9.81 × ×
523 (40.61 × 10 −6 ) 2 Example 10.21. In a wind tunnel, 15°C air at 5 m/s
= 17.27 × 10 6
flows over a flat plate, 1 m × 0.8 m in size. The plate
The Rayleigh number temperature is 35°C. One of the side of the plate is
Ra = Gr Pr = 17.27 × 106 × 0.677 arranged parallel to the flow direction, such that the heat
= 11.694 × 106 transfer is lesser, estimate :
which is less than 109, thus the flow is laminar. For (i) Rate of heat transfer from the one side of plate.
horizontal surface : 104 < Ra < 107, from Table 10.1 (ii) Initial rate of cooling per hour of the plate, if
Nu = 0.54 Ra1/4 mass of the plate is 5 kg and specific heat is 875 J/kg.K.
= 0.54 × (11.694 × 106)1/4 = 31.58 (iii) If the flow is turned off, compute the heat flow
The heat transfer coefficient rate from the upper surface of the plate in still air at
15°C.
kf 0.0427
h = Nu = 31.58 × = 9.0 W/m2.K (iv) What is the percentage change in heat flow
Lc 0.15
rate ?
The heat dissipation rate from both sides of fin
Use the following thermophysical properties of air
Q=h 2× LM π OP
(D o 2 − D i 2 ) Nfin (Ts – T∞) and correlations
N 4 Q ρ = 1.1707 kg/m3, Cpf = 1007 J/kg.K,
LM π OP
× (0.2 2 − 0.12 ) × 15 ν = 15.712 × 10–6 m2/s kf = 0.02614 W/m.K
= 9.0 × 2 ×
N 4 Q Pr = 0.7075
× (475 – 25) Nu = 0.664 ReL1/2 Pr1/3 for forced convection
= 2859.36 W. Ans. = 0.27 (GrL Pr)1/4 for natural convection.
Case II : When motorcycle is running at a speed (P.U., Dec. 2001)
of 60 km/h
Solution
3 Given : Flow over a flat plate
60 × 10
um = = 16.67 m/s
3600 u∞ = 5 m/s, T∞ = 15°C, L=1m
The hydraulic diameter w = 0.8 m Ts = 35°C m = 5 kg,
Cp = 875 J/kg.K.
4 A c 4 × (π/4) (D o 2 − D i 2 ) and fluid properties.
Dh = =
P π (D o + D i ) To find :
= Do – Di = 0.2 – 0.1 = 0.1 m (i) Rate of forced convection heat transfer from
The Reynolds number one side of the plate.
(ii) Initial rate of cooling of plate.
um D h 16.67 × 0.1
Re = = = 41.04 × 103 (iii) Heat flow rate for natural convection
ν 40.61 × 10 −6 condition.
For Re > 4 × 104 (iv) Percentage change in heat flow.
Assumptions : 1
9.81 × × 20 × (0.222) 3
(i) For lesser heat transfer rate in forced 298
GrL = = 2.926 × 107
convection, the side with longer length to be consider (15.712 × 10 −6 ) 2
as flow length. RaL = Gr Pr = 2.926 × 107 × 0.7075
(ii) Steady state conditions. = 20.70 × 106
(iii) Constant properties. Using given relation
(iv) No radiation heat transfer. h Lc
Nu = = 0.27(Gr Pr)1/4
Analysis : kf
= 0.27 × (20.70 × 106)1/4 = 18.21
(i) The Reynolds number
and heat transfer coefficient
u∞ L 5×1 kf 0.02614
ReL = = = 318228.1 h = Nu = 18.21 ×
ν 15.712 × 10 −6 Lc 0.222
which is less than Recr = 5 × 105, the flow is laminar, 2
= 2.144 W/m .K.
using correlation for average Nusselt number The rate of heat convection from the plate
Nu = 0.664 ReL1/2 Pr1/3 Qnatural = h(wL) (Ts – T∞)
= 0.664 × (318228.1)1/2 × (0.7075)1/3 = 2.144 × (1 × 0.8) × (35 – 15)
= 333.77 = 34.31 W. Ans.
The average heat transfer coefficient (iv) Percentage change in heat flow
Q forced − Q natural
kf 0.02614 = × 100
h = Nu = 333.77 × Q forced
L 1
2 139.6 − 34.31
= 8.725 W/m .K. = × 100 = 75.42%. Ans.
139.6
The rate of heat transfer from one side of plate Example 10.22. A 12 cm-wide and 18 cm-high vertical
Qforced = h(wL) (Ts – T∞) hot surface in 25°C air is to be cooled by a heat sink with
= 8.725 × (1 × 0.8) × (35 – 15) equally spaced fins of rectangular profile. The fins are
= 139.6 W. Ans. 1 mm thick, 18 cm long in the vertical direction, and
have a height of 2.4 cm from the base. Determine the
(ii) Initial rate of cooling
optimum fin spacing, and the rate of heat transfer by
dT natural convection from the heat sink, if the base
Qforced = mCp
dt temperature is 80°C.
dT Use following relation for fin spacing and heat
139.6 = 5 × 875 × transfer coefficient
dt
L
dT Sopt = 2.714
or = 0.0319°C/s ~
− 114.86°C/h. Ans. Ra 1/4
dt kf
(iii) Heat flow rate in natural convection from Convection coefficient h = 1.31 .
heated surface facing up. Sopt
The Grashof number
w = 0.12 m
3
g β ∆T L c
GrL = H = 2.4 cm
ν2
1 35 + 15
where β= and Tf =
Tf 2 L = 0.18 m
= 25°C = 298 K
∆T = 35 – 15 = 20°C
Ts = 80°C
A 0.8 × 1 t = 1 mm S
Lc = s = = 0.222 m T¥ = 25°C
P 2 × (1 + 0.8)
Fig. 10.24. Schematic for example 10.22
Solution 0.12
Given : A vertical hot surface with rectangular = = 15 fins
0.00724 + 1 × 10 −3
fins.
Lc = 0.18 m, Ts = 80°C, H = 2.4 cm,
T∞ = 25°C, w = 0.12 m, t = 1 mm. kf 0.0279
h = 1.31 = 1.31 ×
To find : S opt 0.00724
(i) Optimum fin spacing, and = 5.04 W/m2.K.
(ii) Heat transfer rate from heat sink. Then heat transfer rate by natural convection
Assumptions : Q = Heat transfer from two sides of fins
(i) The fin thickness is very small as compared + Heat transfer from unfinned surface
to fin spacing. Q = h (2Nfin LH) (Ts – T∞)
(ii) Fins are as vertical plate. + h (wL – Lt Nf) (Ts – T∞)
(iii) Constant properties and steady state = [5.04 × (2 × 15 × 0.18 × 0.024)
conditions.
× (80 – 25) + 5.04 × (0.12 × 0.18 – 0.18)
× 1 × 10–3 × 15] × (80 – 25)
Ts + T∞ 80 + 25 = 35.925 W + 5.24 W = 41.16 W. Ans.
Tf = = = 52.5°C = 325.5 K
2 2
At this temperature, the properties of air 10.6. NATURAL CONVECTION IN ENCLOSED
kf = 0.0279 W/m.K SPACES
ν = 1.82 × 10–5 m2/s
Pr = 0.709 The heat transfer through enclosures is of practical
interest. The typical examples are natural convection
1 1 in wall cavity, between window glazing and flat plate
β= = = 0.003072 K–1
Tf 325.5 K solar collectors. The heat transfer in enclosed spaces is
(i) The characteristic length for vertical fin complicated, due to movement of fluid in the enclosure.
In a vertical enclosure, the fluid adjacent to hotter
Lc = L = 0.18 m
surface rises and fluid adjacent to cooler surface falls
The Grashof number
setting of rotationary motion within the enclosure, that
g β (∆T) L3c increases the heat transfer rate through the enclosure.
GrL =
ν2 The typical flow pattern in vertical rectangular cavity
9.81 × 0.003072 × (80 − 25) × (0.18) 3 is shown in Fig. 10.25.
=
(1.82 × 10 −5 ) 2
= 29.18 × 106
The Rayleigh number Cold
RaL = GrLPr = 29.18 × 106 × 0.709 surface Hot
surface
= 2.609 × 107
Q
The optimum fin spacing
L 0.18
Sopt = 2.714 1/ 4 = 2.714 ×
Ra (2.609 × 10 7 ) 1/ 4
= 0.00724 m = 7.24 mm. Ans.
(ii) The number of fins LC
Width of plate w Fig. 10.25. Convection currents in vertical

