Transient Heat Conduction

Transient Heat Conduction 6
6.1. Approximate Solution—Systems with negligible internal resistance : lumped system analysis—Dimensionless quantities—Thermal
time constant and response of thermocouple—The lumped system analysis for mixed boundary conditions—The validity of lumped system
analysis. 6.2. Analytical Solution—Criteria for neglecting internal temperature gradients—Infinite cylinder and sphere with convective
boundaries—One term approximation. 6.3. Transient Temperature Charts : Heisler and Gröber Charts—Transient temperature charts
for slab—Transient temperature charts for long cylinder and sphere. 6.4. Transient Heat Conduction in Semi Infinite Solids—Penetration
depth and penetration time. 6.5. Transient Heat Conduction in Multidimensional Systems. 6.6. Summary—Review Questions—Problems—
References and Suggested Reading.
When the heat energy is being added or removed to or 4. Product solution,

from a body, its energy content (internal energy) 5. Graphical solution,
changes, resulting into change in its temperature at each 6. Numerical technique.
point within the body over the time. During this
To determine the time dependence of temperature
transient period, the temperature becomes function of
distribution within a solid during transient process, we
time as well as direction in the body. The conduction
shall begin by solving the problems that can be simplified
occurred during this period is called transient (unsteady
by considering the temperature in the solid is only
state) conduction. Therefore, in unsteady state
function of time and uniform throughout the system at
T = f(x, t) any instant. In subsequent sections of this chapter, we
= Function of direction and time shall consider the problems of unsteady state, when
During transient heat conduction, the energy temperature varies with time as well as it penetrates
balance on a body yields to the interior of the bodies.
The net rate of heat transfer with the body
= Net rate of internal energy 6.1. APPROXIMATE SOLUTION
change of the body.
In many engineering applications, the heat 6.1.1. Systems with Negligible Internal Resistance :
transferred is transient. The heat treatment process, Lumped System Analysis
like quenching, annealing, normalising etc. are processes If the physical size of the body is very small, the
of unsteady state heat flow. temperature gradient exists in the body is negligible.
The unsteady heat flow is also involved, when the The small body can be assumed at uniform temperature
system undergoes a transition from one steady state to throughout at any time. The analysis of the unsteady
another, involving periodic variation in heat flow and heat transfer with negligible temperature gradients is
temperature, e.g., the periodic heat flow in a building called the lumped system analysis.
between day and night.
Consider a solid of volume V, surface area As,
The analysis of heat transfer during unsteady thermal conductivity k, density ρ, specific heat C and
state can be possible by
initially at uniform temperature Ti is suddenly
1. Approximation, immersed in a well stirred fluid, kept at uniform
2. Analytical method, temperature T∞. The heat is dissipated by convection into
3. Use of transient temperature charts, a fluid from its surface, with convection coefficient h.
180
TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION 181
In absence of any temperature gradient in solid, or P = ln(θi)

the energy balance for element is : Substituting in eqn. (6.2), we get
The rate of heat flow out the solid through the
boundary surface(s) hA s
ln(θ) = – t + ln(θi)
= The rate of decrease of internal ρVC
energy of the solid F θ I = – hA t
or hAs(T – T∞) = – mC
dT
...(6.1)
or ln GH θ JK ρVC
i
s
dt
where, m = ρV, mass of the body
or
θ R hA t UV
= exp S− s
and T = f(t), a function of time. θ i T ρVC W
Ti
or
θ
=
T − T∞
= exp −
hA s t RS UV ...(6.3)
Solid
θi Ti − T∞ ρVC T W
Eout = Qconv The eqn. (6.3) is plotted in Fig. 6.2 for different
hA s
values of and the observations are :
ρVC
T(t) E¢st
(1) The eqn. (6.3) can be used to determine the
T¥ < Ti
time t required for solid to reach some temperature T.
(2) The temperature of a body approaches the
ambient temperature T∞ exponentially. The
Fig. 6.1. Solid suddenly exposed to convection temperature of body changes rapidly at the beginning
environment at T∞
(due to large temperature difference), but slow down
The initial temperature of solid Ti (Fig. 6.1) is
hA s
greater than ambient fluid temperature, T∞, the later on. The large value of indicates that the body
eqn. (6.1) leads to, ρVC
will approach the ambient temperature in a short time.
dT
hAs(T – T∞) = – ρVC
dt
T
Introducing the temperature difference as
θ = T – T∞ ia l
nt
ne
dθ dT o
p g
and = Ex atin
dt dt he
dθ
Thus hAsθ = – ρVC Ex
dt c o pon
o l i en
Rearranging, we have n g tia
l
dθ hA s
=– dt
θ ρVC
t
Integrating both sides, we get
Fig. 6.2. Transient heating and cooling
hA s
ln(θ) = – t+P ...(6.2) The lumped system analysis is analogous to the
ρVC
voltage decay that occurs when a capacitor is discharged
where P is constant of integration and can be evaluated
through a resistor in an electrical R–C circuit. The
from initial condition.
equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 6.3. In this network,
At t = 0, T = Ti and θ(t = 0) = θi = Ti – T∞ the capacitor is initially charged to some potential Ti by
Applying in eqn. (6.2) closing the switch S. When switch is opened, the energy
ln(θi) = P + 0 stored in the capacitor is discharged through convection
182 ENGINEERING HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
1 or ∆U = hAs
resistance . The analogy between thermal system
hA s
F
(Ti – T∞) − ρVC
I R|Sexp FG − hA t IJ − 1U|V
and electrical system is apparent.
GH
hA sJK |T H ρVC K |W s
1
where, Rth = , thermal resistance to convection
hA s
R F hA t I − 1U|V
∆U = – ρVC(T – T ) |Sexp G −
|T H ρVC JK |W
s
heat transfer i ∞
Cth = ρVC, thermal capacitance (stored internal
energy). (Joules) ...(6.7)
t³0
Thus the heat transfered during a time period is
S
equal to decrease in internal energy.
t<0
Cth = rVC 6.1.2. Dimensionless Quantities
qi = (Ti – T¥) Rth = 1
hAs hA s
The exponent quantity in eqn. (6.3) may be
ρVC
q=0
expressed as
hA s t FG IJ FG kt IJ FG A δ IJ
hδ
H K H ρCδ K H V K
s
Fig. 6.3. Equivalent thermal (R–C) circuit for lumped = 2
ρVC k
capacity method
The instantaneous rate of cooling can be obtained F hδ I F αt I F A δ IJ
=G JG JG
H k K Hδ K H V K
s
by differentiating eqn. (6.3) with respect to time t, 2
dT hA s R|S hA s t FG IJ U|V b°C/sg = Bi Fo GF ...(6.8)
dt
= (Ti − T∞ ) −
ρVC |T
exp −
ρVC H K |W where, Bi =
hδ
, Biot number, a dimensionless
k
...(6.4) number.
The instantaneous rate of heat transfer Q(t) from
a solid can be calculated as αt
Fo = , Fourier number, a dimensionless
Q(t) = hAs[T – T∞] δ2
number.
dT
= – mC ...(6.5) A sδ
dt and GF = , Geometrical factor, a dimensionless
V
Using the quantity [T – T∞] from eqn. (6.3), we
quantity.
get
The geometrical factor GF is considered to be
L hA t OP (Watts)
Q(t) = hA (T – T ) exp M− s unity for calculation of characteristic length δ of the solid
s i
N ρVC Q ∞ as
...(6.6) V
δ= ...(6.9)
The total quantity of heat transferred during the As
time t is equal to change in internal energy (∆U) of the
solid. It can be calculated by integrating eqn. (6.6) with Then the temperature distribution eqn. (6.3)
respect to time t within limits 0 to t within the solid can be expressed as
∆U = z
0
t
Q(t) dt
T − T∞
Ti − T∞
= exp −
RS
ht
T
ρδC
UV
W
...(6.10)
= hAs (Ti – T∞) z R|S|T

0
t FG
H
exp −
hA s t
ρVC
IJ U|V dt
K |W
For certain common body shapes, and their
characteristic length δ is shown in Table 6.1.
TABLE 6.1. The characteristic length δ of common geometry exposed to convection environment.
Sr. Geometry Schematic Volume Surface Characteristic Equation

No. V Area As Length δ number
1 Infinite plate
of thickness L Initially
A
at Ti
A AL L
exposed on both O AL 2A δ= = …(6.11)
2A 2
sides
L
2 Short cylinder
exposed to ro L
πro2L 2πro2 + 2πroL δ= …(6.12)
environment r0 2(ro + L)
L
>D
ro D
3 Long cylinder r0 L> πro2L ≈2πroL δ≈ = …(6.13)
2 4
ro
4 Solid sphere 4 3 4πro2 ro D …(6.14)
πro δ≈ =
3 3 6
L L
5 Cube L3 6L2 δ≈ …(6.15)
6
L
L
Biot Number This criteria indicates that the internal resistance

It is defined as ratio of internal resistance of the of the solid to heat flow is very small in comparison to
solid to heat flow to convection resistance at the surfaces. convection resistance to heat flow at the surfaces.
Internal resistance to heat flow Fourier Number
Bi =
Convection resistance to heat flow It signifies the degree of penetration of heating
δ hA hδ or cooling effect through the solid. It is defined as the
= × = ...(6.16) ratio of the rate of heat conduction to the rate of the
kA 1 k
thermal energy storage in the solid. It is denoted by Fo
It can also be interpreted as the ratio of heat
and expressed as
transfer coefficient to the internal specific conductance
of the solid. The Biot number is required to determine kA( ∆T)/δ kAt k t αt
Fo = = = =
the validity of the lumped heat capacity approach. The ρVC( ∆T)/t ρ( Aδ)Cδ ρC δ 2
δ2
lumped system analysis can only be applied when ...(6.17)
Bi ≤ 0.1
6.1.3. Thermal Time Constant and Response of Using time constant, the temperature distribu-
Thermocouple tion in the solids can be expressed as
F hA t IJ is a T − T∞ RS
hA st UV t FG IJ
In eqn. (6.3) the exponent quantity G
H ρVC K
s
Ti − T∞
= exp −
T
ρVC
= exp −
W τ H K ...(6.20)
dimensionless quantity and the quantity G

F ρVC IJ has 6.1.4. The Lumped System Analysis for Mixed Boundary
H hA K s
Conditions
Consider a slab of thickness L, initially at uniform
the dimension of time and therefore, it is called the time temperature Ti (t = 0). For the value of t > 0, the surface
constant of the system. It is denoted by τ, and is given at x = 0 is subjected to constant heat flux q and the
as surface at x = L dissipates heat by convection into an
ρVC ambient at T∞ with a convection coefficient h as shown
τ = hA ...(6.18)
s in Fig. 6.5.
The temperature difference between a solid and The energy balance for the slab at t > 0
a fluid must decay exponentially to zero as time
dT
approaches infinity. The response of thermocouple Aq – hA(T – T∞) = ρVC ...(6.21)
is defined as the time taken by thermocouple to indicate dt
dT
the source temperature. At the end of one time constant, or Aq – hA(T – T∞) = ρ(AL)C
the temperature difference between system (T) and dt
source (T∞) is dT
or q – h(T – T∞) = ρLC
T − T∞ dt
= exp (– 1) = 0.368 ...(6.19) q h dT
Ti − T∞ or – (T – T∞) =
ρCL ρCL dt
1
Introducing θ = T – T∞
VC q
= = RthCth
hAs N=
ρCL
i Ti – T
T – T
h
and M=
ρCL
=
Then the above equation is changed to

0.368 dθ
N – Mθ =
dt
dθ
or + Mθ = N
dt
0 1 2 3 4
Convection
Fig. 6.4. Transient temperature response of lumped Heat flux boundary
systems corresponding to different time constants τ q h
Thus the temperature difference is reduced by T = f(t)
63.2% (= 1 – 0.368) after one time constant and the time T¥
required by thermocouple to indicate the temperature
63.2% of the initial temperature difference is called the L
sensitivity of thermocouple.
For rapid response of thermocouple, the quantity
FG hA IJ
s
Fig. 6.5. Slab with mixed boundaries
H ρVC K should be large to make the exponential term The solution to this equation is the sum of homo-
geneous and particular solutions as
least. The low value of the time constant is desirable. It θ = D exp (– Mt) + θp ...(6.22)
can be achieved for a thermocouple by where D is the constant of integration and θp is the
1. Decreasing the wire diameter. particular solution. The particular solution is
2. Using the light metals of low density and low
specific heat. N
θp =
3. Increasing the heat transfer coefficient. M
N exposed to convection environment at T∞(< T1). Thus

Then θ = D exp (– Mt) + ...(6.23) the temperature of this surface will be some intermedi-
M
Using the initial condition ate temperature say T2, then energy balance on the wall
At t = 0, θ = θi = Ti – T∞ yields to
N kA
Hence θi = D + (T1 – T2) = hA(T2 – T∞)
M L
N On rearrangement, we get Biot number as
It gives D = θi – ...(6.24) defined by eqn. (6.16)
M
Substituting the value in eqn. (6.23), T1 − T2 (L/kA) hL
Bi = = =
RS
θ = θi −
N UV N T2 − T∞ (1/hA ) k
T M
= θi exp (– Mt)
W
exp (– Mt) +
M T
N
+ {1 – exp (– Mt)} Qcond Qconv
M
Bi << 1
N q ρCL q
But = × = T1 T2
M ρCL h h Bi = 1
q
Hence θ = θi exp (– Mt) + {1 – exp (– Mt)} T2
h
...(6.25)
The steady state temperature of the slab can be Bi >> 1 T2
obtained by setting t → ∞ T h
q
θ(∞) = (T – T∞) = ...(6.26) L
h x
Since the exponential term exp(– Mt) becomes Fig. 6.6. Effect of Biot number on steady-state temperature
zero for t → ∞. distribution in a plane wall with surface convection
6.1.5. The Validity of Lumped System Analysis The Biot number is a measure of the temperature
The analysis of transient heat conduction problems drop in the solid relative to the temperature difference
becomes very easy by using the lumped heat capacity between surface and its ambient. The Fig. 6.6 illustrates,
method due to its simplicity. Hence, it is necessary to for Bi << 1, the temperature distribution in a solid is
specify its limits between which it may be used with uniform at any time during a transient process.
reasonable accuracy. If Bi << 1, the resistance to conduction with the
To develop an appropriate criterion, consider solid is much less than the resistance to convection across
steady state heat conduction through a plane wall of the fluid boundary layer.
area A, thickness L as shown in Fig. 6.6. One surface of Now consider a plane wall as shown in Fig. 6.7,
the wall is maintained at temperature, T1 and other is which is initially at uniform temperature Ti. It is suddenly
T(x, 0) = Ti T(x, 0) = Ti
T, h
t
T, h T T T T
–L L –L L –L L
–L L Bi << 1 Bi = 1 Bi >> 1
x T = f(x, t) T = f(x, t)
T = f(t)
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 6.7. Transient temperature distributions for different Biot numbers

in a plane wall symmetrically cooled by convection
exposed for convection cooling in a fluid at T∞. The To find : Time required to cool the plate to 50°C, if
temperature variation with position is a strong function (i) Finite long plate size 40 cm × 30 cm,
of Biot number and three conditions are shown on Fig. 6.7. (ii) Infinite long plate.
For Bi << 1, [Fig. 6.7 (a)], the temperature gradient in the Assumptions :
solid is small and T(x, t) ≈ T(t) i.e., the solid temperature
1. The effect of edges of plate for cooling.
remains uniform within the body. For moderate to large
2. Internal temperature gradients are negligible.
value of Biot number, the temperature gradients within
the solid are considerable and hence T = T(x, t). For 3. No radiation heat exchange.
Bi >> 1, the temperature difference across the solid is much 4. Constant properties.
larger than that between the surface and the fluid. Analysis : (i) The characteristic length of finite
We can conclude by emphasizing the importance long plate (as shown in Fig. 6.8)
of Biot number in transient heat conduction. Hence, with Volume of plate
δ=
each problem, at very first, one should calculate the Biot Exposed area of plate
number. If the following condition is satisfied 0.4 × 0.3 × 0.003
=
hδ (2 × 0.4 + 2 × 0.3) × 0.003 + 2 × 0.3 × 0.4
Bi = ≤ 0.1 ...(6.27)
k = 1.474 × 10–3 m
the error associated with using the lumped system The Biot number
analysis will be small.
hδ 28 × 1.474 × 10 −3
Example 6.1. In a quenching process, a copper plate of Bi = = = 1.072 × 10–4
k 385
3 mm thick is heated upto 350°C and then suddenly, it which is much smaller than 0.1, thus the lumped system
is dropped into a water bath at 25°C. Calculate the time analysis can be applied with reasonable accuracy. Using
required for the plate to reach the temperature of 50°C. eqn. (6.10) ;
The heat transfer coefficient on the surface of the plate is
28 W/m2.K. The plate dimensions may be taken as length T − T∞
= exp −
ht RS UV
40 cm and width 30 cm. Ti − T∞ ρCδ T W
Also calculate the time required for infinite long Using numerical values.
plate to cool to 50°C. Other parameters remain same. 50 − 25
= exp −
RS 28t UV
Take the properties of copper as 350 − 25 T
8800 × 380 × 1.474 × 10 −3 W
C = 380 J/kg.K, ρ = 8800 kg/m3,
8800 × 380 × 1.474 × 10 −3 FG IJ
25
Solution
k = 385 W/m.K. (J.N.T.U., May 2004) or t=–
28
× ln
325H K
= 451.5 s = 7.52 min. Ans.
Given : The quenching of a copper plate in water
(ii) Characteristic length of infinite long plate
bath. eqn. (6.11)
Size = 40 cm × 30 cm, L = 3 mm, L
Ti = 350°C, T∞ = 25°C, δ= = 0.0015 m
2
T = 50°C, h = 28 W/m2.K, hδ 28 × 0.0015
C = 380 J/kg.K, ρ = 8800 kg/m3, Bi = = . × 10 −4
= 109
k 385
k = 385 W/m.K. which is much less than 0.1, therefore, using lumped
system analysis.
30 c
m
50 − 25
= exp −
LM 28t OP
N Q
Water
350 − 25 8800 × 380 × 0.0015
T¥ = 25°C or t = 459.5 s = 7.65 min. Ans.
2 Example 6.2. A solid steel ball 5 cm in diameter and
40 cm
Ti = 350°C h = 28 W/m .K
initially at 450°C is quenched in a controlled
environment at 90°C with convection coefficient of
115 W/m2.K. Determine the time taken by centre to reach
a temperature of 150°C. Take thermophysical properties
as
3 mm
C = 420 J/kg.K, ρ = 8000 kg/m3,

Fig. 6.8. Schematic of plate in example 6.1 k = 46 W/m.K. (P.U., May 2002)
Solution Ti = 60°C, T∞ = 600°C,

Given : A solid steel ball quenching with L = 10 mm, t = 1, 5, 20 and 100 s.
T = 150°C, T∞ = 90°C, To find : Temperature attained by compressor
Ti = 450°C, h = 115 W/m2.K, blade after 1, 5, 20 and 100 seconds.
C = 420 J/kg.K, ρ = 8000 kg/m3, Assumptions: 1. Compressor blade as an infinite
k = 46 W/m.K, D = 5 cm = 0.05 m. wall.
2. Negligible internal temperature gradient
3. No. radiation heat exchange.
D = 5 cm
Steel ball 4. Constant properties.
Analysis : The characteristic length of blade
L 10
Fig. 6.9. Schematic for example 6.2 δ=
= = 5 mm = 5 × 10–3 m
2 2
To find : Time required by steel ball to reach 150°C. The Biot number
Assumptions :
hδ 500 × 5 × 10 −3
Bi = = = 0.1
k 25
2. No radiation heat exchange.
Hence it is possible to use the low Biot number
3. Constant properties.
approximation
Analysis : The characteristic length of the steel ball
V D 0.05  0.05 
T − T∞ FG
ht IJ
δ=
As 6
= =
6
m = 
 6 
 m Ti − T∞
= exp –
H
ρδC K
The Biot number After 1 s
FG IJ T − 600 F 500 × 1 I
Bi =
hδ
k
=
(115 W/m 2 . K)
(46 W/m.K)
×
0.05
6 H K
m = 0.0208 60 − 600
= exp − GH
4500 × 5 × 10 −3 × 520
JK
which is less than 0.1, hence the lumped heat capacity or T = 600 + (– 540) × exp (– 0.0427)
system analysis may be applied. = 600 – 540 × 0.9581 = 82.6°C. Ans.
Using eqn. (6.10) for temperature distribution similarly the temperature after
T − T∞
= exp −
RSht UV t T
Ti − T∞ T
ρδC W 5s
20 s
163.9°C
370.3°C
Substituting the values 100 s 592.5°C. Ans.
150 − 90
= exp −
RS 115 × 6t UV Example 6.4. A long thin glass walled, 0.3 cm diameter,
450 − 90 T8000 × 0.05 × 420 W mercury thermometer is placed in a stream of air with
convection coefficient of 60 W/m2.K for measuring
or ln (60/360) = – (690/168000)t
transient temperature of air. Consider cylindrical
or t = 440.35 s = 7.34 min. Ans.
thermometer bulb consists of mercury only. For which
Example 6.3. A titanium alloy blade of an axial k = 8.9 W/m.K and α = 0.016 m2/h
compressor for which k = 25 W/m.K, ρ = 4500 kg/m3 and
Calculate the time constant and time required for
C = 520 J/kg.K is initially at 60°C. The effective thickness
the temperature change to reach half of its initial value.
of the blade is 10 mm and it is exposed to gas stream at
600°C, the blade experiences a heat transfer coefficient Solution
of 500 W/m2.K. Use low Biot number approximation to Given : A long cylindrical thermometer bulb of
estimate the temperature of blade after 1, 5, 20 and 100 s. mercury with
(N.M.U., May 2002) D = 0.3 cm = 0.003 m, h = 60 W/m2.K,
Solution k = 8.9 W/m.K,
Given : A titanium alloy blade of compressor with α = 0.016 m2/h = 4.444 × 10–6 m2/s
k = 25 W/m.K, ρ = 4500 kg/m3, T − T∞
C = 520 J/kg.K, h = 500 W/m2.K, = 0.5.
Ti − T∞
(ii) The time required to reach the temperature

change to half of its initial value
Using the relation
T − T∞
= exp −
ht RS
= exp
UV  t
− τ
Ti − T∞ ρδC T W  
Given that
The final temperature change = (1/2) × Initial
D = 0.3 cm temperature change
or T – T∞ = 0.5 × (Ti – T∞)
Using the time constant in eqn. (6.20), as
0.5 = exp − t RS UV
25 T W
or t = – 25 × ln(0.5) = 17.32 s. Ans.
Example 6.5. A steel ball of 50 mm diameter and at 900°C
2
h = 60 W/m .K temperature is placed in still air at temperature of 30°C.
Calculate the initial rate of cooling of ball in °C/min. Take
h = 30 W/m2.K and thermophysical properties of steel as
Fig. 6.10. Schematic for example 6.4
ρ = 7800 kg/m3,C = 2 kJ/kg.K
To find :
Neglect internal thermal resistance.
(i) Time constant.
(V.T.U., July 2002)
(ii) Time required for temperature change to
reach half of initial temperature change. Solution
Assumptions : Given : A steel ball exposed to air
1. Glass thermometer as infinite long D = 50 mm = 0.05 m,
thermometer.
Ti = 900°C,
2. Internal temperature gradients are
negligible. T∞ = 30°C,
3. No radiation heat exchange. h = 30 W/m2.K,
4. Constant properties. C = 2 kJ/kg.K = 2000 J/kg.K,
Analysis : (i) The characteristic length of the ρ = 7800 kg/m3,
cylindrical thermometer
t = 0 (for initial cooling).
V D 0.003
δ= = = = 7.5 × 10–4 m
As 4 4
Biot number h = 30 W/m .K
2
D
−4 =
hδ 60 × 7.5 × 10 50
Bi = = = 5.056 × 10–3 m
k 8.9 m T¥ = 30°C
which is less than 0.1, hence the lumped heat capacity
system analysis may be applied.
Using the eqn. (6.18) for time constant
ρVC kδ Fig. 6.11. Schematic for example 6.5
τ= =
hA s αh To find : The initial rate of cooling of ball in °C/min.
−4
8.9 × 7.5 × 10 Analysis : The instantaneous cooling rate can be
= = 25 s. Ans. obtained by using eqn. (6.4)
4.444 × 10 −6 × 60
k k dT hA s R|S
hA s t FG IJ U|V
∴ α=
ρC
or ρC =
α
. dt
= (Ti – T∞) −
ρVC
exp −
|T
ρVC H K |W
For sphere : Analysis : The characteristic length of the body

As 1 6 6 V πro 2 L
= = = = 120 δ= =
V δ D 0.05 As 2π ro L + 2πro 2
Using numerical values,
dT π × (0.15 m) 2 × (1.7 m)
= (900 – 30) =
dt 2π × (0.15 m) × (1.7 m) + 2π × (0.15 m) 2
RS 30 × 120 FG 30 × 120 × 0 IJ UV = 0.0689 m
× −
|T 7800 × 2000 H
× exp −
7800 × 2000 K |W Biot number
= 870 × (– 2.3077 × 1) = 0.2°C/s hδ (8 W/m 2 .K) × (0.0689 m)

Bi = = = 0.092
= 12°C/min. Ans. k (6.08 W/m.K)
Example 6.6. A person is found dead at 5 p.m. in a The Biot number is less than 0.1, therefore, the
room where temperature is 20°C. The temperature of the lumped system analysis is applicable.
body is measured to be 25°C when found, and the heat Using eqn. (6.10),
transfer coefficient is estimated to be 8 W/m2.K. Modelling
the human body a 30 cm diameter, 1.70 m long cylinder,
T − T∞ RS UV
= exp −
ht
calculate actual time of death of the person. Take Ti − T∞ T W
ρδC
thermophysical properties of the body :
k = 6.08 W/m.K, ρ = 900 kg/m3,
25 − 20 L
= exp M –
8×t OP
C = 4000 J/kg.K. (N.M.U., Dec. 2002)
37 − 20 N 900 × 0.0689 × 4000 Q
Solution F 5I
ln G J = – 3.225 × 10 t
Given : The dead body of a person as a cylinder
or
H 17 K –5
T∞ = 20°C, k = 6.08 W/m.K or t = 37,943 s = 10.54 h. Ans.
T = 25°C, ρ = 900 kg/m3 Example 6.7. A bearing piece in the form of half of
a hollow cylinder of 60 mm ID, 90 mm OD and
h = 8 W/m2.K, C = 4000 J/kg.K
100 mm long is to be cooled to –100°C from 30°C
D = 30 cm = 0.3 m or ro = 0.15 m using a cryogenic gas at –150°C with a convective heat
L = 1.70 m. transfer coefficient of 70 W/m2.K. Determine the time
required. Take properties of bearing material as
C = 444 J/kg.K, ρ = 8900 kg/m3,
k = 17.2 W/m.K.
Solution
Given : A piece of bearing as half of hollow cylinder
with
D1 = 60 mm or r1 = 0.03 m
D2 = 90 mm or r2 = 0.045 m
L = 100 mm = 0.1 m, Ti = 30°C
T∞ = – 150°C, T = – 100°C
Fig. 6.12. Schematic of a dead body
C = 444 J/kg.K, ρ = 8900 kg/m3
To find : Actual time of death of the person.
k = 17.2 W/m.K, h = 70 W/m2.K.
Assumptions :
To find : Time required to reach – 100°C.
1. Healthy person, thus body temperature of
37°C at the time of death. Assumptions :
2. Uniform heat transfer coefficient on entire 1. Internal temperature gradients are negligible.
surface of body. 2. No radiation heat exchange.
3. No radiation heat transfer. 3. Constant properties.
Solution
L Given : A thermocouple junction in form of a
sphere with
r2 r1 C = 0.35 kJ/kg.K = 350 J/kg.K,
h = 250 W/m2.K
k = 25 W/m.K,
Fig. 6.13. Schematic of half portion of a bearing ρ = 9000 kg/m3
Analysis : The characteristic length of the T – T∞ = (1 – 0.95) (Ti – T∞),
cylinder.
t = 3 s.
The volume of bearing piece,
V = (1/2) × π(r22 – r12) L
= (1/2) × π{(0.045)2 – (0.03)2} × 0.1
= 1.766 × 10–4 m Thermo-
couple
Surface area of the bearing, wire
As = (Front + back + lateral Gas
+ longitudinal) area 2
h = 250 W/m .K
Spherical
D junction
= 2 × (1/2)π (r2 – r12) + πL(r1 + r2)
2
+ 2 × L × (r2 – r1)
= π × (0.0452 – 0.032) + π × 0.1 Fig. 6.14. Thermocouple junction for example 6.8
× (0.03 + 0.045) + 2 × 0.1 × (0.045 – 0.03) To find : Diameter of the junction to indicate 95%
= 3.53 × 10–3 + 0.0235 + 3 × 10–3 of applied temperature difference.
= 0.03003 m2 Assumptions :
V 1.766 × 10 −4 1. Internal temperature gradients are negligible.
δ= =
As 0.03003 2. No radiation heat exchange.
= 5.872 × 10–3 m 3. Constant properties.
Biot number,
Analysis : The characteristic length of the
hδ 70 × 5.872 × 10 −3 thermocouple junction
Bi = = = 0.0239
k 17.2 V D
which is less than 0.1, hence the lumped heat capacity δ= =
As 6
system analysis may be applied. Using eqn. (6.10) for
temperature distribution Using the relation,
T − T∞ RS UV ht T − T∞
= exp −
htRS UV
Ti − T∞
= exp −
T W ρδC Ti − T∞ ρδC T W
Substituting the values where,
− 100 − (− 150) R
= exp S –
70t UV The applied (initial) temperature difference
30 − (− 150) T 8900 × 5.872 × 10 −3
× 444 W = Ti – T∞
Thermocouple measure 95% of applied tempera-
or t = 424.6 s. Ans.
ture (Ti – T∞), then
Example 6.8. A thermocouple is used to measure the
The remaining temperature difference
temperature in a gas stream. The junction may be
(T – T∞) = 0.05 × (Ti – T∞)
approximated as a sphere with thermal conductivity of Hence,
25 W/m.K, density 9000 kg/m3, and specific heat
0.35 kJ/kg. K. The heat transfer coefficient between the T − T∞
= 0.05 = exp −
ht RS UV
junction and the gas is 250 W/m2.K. Calculate the Ti − T∞ ρδC T W
diameter of the junction, if thermocouple should measure
95 per cent of the applied temperature difference in 3 s. = exp −
RS 250 × 3 UV
T 9000 × 350 × (D / 6) W
or ln (0.5) = – 0.001428/D Using eqn. (6.10) for temperature distribution

or D = 4.768 × 10–4 m T − T∞
= exp −
RSht UV
= 0.4768 mm. Ans.
Checking the validity of the relation applied above
Ti − T∞ T
ρδC W
The Biot number Substituting the numerical values
hδ 250 × 4.7687 × 10 −4 100 − 30

= exp −
RS 60t UV
Bi =
k
=
6 × 25 350 − 30 T
2700 × 0.0269 × 900 W
= 7.9 × 10–4
FG 70 IJ = – 60 t
system analysis is valid.
or ln
H 320 K 65367
or t = 1655 s = 27.6 min. Ans.
Example 6.9. An aluminium sphere weighing 6 kg and
initially at temperature of 350°C is suddenly immersed Example 6.10. A thermocouple junction is in the form
in a fluid at 30°C with convection coefficient of of a 4 mm diameter sphere. The properties of the mate-
60 W/m2.K. Estimate the time required to cool the sphere rial are C = 420 J/kg.K, ρ = 8000 kg/m3, k = 40 W/m.K,
to 100°C. Take thermophysical properties as unit surface conductance h = 40 W/m2.K. The junction is
C = 900 J/kg.K, ρ = 2700 kg/m3, initially at 40°C is inserted in a stream of hot air at
k = 205 W/m.K. (P.U., May 1999) 300°C. Find :
(i) Time constant.
Solution (ii) Thermocouple is taken out from the hot air
Given : An aluminium sphere with after 10 seconds and is kept in still air at 30°C. Assuming
m = 6 kg, C = 900 J/kg.K, the heat transfer coefficient in still air as 10 W/m2.K,
ρ = 2700 kg/m3, k = 205 W/m.K, find the temperature attained by junction 20 seconds
after removing it from hot air stream.
Ti = 350°C, T∞ = 30°C,
(P.U.P., Dec. 2008)
T = 100°C, h = 60 W/m2.K.
To find : Time required to reach 100°C. Solution
Given : A thermocouple junction in the form of
2 sphere with
h = 60 W/m .K
m = 6 kg
T¥ = 30°C
D = 4 mm = 4 × 10–3 m, C = 420 J/kg.K,
ρ = 8000 kg/m3, k = 40 W/m.K,
Fig. 6.15. Sphere for example 6.9 Ti = 40°C,
Assumptions :
(a) T∞ 1 = 300°C for t = 10 s with h1 = 40 W/m2.K.
2. No radiation heat exchange. (b) T∞ 2 = 30°C for t = 20 s with h2 = 10 W/m2.K.
D = 4 mm
Analysis : The volume of sphere C
4 πro 3
k
m 6 h
V= = =
3 ρ 2700 T¥
Ti
or ro = 0.0809 m
The characteristic length of the sphere Fig. 6.16 (a) Thermocouple junction
V r 0.0809 m To find :
δ= = o =
As 3 3 (i) Time constant.
= 0.0269 m (ii) Temperature attained by thermocouple after
Biot number
10 s, when placed in stream of hot air at T∞ 1 = 300°C.
hδ 60 × 0.0269
Bi = = = 7.89 × 10–3 (iii) Temperature attained by thermocouple,
k 205
which is less than 0.1, hence the lumped heat capacity taken out from hot air and placed in still air at 30°C for
system analysis may be applied. 20 s.
Assumptions : T
1. Internal temperature gradients are negligible. T1

T2 = 30°C

T2
Analysis : The characteristic length of the sphere
V D 0.004
δ= = = 10 s 20 s t
As 6 6
Fig. 6.16 (c)
= 6.667 × 10–4 m
The Biot number T2 − T∞ 2 RS h t UV
= exp − 2 2
Bi =
h1δ
=
40 × 6.667 × 10 −4
T1 − T∞ 2 T ρCδ W
k
= 6.667 × 10–4
40
T − 30
2 R
= exp S–
10 × 20 UV
which is less than 0.1, thus the lumped system analysis
82.52 − 30 T 8000 × 420 × 6.667 × 10 W −4
is applicable with reasonable accuracy. = 0.9145

(i) Using eqn. (6.18) for time constant or T2 = 30 + 52.52 × 0.9145 = 78°C. Ans.
ρδC 8000 × 6.667 × 10 −4 × 420 Example 6.11. A thermocouple junction may be
τ= =
h1 40 approximated as a sphere, is to be used for temperature
= 56 s. Ans. measurement in a gas stream with convection coefficient of
400 W/m2.K. The thermophysical properties of the junction
(ii) When the junction is exposed to hot air stream are k = 20 W/m.K, C = 400 J/kg.K, ρ = 8500 kg/m3.
at 300°C. Temperature attained by junction after 10 s.
Using eqn. (6.20) (a) Determine the diameter needed for the ther-
mocouple junction to have a time constant of 1 s. If the
T1 − T∞
1
RS
= exp −
UV
h1t1
= exp
 t1 
− τ 
junction is initially at 25°C and placed in a gas stream
Ti − T∞
1
T ρδC W   at 200°C. How long it will take for the junction to reach
199°C ?
T (b) If the duct wall temperature is 400°C and the
emissivity of the thermocouple bead is 0.9, calculate
T1 = 300°C steady state temperature of the junction. Also calculate
the time for junction temperature to increase from an
T1
initial condition of 25°C to a temperature that is within
1°C of its steady state value.
40°C Solution
Given : A thermocouple junction in the form of
10 s t sphere with
Fig. 6.16 (b) (a) T = 199°C, T∞ = 200°C,
Using the time constant in above equation τ = 1 s, Ti = 25°C = 298 K.
T1 − 300
= exp −
10 RS UV (b) ε = 0.9, Tsurr = 400°C = 673 K.
40 − 300 56 T
= 0.83646
W
or T1 = 300 – 260 × 0.83646 Thermocouple leads
= 82.52°C. Ans.
Junction
(iii) Now the junction is taken out from hot air
k = 20 W/m.K
stream and placed in stream of still air at 30°C. The
2
h = 400 W/m .K C = 400 J/kg.K
temperature after 20 s. T¥ = 200°C = 8500 kg/m
3
The initial temperature for this case would be

82.52°C. Hence using the relation for temperature Fig. 6.17. Thermocouple junction.
distribution, as
To find : Part (b) :

Part (a) (i) For steady state conditions, the energy balance
(i) Diameter of junction for time constant of 1 s. on the thermocouple junction.
(ii) Time required by thermocouple to reach Rate of energy input = Rate of energy dissipation
199°C. 4
As εσ( (Tsurr − T 4 ) = hAs(T – T∞)
Part (b) 4
or ε σ (Tsurr − T 4 ) – h(T – T∞) = 0
(i) Steady state temperature of the junction.
Substituting numerical values
(ii) Time required for thermocouple junction to
reach a temperature that is within 1°C of its steady 0.9 × 5.67 × 10–8 × (6734 – T4) – 400 × (T – 473) = 0
state value. 10468.5 – 5.103 × 10–8 T4 – 400T + 189200 = 0
Assumptions : or 5.103 × 10–8 T4 + 400T – 199668.5 = 0
1. Internal temperature gradients are Using Newton Raphson’s iterative technique for
negligible. the solution of this non-linear equation.
F(T) = 5.103 × 10–8 T4 + 400T – 199668.5 = 0
2. No radiation heat exchange for part (a) and
σ = 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2.K4 for part (b) of the problem. F′(T) = 1.5309 × 10–7 T3 + 400
Assuming initial guess T1 = 485 K, then
F(Ti )
Analysis : Part (a) Ti+1 = Ti –
F ′(Ti )
(i) Using eqn. (6.18) for time constant
After two iterations, we get a stable value of
ρVC ρro C T = 491.71 K = 218.71°C. Ans.
τ= =
hA s 3h It is the steady state temperature of thermo-
(1 s) × 3 × (400 W / m 2 .K) couple.
or ro = (ii) The temperature to be recorded by thermo-
(8500 kg / m 3 ) × (400 J / kg.K)
couple be
= 3.529 × 10–4 m T = 218.71 – 1 = 217.71°C
or Diameter, D = 2ro = 7.06 × 10–4 m T∞ = 200°C, Ti = 25°C
= 0.706 mm. Ans. Then the energy balance on thermocouple
Checking the validity for the use of lumped junction
system analysis Rate of energy radiated in – Rate of energy
convected out
Biot number,
= Rate of change of internal energy
hδ hr 400 × 3.529 × 10 −4 E ′in − E ′out = E st
′
Bi = = o =
k 3k 3 × 20 4 dT
= 2.35 × 10 –3 [εσ( Tsurr – T4) – h(T – T∞)] As = ρVC
dt
which is much less than 0.1, hence the lumped heat [0.9 × 5.67 × 10–8 × (6734 – 490.714)]
capacity system analysis is suitable for approximation. – 400 × (490.71 – 473) × 4π × ro2
(ii) Using eqn. (6.10) for temperature distribution 4π 2 dT
= 8500 × ro × (3.529 × 10 − 4 ) × 400 ×
T − T∞
= exp −
RS
3ht UV 3
Its solution gives t = 4.9 s. Ans.
dt
Ti − T∞ T
ρro C W Example 6.12. An egg with mean diameter of 4 cm is
Substituting the numerical values initially at 25°C. It is placed in boiling water for 4 min
and found to be consumer’s taste. For how long should a
199 − 200
= exp −
RS 3 × 400t UV similar egg for same consumer be boiled when taken from
25 − 200 T
8500 × 3.529 × 10 −4 × 400 W refrigerator at 2°C. Use lumped system analysis and take
thermophysical properties of egg as
FG 1 IJ = – 3 t k = 12 W/m.K, h = 125 W/m2.K,
or ln
H 175 K 2.99965 C = 2000 J/kg.K
It gives t = 5.2 s. Ans. and ρ = 1250 kg/m3. (P.U., Nov. 1997)
Solution bearing production requires that 75% of initial thermal

Given : An egg as sphere energy content of balls above –15°C be removed. How
D = 4 cm = 0.04 m long the balls should be placed in the chamber ? Take
(i) Ti = 25°C h = 100 W/m2.K, k = 46 W/m.K,
t1 = 4 min = 240 s Sp. gravity = 7.8, C = 420 J/kg.K.
(ii) Ti = 2°C Solution
k = 12 W/m.K, h = 125 W/m2.K Given : Steel balls of bearings with
C = 2000 J/kg.K, ρ = 1250 kg/m3. D = 1 cm, Sp. gr. = 7.8,
h = 100 W/m2.K C = 420 J/kg.K,
2
h = 125 W/m .K T∞ = – 20°C, Ti = 400°C
k = 46 W/m.K
Energy to be removed = 75% of initial energy
Egg
content above – 15°C.
Ti
To find : Time required during 75% of initial
energy removal.
T¥ = 100°C Assumptions :
Fig. 6.18. Boiling of an egg
To find : Time required for egg at 2°C to be boiled
to consumer’s taste.
Analysis : The radius of steel balls,
Assumptions : ro = D/2 = 0.5 cm = 0.005 m
(i) Egg as a sphere. The density of steel,
(ii) Negligible internal temperature gradients. ρ = Sp. gr. × 1000 kg/m3
(iii) Constant properties. = 7.8 × 1000 = 7800 kg/m3
(iv) Boiling temperature of water as 100°C. r
The characteristics length of steel balls, δ = o
Analysis : The characteristic length of egg 3
Biot number
D 0.04 0.02
= δ= = m hδ 100 × 0.005
6 6 3 Bi = = = 3.623 × 10–3
k 3 × 46
The temperature distribution, using lumped sys-
which is less than 0.1, hence the lumped heat
tem analysis,
capacity system analysis can be reasonably used for
T − T∞ ht FG IJ approximation.
Ti − T∞
= exp −
ρδC H K Using eqn. (6.10) for temperature distribution
Temperature of consumer’s taste T − T∞ RS
= exp −
3ht UV
T − 100 FG
125 × 240 × 3 IJ Ti − T∞ T ρro C W
25 − 100
= exp −
H
1250 × 0.02 × 2000 K Here, Initial energy content of balls above – 15°C
= mC(Ti + 15)
or T = 100 – 75 × 0.1653 = 87.6°C
Energy of balls (above –15°C) is to be removed
When egg is taken from refrigerator at
= 75% of initial energy content
Ti = 2°C and T = 87.6°C
= 0.75 × mC(Ti + 15)
87.6 − 100 FG
125 × 3 t IJ The remaining energy (above – 15°C) content of
2 − 100
= exp −
H
1250 × 0.02 × 2000 K balls,
FG 12.4 IJ = – 375 t mC(T + 15) = 0.25 × mC(Ti + 15)
or ln
H 98 K 50000 Hence
(T + 15)
= 0.25
or t = 275.6 s = 4.6 min. Ans. (Ti + 15)
Example 6.13. It is proposed to quench the steel balls of = exp −