Nfin = =
Fin spacing + Fin thickness S + t rectangular cavity
The flow pattern of fluid in a horizontal enclosure The empirical correlations for Nusselt number for
depends on the position of hotter surface. When the various enclosures are presented in Table 10.6.
hotter surface in a horizontal rectangular enclosure is The heat transfer rate
at the top, the convection current does not develop in
FT −T I
the cavity, since the lighter fluid is always at the top of
heavier fluid. Thus the heat is transferred in such a
Q = hAs (T1 – T2) = kf Nu As GH L JK
1
c
2
situation by pure conduction. But when the hotter ...(10.59)

surface is at the bottom of enclosure, then the fluid
adjacent to surface is heated and becomes lighter, thus
rises up and comes in contact of cooler surface at top,
R|H w Rectangular cavity
where it cools down. If RaL < 1708, the heat transfer is || πL(D − D )
2 1
where A =S F I Concentric cylinders
essentially by pure conduction. For RaL > 1708, the
buoyancy force overcomes the fluid resistance and
s
|| lnGH DD JK
2
1
convection current starts in the cavity. The two |T πD D
1 2 Concentric spheres
situations of horizontal cavity are shown in Fig. 10.26.
...(10.60)
Light fluid Hot surface
where, w = width of rectangular cavity
H = height of cavity
(No convection currents)
L = length of cylinder
D1 = inner diameter
Cold surface
Heavy fluid D2 = outer diameter.
(a) Hot surface at the top of a rectangular cavity
Heavy fluid Cold surface
Light fluid Hot surface

(b) Hot surface at the bottom of a rectangular cavity
Fig. 10.26. Convection current in a horizontal enclosure

The Rayleigh number for an enclosure is Fig. 10.27. Isotherms in natural convection between
calculated as concentric cylinders
Inclined cavity. For an inclined rectangular
g β (T1 − T2 ) L c 3
Ra = Pr ...(10.58) cavity, the complex correlation are available in the lit-
ν2
erature for accurate value of Nusselt number. But in
where the characteristic length Lc is the distance Table 10.6, the Nusselt number for inclined rectangular
between hot and cold surfaces at temperature T1 and
cavities heated from the below and inclined upto 20° is
T2, respectively. All the fluid properties are evaluated
determined from correlations for vertical rectangular
at average temperature
cavity with the replacement of g by gcos θ in Rayleigh
1 number (Ra) relation given by eqn. (10.58).
Tf = (T + T2)
2 1
TABLE 10.6. Empirical correlations for the average Nusselt number for natural convection in
enclosures (the characteristic length Lc is as indicated on the respective diagram)
Range of hLc
Geometry Fluid H/Lc Range of Ra Nusselt number =
Pr kf
Vertical rectangular enclosure Gas or — — Ra < 2000 Nu = 1