RS 3 × 100 × t UV
bearings, 1 cm in diameter, initially at 400°C is placed T
7800 × 420 × 0.005 W
in a cold chamber maintained at – 20°C. The steel balls t = ln(0.25) × (– 54.6)
pass through the chamber on a conveyor belt. Optimum = 75.7 s. Ans.
Example 6.14. A cylindrical stainless steel ingot

(k = 45 W/m.K), 15 cm in diameter and 40 cm long
850 − 1300
= exp −
RS
0.46 × 10 −5 × 100t UV
passes through a treatment furnace, which is 6 m in 100 − 1300 45 × 0.0315 T W
length. The temperature of furnace gas is 1300°C. The or t = – (3081.52) × ln(0.375) = 3022 s
initial ingot temperature is 100°C. The combined The velocity of ingot through the furnace
radiant and convective heat transfer coefficient is L furnace 6m
100 W/m2.K. Calculate the maximum speed with which u= =
time required 3022 s
the ingot should pass through the furnace, if it must
= 1.985 mm/s. Ans.
attain a temperature of 850°C.
Take α = 0.46 × 10–5 m2/s. (N.M.U., Nov. 1999) Example 6.15. A mild steel sphere of 15 mm in diameter
initially at 625°C is exposed to a current of air at 25°C
Solution with convection coefficient of 120 W/m2.K. Calculate :
Given : A cylindrical stainless ingot with (i) Time required to cool the sphere to 100°C.
D = 15 cm = 0.15 m, L = 40 cm = 0.4 m, (ii) Initial rate of cooling in °C/s.
2
h = 100 W/m .K, k = 45 W/m.K, (iii) Instantaneous heat transfer rate at the end of
Ti = 100°C, T∞ = 1300°C, one minute after the start of cooling.
T = 850°C, Lfurnace = 6 m, (iv) Total energy transferred during first one
α = 0.46 × 10–5 m2/s. minute.
To find : The maximum speed of ingot through Take properties of mild steel as :
furnace. k = 43 W/m.K, ρ = 7850 kg/m3,
C = 474 J/kg.K, α = 0.045 m2/s.
15 Solution
cm
Given : The mild steel sphere with ;
D = 15 mm, h = 120 W/m2.K,
40 cm
k = 43 W/m.K Ti = 625°C,
Fig. 6.19. Cylindrical steel ingot for example 6.14 T∞ = 25°C, ρ = 7850 kg/m3,
Assumptions : C = 474 J/kg.K, T = 100°C,
1. Internal temperature gradients are α = 0.045 m2/s.
negligible.
2. Uniform heating throughout the length of Air
furnace. m
T¥ = 25°C
m
3. Constant properties. =
15
5°
C
D 62
Analysis : The radius of steel ingot, Ti
= 2
h = 120 W/m .K
D 0.15 m
ro = = = 0.075 m
2 2
The characteristic length of the cylinder.
Fig. 6.20. Sphere for example 6.15
V πro 2 L
δ= = To find :
As 2πro 2 + 2πro L
(i) The time required to reach the sphere to
π × (0.075) 2 × 0.4 100°C.
=
2π × (0.075) 2 + 2π × 0.075 × 0.4 (ii) Initial rate of cooling of the sphere in °C/s
= 0.0315 m (iii) Instantaneous rate of heat transfer at the end
hδ 100 × 0.0315 of one minute.
Biot number Bi = = = 0.070
k 45 (iv) Total energy transferred during first one
which is less than 0.1, hence the lumped heat capacity minute.
system analysis can be reasonably used for approximation. Assumptions :
Using eqn. (6.10) for temperature distribution 1. Internal temperature gradients are negligible.
T − T∞ RS ht UV
= exp −
RS
αht UV 2. No radiation heat exchange.
Ti − T∞
= exp −
T ρδC W kδ T W 3. Constant properties.
Analysis : The radius of mild steel sphere, or ∆U = – 7850 × (4/3) π × (0.0075)3 × 474
D 15
= × (625 – 25) × exp −
RS FG 120 × 60
−1
IJ UV
ro =
2 2
= 7.5 mm = 0.0075 m
T H 7850 × 0.0025 × 474 K W
The characteristic length of the sphere : or ∆U = 2125.8 W. Ans.
V r 0.0075 It is the decrease of internal energy of sphere.
δ= = o = = 0.0025 m
As 3 3 Example 6.16. The steel ball bearing (k = 50 W/m.K,
Biot number α = 1.3 × 10–5 m2/s), 40 mm in diameter are heated to a
temperature of 650°C. It is then quenched in an oil bath
hδ 120 × 0.0025
Bi == = 0.00697 at 50°C, where the heat transfer coefficient is estimated
k 43
to be 300 W/m2.K.
Which is less than 0.1, hence the lumped heat Calculate (a) the time required for bearing to reach
capacity system analysis can be reasonably used for 200°C, (b) the total amount of heat removed from a
approximation. bearing during this time, and (c) the instantaneous heat
(i) Using eqn. (6.10) for temperature distribution transfer rate from the bearings, when they are first
immersed in oil bath and when they reach 200°C.
T − T∞ RS UV
= exp −
ht (P.U.P., Dec. 2009 ; J.N.T.U., May 2000)
Ti − T∞ T W
ρ Cδ Solution: Given : Steel ball bearing to be quenched :
D = 40 mm or ro = 0.02 m
or
100 − 25 R
= exp S−
120t UV k = 50 W/m.K, α = 1.3 × 10–5 m2/s
625 − 25 T 7850 × 474 × 0.0025 W Ti = 650°C, T∞ = 50°C
or t = 161.2 s = 2.687 min. Ans. h = 300 W/m2.K, T = 200°C.
(ii) The initial rate of cooling can be obtained by
energy balance as T¥ = 50°C
Rate of decrease of internal energy = Rate of heat mm 2

40 C h = 300 W/m .K
convection from the sphere = 0°
D 65
=
dT Ti
– ρVC = hAs(Ti – T∞)
dt
dT 120 × 4 π × (0.0075 m) 2 × (625 − 25) Fig. 6.21. Steel ball bearing for example 6.16
or =–
dt 7850 × (4/3) π × (0.0075 m) 3 × 474 To find :
= – 7.74°C/s (Decreasing). Ans. (a) Time required by bearings to reach 200°C.
(iii) Instantaneous heat transfer rate at end of (b) Total heat transferred from a bearing.
1 minute : (c) Instantaneous heat transfer rate from
bearings
RS
Q(t) = hAs(Ti – T∞) exp −
ht UV (i) at t = 0, and (ii) when T = 200°C.
T ρδC W Analysis : The characteristic length of bearing
(spherical body)
= 120 × 4π × (0.0075)2 × (625 – 25)
ro
R
× exp S−
120 × 60 UV δ=
3
T 7850 × 0.0025 × 474 W Bi =
hδ
=
300 × 0.02
= 0.04
k 50 × 3
= 50.89 × 0.461 = 23.47 W. Ans. which is less than 0.1, thus the lumped system analysis
(iv) Total heat transferred during first 60 seconds is applicable.
(decrease in internal energy) (a) Time required for bearings to reach 200°C,
eqn. (6.10)
R|S F ht IJ U|V T − T∞ htRS UV RS UV
|T GH
∆U = – ρVC(Ti – T∞) exp − −1 3hαt
ρδC K |W Ti − T∞
= exp −
ρδC
= exp −
T W
ro k T W
FG 200 − 50 IJ = – 3 × 300 × 1.3 × 10 −5

t 2. Internal temperature gradients are negligible.
or, ln
H 650 − 50 K 0.02 × 50 3. No radiation heat exchange.
or t = 118.5 s ≈ 2 min. Ans.
(b) Total heat removed from bearing during a Analysis : Consider the two plastic sheets as
period of 118.5 s can be obtained by eqn. (6.7) ; shown in Fig. 6.22.
R|S F h A t I − 1U|V
T| GH ρVC JK W|
s Adhesion
∆U = – ρVC (Ti – T∞) exp −
k F4 I |R F 3hαt IJ − 1|UV
= – G πr J (T – T ) Sexp G −
α H3 K
3
o i ∞
|T H r k K |W o
TL = 250°C TL = 250°C
50 R4 U
× S π × (0.02) V × (650 – 50)
3
=–
1.3 × 10−5
T3 W Sheet 1 Sheet 2
R
| F 3 × 300 × 1.3 × 10 × 118.5 IJ − 1U|V
× Sexp G −
−5 Ti = 30°C Ti = 30°C
|T H 0.02 × 50 K |W 5 mm 5 mm
= 58.0 × 103 J = 58 kJ. Ans.
–ve sign indicates decrease of internal
energy of bearing.
Fig. 6.22. Bonding of two plastic sheets
(c) Instantaneous heat transfer rate :
(i) At t = 0, initial rate of heat transfer The thickness of the two sheet
Qt = 0 = hAs(Ti – T∞) 2L = 5 mm + 5 mm = 10 mm = 0.01 m.
= 300 × 4π × (0.02)2 × (650 – 50) The energy balance equation for the two sheets
together :
= 904.7 W. Ans.
Rate of heat inflow
(ii) At t = 118.5 s or when temperature of bearing
= Rate of internal energy increase
reaches to 200°C.
2kA(TL − T) dT
Q(t) = hAs (T(t) – T∞) or = ρVC
L dt
= 300 × {4π × (0.02)2} × (200 – 50)
where T is the temperature, function of time.
= 226.16 W. Ans.
Let θ = TL – T
Example 6.17. Two plastic sheets (k = 0.232 W/m.K, dθ dT
C = 1.674 kJ/kg.K, ρ = 1300 kg/m3), each 5 mm thick are =–
dt dt
to be bonded together with a thin layer of adhesive, which Substituting and rearranging,
fuses at 140°C. To perform this process, they are pressed
2 kAdt dθ
between two surfaces at 250°C. Find the time required =–
for which the sheets should be pressed together to ρVCL θ
complete the process. The initial temperature of sheets is Integrating both sides within the limits, we get
30°C. Assume perfect contact and neglect resistance of
adhesive. Derive the formula used.
2kA
ρVCL z t
0
dt = − z
θi
θc dθ
θ
Solution
2kAt θc FG IJ = – ln LM T − T OP L c
Given : Two plastic sheets to be bonded ;
L = 5 mm, k = 0.232 W/m.K,
or
ρVCL
= – ln
θi H K NT − T Q L i
Ti = 30°C, TL = 250°C or t=
ρ (AL) C L L T − T OP
× ln M L i
T = 140°C, ρ = 1300 kg/m3, 2kA NT − T Q L c
C = 1.674 kJ/kg.K = 1674 J/kg.K. 2

1300 × 1674 × (0.005)
=
To find : The time required to reach the centre 2 × 0.232
temperature 140°C.
× ln
LM 250 − 30 OP
Assumptions :
1. Infinite long plastic sheets.
N 250 − 140 Q
= 81.2 s = 1.35 min. Ans.
Example 6.18. A long and wide copper plate of 4.5 cm dT

thick, at initial temperature of 180°C is held on the water or haAa(T – T∞) + hwAw(T – T∞) = – ρVC
dt
surface so that its one face is in contact with water at where T is the temperature, function of time and
25°C. The other surface is exposed to air side at 25°C. A = Aw = Aa
Unit surface conductance on the water and air side are dT
Then (hw + ha) A(T – T∞) = – ρVC
80 and 8 W/m2.K, respectively. Neglecting the radiation dt
losses, heat transfer from edges and internal temperature (hw + ha ) Adt dT
gradients, find the time required to cool the plate to 90°C. or =–
ρVC T − T∞
The properties of the copper are : Treating hw, ha, A, k, ρ, V and C as constants and
ρ = 8800 kg/m3, C = 410 J/kg.K integrating as
k = 380 W/m.K.
Also find the time required to cool the plate to
90°C, if it is placed in air only.
ρVC z zL
(hw + ha ) A t
0
dt = −
( T − T∞ ) dT
( Ti − T∞ ) T − T∞
OP
(hw + ha ) A t T − T∞
Solution
ρVC
= − ln MN
Ti − T∞ Q
Given : A long and wide copper plate with
L = 4.5 cm = 0.045 m, k = 380 W/m.K, or t=–
ρVC
× ln
LM
T − T∞ OP
(ha + hw ) A N
Ti − T∞ Q
Ti = 180°C, T∞1 = T∞2 = 25°C,
=–
8800 × (0.045 A) × 410
× ln
90 − 25 LM OP
T = 90°C, ρ = 8800 kg/m3, (80 + 8) A 180 − 25 N Q
C = 410 J/kg.K, ha = 8 W/m2.K, = 1603.3 s = 26.72 min. Ans.
hw = 80 W/m2.K. (ii) When plate is exposed to air on both sides
To find : (As = 2A)
(i) The time required to cool the plate to 90°C, if
one side is in water and other in air. t=–
ρVC
× ln
LM
T − T∞ OP
(ii) Time required to cool the plate to 90°C, if it is
ha (2 A) N
Ti − T∞ Q
placed in air only.
=–
8800 × (0.045 A) × 410
× ln
90 − 25 LM OP
°C
8 × 2A 180 − 25 N Q
180 = 8818.5 s = 2.45 hours. Ans.
3
/m Ti =
0 kg
880 kg.K
r=
410
J /
.K Example 6.19. A household electric iron has a steel base,
C = 80 W/m weighs 1 kg. The base has an ironing surface of 0.025 m2
3
k=
and is heated from the other surface with a 250 W heating
Air 5°
C 2
.K element. Initially the iron is at a uniform temperature of
=2
W
T¥
8W
/m 20°C. Suddenly the heating starts, and the iron dissipates
at
er ha
=
heat by convection from ironing surface into an ambient
at
25
°C
at 20°C with a convection coefficient of 50 W/m2.K.
2 K
.
Calculate the temperature of iron 5 minute after
W
/m
4.5 cm the starts of heating. What would be the equilibrium
0
hw
= 8
temperature of the iron, if control did not switch off the
current ?
Fig. 6.23. Copper plate exposed to water and air on
bottom and top side, respectively. The properties of the material are :
ρ = 7840 kg/m3, C = 450 J/kg.K,
Assumptions :
k = 70 W/m.K. (N.M.U., May 2002)
1. Infinite long and wide copper plate.
2. Internal temperature gradients are negligible. Solution
3. Constant properties. Given : An electric iron with
Analysis : (i) If the one side of the plate is held on k = 70 W/m.K, Ti = 20°C,
water and other side exposed to air. The energy balance T∞ = 20°C, A = 0.025 m2,
for the copper plate : t = 5 min = 300 s, ρ = 7840 kg/m3,
Rate of heat transfer from its surfaces = Rate of C = 450 J/kg.K, h = 50 W/m2.K,
internal energy decrease of the plate. m = 1 kg, Q = 250 W.
2
h = 50 W/m .K Steel iron 6.2. ANALYTICAL SOLUTION
Mass= 1.0 kg
T¥ = 20°C 6.2.1. Criteria for Neglecting Internal Temperature
Gradients
Consider an infinite plate of thickness 2L as shown in
Fig. 6.25. The plate is initially at uniform temperature
2
A = 0.025 m 250 Watt
Ti = 20°C
heating element Ti at t = 0. The plate is suddenly exposed to convection
environment at temperature T∞ and heat transfer
Fig. 6.24. House hold steel iron for example 6.19
coefficient h for all t > 0. The governing differential
To find : equation for one dimensional time dependent unsteady
(i) The temperature of iron after 5 minute of start state heat conduction without heat generation is given
of heat supply. by eqn. (2.8).
(ii) Steady state temperature of iron.
Assumptions : ¥
1. No radiation heat loss.
2. No heat loss from the edges and top face of
electric iron.
h h
3. Negligible internal temperature gradients.
4. Constant properties. Ti
T¥
Analysis : (i) The thickness of the base of the iron T¥
can be calculated as
m 1 kg
L= =
Aρ (0.025 m ) × (7840 kg/m 3 )
2 L L
= 0.0051 m
x
Since the iron has convection heat interaction only
on one of its surface, hence its characteristic length ¥
would be its thickness,
Fig. 6.25. Transient conduction in an infinite plate
δ = L = 0.0051 m
hδ 50 × 0.0051 ∂ RS ∂T UV = 1 ∂T
Biot number Bi =
k
=
70
= 0.0036 ∂x T ∂x W α ∂t
∂2T ∂T
system analysis can be reasonably used for approxima- or α =
∂x 2 ∂t
tion. Using equation (6.25) ...(6.28)
θ = T – T∞
where, T = f(x, t)
q
= θi exp (– Mt) + {1 – exp (– Mt)} and at t = 0, T = Ti
h
where, θi = Ti – T∞ = 20 – 20 = 0 Introducing the variable
ht 50 × 300 θ(x, t) = θ = (T – T∞)
Mt = =
ρCL 7840 × 450 × 0.0051
= 0.834 ∂ 2θ ∂θ
Then α 2 =
Q 250 ∂x ∂t
q= = = 10,000 W/m2
A 0.025 Assuming the product solution as
10,000
Hence, T – 20 = × {1 – exp (– 0.834)} θ = F(x) G(t) ...(6.29)
50
or T = 133°C. Ans. Substituting in eqn. (6.28), we get
(ii) The equilibrium temperature becomes for
∂ 2 F( x) ∂G(t)
t→∞ α 2 G(t) = F(x)
∂x ∂t
q
T(∞) = T∞ +
h 1 ∂ 2 F(x) 1 ∂G(t)
or = ...(6.30)
10,000 F( x) ∂x 2
α G(t) ∂t
= 20 + = 220°C. Ans.
50
Introducing a separation constant as Differentiating eqn. (6.35) with respect to x

∂θ 2
1 ∂ 2 F(x) 1 ∂G(t) = {– C1 sin λx + C2 cos λx} λ e −αλ t
2 = = – λ2 ...(6.31) ∂x
F( x) ∂x α G(t) ∂t ...(6.36)
The λ2 is called separation constant and function Using boundary condition (ii) at x = 0
G(t) must decay exponentially with time, therefore λ2 is FG IJ
∂θ
H K
2
= {– C1 sin λx + C2 cos λx}x=0 × λ e −αλ t
considered negative. ∂x x = 0
Each side of eqn. (6.31) is a function of only one =0
variable and each side will be equal to – λ2. Taking each = {– C1 sin λ(0) + C2 cos λ(0)} = 0
equation separately It gives C2 = 0
The eqn. (6.35) reduces to
1 ∂ 2 F(x)
= – λ2 θ = C1 e −αλ t cos λx
2
...(6.37)
F( x) ∂x 2
Using boundary condition (iii), at x = L
1 ∂ 2 F(x)
or
F( x) ∂x 2
+ λ2 = 0 FG ∂θ IJ
H ∂x K
2
= – C1 e −αλ t λ sin λL
The characteristic equation is in the form of x=L
m2 + λ2 = 0 or m = ± λ 2
It can be written as and θL = C1 e −αλ t cos λL

F(x) = A1 e–iλx + A2eiλx Therefore,
= A1(cos λx – i sin λx) + A2(cos λx + i sin λx) 2 h 2
= (A1 + A2) cos λx + (iA2 – iA1) sin λx – C1 e −αλ t λ sin λL = – C1 e −αλ t cos λL
k
= B1 cos λx + B2 sin λx ...(6.32) h
where B1 and B2 are new constants. or λ sin λL = cos λL
k
1 1 ∂G(t)
Again = – λ2 λk
α G(t) ∂t or cot λL =
h
∂G (t) λL λL
or = – αλ2∂t or cot λL = = ...(6.38)
G (t ) hL/k Bi
Integrating with respect to t, we get Equation (6.38) is a transcedental equation and
ln[G(t)] = – αλ2t + A3 it has an infinite number of roots. The value of root λ
2 can be obtained by plotting cot λL and λL/Bi against λL
or G(t) = A3 e −αλ t ...(6.33)
as shown in Fig. 6.26. From the intersections of the two
where A3 is constant of integration.
functions as many value of λ as λ1, λ2, λ3, ..... etc. can be
Substituting these solutions in eqn. (6.29), we determined. The equation cot λL = λL/Bi is satisfied for
have an infinite succession of values of λL so that for a given
2
θ = (B1 cos λx + B2 sin λx)A3 e −αλ t ...(6.34) λ, the equation defines the value of λ. This succession
of values of λ called eigen values, will be denoted by λn,
Introducing the new constants C1 and C2 as
which depend on Biot number.
C1 = B1A3 and C2 = B2A3
2
g2 = cot lL g2 = cot lL g2 = cot lL g2 = cot lL
Then, θ = (C1 cos λx + C2 sin λx) e −αλ t ...(6.35)
The three constants C1, C2 and λ are to be g1 = (lL/Bi)
evaluated from initial and boundary conditions
(i) At t = 0, θ = θi = Ti – T∞
0
∂θ (lL)1 (lL)2 (lL)3 (lL)4 (lL)n
(ii) At x = 0, =0 1
—p
3
—p
5
—p
7
—p
∂x 2
1p
2
2p
2
3p
2
4p
(No heat transfer at mid-plane)
(iii) At the surfaces of the wall at x = L
∂θ FG IJ
–k
H
∂x x = L K
= h θx = L = h (TL – T∞)
FG IJ
Fig. 6.26. Graphical solution of the transcendental
∂θ h
or
H
∂x x = L K=– θ
k x=L equation cot λL =
λL
Bi
The temperature distribution becomes the αt

following series solution. Using Fo = , Fourier number ; then
L2
n=∞
n=∞
∑ θ
2
Cn e −αλ t cos λnx 2 sin ξ n cos (ξ n x / L)
θ= ...(6.39)
∑
2
= e− ξn Fo
n=1 θi
n=1 ξ n + sin ξ n cos ξ n
Using initial condition (i), at t = 0 ...(6.46)
n=∞ At x = 0, θ = θc , the temperature distribution at
θ= ∑
n=1
Cn cos λn x ...(6.40) the centre ;
n=∞
θc 2 sin ξ n
where n is simple integers, 1, 2, 3, ....., ∑
2
= e– ξn Fo
For n = 1, at x = L i.e., at outer surface θi

n=1 ξ n + sin ξ n cos ξ n
θs = C1 cos λ1L ...(6.41) ...(6.47)
At x = L, θ = θL , the surface temperature
At centre (x = 0)
distribution
θc = C1 n=∞
θL 2 sin ξ n cos ξ n
Hence the non dimensional temperature
distribution becomes θi
=
n=1
∑ e–ξn
2
Fo
ξ n + sin ξ n cos ξ n
θs ...(6.48)
= cos λ1L ...(6.42) The results using eqns. (6.46), (6.47) and (6.48)
θc have been calculated for different cases and plotted in
For internal temperature gradients within 5% the form of charts for quick reference by Gröber and
(negligible), we get Erk, Gurney-Lurie, Heisler and others. Heisler chart
θs for θc/θi is given in Fig. 6.31(a).
≥ (1 – 0.05) Using temperature distribution in eqn. (6.46), the
θc
cummulative heat loss from an infinite plate is
θs expressed.
or ≥ 0.95 ...(6.43)
θc Q Q
=
or cos λL ≥ 0.95 ρVC (Ti − T∞ ) Q i
n=∞
or λL ≥ 0.3175 radian 2 sin 2 ξ n
∑
2
= 2
× (1 − e − ξ n Fo
)
Substituting in eqn. (6.38), we get n=1
ξ n + ξ n sin ξ n cos ξ n
0.3175 ...(6.49)
cot(0.3175) =
Bi 6.2.2. Infinite Cylinder and Sphere with Convective
or Bi ≈ 0.1
Boundaries
Thus when Biot number is less than or equal to
0.1, the internal temperature gradients within the solid Similar to the transient temperature distribution and
can be neglected and the lumped system analysis can heat flow in an infinite plate, the transient temperature
be used for unsteady state heat conduction problems. distribution in an infinite cylinder of radius ro exposed
Further, the constant Cn is determined for each to convection boundary can be obtained. The
value of λn i.e., 1, 2, 3, ...... In general temperature distribution in an infinite cylinder is given
as
2 θi sin λ n L θ
Cn = ...(6.44) T(r, t) − T∞
λ n L + sin λ n L cos λ n L =
θi Ti − T∞
For convenience introducing ξn = λnL, where the ∞ 2
e − λ n αt J (λ r) J 1 (λ n ro )
discrete values of ξn are positive roots of the
transcendental equation (6.38) in form
=2
n=1
∑ λ n ro
× 20 n
J 0 (λ n r) + J 12 (λ n ro )
ξn tan ξn = Bi ...(6.45) ...(6.50)
The temperature distribution in the slab is finally where J0 and J1 are zeroth and first order Bessel’s
obtained as function of first kind.
The centre line temperature J0(0) = 1
θ n=∞
F 2 sin ξ n I
∑ GH ξ JK
2 2
(αt / L2 ) ∞
e− ξn θc T(0, t) − T∞ e − λ n αt J 1 (λ n ro )
θi = n + sin ξ n cos ξ n = =2 ∑
×
n=1 θi Ti − T∞ λ n ro 1 + J 12 (λ n ro )
× cos (ξn x/L) n=1
where θi = Ti – T∞ ; ...(6.51)
Heisler charts for centre line temperature θc/θi The above relations are simplified to
and the position temperature θ/θi for a long cylinder are θ T(0, t) − T∞ − ξ 2 Fo
given in Figs. 6.32 (a) and 6.32(b), respectively. With Plane wall (x = 0), c = = C1 e 1
θi Ti − T∞
the use of these charts, the time temperature history at ...(6.55)
any location in the cylinder can be obtained. Cylinder (r = 0),
For sphere of radius ro, the similar relations can θc T(0, t) − T∞ − ξ 2 Fo
be obtained, derived by Schneider. Figs. 6.33 (a) and = = C1 e 1 ...(6.56)
θi Ti − T∞
6.33 (b) show Heisler chart for θc/θi and θ/θi to determine
the temperature time history at any location in a sphere. Sphere (r = 0),
θc T(0, t) − T∞ − ξ 2 Fo
6.2.3. One Term Approximation = = C1 e 1 ...(6.57)
θi Ti − T∞
The one-dimensional transient heat conduction Once the Biot number is known, the above
problems can be solved exactly for any of the three relations can be used to obtain the temperature
geometries of plane wall, cylinder or sphere. But the anywhere in the medium.
solutions involve approximation of an infinite series, The fraction heat transfer can also be determined
which are difficult to deal with. However, the terms in from the following relations, derived from one term
the solutions converge rapidly with increasing time. If approximations.
Fourier number is greater than 0.2, then the infinite
Q θ sin ξ 1
series solution can be reduced to one term solution Plane wall : =1– c ...(6.58)
i.e., keeping the first term and ignoring the all other Qi θi ξ1
terms in the series. It results into an error less than Q θ c J 1 (ξ 1 )
2%. Thus it is convenient to express the solution using Cylinder : =1–2 ...(6.59)
Qi θi ξ1
one term approximation for Fo ≥ 0.2 ; given as Q θ c sin ξ 1 − ξ 1 cos ξ 1
Plane wall : Sphere : =1–3
θ T( x, t) – T∞ 2
Qi θi ξ 13
= = C1e – ξ1 Fo cos (ξ 1 x/L) ...(6.52) ...(6.60)
θi Ti – T∞ where Qi = mC(Ti – T∞) = ρVC(Ti – T∞) ...(6.61)
2 sin ξ 1 Example 6.20. In a material treatment process, a
With C1 =
ξ 1 + sin ξ 1 cos ξ 1 metallic sphere 10 mm in diameter is initially at 400°C
Similarly for is suddenly subjected to two step cooling process.
θ T(r, t) − T∞ 2 Step 1. Cooling in stagnant air at 20°C with
Cylinder : = = C1 e −ξ 1 Fo J 0 (ξ r/ro )
θi Ti − T∞ convective coefficient of 10 W/m2.K for a period, until
...(6.53) the centre temperature reaches a temperature of 335°C.
θ T(r, t) − T∞ − ξ 12 Fo sin (ξ 1r/ro ) Step 2. After sphere attains 335°C, it is cooled to
Sphere : = = C1 e 50°C in a well stirred water bath at 20°C, with convective
θi Ti − T∞ ξ 1 (r/ro )
...(6.54) coefficient of 6000 W/m2.K.
where C1, ξ1 are functions of Biot number only and their The thermophysical properties of material are
values are presented in Table B-5 of Appendix B, against ρ = 3000 kg/m3, k = 20 W/m.K,
Biot number for all three geometries. The function J0 is C = 1000 J/kg.K, α = 6.66 × 10–6 m2/s.
the zeroth order Bessel function of first kind, its value (i) Calculate the time required for step 1 for
can be obtained from Table B-6 of Appendix B. cooling process to be completed.
(ii) Calculate the time required during step 2 of
Note: The characteristic length in defining the Biot the process for centre of sphere to cool from 335°C to
number must be considered as half thickness L for a plane 50°C.
V
Solution
wall and radius ro for long cylinder and sphere instead Given : The material treatment of a metallic
A
sphere
as done in lumped heat capacity method.
D = 10 mm
At the centre of the plane wall, cylinder and ro = 5 mm = 0.005 m
sphere ρ = 3000 kg/m3,
sin ( x) k = 20 W/m.K
x = r = 0, cos(0) = 1, J(0) = 1 and =1 α = 6.66 × 10–6 m2/s,
x
C = 1000 J/kg.K
For step 1. Ti = 400°C, Step 2 : Checking the validity of the lumped heat
Ta = 335°C capacity system in water
ha = 10 W/m2.K, h2 δ 6000 × 0.005
Bi = = = 0.5
T∞ = 20°C k 3 × 20
For step 2. Ti = 335°C, It is greater than 0.1, thus the lumped heat
Tw = 50°C capacity method is not appropriate to use. However,
T∞ = 20°C, using one term approximation for centre temperature
hw = 6000 W/m2.K. to reach 50°C from 335°C. For this method, using
eqn. (6.57) with
To find :
(i) Time required for cooling process in step 1. h2 ro 6000 × 0.005
Bi = = = 1.5
(ii) Time required for cooling process in step 2. k 20
Assumptions : From Table B-5
1. One-dimensional conduction in radial C1 = 1.376,
direction only.
ξ1 = 1.80 rad.
2. No radiation heat exchange in either step of
cooling. Tw − T∞ −ξ 2 Fo
Thus, = C1 e 1
3. Constant properties. Ti − T∞
T = 20°C T = 20°C 1
×
LM
50 − 20 OP
= e
−(1.8)2 Fo
ha = 10 W/m .K
2
hw = 6000 W/m .K
2
1.376 N
335 − 20 Q
1 L 30 OP = 0.824
× ln M
or Fo = –
N 1.376 × 315 Q
Air Water
3.24
ro 2 Fo (0.005) 2 × 0.824
Sphere, ro = 5 mm and t2 = =
3 α 6.66 × 10 −6
= 3000 kg/m
C = 1 kJ/kg.K = 3.09 s. Ans.
–6 2
Ti = 400°C = 6.66 × 10 m /s Ti = 335°C Note that with Fo = 0.824, the use of one term
k = 20 W/m.K
Ta = 335°C Tw = 50°C approximation is justified.
Step 1 Step 2 Example 6.21. A rocket engine nozzle is made of high
Fig. 6.27. Schematic for example 6.20 temperature steel 0.64 cm thick, k = 29 W/m.K, α = 6.39 ×
Analysis : The characteristic length of the sphere 10–6 m2/s. The flame side surface film coefficient is
8370 W/m2.K. The flame temperature is constant at
ro 0.005
= δ= m. 2200°C. If the nozzle is initially at uniform temperature
3 3
of 25°C.
Step 1 : Checking the validity of the lumped heat
What should be the duration of combustion in
capacity system in air
order to limit the operating temperature of steel to
h1δ 10 × 0.005 1100°C ?
Bi = = = 8.33 × 10–4
k 3 × 20
Solution
It is well within the lumped heat capacity method.
Given : Rocket engine nozzle
Therefore, using eqn. (6.10)
L = 0.64 cm = 0.0064 m,
Ta − T∞
= exp −
h1t1 LM OP k = 29 W/m.K
Ti − T∞ ρδC N Q α = 6.39 × 10–6 m2/s,
or t1 = –
ρro C LM
T − T∞
ln a
OP h = 8370 W/m2.K
3h N
Ti − T∞ Q T∞ = 2200°C,
=–
3000 × 0.005 × 1000
× ln
335 − 20 LM OP Ti = 25°C
3 × 10 400 − 20 N Q TL= 1100°C.
To find : Duration of combustion.
t1 = 93.8 s. Ans.
Assuming
Combustion
chamber π
ξ = λL = 45° =
Outer surface
h 4
Rocket
Bi 1.847 × 4
nozzle tan ξ = = = 2.351
ξ π
T¥
L = 0.64 cm
ξ = 66.96°C
which is greater than assumed value.
L L
π
x Let ξ= = 60°
Ti 3
3 × 1.843
tan ξ = = 1.7637 → ξ = 60.4°C
TL π
agrees with assumption.
Fig. 6.28. Schematic of a rocket nozzle
Taking n = 1
Assumptions :
−ξ 2
Fo sin 2ξ 1
1. Wall thickness of nozzle is very small 0.5057 = e 1
ξ 1 + sin ξ 1 cos ξ 1
compared to its diameter, the nozzle wall can be mod-
elled as infinite plane wall of thickness 0.64 cm. FG π IJ 2
2. The outer surface of the nozzle as insulated, =e

_
H 3K × Fo
×
sin (120° )
π
against the heat flow. + sin (60° ) cos (60° )
3
3. Uniform heat transfer coefficient.
FG π IJ 2
4. Discarding any radiation heat transfer.
= 0.585 e
_
H 3K × Fo
Analysis : The Biot number of wall insulated of

thickness L FG 0.5057 IJ = –  π  2
hL 8370 × 0.0064
or ln
H 0.585 K  3  × Fo
Bi = = = 1.847
k 29 1.397
or Fo = = 0.1274
which is much higher than 0.1, and thus the lumped 1.0966
system analysis cannot be applicable. The Hiesler charts Fo L2 0.1274 × (0.0064) 2
or analytical method can be used for temperature or t= =
α 6.39 × 10 −6
distribution. _
= 0.8175 s ~ 0.825
Using analytical approach given by eqn. (6.46)
The combustion must complete within 0.82 s.
n=∞
θ 2 sin ξ n Ans.
∑
2
= e− ξn Fo
. Example 6.22. An egg can be approximated as a sphere,
θi n=1
ξ n + sin ξ n cos ξ n
5 cm in diameter, with thermophysical properties
× cos (ξn x/L) k = 0.6 W/m.K, α = 0.14 × 10–6 m2/s. The egg is taken
θL from a refrigerator at 2°C and is dropped into boiling
At x = L, water, where the convection heat transfer coefficient is
θi
estimated as 1200 W/m2.K. Calculate time required to
n=∞ reach the centre temperature of the egg to 75°C.
TL – T∞ 2 sin ξ n cos ξ n
Ti – T∞
= ∑e
n=1
– ξ n 2 .Fo
.
ξ n + sin ξ n cos ξ n Solution
Given : An egg as spherical body :
Calculating each term separately D = 5 cm,
TL − T∞ 1100 − 2200 ro = 2.5 cm = 0.025 m
= = 0.5057
Ti − T∞ 25 − 2200 k = 0.6 W/m.K
α = 0.14 × 10–6 m2/s
1 1
= = 0.5414 Ti = 2°C,
Bi 1.847
Tc = 75°C,
Bi = ξn tan ξn h = 1200 W/m2.K.
0.2154 × (0.025) 2
or t=
0.14 × 10 −6
Egg = 961.6 s = 16 min. Ans.
Ti = 2°C
It will take 16 min. for centre of egg to reach to
2 75°C from 2°C.
h = 1200 W/m .K
T¥ = 100°C Example 6.23. A long cylindrical shaft, 20 cm in diameter
is made of steel (k = 14.9 W/m.K), ρ = 7900 kg/m3,
Fig. 6.29. Schematic of egg in boiling water C = 477 J/kg.K and α = 3.95 × 10 –6 m2/s. It comes out of
an oven at a uniform temperature of 600°C. The shaft is
To find : Time to reach the centre temperature of then allowed to cool slowly in an environment at 200°C
egg to 75°C.
with an average heat transfer coefficient of 80 W/m2.K.
Assumptions : Calculate the temeprature at the centre of the shaft,
1. Boiling water temperature at atmospheric 45 min after the start of cooling process. Also calculate
conditions as T∞ = 100°C. the heat transfered per unit length of the shaft during
this period.
2. Temperature variation in the egg in radial
direction only with time. Solution
3. Uniform heat transfer coefficient. Given : D = 20 cm
ro = 10 cm = 0.1 m
4. Constant properties of egg.
k = 14.9 W/m.K, ρ = 7900 kg/m3
Analysis : Biot number
C = 477 W/m.K, α = 3.95 × 10–6 m2/s
hr 1200 × 0.025
Bi = o = = 50 Ti = 600°C, T∞ = 200°C
k 0.6
h = 80 W/m2.K, t = 45 min = 2700 s.
which much greater than 0.1, thus the lumped system
analysis is not applicable. Heisler charts or one term To find :
solution can be used. (i) Temperature at the centre of the shaft.
Using one term solution. (ii) Heat transfer from 1 m length of shaft.
For sphere with
Bi = 50, ξ1 = 3.0788 Steel shaft
and C1 = 1.9662 (From Table B-5) D = 20 cm
Ti = 600°C r
Substituting these values in eqn. (6.57) and solv- 2
ing for Fo ; h = 80 W/m .K
T¥ = 200°C
θc T − T∞ 2
= c = C1 e − ξ 1 Fo
θi Ti − T∞ Fig. 6.30. Schematic for shaft exposed to
convection ambient
75 − 100 − (3.0788) 2 Fo
= 1.9662 × e Assumptions :
2 − 100
1. Shaft as an infinite cylinder.
25 1
or × = e–9.48 Fo 2. Heat conduction in the shaft in radial direc-
98 1.9662
tion only with time.
or ln (0.12974) = – 9.48 Fo
3. Uniform heat transfer coefficient.
It gives Fo = 0.2154
4. No radiation heat transfer.
Fo is greater than 0.2 and thus the use of one
term solution is justified, Analysis : (i) The Biot number for shaft
αt hro 80 × 0.1
Fo = Bi = = = 0.537
ro 2 k 14.9
which is larger than 0.1 and hence the lumped system 1. Biot Number, Bi.
analysis is not applicable. Either Heisler charts or one 2. Fourier Number, Fo.
term solution may be used. 3. Temperature ratio at the centre.
αt 3.95 × 10 −6 × 2700 4. Temperature ratio at any position.
Fo = = = 1.0665 5. Dimensionless position.
ro 2
(0.1) 2
6. Dimensionless heat transfer.
Fo is greater than 0.2, thus using one term
For infinite plane wall, long cylinder and sphere,
solution for cylinder :
there are three graphs, first one is used to obtain
At Bi = 0.537, C1 = 1.122 centreline temperature, second one for position
ξ1 = 0.970 temperature and third for determination of heat flow in
the geometry.
Substituting the values in eqn. (6.56)
6.3.1. Transient Temperature Charts for Slab
Tc − T∞ − ξ 2 Fo
= C1 e 1 Consider a slab (i.e., a plane) of thickness 2L, confined
Ti − T∞
to the region – L ≤ x ≤ L. The slab initially at a
Tc − 200 2 temperature Ti, is suddenly exposed to convection
=1.122 × e − (0.970) × 1.0665 = 0.411 environment (for t > 0) with a heat transfer coefficient
600 − 200
h, on its both boundary surfaces. The heat flows from
or Tc = 200 + 400 × 0.411 = 364.5°C. Ans. both surfaces inward. Due to symmetry of problem, only
The centre temperature of shaft will reach half region 0 ≤ x ≤ L is considered. The dimensionless
364.5°C after 45 min. Ans. parameters for a slab can be expressed as :
(ii) Heat transfer from shaft can be obtained by hL
eqn. (6.59) 1. Biot Number, Bi =
k
Q Tc − T∞ J 1 (ξ 1 ) αt
=1–2× 2. Fourier Number, Fo =
Qi Ti − T∞ ξ1 L2
3. Temperature ratio at the centre,
where J1(ξ1) = J1 (0.970) = 0.430 θ c Tc − T∞
=
Q Tc − T∞ FG
0.430 IJ θ i Ti − T∞
ρVC (Ti − T∞ )
=1–2
Ti − T∞
×
H
0.970 K 4. Temperature ratio at any position,
θ T( x, t) − T∞
= 1 – 2 × 0.411 × 0.443 = 0.635 =
θc Tc − T∞
Q = 7900 × [π × (0.1)2 × 1] × 477
x
× (600 – 200) × 0.635 5. Dimensionless position =
L
= 30098500 J = 30.09 MJ. Ans.
Q
6. Dimensionless heat transfer =
Qi
6.3. TRANSIENT TEMPERATURE CHARTS : where, L = half thickness of a slab, in metres.
HEISLER AND GRÖBER CHARTS x = position in the slab, measured from centre,
where temperature is required, m.
When the internal temperature gradients are large,
lumped heat capacity system analysis becomes Tc = centreline temperature of the slab, °C.
unsuitable for the analysis of transient heat conduction T(x, t) = position temperature in the slab, °C.
problems. In such situation the Heisler and Gröber Qi = initial internal energy content in the slab
charts are widely used for determination of = ρ(A 2L) C (Ti – T∞) Joules.
1. Centreline temperature. Q = total amount of energy lost by plate during
2. Position temperature. time t.
3. The heat transfer. α = thermal diffusivity of the material, m2/s.
To obtain the required value of unknowns, the k = thermal conductivity of the material,
various dimensionless parameters required are W/m.K.
700
600
100
500
90
Plate
80
70
400
60
300
200
140
= h(T – T¥ )
50
120
45
40
35
30
25
20
18
100
16
¶T
¶x
x
80
–k
60
Initially
at Ti
2
t
40
L
Fo =
2L
o
28
24
hL
k
14
12
L
10
20
¶T
¶x
9
h(T¥ – T) = –k —
8
7
6
5
16
4
2.5 1.8
2.0
12
1.6
1.4 1.2
8
4
3
0 0.8 .7 0.6 0.5 0.4 .3