(or vertical cylindrical enclosure) liquid
F H I −1/9
11–42 0.5–2 2 × 103–2 × 105 Nu = 0.197 Ra1/4 × GH L c JK
Lc
×G
F H I −1/9
H L c JK
H Gas 11–42 0.5–2 2 × 105–107 Nu = 0.073 Ra1/3
Ra × G
F H I −0.3
104–107 Nu = 0.42 Pr0.012
H L c JK
Liquid 10–40 1–20,000 1/4
1–40 1–20 106–109 Nu = 0.046 Ra1/3

Inclined rectangular enclosure Use the correlations
for vertical enclosures
Cold as a first-degree
Lc approximation for
θ ≤ 20° by replacing
q
g in the Ra
relation by g cos θ
Hot
Horizontal rectangular enclosure Gas or — — — Nu = 1

(hot surface at the top) liquid
Horizontal rectangular enclosure Gas or — — Ra < 1708 Nu = 1

(hot surface at the bottom) liquid
Cold — 0.5–2 1.7 × 103–7 × 103 Nu = 0.059 Ra0.4
Gas — 0.5–2 7× 103–3.2 × 105 Nu = 0.212 Ra1/4
— 0.5–2 Ra > 3.2 × 105 Nu = 0.061 Ra1/3
Lc
— 1–5000 1.7 × 103–6 × 103 Nu = 0.012 Ra0.6
Liquid — 1–5000 6× 103–3.7 × 104 Nu = 0.375 Ra0.2
— 1–20 3.7 × 104–108 Nu = 0.13 Ra0.3
Hot
— 1–20 Ra > 108 Nu = 0.057 Ra1/3
Concentric horizontal cylinders Gas or — 1–5000 6.3 × 103–106 Nu = 0.11 Ra0.29

Lc liquid 1–5000 106–108 Nu = 0.40 Ra0.20
Concentric spheres Gas or — 0.7–4000 102–109 Nu = 0.228 Ra0.226

liquid
Lc
Effective thermal conductivity. We know that 2πN

the steady state heat conduction rate, Q, in a stationary ω = angular velocity of disc =
60
fluid layer is given by
N = rotation per minute (r.p.m.)
kf A (T1 − T2 ) Lc = characteristic length of disc
Q= ...(10.61)
Lc = ro for horizontal disc
where kf = thermal conductivity of the fluid, 1
A = area normal to heat transfer, = πr for vertical disc
2 o
Lc = thickness of the fluid layer, where, ro = radius of the disc.
T1, T2 = temperature on two sides of the fluid
Example 10.23. A vertical 0.8 m high, 2 m wide, double
layer.
pane window consists of two sheets of glass separated by
The comparison of eqn. (10.61) with eqn. (10.59), 2 cm air gap at atmospheric pressure. If the glass surface
indicates that convection heat transfer in an enclosure temperatures across the air gap are measured to be 12°C
or cavity is identical to heat conduction across the fluid and 2°C, determine the rate of heat transfer through the
layer, if thermal conductivity of the fluid kf is replaced window.
by kfNu as a result of convection current. Therefore, the
Solution
quantity kf Nu is called the effective thermal
conductivity of the cavity. That is Given : A vertical rectangular enclosure.
keff = kf Nu ...(10.62) H = 0.8 m, w=2m
when Nu = 1, then Lc = 2 cm = 0.02 m, T1 = 12°C
keff = kf T2 = 2°C.
It indicates pure conduction in the fluid layer.
The heat transfer rate by natural convection between
two long, horizontal concentric cylinders at constant
Glass Glass
temperatures T1 and T2, respectively is expressed as Air
2πL keff (T1 − T2 )

Q=
FG D IJ
2
...(10.63)
H = 0.8 m
ln
HD K
1 Lc = 2 cm
and for two concentric spheres.
π D 1D 2 keff
Q= (T1 – T2) ...(10.64)
Lc
1 Fig. 10.28. Schematic of double pane glass window
where Lc = (D2 – D1).
2 To find : Rate of heat transfer through the
Rotating disc. The rotating disc provides a good window.
example of fluid flow that changes from pure natural
Analysis : The average temperature of two
convection when disc is at the rest to mixed and forced
surfaces.
convection, when disc is rotating. For a disc at uniform
surface temperature and exposed to air (Pr = 0.72) the T1 + T2 12 + 2
Tf = = = 7°C = 280 K
correlation is suggested in the form 2 2
Nu = 0.47(Reω2 + Gr)1/4 ...(10.65) The properties of air at 7°C from Table A-4
g β ∆T L3c kf = 0.0246 W/m.K
where Gr =
ν2 ν = 1.40 × 10–5 m2/s
Pr = 0.717
ω ro2
Reω = ...(10.66)
ν 1 1
β= = = 0.00357 K–1
Tf + 273 280
h ro
Nu =
kf The characteristic length Lc = 2 cm = 0.02 m
The Grashof number To find : Convective heat transfer rate.