1. 0 0 0.2 0.1 0.05 0
2
1
0
0.001
1.0
0.7
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.01
0.1
0.002
0.007
0.005
0.004
0.003
0.05
0.02
0.07
0.04
0.03
q T –T
—c = c
qi Ti – T¥
Fig 6.31 (a) Centreline temperature for an infinite plate of thickness 2L
The temperature at any position x from the mid-plane can be obtained from position correction temperature
chart, Fig. 6.31 (b)
θ θ θ T − T∞
= c × = .
θi θi θc Ti − T∞
1.0
0.2
0.9
0.4
0.8
0.7
Tc – T¥ 0.6 0.6 x/L

T – T¥
0.5
=
qc
q
0.4
0.8
0.3
0.2 0.9
0.1
Plate
1.0
0
0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 2 3 5 10 20 50 100
Bi = k
–1
hL
Fig. 6.31 (b) Position correction for temperature as a function of centre
temperature in an infinite cylinder of radius ro
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
01
k = 0.0
0.6
2
5
0.01
0.02
Q 0.5
0.05
0.00
0.00
0.1
0.2
0.5
1 2 5 10 20 50
Bi = hL
Qi
0.4
0.3
0.2
Plate
0.1
0
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 2 3 4
10 10 10 10 10 1 10 10 10 10
2
2 h at
Bi Fo = 2
k
Fig. 6.31 (c) Dimensionless heat loss for an infinite plate of thickness 2L
6.3.2. Transient Temperature Charts for Long Cylinder and Sphere

Consider a long cylinder or a sphere of radius ro, initially at temperature Ti is suddenly subjected to convection
environment (for t > 0) with heat transfer coefficient h and fluid temperature T∞. The various dimensionless
parameters required for Heisler charts solution are
hro
1. Biot number, Bi =
k
αt
2. Fourier number, Fo =
ro 2
θc Tc − T∞
3. Temperature ratio at the centre, =
θi Ti − T∞
θ T(r, t) − T∞
4. Temperature ratio at any position, =
θc Tc − T∞
r
5. Dimensionless radial position,
ro
Q
6. Dimensionless heat transfer, ;
Qi
200 300 350

Cylinder
140
120
0
10
90
80
70
100
60
50
40
35
80
30
60
–k — = h(T – T¥)
30 40
28
¶T
¶r
25
24
20
Fo = 2
at
ro
18
16
Initially
ro
ro
14
at Ti
20
k/h
12
10
9
8
7 10 12 14 16
6
8
6
4
0
3.
5
1.6
0
8
2.
1.
5
3.
5
2.
4
1.2
3
1.4
1.0
0.8 0.6
2
0.5 0.3
0.2 0.1
1
0
0
0.01
1.0
0.7
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.02
0.005
0.002
0.001
0.05
0.007
0.004
0.003
0.07
0.04
0.03
q Tc – T¥
—c =
qi Ti – T¥
Fig. 6.32. (a) Centreline temperature for an infinite cylinder of radius ro,
subjected to convection at its boundary surface
where ro = radius of cylinder or sphere

r = position radius in cylinder or sphere
Tc = centre temperature, °C
Ti = initial temperature, °C
T(r, t) = position temperature, °C
Q = total amount of heat energy lost by body in time t, Joules
1.0
0.2
0.9
0.4
0.8
0.7
0.6 0.6 r/ro

Tc – T¥
T – T¥
0.5
=
qc
q
0.4
0.8
0.3
0.2 0.9
0.1
Cylinder
1.0
0
0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 2 3 5 10 20 50 100
–1 k
Bi =
hro
Fig. 6.32. (b) Position correction for temperature as a function of centre

temperature in an infinite cylinder of radius ro
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
1
k = 0.00
0.6
2
5
0.01
0.02
Q 0.5
0.05
0.00
0.00
0.1
0.2
0.5
1 2 5 10 20 50
o
Bi = hr
Qi
0.4
0.3
0.2
Cylinder
0.1
0
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 2 3 4
10 10 10 10 10 1 10 10 10 10
2
Bi Fo = h a
2 t
k2
Fig. 6.32. (c) Dimensionless heat loss Q/Qi for an infinite cylinder of radius ro
Qi = initial internal energy content of the body = ρVC(Ti – T∞), Joules

t = time, s
α = thermal diffusivity, m2/s
k = thermal conductivity, W/m.K
h = heat transfer coefficient, W/m2.K.
250
210
Sphere
170
130
90
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
0
10
80
60
70
90
45
50
35
40
– k — = h(T – T¥)
30 25
18
20
16
¶T
¶r
ro
k/h
10
12
14
Fo = 2
at
8
ro
7
8
6
7
ro
5 6
Initially
at Ti
3 4
.5
2.8 3
4 6
2
2.5
2.
2. 2.
0
2. 1.8 .6 4
1 1.
1.2
2
1.0
5
0.7
1.5
0.5
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.2
0.5 0
0.5
0
0.001
1.0
0.7
0.5
0.3
0.2
0.4
0.01
0.1
0.002
0.005
0.02
0.007
0.004
0.003
0.07
0.05
0.04
0.03
q Tc – T¥
—c =
qi Ti – T¥
Fig. 6.33 (a) Centre temperature for a sphere of radius ro, subjected to correction at the boundary surface
0
1.0
0.2
0.9
0.8 0.4
0.7
0.6
c Tc – T
r/ro
T – T
0.6
0.5
=
0.4
0.8
0.3
0.9
0.2
0.1
Sphere
1.0
0
0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 2 3 5 10 20 50 100
1 k
=
Bi hro
Fig. 6.33 (b) Position correction for temperature as a function of centre

temperature for a sphere of radius ro
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
1
2
0.00
5
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.6
0.02
0.05
0.1
0.2
0.5
Q
1
50
o k=
5
2
10
20
0.5
Qi
hr /
0.4
0.3
0.2
Sphere
0.1
0
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 2 3 4
10 10 10 10 10 1 10 10 10 10
2
2 h t
Bi Fo =
2
k
Fig. 6.33 (c) Dimensionless heat loss Q/Qi for a sphere of radius ro
Example 6.24. A 50 mm thick iron plate is initially at (iii) Calculate the energy removed from the plate
225°C. Its both surfaces are suddenly exposed to air at per square metre during this period.
25°C with convection coefficient of 500 W/m2.K. Take thermophysical properties of iron plate :
(i) Calculate the centre temperature, 2 minute k = 60 W/m.K, ρ = 7850 kg/m3,
after the start of exposure. C = 460 J/kg, α = 1.6 × 10–5 m2/s.
(ii) Calculate the temperature at the depth of (Anna Univ., March 2000)
10 mm from the surface, after 2 minute of exposure.
Solution From Heisler chart Fig. 6.31 (a) for centreline

Given : A hot thick iron plate exposed to air on 1
temperature, for = 4.8 and Fo = 3.07
both surfaces Bi
2L = 50 mm or L = 25 mm = 0.025 m, θc T − T∞
= c = 0.58
k = 60 W/m.K, Ti = 225°C, θi Ti − T∞
T∞ = 25°C, t = 2 min = 120 s, or Tc = 0.58 × (225 – 25) + 25
ρ = 7850 kg/m ,3 C = 460 J/kg.K, = 141°C. Ans.
h = 500 W/m2.K α = 1.6 × 10–5 m2/s, (ii) Temperature at the depth of 10 mm from the
Depth = 10 mm from the surface. surface,
x = L – depth = 25 mm – 10 mm = 15 mm
To find :
(i) The centreline temperature of the plate, after x 15
Hence = = 0.6
2 minute of exposure. L 25
(ii) The temperature at the depth of 10 mm from From chart Fig. 6.31 (b) for position temperature,
the surface, after 2 minute. 1 x
for = 4.8 and = 0.6
(iii) Heat transferred during 2 minute. Bi L
Assumptions : Temperature ratio at the location,
1. The heat transfer area of 1 m2. θ T − T∞
= = 0.95
2. Constant properties. θc Tc − T∞
Analysis : (i) Consider the plate of thickness 2L, or T = 25 + 0.95 × (141 – 25)
hence considering L as characteristic length = 135.2°C. Ans.
hL 500 × 0.025 (iii) Heat loss from the plate during 2 minute
Biot number Bi = = = 0.21 exposure ;
k 60
The Biot number is greater than 0.1, hence the Bi = 0.21
lumped heat system analysis cannot be used. Using the Bi2 Fo = (0.21)2 × 3.07 = 0.135
Heisler charts : From the Gröber chart Fig. 6.31 (c) for heat
1 transfer ratio for plane wall
1
= = 4.8
Bi 0.21 Q
= 0.45
Qi
where Qi = ρVC(Ti – T∞) = ρ(A2L)C(Ti – T∞)
= (7850 kg/m3) × (1 m2 × 0.05 m)
Air Air × (460 J/kg) × (225 – 25) × (K)
T(0, t) T(L, t)
= 35.33 × 106 J/m2 = 35.33 × 103 kJ/m2
T¥ T¥ The heat transferred during 2 minute,
Q = 0.45 × 35.33 × 103 kJ/m2
= 15.9 × 103 kJ/m2. Ans.
h h
Example 6.25. Consider a steel pipeline that is 1 m in
diameter and has a wall thickness of 40 mm. The pipe is
2L
heavily insulated on the outside and before the initiation
x of flow, the wall of the pipe is at uniform temperature of
Fig. 6.34. Schematic of thick iron plate – 20°C. Suddenly the hot oil at 60°C flows through the
pipe creating convective surface condition corresponding
Fourier number
h = 500 W/m2.K at the inner surface of the pipe.
αt 1.6 × 10 −5 × 120 (i) What is the appropriate Biot and Fourier
Fo = = = 3.07
L2 (0.025) 2 numbers, 8 minutes after the initiation of flow ?
(ii) At t = 8 minute, what is the temperature of Analysis : (i) Biot and Fourier numbers after
the exterior pipe surface covered by the insulation ? 8 minute of exposure.
(iii) What is the heat flux to the pipe from the oil Biot number
at t = 8 minute ?
hL 500 × 0.04
(iv) How much energy per metre pipe length has Bi = = = 0.313. Ans.
been transferred from the oil to the pipe during the period k 63.9
of 8 minutes ? Fourier number
The thermophysical properties of the steel : αt 18.8 × 10 −6 × (8 × 60)
k = 63.9 W/m.K, ρ = 7823 kg/m3 ; Fo = = = 5.64. Ans.
L2 (0.04) 2
C = 434 J/kg, α = 18.8 × 10–6 m2/s.
(ii) Biot number is greater than 0.1, hence lumped
Solution
heat system analysis cannot be used.
Given : A large steel pipe insulated on its outer Using the Heisler charts, Fig. 6.31(a)
surface ;
L = 40 mm = 0.04 m, k = 63.9 W/m.K, 1 1
With = = 3.2
Ti = – 20°C, T∞ = 60°C, Bi 0.313
t = 8 min, ρ = 7823 kg/m3, and Fo = 5.64, the centreline temperature,
C = 434 J/kg.K, h = 500 W/m2.K,
–6 2 Tc − T∞
α = 18.8 × 10 m /s. = 0.22
Ti − T∞
To find :
(i) Biot and Fourier numbers after 8 minute of or Tc = 0.22 × (– 20 – 60) + 60 = 42°C. Ans.
exposure. (iii) Heat flux at the surface requires the
(ii) The temperature of exterior pipe surface after determination of temperature at the surface,
8 minute.
(iii) Heat flux to the wall at t = 8 minute. x
Hence, =1
(iv) Heat energy transferred to pipe per unit L
length during 8 minutes period.
Assumptions : From chart for position temperature, for 1 = 3.2
Bi
1. Since the pipe diameter is too large as
compared to its thickness, therefore, treating it as a x
and = 1.0 temperature ratio at the location, from
plane wall. L
2. One surface of the pipe is adiabatic, and hence Fig. 6.31(b)
taking L = 0.04 m.
T − T∞
3. Constant properties. = 0.86
Tc − T∞
T or T = 60 + 0.86 × (42 – 60) = 45°C
T(L, t) The heat flux at the surface after 8 min
q = h (T∞ – Ts)
T(0, t) = 500 × (60 – 45)
Ti = – 20°C
or = 7500 W/m2. Ans.
T¥ = 60°C
Insulation T(x, 0) 2
h = 500 W/m .K
(iv) The energy transfer to the pipe wall over
= – 20°C
8 minute interval
Bi = 0.313
Oil
Bi Fo = (0.313)2 × 5.64 = 0.55
2
From the Gröber chart Fig. 6.31(c) for heat

L = 40 mm transfer ratio for plane wall
x
Q
Fig. 6.35. Schematic for example 6.25 = 0.78
Qi
where Qi = initial energy content per unit pipe Assumptions :

length 1. The slab is sufficiently large so it can be
= ρVC(Ti – T∞) = ρ(πDL)C(Ti – T∞) treated as an infinite slab.
= 7823 × (π × 1 × 0.04) × 434
2. Heat conduction in axial direction only.
× {– 20 – (– 60)}
3. Uniform heat transfer coefficient on the slab.
= 34.13 × 106 J/m = 34.13 × 103 kJ/m
The heat transferred during 8 minute, 4. No radiation heat transfer.
Q = 0.78 × 34.13 × 103 kJ/m Analysis : (i) Biot number for an infinite slab
= 26.62 × 103 kJ/m. Ans. hL 1200 × 0.05
Bi = = = 0.28
Example 6.26. A slab of aluminium 10 cm thick is k 215
initially at temperature of 500°C. It is suddenly It is greater than 0.1, thus lumped system
immersed in a liquid bath at 100°C resulting in a heat analysis is not applicable.
transfer coefficient of 1200 W/m2.K. Determine the
temperature at the centreline and surface 1 min after Fourier number,
the immersion. Also calculate the total thermal energy
αt 8.4 × 10 −5 × 60
removed per unit area of the slab during this period. Fo = = = 2.016
The properties of the aluminium for given conditions are: L2 (0.05) 2
α = 8.4 × 10–5 m/s, k = 215 W/m.K, It is greater than 0.2, thus one term solution as
ρ = 2700 kg/m3, C = 0.9 kJ/kg.K. well as Heisler charts solution can be possible. Using
(Anna Univ., May 2001) Heisler charts for an infinite slab, Fig. 6.31 (a)
Solution 1 1 U|
Given : An aluminium slab as shown in Fig. 6.36, Bi
=
0.28
= 3.57
V| θc T − T∞
= c = 0.63
2L = 10 cm, L = 5 cm = 0.05 m,
Ti = 500°C,
Fo = 2.016 W θi Ti − T∞
T∞ = 100°C,
h = 1200 W/m2.K, The centreline temperature of the slab
α = 8.4 × 10–5 m2/s, Tc = 100 + (500 – 100) × 0.63
k = 215 W/m.K, = 352°C. Ans.
C = 0.9 kJ/kg. K = 900 J/kg.K,
Alternatively
ρ = 2700 kg/m3,
Using one term solution
t = 1 min = 60 s.
To find : At Bi = 0.28, ξ1 = 0.504,
(i) Centreline temperature of slab after 1 min. C1 = 1.0422 (From Table B-5)
(ii) Temperature at the surface after 1 min. Using relation
(iii) Thermal energy removed per unit area of the θc Tc − T∞ − ξ 2 Fo
slab during first one minute. = = C1 e 1
θi Ti − T∞
2
= 1.04s22 × e − (0.504) × 2.016
or Tc = 100 + (500 – 100) × 0.624
Liquid Liquid
T(0, t) T(L, t) = 350°C. Ans.
(ii) The surface temperature from Fig. 6.31 (b) :
T¥ T¥
For surface,
x
L
=1 U|
h h
1
V| T − T∞
Tc − T∞
= 0.87
Bi
= 3.57
W
2L
The surface temperature,
x
T = 0.87 × (352 – 100) + 100 = 319.24. Ans.
Fig. 6.36. Schematic of aluminium slab of example 6.26
Alternatively ρ = 2700 kg/m3, C = 900 J/kg.K, k = 210 W/m.K

Surface temperature can also be obtained by
using eqn. (6.52)
T( x, t) − T∞ 2
= C1e −ξ1 Fo cos (ξ1 x/L) D = 5 cm T¥ = 70°C
Ti − T∞ 2
h = 525 W/m .K
x
Here Fo = 2.016, and = 1 (at the surface) Ti = 200°C
L T(ro, t)
From Table B-5 in Appendix,

Tc
For Bi = 0.28,
ξ1 = 0.505 rad, C1 = 1.0423
r
Thus T(L, t) = 100 + (500 – 100) × 1.0423
2
Fig. 6.37. Schematic for example 6.27
× e − (0.505) × 2.016
× cos (0.505 × 1) Analysis : Since the position temperature is to
= 318.2. Ans. determine, thus using Heisler charts.
(iii) Thermal energy removed per unit area of slab The radius of cylinder
during first one minute. D 0.05 m
ro = = = 0.025 m
2 2
Bi = 0.28  Q Biot number
2  = 0.48 (From Fig. 6.31)
Bi Fo = 0.158  Qi hro 525 × 0.025
Bi = = = 0.0625
k 210
Heat removed 1
Q = 0.48 × ρ (A2L) C(Ti – T∞) = 16
Bi
= 0.48 × 2700 × 1 × 2 × 0.05 × 0.900 Fourier number
× (500 – 100) FG k IJ t
αt
= 46.65 × 106 J/m2. Ans.
Fo =
r o H ρC K r
2
=
o
2
Example 6.27. A long aluminium cylinder 5.0 cm in

F 210 IJ × 60
=G
diameter and initially at 200°C is suddenly exposed to a H 2700 × 900 K (0.025) 2
= 8.29
convection environment at 70°C with heat transfer The dimensionless centre temperature from
coefficient of 525 W/m2.K. Calculate the temperature at Heisler chart, Fig. 6.32 (a)
the radius of 1.25 cm 1 minute after the cylinder exposed Tc − T∞
to the environment. (J.N.T.U., May 2004) = 0.35
Ti − T∞
Solution ∴ Tc = 70 + 0.35 × (200 – 70) = 115.5°C
The dimensionless position
Given : A long cylinder
r 1.25 cm
D = 5.0 cm, Ti = 200°cm, = = 0.5
ro 2.5 cm
T∞ = 70°C, h = 525 W/m2.K,
r = 1.25 cm, t = 1 min = 60 s. 1
= 16
Bi
To find : The temperature at the radius of 1.25 cm
in the cylinder. From Fig. 6.32 (b)
Assumptions : T − T∞
= 0.98
(i) No radiation exchange Tc − T∞
(ii) The physical properties for aluminium T = 70 + 0.98 × (115.5 – 70)

cylinder as = 114.59°C. Ans.
Alternatively Analysis : (A) For copper cylinder :

Since Biot number is much less than 0.1, thus Biot number
this problem can also be solved by using the lumped hro 100 × 0.05
system analysis, eqn. (6.10) Bi = = = 0.0142
k 350
ro The lumped system analysis or chart solution can
δ= = 0.0125 m
2 be applied. Applying the chart solution, because
T − T∞
= exp −
LM
ht OP centreline and position temperature are to be calculated.
Ti − T∞ N
ρCδ Q Hence
1
Bi
=
1
= 70
T = 70 + (200 – 70) 0.0142
LM
× exp −
525 × 60 OP (i) Temperature ratio at the centre
N 2700 × 900 × 0.0125 Q θc