g β ∆T L3c Analysis : The film temperature.
Gr =
ν2 T1 + T2 120 + 100
Tf = = = 110°C = 383 K
9.81 × 0.00357 × (12 − 2) × (0.02) 3 2 2
=
(1.40 × 10 −5 ) 2 p 200 kPa
ρ= =
= 14.29 × 103 RT (0.287 kJ / kg. K) × (383 K)
The Rayleigh number = 1.819 kg/m3
Ra = Gr Pr = 14.29 × 103 × 0.717 and other properties at 110°C are
= 10.25 × 103 kf = 0.0319 W/m.K, µ = 2.22 × 10–5 kg/ms.
Then from Table 10.6, the Nusselt number is
1 1
given by Pr = 0.703, β= = K–1
F HI −1/9 Tf + 273 383
Nu = 0.197 Ra1/4 GH L JK
c
The characteristic length,
1 1
F 0.8 IJ
×G
−1/9
Lc = (D2 – D1) = × (0.12 – 0.1) = 0.01 m
= 0.197 × (10.25 × 103)1/4
H 0.02 K 2
The Grashof number
2
= 1.315
The heat transfer coefficient ρ 2 g β ∆T L c 3
Gr =
kf 0.0246 µ2
h = Nu = 1.315 ×
Lc 0.02 1
= (1.819)2 × 9.81 ×
= 1.62 W/m2.K 383
The convection heat transfer rate (120 − 100) × (0.01) 3
Q = hwH(T1 – T2) × = 3441
(2.22 × 10 −5 ) 2
= 1.62 × (0.8 × 2)× (12 – 2) The Rayleigh number
= 25.9 W. Ans. Ra = Gr Pr = 3441 × 0.703 = 2419
Using equation from Table 10.6,
Example 10.24. A 10 cm diameter sphere is maintained
Nu = 0.228 Ra0.226
at 120°C. It is enclosed in a 12 cm diameter concentric
= 0.228 × (2419)0.226 = 1.326
spherical surface maintained at 100°C. The space
between two spheres is filled with air at 200 kPa. kf 0.0319
h = Nu = 1.326 × = 4.23 W/m2.K
Calculate the convective heat transfer rate from inner Lc 0.01
sphere. The convective heat transfer rate from inner
Solution sphere
Given : Two concentric sphere and air in the Q = h(πD12) (T1 – T2)
annular gap. = 4.23 × π × (0.1)2 × (120 – 100)
D1 = 10 cm, D2 = 12 cm = 2.65 W. Ans.
T1 = 120°C, T2 = 100°C Example 10.25. A flat plate solar collector has 8 cm
p = 200 kPa high and 1 m wide and 1.6 m depth is tilted at 40° to the
T2 = 100°C horizontal. The inner wall is at 70°C and the outer wall
at 10°C and the enclosure is filled with air at 1 atm.
Estimate the heat loss.
Solution
Air at Given : An inclined flat plate solar collector with
T1 = 120°C
200 kPa air as working fluid
D1 = 10 cm Lc = 8 cm = 0.08 m, w = 1 m
D2 = 12 cm H = 1.6 m, θ = 40° (with horizontal)
Fig. 10.29. Schematic of two isothermal concentric spheres T1 = 70°C, T2 = 10°C.
To find : Heat loss from the solar flat plate The heat dissipation rate
collector. Q = h(wH) (T1 – T2)
= 2.05 × (1 × 1.6) × (70 – 10)
= 197.7 W. Ans.
10°C
H 10.7. SUMMARY
70°C
Lc
In natural convection heat transfer, the fluid motion is
induced by buoyancy effects, developed due to density
variation in the fluid. The fluid velocity associated with
natural convection is usually much lower, therefore, the
40° heat transfer rate is also much lower than in forced
convection.
Fig. 10.30
The buoyancy force is upward force exerted by a
Assumptions : fluid on a body that is immersed in it. Its magnitude is
(i) The bottom plate and sides of solar collector equal to weight of fluid displaced by the body. The
are well insulated. coefficient of volumetric expansion β of fluid represents
(ii) Heat transfer by natural convection only. the variation of density of fluid with temperature at
(iii) Steady state conditions. constant pressure.
(iv) Constant properties. Ts + T∞
where Tf is absolute film temperature = .
Analysis : The film temperature 2
The flow regime in natural convection is
70 + 10
Tf = = 40°C characterised by a dimensionless number, called the
2 Grashof number, which represents the ratio of buoyancy
The properties of air at 40°C, force to viscous force acting on the fluid and is expressed
ρ = 1.128 kg/m3, Cp = 1005 J/kg.K as
µ = 1.91 × 10–5 kg/ms, ν = 16.96 × 10–6 m2/s g β (Ts − T∞ ) L3c
Gr =
1 ν2
kf = 0.0276 W/m.K Pr = 0.699, β = K–1
313 where g = gravitational acceleration, m/s2
The Rayleigh number β = coefficient of volumetric expansion, for an
1 –1
g β (T1 − T2 ) L c 3 ideal gas, β = K
RaL = Pr Tf
ν2
Ts – T∞ = temperature difference between surface
1 and its ambient, °C or K
9.81 × × (70 − 10) × (0.08) 3
= 313 × 0.699 Lc = characteristic length of the geometry, m
(16.96 × 10 –6 ) 2
ν = kinematic viscosity, m2/s.
= 2.34 × 106 The Rayleigh number is also a dimensionless
Raθ = RaL sin (40°) = 1.504 × 106 number given as
The average Nusselt number (Table 10.6) g β (Ts − T∞ ) L c 3
Ra = Gr Pr = Pr
F HI −1/9 ν2
Nu = 0.073 Raθ1/3 GH L JK
c
The empirical correlations for average Nusselt
number for natural convection over surfaces given in
FG 1.6 IJ −1/9 the form
= 0.073 × (1.504 × 106)1/3 ×
H 0.08 K = 5.97 Nu = C(Gr Pr)n
The average heat transfer coefficient The average heat transfer coefficient is obtained
as
kf 0.0276 k
h = Nu = 5.97 × = 2.05 h = Nu f (W/m2.K)
Lc 0.08 Lc
where kf = thermal conductivity of fluid, W/m.K 10. How does the effective thermal conductivity of an
The convection heat transfer rate between a enclosure define ?
surface and its surrounding is expressed as 11. Beginning with the natural convection correlation
Q = hAs(Ts – T∞) of the form
where As = the heat transfer surface area, m2. hL
Nu = = C RaLn
For various enclosures, the simple correlations kf
to obtain average Nusselt number are presented in
Show that for air at atmospheric pressure and a film
Table 10.6. The heat transfer through an enclosure is
temperature of 400 K, the average heat transfer
given by
coefficient for a vertical plate can be expressed as
(T1 − T2 )
Q = hAs(T1 – T2) = kf Nu As FG ∆T IJ 1/ 4
Lc h = 1.40
HLK 104 < RaL < 109
R| H w Rectangular cavity = 0.98 (∆T)1/3 109 < RaL < 1013.
A =S
πL(D − D )
2 1
where Concentric cylinders
s
|| πDln(DD /D ) PROBLEMS
T
2 1
1 2 Concentric spheres. 1. A vertical plate 4 m high and 1 m wide is maintained
at 60°C in an ambient of still air at 10°C. Determine
The quantity kfNu is called effective thermal the value of heat transfer coefficient.
conductivity of the enclosure.
[Ans. 4.82 W/m2.K]
REVIEW QUESTIONS 2. Water is heated in a tank using horizontal pipes,

50 mm diameter with wall temperature of 60°C
1. What is the natural convection ? How does it differ maintained by condensing steam on the inside of the
from the forced convection ? What force causes natural tubes. The water in the tank is at 20°C. Calculate
convection currents ? the value of natural convection coefficient, if the
2. Show that the coefficient of volumetric expansion for water is stagnant. [Ans. 795 W/m2.K]
an ideal gas is 3. Consider a object of characteristic length of 0.01 m
1 and a situation for which the temperature difference
β=, where T is absolute temperature of gas. is 30°C. Evaluate the thermophysical properties at
T
3. What is Rayleigh number ? the given conditions and determine the Rayleigh
number for the following fluids : (i) air at 1 atm and
4. Why the heat transfer coefficient for natural
400 K, (ii) helium at 1 atm and 400 K, and (iii) water
convection is much less than that for forced convec-
at 310 K. [Ans. (i) 615.3, (ii) 12, (iii) 1.658 × 106]
tion ?
4. Estimate the coefficient of free convection on a wire,
5. How is the velocity field developed for natural flow
2 mm in diameter, immersed in water at 20°C, if the
of fluid over a vertical plate when its surface is
wire surface is maintained at 300°C.
maintained at temperature (i) higher, and (ii) lower
than its surroundings ? [Ans. 3366 W/m2.K]
6. Show that for a laminar flow of air with Pr = 0.72, 5. A flat square electrical heater of 0.5 m × 0.5 m is
the local and average value of Nusselt numbers are placed vertically in still air at 20°C. The heat
given by generated is 1200 W/m2. Determine the value of
Nux = 0.378 Grx1/4 and Nu = 0.504 GrL1/4. natural convection coefficient and average
temperature of the plate.
7. What is the modified Grashof number ? Where does
it use ? [Ans. 33.02 W/m2.K, 56.5°C]
8. Explain the heat transfer mechanism in a vertical 6. A plate heater 0.4 m × 0.4 m, using electrical
rectangular cavity consisting of two isothermal elements, has a constant heat flux of 1.3 kW/m2. It
parallel planes. is placed in a room air at 20°C with hot side facing
9. Why does heat transfer rate decrease drastically if up. Determine the value of heat transfer coefficient
double pane window with an air gas is used instead and average temperature of the plate.
of a single wheel window ? [Ans. 9.13 W/m2.K, 151.4°C]
7. A vertical pipe of 10 cm diameter and 3 m long, at a 16. A flat horizontal plate 0.5 m × 3.5 cm is exposed to
surface temperature of 100°C, is in a room where atmospheric air at 6°C. The plate receives a net
the air is at 20°C. What is the rate of heat loss per radiant energy flux from the sun of 750 W/m2. The
unit length of the pipe ? [Ans. 119.7 W/m] surface emissivity of the plate is 0.85. There is
8. A circular disk of 0.2 m diameter with a constant convection heat transfer from both upper and lower
heat generation rate of 1.2 kW/m2, is kept in ambient surface of the plate. What average temperature, will
air at 20°C, with its heated surface facing downward be attained by the plate ? [Ans. 61°C]
and the plate is inclined at 15 degree to the 17. A 50 mm × 50 mm plate is maintained at 50°C and
horizontal. Determine the value of convection inclined at 60° with the horizontal. Calculate the
coefficient. heat loss from both sides of the plate to water at
9. The heat transfer rate per unit length due to free 20°C. [Ans. 1.18 W]
convection from a horizontal tube is 200 W/m, when
18. A 1 m × 1 m plate is maintained at 150°C and inclined
its surface is maintained at 70°C in the ambient air
at 45° with the horizontal. Calculate the heat loss
at 20°C. Estimate the heat transfer rate per unit
length, when the tube surface is maintained at from both sides of the plate to air at 20°C.
145°C. Neglect the heat transfer rate by radiation [Ans. 913.3 W]
and any influence of temperature on thermophysical 19. A thin, 16 cm diameter horizontal plate is
properties of air. [Ans. 625 W/m]
maintained at 130°C in a large body of water at 70°C.
10. Air flows through a long 0.3 m square duct maintains The plate convects heat from both its top and bottom
the outer duct surface temperature at 10°C. If the surfaces. Determine the rate of heat input into the
duct is uninsulated and exposed to air at 35°C, what plate necessary to maintain the temperature of
is the heat gain per unit length of the duct ? 130°C. [Ans. 3.41 kW]
[Ans. 109.25 W]
20. Solar energy at a rate of 280 W/m2, is incident on a
11. The warm air in a heating system is circulated roof inclined at an angle of 40° with the horizontal.
through a sheet metal duct of size 60 cm × 40 cm
Assume that the back of the roof is insulated and
× 7 cm. The duct carries the warm air at 60°C and
the surface of the roof behaves as a blackbody.
the air surrounding the duct is at 15°C. Determine
Determine the equilibrium temperature of the roof,
the heat loss from the duct surface to the
if the ambient air is at 0°C and length of the roof is
surroundings. [Ans. 2677.5 W]
3 m. [Ans. 94°C]
12. Beer in cans 160 mm long and 75 mm in diameter is
initially at 30°C and is to be cooled in a refrigerator 21. The dimension of the brick made in a factory are
to 2°C. In the interest of maximizing the cooling rate, 7.5 cm (height) by 22.5 cm by 15 cm. The temperature
should the cans be laid horizontally or vertically in of the brick leaving the kiln is 350°C and the brick
the compartment ? As a first approximation, neglect is exposed to still air at 35°C. Calculate the
the heat transfer from ends. instantaneous rate of cooling as the brick leaves the
[Ans. 5.57 W horizontally] kiln. [Ans. 445.3 W]
13. A horizontal tube of 125 mm diameter with an outer 22. A 25 mm OD electrical transmission line carries
surface temperature of 240°C is located in a large 100 A and having a resistance of 400 × 10–5 ohms
room with an air temperature of 20°C. Estimate the per metre length is situated horizontal in the
heat transfer rate per unit length of the tube due to atmosphere. Neglect the radiation losses, determine
free convection. [Ans. 705 W] the temperature of the surface of the cable, if the
14. A horizontal uninsulated steam pipe passes through ambient temperature is (a) 26°C, (b) –26°C.
a large room, whose walls and ambient air are at [Ans. (a) 83°C]
30°C. The pipe of the 150 mm diameter has an
23. A vertical plate 10 cm high and 5 cm wide is cooled
emissivity of 0.85 and an outer surface temperature
by natural convection. The rate of heat transfer is
of 170°C. Calculate the heat loss per unit length from
the pipe. [Ans. 1153.2 W] 5.55 W and air temperature is 38°C. Calculate the
maximum temperature of the plate. Assume uniform
15. A sphere of 15 mm diameter contains an embedded
heat flux. [Ans. 175°C]
electrical heater. Calculate the power required to
maintain its surface temperature at 94°C, when the 24. Calculate the rate of convection heat loss from top
sphere is exposed to an ambient at 20°C for (a) air and bottom of flat 1 m2 horizontal restaurant grill
at atmospheric pressure, (b) water. heated to 227°C in an ambient of 27°C.