θi
T − T∞
= c
T − T
=
418 − 1000
30 − 1000
= 0.6
= 70 + 130 × 0.354 = 116°C. Ans. i ∞
It is temperature in the cylinder with error of 1.2% From Heisler chart Fig. 6.32 (a) for centreline
only. temperature, we get Fourier number,
Fo = 18.8
Example 6.28. Two long cylinders of 10 cm in diameter,
one of copper and other of asbestos are placed in a αt
Further, Fo =
furnace. The initial temperature of cylinders are 30°C ro 2
and the temperature in the furnace is 1000°C. Find how
much time be kept in furnace to reach its centre tem- 18.8 × (0.05) 2
perature 418°C. Also find the temperature at a radius of or t= = 4122.85 s
114 × 10 −7
4 cm after this time. Assume the following properties :
Combined convective and radiative heat transfer = 1.145 hours. Ans.
coefficient = 100 W/m2.K. (ii) Temperature at the radius of 4 cm
For copper k = 350 W/m.K, r 4
α = 114 × 10–7 m2/s = = 0.8
ro 5
For asbestos k = 0.11 W/m.K,
From chart Fig. 6.32 (b), for position temperature
α = 0.28 × 10–7 m2/s.
(P.U.P., May 1989) 1 r
of a cylinder, for = 70 and = 0.8
Bi ro
Solution
Temperature ratio at the location,
Given : Two identical cylinders of copper and
asbestos with T − T∞
= 0.985
D = 10 cm, or ro = 5 cm = 0.05 m, Tc − T∞
h = 100 W/m .K2 Ti = 30°C, or T = 1000 + 0.985 × (418 – 1000)
T∞ = 1000°C, Tc = 418°C = 426.73°C. Ans.
For copper k = 350 W/m.K,
It has very less temperature gradients over 4 cm
α = 114 × 10–7 m2/s, radius.
For asbestos k = 0.11 W/m.K,
(B) For asbestos cylinder
α = 0.28 × 10–7 m2/s.
Biot number
To find :
(i) The time required to reach for the cylinder hro 100 × 0.05
Bi =
= = 45.45
centreline temperature 418°C. k 0.11
(ii) Temperature at the radius of 4 cm in each Biot number is too large, hence using chart
cylinder. solution.
Assumptions :
1 1
1. Infinite long cylinders. Hence, = = 0.022
Bi 45.45
(i) Temperature ratio at the centre (iii) Heat transferred during 2 minutes.
θc T − T∞ 418 − 1000 Analysis : Biot number
= c = = 0.6
θi Ti − T∞ 30 − 1000 hr 500 × 0.025
From Heisler chart Fig. 6.32 (a) for centreline Bi = o = = 0.21
k 60
temperature, we get fourier number, Using the Heisler chart :
Fo = 0.21
1 1
0.21 × (0.05) 2 = = 4.8
It gives t= = 18750 s Bi 0.21
0.28 × 10 −7 Fourier number
= 5.2 hours. Ans.
(ii) Temperature at the radius of 4 cm αt 1.6 × 10 −5 × 2 × 60
Fo = = = 3.07
r 4 ro 2 (0.025) 2
= = 0.8 (i) From Heisler chart Fig. 6.33 (a), for centreline
ro 5
From chart Fig. 6.32 (b), for position tempera- 1
temperature of sphere, at = 4.8 and Fo = 3.07
1 r Bi
ture of cylinder, for = 0.022 and = 0.8
Bi ro Tc − T∞
= 0.18
Temperature ratio at the location, Ti − T∞
T − T∞ or Tc = 0.18 × (225 – 25) + 25
= 0.286 = 61°C. Ans.
Tc − T∞
(ii) Temperature at the depth of 1 cm from the
or T = 1000 + 0.286 × (418 – 1000) surface,
= 833.5°C. Ans.
r = ro – depth = 25 mm – 10 mm
It has large temperature gradients. = 15 mm
Example 6.29. An iron sphere of diameter 5 cm is r 15
initially at a uniform temperature of 225°C. It is sud- Hence = = 0.6
ro 25
denly exposed to an ambient at 25°C with convection
coefficient of 500 W/m2.K. From chart for position temperature of sphere
(i) Calculate the centre temperature 2 minute after 1 r
Fig. 6.33 (b), at = 4.8 and = 0.6
the start of exposure. Bi ro
(ii) Calculate the temperature at the depth of Temperature ratio at the location,
1 cm from the surface after 2 minute of exposure.
T − T∞
(iii) Calculate the energy removed from the sphere = 0.95
during this period. Tc − T∞
Take thermophysical properties of iron plate : or T = 25 + 0.95 × (61 – 25)
k = 60 W/m.K, ρ = 7850 kg/m3, = 59.2°C. Ans.
C = 460 J/kg, α = 1.6 × 10–5 m2/s. (iii) Heat loss from the sphere during 2 minute
exposure
Solution
Bi = 0.21
Given : An iron sphere with
Bi2. Fo = (0.21)2 × 3.07 = 0.135
D = 5 cm, or ro = 2.5 cm = 0.025 m,
k = 60 W/m.K, Ti = 225°C, From the Gröber chart, Fig. 6.33 (c) for heat trans-
fer ratio for sphere
T∞ = 25°C, t = 2 min.,
3
ρ = 7850 kg/m , C = 460 J/kg.K, Q
= 0.8
h = 500 W/m2.K, α = 1.6 × 10–5 m2/s, Qi
depth = 1 cm from the surface. 4
where, Qi = ρVC(Ti – T∞) = ρ × πro3 C(Ti – T∞)
To find : 3
(i) The centreline temperature of the sphere RSFG IJ
4 UV
after 2 minute of exposure.
= 7850 ×
TH K
3
× π × (0.025 ) 3 × 460 ×
W
(ii) The temperature at the depth of 1 cm from (225 – 25)
the surface after 2 minute. = 47,268 J = 47.268 kJ
The heat transferred during 2 minute, 2. The surface is suddenly exposed to constant
Q = 0.8 Qi heat flux q0.
Q = 0.8 × 47.268 kJ = 37.814 kJ. Ans. 3. The surface is suddenly exposed to convection
environment at T = T∞ with heat transfer coefficient h.
These three cases are illustrated in Fig. 6.39 and
6.4. TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION IN SEMI
solutions are summarised below.
INFINITE SOLIDS Case 1. Change in surface temperature
T(0, t) = Ts for t > 0
An infinite body extends itself in all direction of space.
If such an infinite solid is divided in the middle by a Case 1 Case 2
plane, then half is referred as semi infinite solid. A T(x, 0) = Ti T(x, 0) = Ti
semi infinite solid is a body that has a single boundary T(0, t) = Ts – k [¶T/¶x]x = 0 = q0
surface and extends to infinity in one direction as shown
Ts
in Fig. 6.38. This body is used to estimate the tempera-
qo
ture distribution in the part of the body, in which we
are interested i.e., region close to surface.
For an example, the earth and the thick slab can x x
be considered as semi infinite body to obtain the T(x, t)
temperature variation nearer to its surface. Ts t t
¥
T
¥
Ti Ti
x x
T(x, t) (a) (b)
¥
Case 3
T(x, 0) = Ti
– k [¶T/¶x]x = 0 = h[T¥ – T(0, t)]
x
¥ T¥, h
Fig. 6.38. A semi infinite solid with nomenclature
The general criteria for an infinite body to be
considered semi infinite subjected to one-dimensional x
heat conduction is
T¥
δ
≥ 0.5 t
2 αt
where δ is thickness of the body.
Consider a semi infinite solid, initially at uniform
temperature Ti. At time t > 0, the surface of the solid is
subjected to some boundary condition. The temperature Ti
x
distribution and heat flow at any position x in the solid
with time can be obtained by using eqn. (6.28) (c)
2
∂ T 1 ∂T Fig. 6.39. Transient temperature distributions in a semi
2 = 0≤x≤∞ infinite solid for three surface conditions :
∂x α ∂t (a) constant surface temperature, (b) constant surface heat
subjected to initial and boundary conditions : flux, and (c) surface convection.
(i) Initial Condition. At surface T(x, 0) = Ti and Solution to the preceding equation by the Laplace
at interior T(∞, t) = Ti transform technique leads to
(ii) Boundary Conditions. Three types of T ( x, t) − Ts
conditions may be imposed on the surface. = erf (ξ) ...(6.62)
Ti − Ts
1. The surface temperature is suddenly changed where the quantity erf (ξ) is Gauss error function and is
and maintained at T = Ts . defined with a dimensionless dummy variable ξ as
x Case 2. Constant surface heat flux on semi

ξ= infinite solid
2 αt
and erf (ξ) =

π 0
2 ξ
z
The numerical values of Gauss error function
2
e − ξ dξ...(6.63)
qs = qx=0 = q0
T(x, t) – Ti =
2q0 αt / π F I
GH JK
exp −
x2
kA 4αt
erf(ξ) are presented as a function of ξ (zeta) in Table
B-1 of Appendix B. q x R F x IJ UV
Inserting the dummy variable ξ and definition of –
kA T
S1 − erf G
0
H 2 αt K W ...(6.68)
error function in eqn. (6.62), the expression for
temperature distribution becomes : Case 3. Convection boundary condition
T( x, t) − Ts
Ti − Ts
=
2 ξ −ξ2
π 0
e dξ z
The heat flow rate at any position may be worked
...(6.64)
Heat convected into the surface = Heat conducted
into the surface
∂T
out as hA (T∞ – Tx = 0) = – kA ∂x
x=0
∂T
Q = – kA The solution with this boundary condition yields
∂x to
The partial differentiation of eqn. (6.64) yields
∂T 2 − x 2 / 4 αt ∂ x FG IJ T( x, t) − Ti x FG IJ – exp RS hx + h αt UV 2
∂x
= (Ti − Ts ) ×
π
e
∂x 2 αt H K T∞ − Ti
= erfc
2 αt H K Tk k W 2
or
∂T
=
Ti − Ts − x2 / 4αt
e ...(6.65) F x + h αt I ...(6.69)
× erfc G
∂x παt
The temperature distribution for semi infinite H 2 αt k JK
solid is shown in Fig. 6.40. The instantaneous heat flow The quantity erfc (ξ) appeared in eqn. (6.69) is
rate can be expressed as the complimentary error function, defined as
kA (Ts − T∞ ) − x 2 / 4 αt erfc (ξ) = 1 – erf (ξ) ...(6.70)
Q(t) = e ...(6.66)
παt 1.0
The heat flow rate at the surface (x = 0) 0.5 Ambient
T(x, t)
∂T kA (Ts − Ti )
0.4
T¥, h
0.3
Q = – kA ∂t = ...(6.67) 3 ¥ x
παt
————
x=0 0.2
T(x, t) – Ti
2
T¥ – Ti
1
1.0 0.5
0.1 0.4
0.3
0.05
0.8 0.04 0.2
0.03 0.1
T(x, t) – Ts
————
Solid
Ti – Ts
Surface 0.02
0.6 T(x,t) at = 0.05
h——
at Ts
k
0.01
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 1.25 1.5
0.4 x
0 x x = ———
2 at
Fig. 6.41. Dimensionless transient temperatures for a
0.2 semi infinite solid with surface convection to
environment T∞ with h
0
0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4
Despite its simple appearance, the solutions that
0
x
x = —— appear in eqns. (6.62), (6.67), (6.68) and (6.69), the
2 at relations cannot be obtained analytically. Therefore,
Fig. 6.40. Temperature distribution T(x, t) in a semi infinite these are evaluated numerically for different values of
solid which is initially at Ti and for t > 0 boundary surface FG x IJ .
at x = 0 is maintained at Ts ξ =
H 2 αt K
When h → ∞, T∞ = Ts and eqn. (6.69) reduces to 5. The freezing temperature of water as 0°C,
T( x, t) − Ti FG x IJ = 1 – erf FG x IJ which the pipe may attain after three months.
Ts − Ti
= erfc
H2 αt K H 2 αt K Analysis : For prescribed surface temperature, the
temperature distribution in the soil is
...(6.71)
equivalent to result obtained in eqn. (6.62). The T − Ts x FG IJ
graphical solution is given in Fig. 6.41 is simply plot of
analytical solution given by eqn. (6.69).
Ti − Ts
= erf
2 αt H K
0 − (− 10) x FG IJ
6.4.1. Penetration Depth and Penetration Time
The penetration depth is referred to the location, where
or
15 − (− 10)
= 0.4 = erf
2 αt H K
the temperature changes is within 1% of the applied From Table B-1. ; for erf (ξ) = 0.4, ξ ≈ 0.37
change in temperature (Ts – Ti) i.e., Here
T − Ts t = 3 months × 30 days × 24 h × 3600 s
= 0.99 = erf (1.8) ...(6.72)
Ti − Ts = 7.776 × 106 s
or penetration depth, x
x = 1.8 × 2 αt = 3.6 αt Then, 0.37 =
2 αt
...(6.73)
The penetration time at a given depth indicates, x
=
the time taken by the surface to get 1% penetration. 2 0.15 × 10 −6
× 7.776 × 10 6
1 x FG IJ 2
or x = 0.8 m. Ans.
i.e., t=
α 3.6 H K ...(6.74)
The water pipes must be placed 0.8 m below the
Example 6.30. The ground at a particular location is free surface of earth in order to avoid freezing.
covered with snow pack at – 10°C for a continuous period
of three months, and the average soil properties at that Example 6.31. A large mass of a material is intially at
location are k = 0.4 W/(m.K) and α = 0.15 × 10–6 m2/s. uniform temperature of 100°C. Its surface is suddenly
Assuming an initial uniform temperature of 15°C for lowered and maintained at 2°C. The thermal diffusivity
the ground, calculate the minimum depth to place the of the material is 0.41 m2/h. Calculate the time required
water pipes from the surface to avoid freezing. for the temperature gradient at the surface to reach
3.5°C/cm.
Ts = –10°C
Solution
Atmosphere
Given : A large mass of material as semi infinite
Soil x body
T(x, t) Ti = 100°C, T = 2°C,
Water pipe α = 0.41 m /h = 1.139 × 10–4 m2/s
2
Ti = 15°C
∂T
= 3.5°C/cm.
Fig. 6.42. Schematic for example 6.30 ∂t
Surface
Solution at 2°C Large
mass
Given : Undergrounded water main (pipe) : at
Ts = – 10°C, t = 3 months Ti = 100°C
k = 0.4 W/m.K, α = 0.15 × 10–6 m2/s
Ti = 15°C, T(x, t) = 0°C
To find : Depth of water pipes in order to avoid Fig. 6.43. Schematic for example 6.31
freezing. To find : Time for surface temperature gradient to
Assumptions : 3.5°C/cm.
1. One-dimensional conduction. Analysis : The heat flow rate at the surface is
2. Soil is an infinite medium. given by eqn. (6.67)
3. Uniform and constant properties of soil. ∂T kA (Ts − Ti )
Q = – kA =
4. Convection heat transfer coefficient h → ∞. ∂x x = 0 παt
∂T Ti − Ts T − Ts FG IJ
x
or
∂x
=
παt Ti − Ts
= erf
H K
2 αt
F I
x=0
= erf G
GH 2 1.17 × 10 × 18000 JJK
100 − 2 0.25
or 3.5 × 100 =
–5
π × 1.1139 × 10 −4 × t
FG 98 IJ 2
1 or T = 450 + (25 – 450) × erf (0.272)
or t=
H 350 K ×
π × 1.139 × 10 −4 From Table B-1, erf (0.272) ≈ 0.3
= 219 s. Ans. ∴ T = 450 – 425 × 0.30
Example 6.32. A thick steel slab is initially at a uniform = 322.5°C. Ans.
temperature of 25°C. When the slab is exposed to hot (ii) The instantaneous heat flow rate can be
flue gases, the surface temperature is suddenly changes obtained by using eqn. (6.66)
to 450°C. Calculate the temperature in the plane
250 mm from the slab surface 5 h after the change in x2
kA (Ts − Ti ) −
surface temperature. Also calculate the heat flow per m2 Q(t) = e 4 αt
of this plane and total energy flowing the surface during παt
2
the 5 h period. 45 × 1 × (450 − 25) × e( − 0.272 )
Take k = 45 W/m.K, =
π × 1.17 × 10 –5 × 18000
ρ = 8000 kg/m3, and C = 480 J/kg.K.
= 21818.2 W. Ans.
Solution
(iii) The total heat flow from the surface during
Given : A thick steel plate as a semi infinite plate 5 h.
z
Ti = 25°C, Ts = 450°C,
kA (Ts – Ti ) t 1
x = 250 mm = 0.25 m Q= dt
πα o t
t = 5 h = 18000 s, A = 1 m2,
k = 45 W/m.K, ρ = 8000 kg/m3, t
= 1.13 kA(Ts – Ti ) ×
C = 480 J/kg.K. α
= 1.13 × 45 × 1 × (450 – 25)
Steel 18000
×
Surface slab 1.17 × 10 –5
Ts = 450°C
= 847 × 106 J = 847 MJ. Ans.
Ti = 25°C
6.5. TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION IN
MULTIDIMENSIONAL SYSTEMS
Fig. 6.44. Schematic for example 6.32 The Heisler charts presented earlier may be used to
obtain the temperature distribution and heat transfer
To find : in one-dimensional transient heat conduction problems
(i) Temperature at x = 0.25 m associated with large plane of thickness 2L, in long
(ii) Instantaneous heat flow rate per m2. cylinder or in the sphere of radius ro. When a wall whose
(iii) Total energy flow in 5 h. height and depth dimensions are not large compared
> ro) is encountered,
to its thickness or a short cylinder (L |
Analysis : (i) Temperature distribution in semi
infinite plate : additional space coordinates are necessary to specify the
temperature, the above charts are no longer useful.
k 45 But with the use of clever superposition principle
α= =
ρC 8000 × 480 called product solution, these charts can be used to
= 1.17 × 10–5 m2/s obtain the solution for two-dimensional transient heat
conduction problems such as short cylinder, long Infinite

cylinder
rectangular bar, a semi infinite cylinder or plate. The T(r, t)
three dimensional problems associated with geometries ro h
such as a rectangular prism, semi infinite rectangular
a= 2L
bar may also solved by using these charts provided that T¥ x T(x, t)
all the surfaces of the solid is subjected to same ambient a = 2L
at T∞ with same heat transfer coefficient h and the body T(x, r, t)

does not involve any heat generation. r
ro Infinite
plane
The product solution for an infinite rectangular 0
wall
bar, Fig. 6.45 can be formed from two infinite plates of
(a) (b)
thickness 2L1 and 2L2, respectively.
Fig. 6.46. A short cylinder of radius ro and height (a = 2L) is
F T(x, y, t) – T I =G
F T(x, t) – T I considered intersection of an infinite plane wall of thickness
GH T − T JK H T − T JK
∞ ∞
2L and infinite cylinder of radius ro
i ∞ Ractangular bar i ∞ 2L 1 , plate
The product solution for a short cylinder of radius
F T( y, t) – T I
×G
ro and length (a = 2L), Fig. 6.46 is
H T − T JK
∞
...(6.75)
i ∞ F
T( x, t) – T∞ I
T(r, z, t) – T∞
GH JK
2L 2 , plate
=
Ti − T∞ Ti − T∞ plane wall
Infinite
T(x, y, t)
plane
F T ( r , t) – T I
GH T − T JK
h wall 2 ∞
× ...(6.76)
i ∞ infinite cylinder
z®¥ T¥
T(y, 0) = Ti
h y
T(y, t) 2L2 The proper form of product solutions for some
x
other geometries given in Table 6.2. It is important to
T¥
T(x, 0) = Ti Infinite note that x is measured from surface of a semi infinite
T(x, t)
plane solid, but from the mid plane of a plane wall and r is
wall 1
2L2 2L1 measured from centre of cylinder or sphere.
2L1
The dimensionless temperature ratio
Fig. 6.45. Infinite rectangular bar (2L1 × 2L2) is considered θ T – T∞
intersection of two plane walls of thickness 2L1 and 2L2
=
θi Ti − T∞
subjected to same convection environment
TABLE 6.2. Multidimensional solutions expressed as products of one-dimensional solutions for
bodies that are initially at a uniform temperature Ti and exposed to convection on
all surfaces to a medium at T∞
0 r x r
ro
0
x
r
q(r, t) qcyl(r, t) (x, r, t) cyl(r, t) seminf(x, t) (x, r, t) (r, t) wall(x, t)

= cyl ×
qi
=
qi i
=
i
×
i i i i
Infinite cylinder Semi infinite cylinder Short cylinder
y
y
x z
x
x
q(x, y, z, t)
=
q(x, t) qseminf(x, t) qi
——— = ————— (x, y, t) seminf(x, t) seminf(y, t) qseminf (x, t)qseminf (y, t) qseminf (z, t)
qi = ×
qi i i i × ×
qi qi qi
Semi infinite medium Quarter infinite medium Corner region of a large medium
2L 2L
y x
y L
xx
x L z
0 L
x
(x, y, z, t) wall(x, t)
=
q(x, t) qwall (x, t) q(x, y, t) qwall(x, t) qseminf(y, t) qi qi
= = × seminf(y, t)
seminf(z, t)
qi qi qi qi qi × ×
Infinite plate (or plane wall) Semi infinite plate qi qi
Quarter infinite plate
x z
y
z y
(x, y, z, t) (x, y, z, t)
= =
i i
(x, y, t) wall(x, t) wall(y, t) wall(x, t) wall(y, t) seminf(z, t) wall(x, t) (y, t) wall(z, t)
= × × × × wall ×
i i i i i i i i i
Infinite rectangular bar Semi infinite rectangular bar Rectangular parallelopiped
In the similar manner, the solutions for three-dimensional problems is obtained as product of three
one-dimensional solutions.
A modified form of the product solutions can also be used to obtain the total transient heat transfer to or
from a multidimensional geometry by superimposing the heat loss for one-dimensional bodies.
The transient heat transfer for a two-dimensional geometry formed by the intersection of two one-dimensional
geometries 1, 2 is given by
F QI F QI F QI L F QI OP We will use one term approximate solution for