[Ans. (a) 0.66 W] [Ans. 2268 W]
25. One surface of a panel 0.915 m × 0.915 m is insulated walls which face the window are maintained at 22°C,
and other surface is kept at a uniform temperature and the average temperature of the inner surface of
of 65.5°C. Calculate the mean heat transfer the window is measured to be 4°C. If the temperature
coefficient due to free convection between heated of the outdoor is – 6°C, calculate
surface of panel and the atmospheric air at 10°C, (a) the convection heat transfer coefficient on the
when inner surface of the window
(a) Heated surface is vertical, (b) the rate of total heat transfer through the window
(b) Panel is horizontal with heated surface facing (c) the combined natural convection and radiation
up, heat transfer coefficient on the outer surface of
(c) Panel is horizontal with hot surface facing down. the window.
26. A thin vertical plate 3 m high and 1 m wide is 31. A vertical 1.2 m high and 2 m wide double pane
thermally insulated on one side and exposed to solar window consists of two sheets of glass separated by
radiation flux qs = 750 W/m2 on otherside. The 2.5 cm air gap at atmospheric pressure. If the glass
exposed surface has an absorptivity of 0.8 for solar surface temperatures across the air gap are
radiation. Assuming that the energy absorbed by the measured to be 18°C and 5°C, calculate the rate of
plate is dissipated by free convection into an ambient heat transfer through the window by
at 300 K, calculate the surface temperature of the (a) natural convection and
panel.
(b) radiation. Also calculate the effective thermal
The physical properties of ambient air are conductivity of the air space of this double paned
ν = 2.076 × 10–5 m2/s, kf = 0.03 W/m.K, window, which also accounts the radiation effect.
Pr = 0.697 The effective emissivity for two glass plates may
be taken as 0.82.
Use correlation
[Ans. (a) 49.6 W, (b) 134 W, 0.147 W/m°C]
Nux = 0.568 (Grx Pr )0.22 [Ans. 87.7°C]
32. A large box containing ethylene glycol is heated by
27. The heat transfer rate due to free convection from a
an electric heating element that consists of a square
vertical surface, 1 m high and 0.6 m wide to stagnant
horizontal plate 15 cm × 15 cm in size. The glycol is
air, which is 20°C colder than the surface is known.
at 0°C. Find the power input to the heating element
What is the ratio of heat transfer rate for the
required to maintain its top and bottom surface at
situation of vertical surface 0.6 m high and 1 m wide,
40°C.
when stagnant air is 20°C warmer than the surface ?
Neglect any radiation effect and influence of As
temperature on the properties of air. [Hint. Lc = , NuT = 0.54 Ra1/4, NuH = 0.27 Ra1/4,
P
28. An aluminium alloy (k = 190 W/m.K) plate, heated Q = (hT + hB) A(∆T)] [Ans. 253 W]
to a uniform temperature of 227°C, is allowed to cool, 33. A vertical plate 0.5 m high and 1 m wide is maintained
while vertically suspended in a room where the at uniform temperature of 124°C. It is exposed to
ambient air and surroundings are at 27°C. The plate ambient air at 30°C. Calculate the heat transfer rate
is 0.3 m square and 15 mm thick and has an from the plate. [Ans. 252.774 W]
emissivity of 0.25.
34. Estimate the electrical power required to maintain a
(a) Develop an expression for the rate of change of
vertical plate resistance heater at 130°C in an
plate temperature, assuming the temperature to
ambient air at 20°C. The plate is 15 cm high and
be uniform at any time.
10 cm wide. Compare result with 450 cm high plate.
(b) Determine the initial rate of cooling (°C/s), when The radiation heat transfer coefficient is 8.5 W/m2.K
the temperature is 227°C. for specified surface temperature.
29. An electrical heater in the form of horizontal disc of [Ans. 52.87 W, 1346 W]
400 mm diameter is used to heat the bottom of a tank
filled with engine oil at 5°C. Calculate the power 35. A helicopter plateform for a hospital is 12 m square
required to maintain the heater surface temperature and covered with a non-slip coating with a solar
at 70°C. absorptivity of αs = 1 and thermal emissivity of ε = 1.
Estimate the surface temperature, when it is
30. A 1.2 m high and 2 m wide glass window, whose
subjected to incident solar flux of 1 kW/m2 and sur-
thickness is 6 mm and has thermal conductivity of
0.78 W/m.K and emissivity ε = 0.9. The room and the rounding air temperature is 20°C. [Ans. 87.16°C]
36. Two vertical plates each 80 mm high and at 85°C are 41. A horizontal 40 W fluorescent tube which is 3.8 cm
placed in a tank of water at 15°C. Calculate the in diameter and 120 cm long stands in still air at
minimum spacing which will prevent interference of 1 atm and 20°C. If the surface temperature is 40°C
free convection boundary layer. [Ans. 3.22 mm] and radiation is neglected, what percentage of power
37. An ornament space heater is in the form of a 60 cm is being dissipated by convection ? [Ans. 46.5%]
diameter sphere, which is freely suspended in a large 42. Calculate the cooling capacity by natural convection
room. The surface of the sphere is maintained at in air of a heat sink, having four rectangular thin
100°C and the room air is at 20°C. Calculate the con- fins of size 20 mm × 25 mm. The fins may be assumed
vective heat transfer rate. [Ans. 371.5 W] to have a constant surface temperature of 60°C in
38. A copper heating coil is used to heat a large cylinder ambient air at 20°C. Take the fin efficiency as 60%.
of water. The coil may be considered to be a horizontal
[Ans. 0.875 W]
cylinder, 1.5 m long and an outer diameter of
0.025 m. It has uniform surface temperature of 80°C.
Estimate the heat transfer to water at 10°C.
w = 25 mm
[Ans. 70.65 W]
39. Air flow through a long rectangular heating duct of
width and height 0.75 m and 0.3 m, respectively,
maintains the outer duct surface temperature at 45°C.
If the duct is uninsulated and exposed to air 15°C, L = 20 mm 0°C
=6
what is the heat loss from the duct surface per metre Ts
length ? [Ans. 142 W/m]
40. Compare the rate of heat loss from a human body
with a typical energy intake from consumption of food Air T = 20°C
(5440 kJ/day). Consider the body as a vertical cylinder
30 cm in diameter and 175 cm high in still air. Assume Fig. 10.32
the skin temperature to be 37°C. Consider the emis-
43. Determine the coefficient of heat transfer by free
sivity at the skin surface as 0.4 and neglect, sweat- convection convection heat transfer rate per mere
ing and effect of clothing. The ambient air is taken at length and maximum current density for a nichrom
13ºC. [Ans. 233.18 W] wire 0.5 mm in diameter. The surface of the wire is
maintained at 300ºC. The wire is exposed to still air
at 20°C and resistance per metre length of the wire
is 6 Ω/m.
Ts = 37°C Use relation : Nu = 1.18(Gr Pr)1/8
Use properties of air at 160°C
kf = 0.0361 W/m.K,
ν = 30.35 × 10–6 m2/s,
Pr = 0.687
(Anna. Univ., May 2003)
[Ans. 79.77 W/m2.K, 35 W/m and 2.41 A]
L = 1.75 m
T = 13°C REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING
1. Jaluria Y., “Natural Convection Heat and Mass

Transfer”, Pergamon Press, New York, 1980.
2. Sehlichting H., “Boundary Layer Theory”, McGraw
Hill, New York, 1968.
3. Gebhart B., “Heat Transfer”, 2nd ed, McGraw Hill,
New York, 1970.
4. Churchill S.W. and H.H.S. Chu, “Correlating
Equations for Laminar and Turbulent Free
Convection from a Vertical Plate”, Int. J. of Heat and
Fig. 10.31. Schematic of a human body Mass Transfer vol. 18, 1975.
5. McAdams W.H., “Heat Transmission”, 3rd ed, 10. Bayazitoglu Y and M.N. Özisik, “Elements of Heat
McGraw Hill, New York, 1954. Transfer”, McGraw Hill, New York, 1988.
6. Fujii T. and H. Imura, “Natural Convection Heat 11. M.M. Rathore, “Thermal Engineering”, McGraw Hill
Transfer from a Plate with Arbitrary Inclination”, Education, 2010.
Int. J. of Heat and Mass Transfer vol. 15, 1972. 12. Adrian Bejan, “Convective Heat Transfer”, 3rd ed.
7. Moran W.R. and J.R. Lloyd,“Natural Convection John Wiley & Sons, 2004.
Mass Transfer Adjacent to Vertical and Downward 13. Welty J.R, Wicks C.E., Wilson R.E. and Rorrer G.L.,
Facing Surfaces”, J. Heat Transfer, vol. 94C, 1974. “Fundamentals of Momentum, Heat and Mass
8. Özisik M.N., “Heat Transfer—A Basic Approach”, Transfer”, 5th ed. John Wiley & Sons, 2007.
McGraw Hill, 1985. 14. Raithby G.D. and Hollands K.G. Terry. “Convective
9. Suryanarayana N.V., “Engineering Heat Transfer”, Heat Transfer”, CRC Press, 1999.
West Pub. Co. New York, 1999.