GH Q JK = G Q J + G Q J × M1 − G Q J
i 2-D, solid
H K H K MN H K
i 1 i 2 i 1 PQ
cylinder and analytical solution to semi infinite medium.
For infinite long cylinder :
...(6.77) hr 120 × 0.1
Transient heat transfer for a three dimensional Bi = o = = 0.05 < 0.1
k 237
geometry formed by the intersection of the three
one-dimensional geometries is given by αt 9.71 × 10 −5 × (5 × 60)
Fo = 2 =
F QI F Q I F Q I LM1 − F Q I OP ro (0.1) 2
= GQ J + GQ J
GH Q JK H K H K MN GH Q JK PQ
= 2.913 > 0.2
i 3-D, solid i 1 i 2 i 1 Thus one term approximation solution is
F QI L F QI O L F QI O applicable, from Table B-5, at Bi = 0.05 for cylinder

+ G Q J × M1 − G Q J P × M1 − G Q J P
C1 = 1.0124, ξ1 = 0.3126
H K MN H K PQ MN H K PQ
i 3 i 1 i 2 Tc − T∞ − ξ 2 Fo
...(6.78) = C1 e 1
Ti − T∞
Example 6.33. A semi infinite aluminium cylinder
2
− (0.3126) × 2.913
(k = 237 W/m.K, α = 9.71 × 10–5 m2/s) 20 cm in diameter = 1.0124 × e = 0.762
is initially at uniform temperature of 200°C. The cylinder The solution for position temperature distribution
is then placed in water at 15°C, with h = 120 W/m2.K.
Calculate the temperature at the centre of the cylinder T( x , t ) − Ti
in semi infinite medium is given by
15 cm from the end surface 5 minute after the start of T∞ − Ti
cooling. eqn. (6.69),
Solution
T( x, t) – Ti
= erfc
x LM OP – exp LM hx + h αt OP
2
Given : An aluminium cylinder as semi infinite T∞ − Ti 2 αt N Q Nk k Q 2

body
L x + h αt OP
× erfc M
k = 237 W/m.K
α = 9.71 × 10–5 m2/s MN 2 αt k PQ
D = 20 cm, ro = 0.1 m Here the quantities
Ti = 200°C, T∞ = 15°C x 0.15
x = 15 cm, h = 120 W/m2.K = = 0.851
2 αt 2 9.71 × 10 − 5 × 300
t = 5 min
hx 120 × 0.15
= = 0.076
Water k 237
2
h = 120 W/m .K
T¥ = 15°C h 2 αt
= Bi2 Fo = 0.052 × 2.913 = 0.0073
k2
h αt
= 0.0073 = 0.0853
k
x = 15 cm T( x, t) − Ti
= erfc (0.851) – exp [0.076 + 0.073]
T∞ − Ti
× erfc (0.851 + 0.0853)
Fig. 6.47
T( x, t) − Ti
To find : Centre temperature of cylinder after or = 0.2289 – 1.0868 × 0.187 = 0.0256
5 min. T∞ − Ti
Analysis : A semi infinite cylinder is two-
But position temperature ratio T( x , t ) − T∞ can be
dimensional body, and thus the temperature will vary
Ti − T∞
in both r and x directions within cylinder as well as with obtained as
time, and its solution is
θ cyl (r, t) θseminf ( x, t) T( x, t) − T∞ T ( x, t) − Ti
θ( x, r, t) =1– = 1 – 0.0256 = 0.9743
= × Ti − T∞ (T∞ − Ti )
θi θi θi
Therefore, the centre temperature ratio in semi Assumptions :

infinite cylinder can be expressed as (i) The two-dimensional transient heat
T( x, 0, t) − T∞ T( x, t) − T∞ T − T∞ conduction.
= × c
Ti − T∞ Ti − T∞ Ti − T∞ (ii) Short cylinder is an intersection of infinite
= 0.9743 × 0.762 = 0.742 cylinder and a plane wall.
or T(x, 0, t) = 15 + (200 – 15) × 0.742
x
= 152.3°C. Ans.
Alternatively
Since Biot number is less than 0.1, thus the
internal temperature gradients in the body are
negligible and centre and surface temperatures of the 2L
cylinder be equal. Using lumped system analysis : 0 r
2 ht 2 hα t
− −
T − T∞ ρr C rk
= e o =e o ro
Ti − T∞
or T = 15 + (200 – 15)
2 × 120 × 9.71 × 10 −5 × 300
− Fig. 6.48. (b) Intersection of infinite plane
0.1 × 237
×e wall and infinite cylinder
= 152.74°C. Ans. Analysis : At any time, the minimum temperature
Example 6.34. A 10 cm diameter 16 cm long cylinder is at the geometric centre of the cylinder i.e., T(0, t) or
(k = 0.5 W/m.K and α = 5 × 10–7 m2/s) is initially at at x = 0 and the maximum temperature is at the outer
uniform temperature of 20°C. The cylinder is then placed circumference of the cylinder.
in a furnace where the ambient temperature is 500°C Tmin at x = 0, r = 0
with h = 30 W/m2.K. Calculate the minimum and maxi- Tmax at x = L, r = ro
mum temperature in the cylinder 30 min after it has
For dimensionless position temperature in the
been placed in the furnace.
plane wall from Figs. 6.31 (a) and (b)
Solution
Given : A short cylinder as two-dimensional body,
1
=
k
=
30
0.5
× 0.08
= 0.21 U| θθ = 0.90
c
V| x θ
Bi hL i
D = 10 cm or ro = 0.05 m −7
αt 5 × 10 × 1800
W L = 1, θ
2L = 16 cm or L = 0.08 m Fo = = = 0.27
2
k = 0.5 W/m.K, α = 5 × 10–7 m2/s L (0.08) 2 c
= 0.14
Ti = 20°C, T∞ = 500°C
h = 30 W/m .K2 t = 30 min = 1800 s. θ(L, t) θ θ
= c ×
θi θi θc
= 0.9 × 0.27 = 0.243
For dimensionless position temperature in the cylinder
from Figs. 6.32 (a) and (b)
U|
L x
16 cm
10 cm 1 k 0.5 θc
V|
= = = 0.33 = 0.47
Bi hro 30 × 0 .05 θi
ro
Fo =
αt
ro 2
=
5 × 10 −7 × 1800
(0.05) 2
W r
ro
= 1,
θ
θc
= 0.33
Fig. 6.48. (a) Short cylinder = 0.36

To find : θ(ro , t) θc θ
= ×
(i) Minimum temperature in the cylinder. θi θi θc
(ii) Maximum temperature in the cylinder. = 0.47 × 0.33 = 0.155
(i) Minimum temperature It can also be defined as the ratio of heat transfer
coefficient to the internal specific conductance of the
θ min Tmin − T∞ θ
= c
FG IJ
θ
× c
FG IJ solid.
θi
=
Ti – T∞ θi plane wall H K
θi cylinder H K The Fourier number is expressed as
Rate of heat conduction αt
Fo = = 2
= 0.9 × 0.47 = 0.423 Rate of thermal energy storage δ
Tmin = 500 + 0.423 × (20 – 500) ρVC
The time constant is defined as τ =
= 297°C. Ans. hA s
(ii) Maximum temperature When we attempt a problem of unsteady state
heat conduction, the following guidelines should be
FG IJ FθI followed :
θ max
θi
T
= max
− T∞
Ti − T∞
×
θ
θi H K = GH θ JK
i
Calculate the Biot number for the given solid as
wall cyl hδ
Bi =
= 0.243 × 0.155 = 0.0376 k
V
Tmax = 500 + 0.0376 × (20 – 500) With the characteristic length of the solid, δ = .
As
= 481.92°C. Ans.
When Bi is more than 0.1, then Heisler and
Gröber charts are used for the approximation of the
6.6. SUMMARY solution of the problem. These charts can also be used
to obtain the total heat transfer from a body upto time t.
In unsteady state heat conduction, the temperature Using one term approximation, the solution of
varies with position as well as time. In the lumped one-dimensional transient heat conduction problems are
system analysis, the temperature of solid is assumed expressed as
uniform in the system at any time. The temperature of
Plane wall :
any solid of mass m, volume V surface area As, density
θ T( x, t) − T∞ − ξ 2 Fo
ρ, and specific heat C, initially at uniform temperature = = C1 e 1 cos (ξ1x/L)
Ti exposed to convection ambient at T∞ with h is θi Ti − T∞
approximated by the lumped system analysis as Cylinder :
T − T∞
= exp −
LM
hA s t OP
providing that
θ
=
T(r, t) − T∞ 2
= C1 e − ξ 1 Fo J0(ξ1r/ro)
Ti − T∞ ρVC N Q Sphere :
θi Ti − T∞
Biot number,
h( V/A s ) θ T(r, t) − T∞
Bi = ≤ 0.1 =
k θi Ti − T∞
The instant heat transfer rate Q(t) between a solid sin (ξ 1 r / ro )
− ξ 12 Fo
and its ambient at T∞ with h is expressed as = C1 e .
(ξ 1 r / ro )
∂T where C1 and ξ1 are functions of Biot number and their
Q(t) = hAs(T(t) – T∞) = ρVC
∂t values are listed in Table B-5 of Appendix B.
= hAs(Ti – T∞) exp −
FG hA s t IJ At the centre of solid, the one term approximation
H ρVC K reduces to
θ T − T∞ − ξ 2 Fo
Total amount of heat transferred between a body = =e 1
and its surroundings at T∞ is θi Ti − T∞
∆U = z
0
t
Q(t) dt
Using one term approximation, the fraction of
heat transfer in three geometries are
R| F hA t I − 1U|V
= ρVC(T – T ) Sexp G −
Plane wall :
Q θ sin ξ 1
=1– c
|T H ρVC JK |W
s Qi θi ξ1
i ∞
Q θ J 1 (ξ 1 )
The Biot number is expressed as Cylinder : =1–2 c
Qi θi ξ1
Internal resistance to heat flow hδ
Bi = = Q θ sin ξ 1 − ξ 1 cos ξ 1
Convection resistance to heat flow k Sphere : =1–3 c .
Qi θi ξ 13
REVIEW QUESTIONS 3. Glass spheres of radius 2 mm at 600°C are to be cooled