74. Natural Convection

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74. Natural Convection

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Natural Convection 10

10.1. PHYSICAL MECHANISM The motion that results from continuous

10.2. DEFINITIONS 10.2.3. Grashof Number

i.e., Fnet = mg – Fbuoyancy

10.2.2. Volumetric Expansion Coefficient ∆ρ

The heat transfer rate in natural convection depends x

and thermophysical properties of the fluid. Fig. 10.5

Ts, exposed to a stagnant fluid at temperature

the plate is heated and its density decreases. The

Von Korman integral technique can also be

and the velocity profile is assumed to be cubical parabola

Lc = Characteristic length of the surface

As Surface area of the plate

Orientation of plate Lc Range of Ra C n Flow regime

for 5 × 108 < RaL < 1011 ...(10.47)

Here, for inclined surfaces, the fluid properties

heated surface due to strong buoyancy force 36.5 29.3°C

correlations used for upward facing heated surface may

Nu = 0.145 [(GrLPr)1/3 – (GrcPr)1/3] 94.1

+ 0.56 (GrcPr cos θ)1/4 ...(10.52)

The values of transition Grashof number Grc

Geometry Characteristic Range Nu

Vertical plate 104–09 Nu = 0.59 Ra1/4

Ts 109–1013 Nu = 0.13 Ra1/3

Inclined plate Use vertical plate equations as a

Vertical cylinder Ts A vertical cylinder can be treated

Example 10.1. Vertical door of a hot oven is 0.5 m high Ts = 200°C

To find : The Rayleigh number

g β (Ts − T∞ ) L3c Solution

1 1 1 kair = 0.02814 W/m.K,

Example 10.5. Consider a rectangular plate 0.2 m × 0.4 m T = 24°C

Nu L 2 = 0.59 (Ra L 2 ) 1/ 4 (Q 1 − Q 2 ) (27.216 − 22.848)

Temperature °C ρ, kg/m3 Cp, kJ/kg.K µ, kg/ms kf , W/m.K

30 1.165 1.005 18.6 × 10–6 0.0267

(P.U., Dec. 2006)

A = 15 cm2 = 15 × 10–4 m2, Ts = 200°C,

We also have, Qs = 1.14 × Qb Solution

Temp. Cp, kf , ν, m2/s Pr β, K–1 120 + 40

Grashof number, Solution

= 2.467 × 1010 (1.751 × 10 −5 ) 2

Example 10.11. A circular disc heater 0.2 m in diameter

Hence RaD = 4.734 × 109 × (0.2)3 = 37.872 × 106 Rayleigh number

For top surface Lc = 0.0125 m ν = 23.18 × 10–6 m2/s

Sr. Geometry Characteristic Type of Flow Range of Correlation

1. Vertical Planes and Height, L Laminar 104 ≤ Ra ≤ 108 1.42(∆T/L)1/4

Example 10.16. 1 cm O.D. horizontal copper tube carries Assumptions :

Correlation for free convection ; L=2m

The Rayleigh number, To find :

Solution The heat dissipation rate by radiation

Case I : Motorcycle at rest : Nu = 0.027 Re0.805 Pr1/3

Width of plate w Fig. 10.25. Convection currents in vertical

situation by pure conduction. But when the hotter ...(10.59)

Heavy fluid Cold surface

Light fluid Hot surface

Fig. 10.26. Convection current in a horizontal enclosure

Vertical rectangular enclosure Gas or — — Ra < 2000 Nu = 1

1–40 1–20 106–109 Nu = 0.046 Ra1/3

Horizontal rectangular enclosure Gas or — — — Nu = 1

Horizontal rectangular enclosure Gas or — — Ra < 1708 Nu = 1

Concentric horizontal cylinders Gas or — 1–5000 6.3 × 103–106 Nu = 0.11 Ra0.29

Concentric spheres Gas or — 0.7–4000 102–109 Nu = 0.228 Ra0.226

Effective thermal conductivity. We know that 2πN

2πL keff (T1 − T2 )

The Grashof number To find : Convective heat transfer rate.