in an air stream at 30°C to a temperature of 80°C
1. How does transient heat conduction differ from steady without any surface crack. Estimate the maximum
state heat conduction ? value of convection coefficient. Also determine the
2. What is lumped system analysis ? What are the minimum time required for the cooling. Take
assumptions made in the lumped system analysis and properties as ρ = 2225 kg/m3, C = 835 J/kg.K and
when is it applicable ? k = 1.4 W/m.K. [Ans. h = 210 W/m2.K, t = 14.35 s]
4. Stainless steel ball bearings [ρ = 8085 kg/m3, k =
3. Prove that the temperature distribution in a body at
15.1 W/m.K, C = 480 J/kg.K], 1.2 cm in diameter are
time t during a Newtonian heating or cooling is given
taken from an oven at a uniform temperature of 900°C
by
and are exposed to air at 30°C with h = 125 W/m2.K,
T − T∞ for a short period and then they are dropped into
= e–Bi Fo.
Ti − T∞ water for quenching. If the temperature of balls does
4. Consider a hot backed chicken piece on a plate. The not fall below 850°C prior to quenching, calculate,
temperature of the chicken piece is observed to drop how long they stand in air before being dropped into
by 5°C during first minute. Will the temperature drop water ? [Ans. 3.7 s]
during the second minute be less than, equal to or 5. The steel balls [k = 54 W/m.K, ρ = 7800 kg/m3, and
more than 5°C ? Why ? Comment. C = 465 J/kg.K], 8 mm in diameter are annealed by
5. What is Biot number ? What is its physical heating them first to 900°C in a furnace and then
significance ? Is the Biot number more likely to allowing them to cool slowly to 100°C in ambient air
larger for highly conducting solids or insulator ones ? at 30°C with h = 75 W/m2.K. Calculate how long the
annealing process will take ? If 2500 balls are to be
6. What is time constant ? Discuss the response of
annealed per hour, calculate the rate of heat transfer
thermocouple.
from the balls to ambient air.
7. What is Fourier number ? What is its physical
[Ans. 162 s, 43.1 MJ/h]
significance ?
6. Cylindrical pieces of size 30 mm dia and 30 mm height
8. Discuss the criteria for neglecting internal
with ρ = 7800 kg/m3, C = 486 J/kg.K and k = 43 W/m.K
temperature gradients within a solid during tran-
are to be heat treated. The pieces initially at 35°C
sient heat conduction. Deduce the condition for it.
are placed in a furnace at 800°C with convection
9. Explain the applications of Heisler and Gröber charts
coefficient of 85 W/m2.K. Determine the time required
in transient heat conduction.
to heat the pieces to 650°C. If by mistake the pieces
10. What is the product solution method ? How is it used were taken out of the furnace after 300 seconds,
to determine the transient temperature distribution determine the shortfall in the requirements.
in a two-dimensional system ?
[Ans. 9.08 min, 162°C]
11. In which situation, one term approximation is suitable
7. It is desired to estimate the batch time for a heat
to solve unsteady state heat conduction.
treatment process involved in cooling alloy steel balls
12. What do mean by semi infinite body ? What is the of 15 mm diameter from 820°C to 100°C in an oil bath
general criteria to be considered for a semi infinite at 40°C with h = 18 W/m2.K. The material properties
body ? are ρ = 7780 kg/m3, C = 526 J/kg.K and k =
45 W/m.K. Determine the time required. If it is
PROBLEMS required to be achieved in 10 minutes, determine the
value of convection coefficient.
1. Steel balls 12 mm in diameter are annealed by heating [Ans. t = 1457.8 s, h = 43.74 W/m2.K]
to 1150 K and then slowly cooling to 400 K in air at 8. A thermocouple in form of a long cylinder, 2 mm in
325 K with convection coefficient of 20 W/m2.K. dia, initially at 30°C is used to measure the
Assuming the properties of the steel to be temperature of a cold gas at –160°C. The convection
k = 40 W/m.K, ρ = 7800 kg/m3 coefficient is 60 W/m2.K. The material properties are
and C = 600 J/kg.K ρ = 8922 kg/m3, C = 410 J/kg.K and k = 22.7 W/m.K.
Determine the time it will take to indicate – 150°C. Also
Estimate the time required for the cooling process. calculate the time constant. [Ans. 89.76 s, 30.5 s]
[Ans. 18.7 min.] 9. A metal plate 10 mm thick at 30°C is suddenly
2. A solid copper sphere (k = 393 W/m.K), 10 mm in exposed on one face to heat flux of 3000 W/m2 and
diameter, initially at 80°C is placed in an air stream the other side is exposed to convection to a fluid at
at 30°C. The temperature is dropped to 65°C after 30°C with h = 50 W/m2.K . Determine the temperature
61 seconds. Calculate the value of convection after 10 s. Take properties of the material ρ =
coefficient. Assume properties as ρ = 8925 kg/m3, 8933 kg/m3, C = 385 J/kg.K and k = 380 W/m.K
C = 397 J/kg.K. [Ans. h = 34.53 W/m2.K] [Ans. 31.03°C]
10. A thermocouple junction may be approximated as exposed to a fluid at 35°C with h = 100 W/m2.K.
a sphere 2 mm in diameter with k = 30 W/m.K, Calculate the time to reach the centre temperature
ρ = 8600 kg/m3, and C = 400 J/kg.K. The convection of the slab to 90°C. [Ans. 14.9 min.]
coefficient is 280 W/m2.K. How long will it take for 18. A copper sphere (k = 370 W/m.K, ρ = 8900 kg/m3,
the thermocouple to record 98 per cent of the applied
C = 380 J/kg.K), 3 cm in diameter is initially at uniform
temperature difference ? [Ans. 8 s]
temperature of 50°C. It is suddenly exposed to an air
11. A thermocouple is to be used to measure the stream at 10°C with h = 15 W/m2.K. How long does it
temperature in a gas stream. The junction may be take the sphere temperature to drop to 25°C ?
approximated as sphere having ρ = 8400 kg/m3, [Ans. 18.42 min]
C = 400 J/kg.K and k = 25 W/m.K. The convection
coefficient is 560 W/m2.K. Calculate the diameter of 19. An aluminium can (k = 210 W/m.K, ρ = 2700 kg/m3,
the junction needed to measure the 95 per cent of the C = 900 J/kg.K) having a volume of 350 cm3 contains
applied temperature difference in 3 s. [Ans. 1 mm] beer at 1°C. Using lumped system analysis, calculate
12. An orange of diameter 6 cm initially at a uniform the time required to reach the beer temperature
temperature of 30°C. It is placed in a refrigerator in to 15°C when place in a room at 22°C with h =
which the air temperature is 2°C. If the convection 15 W/m2.K. Assume (k = 0.66 W/m.K, ρ = 1000 kg/m3,
coefficient is 50 W/m2.K, determine the time required C = 4200 J/kg.K) and surface area of beer can is
for the centre of the orange to reach 10°C. Take 650 cm2. [Ans. 27.6 min.]
thermophysical properties of orange as α = 20. A solid steel ball (k = 35 W/m.K), 300 mm in diameter
1.4 × 10–7 m2/s, and k = 0.59 W/m.K. [Ans. 45 min.] is coated with a dieletric material (k = 0.04 W/m.K),
13. A chicken piece [α = 1.6 × 10–7 m2/s, and k = 2 mm thick. The coated sphere is initially at a uniform
0.5 W/m.K] of diameter 2 cm, initially at a uniform temperature of 500°C and is suddenly quenched in a
temperature of 7°C, is dropped suddenly in boiling large oil bath at 100° with h = 3300 W/m2.K. Calculate
water at 100°C. The heat transfer coefficient is the time required for coated steel sphere to reach
150 W/m2.K. The chicken piece is considered cooked 140°C.
when its centre temperature reaches 80°C. How long Take α = 8.72 × 10–4 m2/s, ρ = 8600 kg/m3,
will it take the centreline temperature to reach 80°C? C = 460 J/kg.K. [Ans. 67.37]
[Ans. 8 min, 20 s] [Hint. Neglect the effect of energy storage in dielectric
14. A 6 cm diameter potato [α = 1.6 × 10–7 m2/s, and material, since its ρCV is very small.]
k = 0.68 W/m.K], initially at a uniform temperature 21. A large aluminium plate (k = 210 W/m.K) of thickness
of 20°C, is suddenly dropped into boiling water at 0.15 m, initially at a uniform temperature of 300 K,
100°C. The heat transfer coefficient between the is placed in a furnace having an ambient temperature
water and the potato surface is 6000 W/m2.K. of 800 K with h = 500 W/m2.K.
Determine the time required for the centre tempera- (a) Calculate the time required for the plate
ture of the potato to reach 95°C and energy mid-plane to reach 700 K.
transferred during this time. (b) What is the surface temperature of the plate for
[Ans. 33 min., 37.8 kJ] this condition ?
15. A solid steel ball bearing 25 mm OD, initially at Take ρ = 2700 kg/m3, C = 900 J/kg.K,
uniform temperature of 600°C is quenched in an oil α = 8.4 × 10–5 m2/s.
bath at 40°C. The convective heat transfer coefficient 22. A copper cylinder 10 cm diameter, 20 cm long is
is 1500 W/m2.K. Determine the centreline tempera- removed from liquid nitrogen bath at –196°C and
ture and the temperature at 1.25 mm from the sur- exposed to air at 25°C with convection coefficient of
face after the bearing has been in the oil for first half 20 W/m2.K. Find the time required by cylinder to
minute. Also, determine the heat lost by spherical attain the temperature of –110°C. Take thermo-
ball during the first half minute.
physical properties as :
[Ans. 900°C, 770°C, and 1390 kJ] C = 380 J/kg.K, ρ = 8800 kg/m3, k = 360 W/m.K.
16. A short cylinder 75 mm OD and 10 cm long is at a [Ans. 27.47 min.]
uniform temperature of 250°C. At the time equal to
23. The cylindrical steel rods (ρ = 7832 kg/m3,
zero, it is placed in a convection environment with
C = 434 J/kg.K, and k = 63.9 W/m.K), 50 mm in
h = 400 W/m2.K and T∞ = 40°C. If the material
properties are α = 0.046 m2/h, and k = 37 W/m.K, diameter are heat treated by passing them through a
determine the temperature at the centre of the furnace, 5 m long in which gases are maintained at
cylinder after 4 minutes. [Ans. 69°C] 750°C with h = 125 W/m2.K. The initial temperature
17. A 30 cm × 30 cm slab of copper [k = 370 W/m.K, of rods is 50°C. Calculate the speed at which the rods
C = 380 J/kg.K, ρ = 8900 kg/m3], 5 cm thick is initially must be passed through the furnace in order to
at a uniform temperature of 260°C. It is suddenly achieve 600°C at the centre line. [Ans. 9.55 mm/s]
24. Estimate the time required to cook a hot dog in boiling 31. Consider a household iron of 1000 W heating element
water. Assume that the hot dog is initially at 6°C and whose base plate is made of 5 mm thick aluminium
convection heat transfer coefficient is 100 W/m2.K and [ρ = 2770 kg/m3, C = 875 J/kg.K, and α =
the final temperature at the centre line is 80°C. Treat 7.3 × 10–5 m2/s]. The base plate has surface area of
hot dog as a long cylinder of 20 mm diameter with 0.03 m2. Initially the iron is at a uniform temperature
the following properties : of 22°C, ambient temperature. Assuming heat trans-
ρ = 880 kg/m3, C = 3350 J/kg.K, k = 0.52 W/m.K. fer coefficient at the surface of the base plate to be
[Ans. 7.6 min.] 12 W/m2.K and 85 per cent of heat generated the
25. A long pyroceram rod, 20 mm in diameter is initially heating element is transfered to the base plate.
at a uniform temperature of 627°C and suddenly Calculate the time required for the base plate to reach
exposed to a fluid at 27°C with h = 100 W/m2.K. 140°C. Is it realistic to assume the plate temperature
Calculate the time required to reach the centreline to be uniform at all times ? [Ans. 52 s]
at 327°C. Take thermophysical properties as : 32. During a picnic on a hot summer day all the cold
ρ = 2600 kg/m3, C = 808 J/kg.K, drinks consumed and only available drinks were those
at the ambient temperature of 40°C. In an effort to
and k = 3.98 W/m.K. [Ans. 84.36 s]
cool a 500 ml drink in a can which is 12.5 cm high
26. In heat treating to harden steel ball bearings (C = and 72 mm in dia, a person grabs the can and start
500 J/kg.K, ρ = 7800 kg/m3, k = 50 W/m.K) initially shaking it in the iced water bath at 0°C. The tem-
at 27°C is desired to increase the surface temperature perature of the drink is assumed to be uniform at all
for a short time without significantly warming the time and the heat transfer coefficient between iced
interior of the ball. This type of heating is obtained water and aluminium can is 170 W/m2.K. Calculate
by sudden immersion in the molten salt bath at the time for the canned drink to cool to 5°C.
1027°C with h = 5000 W/m2.K. Calculate the time
required to reach the surface temperature of 20 mm Take thermophysical properties of cold drink
diameter ball to 727°C. k = 0.6 W/m.K, ρ = 1000 kg/m3, C = 4187 J/kg.K.
27. A sphere, (k = 50 W/m.K, α = 1.5 × 10–6 m2/s), 80 mm [Ans. 31 min.]
in diameter is initially at uniform temperature of 33. In order to get some warm milk for a baby, a mother
800°C. It is suddenly quenched in an oil bath at 50°C pours the milk into a thin walled metal glass, 6 cm in
with h = 1000 W/m2.K. At a certain time, the surface diameter. The height of the milk in the glass is 7 cm.
temperature of the sphere is observed to be 150°C. She then places the glass into a large pan, filled with
What is the corresponding centre temperature of the a hot water at 60°C. The milk is stirred constantly,
sphere ? so that its temperature is uniform throughout. If the
28. An aluminium tube, 20 cm long with inner and heat transfer coefficient between the water and glass
outer radii as 5 cm and 6 cm, respectively, is quenched is 120 W/m2.K, calculate the time for milk to warm
from 500°C to 30°C in a large reservoir of water at up from 3°C to 38°C. Can the milk in this case be
10°C. Below 100°C, the heat transfer coefficient is treated as a lumped system ? Why ?
1500 W/m2.K and above 100°C, its effective mean Take for milk k = 0.56 W/m.K, ρ = 1000 kg/m3,
value is 500 W/m2.K. The thermophysical properties C = 4200 J/kg.K. [Ans. 5.83 min.]
of aluminium are
34. A spherical stainless steel vessel at 93°C contains
ρ = 2700 kg/m3, k = 210 W/m.K, C = 900 J/kg.K.
45 kg of water initially at 93°C. If the entire system
Neglect internal thermal resistance, calculate the is suddenly immersed in an iced water, calculate the
quenching time. [Ans. 50.8 s] time required for the water in the vessel to cool to
29. A 6 mm diameter mild steel rod (k = 54 W/m.K, 16°C and the temperature of the walls of the vessel
ρ = 7800 kg/m3, C = 420 J/kg.K) at 38°C is suddenly at that time. Assume heat transfer coefficients at
immersed in a liquid at 100°C with h = 110 W/m2.K. inner and outer surfaces are 17 W/m2.K and
Calculate the time required for the rod to get 88°C. 22.7 W/m2.K, respectively and wall thickness of
[Ans. 1 min 13 seconds] 25 mm.
30. A 1.4 kg aluminium household iron has 500 W heating 35. The temperature of a gas stream is measured by a
element. The surface area is 0.046 m2. The ambient thermocouple, whose junction can be approximated
air temperature is 21°C with h = 11 W/m2.K. How as a 1 mm diameter sphere. The properties of the
long after the iron is plugged in will its temperature junction are k = 35 W/m.K, ρ = 8500 kg/m3, and
reach 104°C ? C = 320 J/kg.K and the convection heat transfer
Take ρ = 2770 kg/m3, C = 875 J/kg.K, k = 200 W/m.K] coefficient between junction and the gas is
[Ans. 212 s] 210 W/m2.K. Calculate how long will it take for the
thermocouple to approach the temperature within 40. A short brass cylinder [ρ = 8530 kg/m3,
1 per cent of the initial temperature difference. C = 0.389 kJ/(kg.°C), k = 110 W/(m.°C), and
[Ans. 10 s] α = 3.39 × 10–5 m2/s] of diameter D = 8 cm and height
H = 15 cm is initially at a uniform temperature of
36. A 30 cm outer dia 10 m long pipe with a surface
temperature of 90°C carries steam. The pipe is buried
with its centreline at depth of 1 m. The ground surface
is – 6°C and average thermal conductivity of the soil Brass
is 0.7 W/m.K. Calculate the heat loss per day and cylinders Ambient
cost of heat loss, if the steam heat is worth ` 100 per air
106 kJ. Also calculate the thickness of 85% magnesia 15 cm 8 cm 20°C
insulation (k = 0.038 W/m.K) necessary to achieve
the same insulation as provided by the soil with total
Ti = 150°C
heat transfer coefficient of 23 W/m2.K on the outside
of the pipe.
37. In the vulcanization of tires, the carcass is placed into
a jig and steam at 150°C is admitted suddenly to both
Fig. 6.50. Schematic for prob. 40.
sides as shown in Fig. 6.49. If the tire thickness is
2.5 cm, initial temperature 21°C, h = 150 W/m2.K, Ti = 150°C. The cylinder is now placed in atmospheric
ρ = 1100 kg/m3, C = 1650 J/kg.K, k = 0.163 W/m.K. air at 20°C, where heat transfer takes place by
Calculate time required for the centre of the rubber convection with a heat transfer coefficient of h = 40
to reach 132°C. W/(m2.°C). Calculate (a) the centre temperature of
the cylinder, (b) the centre temperature of the top
surface of the cylinder, and (c) the total heat
transferred from the cylinder 15 min after the start
of the cooling.
Steam
Steam [Ans. (a) 85.4°C, (b) 85.4°C, (c) 161.37 kJ]
T = 149°C
T = 149°C 41. A semi infinite aluminium cylinder [k = 237 W/(m.°C),
Tire rubber α = 9.71 × 10–5 m2/s] of diameter D = 15 cm is initially
at a uniform temperature of Ti = 150°C. The cylinder
is now placed in water at 10°C, where heat transfer
Fig. 6.49. Sechematic for prob. 37 takes place by convection with a heat transfer
[Ans. 37.12 min.] coefficient of h = 140 W/(m2.°C). Determine the tem-
perature at the centre of the cylinder, 10 cm from the
38. A person puts a few apples into the freezer at – 15°C to
end surface 8 min after the start of the cooling.
cool them quickly for guests who are about to arrive.
Initially, the apples are at a uniform temperature of 42. A hot dog can be considered to be a cylinder 12 cm
20°C, and the heat transfer coefficient on the surfaces long and 2 cm in diameter whose properties are
is 8 W/(m2.°C). Treating the apples as 9 cm diameter ρ = 980 kg/m3, C = 3.9 kJ/(kg.°C), k = 0.76 W/(m.°C),
spheres and taking their properties to be and α = 2 × 10–7 m2/s. The hot dog initially at 5°C is
ρ = 840 kg/m3, C = 3.6 kJ/(kg.°C), k = 0.513 W/(m.°C), dropped into boiling water at 100°C. If the heat
and α = 1.3 × 10–7 m2/s, determine the centre and surface transfer coefficient at the surface of the hot dog is
temperatures of the apples in 1 h. Also determine the estimated to be 600 W/(m2.°C), determine the centre
amount of heat transferred from each apple. temperature of the hot dog after 5, 10, and 15 min by
39. (a) An aluminium wire, 1 mm in diameter at 200°C treating the hot dog as (a) a finite cylinder and (b) an
is suddenly exposed to an environment at 30°C infinitely long cylinder.
with h = 85.5 W/m2.K. Estimate the time required 43. A hot dog 12.5 cm long, 2.2 cm in diameter was
to cool the wire to 90°C. equipped with two thermocouples, one at the centre
(b) If the same wire were to place in air stream and other just under the skin. The initial temperature
(h = 11.65 W/m2.K). What would be the time indicated by both thermocouples was 20°C, which was
required to reach it to 90°C ? ambient temperature too. The hot dog was then
Take thermophysical properties as suddenly dropped into the boiling water at 94°C. After
C = 900 J/kg.K, ρ = 2700 kg/m3, 2 min, the centre and surface temperatures were
measured to be 59°C and 88°C, respectively. The
k = 204 W/m.K. [Ans. (a) 7.4 s, (b) 54.3 s]
thermophysical properties of the hot dog can be taken
as ρ = 980 kg/m3, C = 3900 J/kg.K. Using transient 46. Long cylindrical stainless steel rods [k = 13.4 W/(m.°C)
temperature charts, calculate (a) thermal diffusivity and α = 3.48 × 10–6 m2/s] of 10 cm diameter are heat
of the hot dog (b) thermal conductivity of hot dog and treated by drawing them at a velocity of 3 m/min
(c) convection heat transfer coefficient. through a 9 m long oven maintained at 900°C. The
[Ans. (a) 2 × 10–7 m2/s, (b) 0.76 W/m.K, (c) 658 W/m2.K] heat transfer coefficient in the oven is 90 W/(m2.C).
If the rods enter the oven at 30°C, determine their
44. In a production facility, 3 cm thick large brass plates
centreline temperature when they leave.
[k = 110 W/(m.°C), ρ = 8530 kg/m3, C = 380 J/(kg.°C)
and α = 33.9 × 10–6 m2/s] that are initially at a uniform 47. In a heat treatment plant, the balls of bearings 10 mm
temperature of 25°C, as shown in Fig. 6.51 are heated in diameter are loaded on a conveyor belt. The
by passing them through an oven maintained at belt passes through a furnace (inside temperature
700°C. The plates remain in the oven for a period of = 1000°C, h = 200 W/m2.K) along its length (L = 3 m).
10 min. Taking the covection heat transfer coefficient If the balls are heated from 30°C to 250°C, such that
to be h = 80 W/(m2.°C), determine the surface the temperature gradients should not exceed 5%, find
temperature of the plates when they come out of the the velocity of the belt required.
oven. Take ρ = 3000 kg/m3, C = 0.5 kJ/kg.K,
Furnace, 700°C k = 50 W/m.K. [Ans. 0.933 m/s]
48. A 2.5 cm thick sheet of plastic initially at 21°C is
placed between two heated steel plates, that are
maintained at 138°C. The plastic is heated just long
enough for its mid plane temperature to reach 130°C.
If thermal conductivity of the plastic is 0.0011 W/m.K,
α = 2.7 × 10–6 m2/s and the thermal contact resistance
3 cm at the interface between plastic and steel is negligible,
calculate, (a) the time required for heating
(b) temperature at the plane 0.6 cm from the steel
plate at the moment the heating is discontinued, and
Brass plate, 25°C (c) the time required for the plastic to reach a
Fig. 6.51 temperature of 130°C, at 0.6 cm from the steel plate.
[Ans. 448.5°C] 49. An egg, 5 cm in mean diameter (k = 0.6 W/m.K,
45. A long 35 cm diameter cylindrical shaft made of ρ = 1000 kg/m3, C = 4170 J/kg.K) is initially at a tem-
stainless steel [k = 14.9 W/(m.°C), ρ = 7900 kg/m3, perature of 4°C. It is dropped in the boiling water at
C = 477 J/(kg.°C), and α = 3.95 × 10–6 m2/s] comes out 100°C for 15 min. The heat transfer coefficient from
of an oven at a uniform temperature of 400°C, water to egg can be assumed to be 1700 W/m2.K. What
Fig. 6.52. The shaft is then allowed to cool slowly in a would be the temperature at the centre of egg at the
chamber at 150°C with an average convection heat end of cooking period ?
transfer coefficient of h = 60 W/(m2.°C). Determine 50. A mild steel (k = 54 W/m.K, ρ = 8000 kg/m3,
the temperature at the centre of the shaft 20 min after C = 410 J/kg.K) cylindrical billet, 25 cm in diameter
the start of the cooling process. Also determine the is to be raised to a minimum temperature of 700°C
heat transferred per unit length of the shaft during by passing it through a 6 m long furnace. If the
this time period. furnace gases are at 1600°C with overall heat
transfer coefficient of 68 W/m2.K. Calculate the
maximum speed at which a continuous billet
Oven entering at 200°C can travel through the furnace.
900°C 51. A 6 cm diameter, steel ball is at uniform temperature
3 m/min of 800°C. It is to be hardened by suddenly dropping it
into an oil bath at a temperature of 50°C with
convection coefficient of 500 W/m2.K. If the quenching
6m occurs when the ball reaches a temperature of 100°C,
Stainless determine how long the ball should be kept in the oil
steel, 30°C bath.
If 100 balls are to be quenched per minute, determine
Fig. 6.52
the rate at which the heat must be removed from the
[Ans. 390°C, 15,680 kJ]
oil bath in order to maintain the bath temperature at REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING
50°C.
Take thermophysical properties as : k = 61 W/m.K, 1. Holman J.P. “Heat Transfer”, 8th edition, McGraw
Hill Eduction, 2010, New Delhi.
ρ = 7850 kg/m3, C = 460 J/kg.K.
2. Incropera F.P. and DeWitt. D.P., “Fundamentals of
[Ans. 3.26 min, 28.588 MJ/min.]
Heat and Mass Transfer”, 5th edition, John Wiley &
52. An aluminium cylinder (k = 210 W/m.K) 50 mm in Sons, 2002.
diameter and 10 cm long is initially at uniform 3. Cenzel Yunus A., “Heat Transfer., A Practical
temperature of 200°C is plunged into a quenching Approach”, 2nd edition, McGraw Hill Education,
bath at 10°C. Take h = 530 W/m2.K, what is the tem- 2003.
perature on centreline of the cylinder after one 4. Cass law H.S. and Jaeger J.C., “Conduction of Heat
minute? [Ans. 61.33°C] in Solids.”, 2nd edition Oxford University Press.
53. A steel cylinder 20 cm diameter is initially heated to London, 1959.
980°C. It is then quenched in an oil bath at 38°C with 5. Heisler M.P., “Temperature Charts for Induction and
convection coefficient of 568 W/m2.K. Calculate the Constant Temperature Heating.”, ASME Transactions
time required for the cylinder centre to reach a 69, 1947.
temperature of 260°C. The properties of steel are : 6. Gröber H, Erk S., and Grigull U., “Fundamentals of
k = 16 W/m.K, ρ = 7816 kg/m3, Heat Transfer” McGraw Hill New York, 1961.
C = 460 J/kg, α = 4.4 × 10–6 m2/s. 7. Schneider P.J., “Conduction Heat Transfer”, Addision-
[Ans. 19.7 s] Wisley, Reading, M.A., 1955.
8. Özisik M.N., “Heat Transfer—A Basic Approach”.,
54. Calculate the total heat transferred from a short McGraw Hill, New York, 1985.
brass cylinder 10 cm in diameter and 12 cm
9. Suryanarayana N.V. “Engineering Heat Transfer”,
long within first fifteen minute of exposure. Take ρ = Penran International Publishing, India, 2008.
8530 kg/m3, C = 380 J/kg.K, k = 110 W/m.K, Ti = 120°C,
10. Kreith Frank and Bohn M.S. “Principles of Heat
T∞ = 25°C, h = 60 W/m2.K, α = 3.39 × 10–5 m2/s. Transfer”, 5th edition, PWS Publishing Company,
[Ans. 85.9 kJ] Boston M.A., 1997.

Transient Heat Conduction

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Transient Heat Conduction

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Transient Heat Conduction 6

When the heat energy is being added or removed to or 4. Product solution,

In absence of any temperature gradient in solid, or P = ln(θi)

dT hA s R|S hA s t FG IJ U|V b°C/sg = Bi Fo GF ...(6.8)

= hAs (Ti – T∞) z R|S|T

Sr. Geometry Schematic Volume Surface Characteristic Equation

Biot Number This criteria indicates that the internal resistance

dimensionless quantity and the quantity G

Then the above equation is changed to

N exposed to convection environment at T∞(< T1). Thus

Fig. 6.7. Transient temperature distributions for different Biot numbers

C = 420 J/kg.K, ρ = 8000 kg/m3,

Solution Ti = 60°C, T∞ = 600°C,

(ii) The time required to reach the temperature

For sphere : Analysis : The characteristic length of the body

= 870 × (– 2.3077 × 1) = 0.2°C/s hδ (8 W/m 2 .K) × (0.0689 m)

T∞ = 20°C, k = 6.08 W/m.K or t = 37,943 s = 10.54 h. Ans.

or ln (0.5) = – 0.001428/D Using eqn. (6.10) for temperature distribution

hδ 250 × 4.7687 × 10 −4 100 − 30

1. Internal temperature gradients are negligible. T1

2. No radiation heat exchange.

is applicable with reasonable accuracy. = 0.9145

The initial temperature for this case would be

To find : Part (b) :

Solution bearing production requires that 75% of initial thermal

Example 6.13. It is proposed to quench the steel balls of = exp −

Example 6.14. A cylindrical stainless steel ingot

Rate of decrease of internal energy = Rate of heat mm 2

FG 200 − 50 IJ = – 3 × 300 × 1.3 × 10 −5

T = 140°C, ρ = 1300 kg/m3, 2kA NT − T Q L c

C = 1.674 kJ/kg.K = 1674 J/kg.K. 2

Example 6.18. A long and wide copper plate of 4.5 cm dT

Introducing a separation constant as Differentiating eqn. (6.35) with respect to x

It can be written as and θL = C1 e −αλ t cos λL

The temperature distribution becomes the αt

For n = 1, at x = L i.e., at outer surface θi

2. The outer surface of the nozzle as insulated, =e

Analysis : The Biot number of wall insulated of

0 0.8 .7 0.6 0.5 0.4 .3

Fig 6.31 (a) Centreline temperature for an infinite plate of thickness 2L

Tc – T¥ 0.6 0.6 x/L

6.3.2. Transient Temperature Charts for Long Cylinder and Sphere

200 300 350

where ro = radius of cylinder or sphere

0.6 0.6 r/ro

Fig. 6.32. (b) Position correction for temperature as a function of centre

Qi = initial internal energy content of the body = ρVC(Ti – T∞), Joules

Fig. 6.33 (b) Position correction for temperature as a function of centre

Solution From Heisler chart Fig. 6.31 (a) for centreline

From the Gröber chart Fig. 6.31(c) for heat

where Qi = initial energy content per unit pipe Assumptions :

Alternatively ρ = 2700 kg/m3, C = 900 J/kg.K, k = 210 W/m.K

From Table B-5 in Appendix,

Example 6.27. A long aluminium cylinder 5.0 cm in

(ii) The physical properties for aluminium T = 70 + 0.98 × (115.5 – 70)

Alternatively Analysis : (A) For copper cylinder :

N 2700 × 900 × 0.0125 Q θc

x Case 2. Constant surface heat flux on semi

and erf (ξ) =

conduction problems such as short cylinder, long Infinite

at T∞ with same heat transfer coefficient h and the body T(x, r, t)

q(r, t) qcyl(r, t) (x, r, t) cyl(r, t) seminf(x, t) (x, r, t) (r, t) wall(x, t)

F QI F QI F QI L F QI OP We will use one term approximate solution for