Groups Notes - by Trockers

GROUPS
Compiled by: Nyasha P. Tarakino (Trockers)
+263772978155/+263717267175
ntarakino@gmail.com
26 APRIL 2020
Tarakino N.P. (Trockers) ~ 0772978155/ 0717267175

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SYLLABUS (6042) REQUIREMENTS
 define a binary operation

 define closure, commutation, association,
distribution, identity and inverse element
 define a group
 use the basic properties to show that a
given structure is, or is not, a group
 solve problems involving binary operations
and properties of a group








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BINARY OPERATION
Definition: Binary operations on the set are calculations that combine two elements of the
set (called operands) to produce another element of the same set.
Algebraic Definition
If G is a nonempty set, a binary operation on is a function
NOTES
o A binary operation is represented by

o Binary operations are:
.
o The properties of a binary operation are: Closure, Commutative, Associative, Identity
Inverse and Distributive.
o A binary operation can be represented on a table called Cayley table/ Latin square
Modular Arithmetic
o It is a form of arithmetic which deals with remainders/residues after integers are divided
by a positive integer.
o Division of an integer by a positive integer produces a quotient and a remainder. These
remainders will lead to modular arithmetic
Definition
o For any integer and positive integer , we write to denote the remainder
when is divided by .

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o If then
So in this case, the answer is the remainder when it is divided by the modulo number e.g.
remainder
o The set of remainders/residues when dividing two integers together ( is called

the residue class [ ] and is denoted i.e.
Worked Problem
Question
Find the value of:

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Suggested Solution
(i)
(ii)

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(iii)
(iv)
Properties of a Binary Operation
A binary operation has the following properties: Closure, Associativity, Distribution,

Commutative, Identity and Inverse.
Property 1: Closure
A set is said to be closed under a binary operation if for any two members from the set,
the result of the binary operation returns a member of the same set.
Algebraically we define closure property as follows: If is a set with elements then
Worked Problems
Question 1
Show that addition is closed under the set of real numbers.

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Suggested Solution
Let and .
This is true for all real numbers addition is closed under the set of real numbers.
Question 2
If and . Is closed under ?
Suggested Solution
Let
Now and one would say it is closed.
NOTE: When attempting these types of questions it is advisable to make use of Cayley table.
If there are no new values in the table then the set is said to be closed under a
binary ( ) operation, otherwise it is not closed.

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How to find the elements of the table?
Remember that
Let .
Now:
Members in blue are not contained in is not closed under
Question 3
If and . Is closed under ?
Suggested Solution
How to find the elements of the table?
Remember that .
Let .
Now:
All values in the table are contained in is closed under

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Property 2: Commutative
A binary operation defined on set of real numbers is commutative if
for all
NB: Common binary operations which are commutative are (i) addition
(ii) multiplication .
Illustration
Worked Problems
Question 1
Is commutative for all ?
Suggested Solution
Since addition and multiplication are commutative then:
Since is commutative.
NB: If a binary operation is commutative and when given a table, the elements must reflect
each other along the leading diagonal (symmetric).

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Question 2
Is the following binary operation commutative?
Suggested Solution
The elements are reflecting along the leading diagonal therefore it is commutative.
Question 3
Is the following binary operation commutative?
Suggested Solution
The elements are not reflecting along the leading diagonal therefore it is not commutative.
Question 4
Given that the Cayley table below represents a Binary operation which is commutative, copy
and complete it.

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Suggested Solution
Members should reflect along the leading diagonal. Therefore the table is given by:
Property 3: Associative
A closed binary operation defined on set of real numbers is associative if
for all
NB: Common binary operations which are associative are (i) addition
(ii) multiplication .
Illustration
Worked Problems
Question 1
If , is associative.
Suggested Solution
and
.
Since is not associative.

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Question 2
If , is associative.
Suggested Solution
.
Since is associative.
Property 4: Distributive
A closed binary operation and are defined on set of real numbers if
: Left Distributive (LD) and
: Right Distributive (RD).
Then the operator is said to be distributive over the operator .
NB: The common binary operation multiplication is distributive over addition .
Illustration
and (LD).
Also
and (RD).
Since both LD and RD hold the operation of multiplication is distributive over addition.
Worked Problem
Question
Given the binary operation and where and . Is the operation
distributive over ?
Suggested Solution
We have to show that and if they agree then it is distributive.
and
Since it is LD

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Also
and
Since it is RD
Since both LD and RD hold the operation distributive over .
Property 5: Identity Element

For a binary operation , if there exist just one unique element such that:
then is called an identity element for the operation
Common Identity Elements

The binary operation addition has an identity element and the binary operation
multiplication has an identity element .
Illustration
For addition,
For multiplication,
Identifying/finding the identity element using a Cayley Table
Identify the elements which match the outer elements i.e. the row that matches the top upper
row in green and the column that matches the outside column in green. The intersection of
the two lines (red) gives the identity element.

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The identity element, .
Finding the identity using a binary definition
Worked Problem
Question
If , where , find the identity element .
Suggested Solution
We know that
Now and replacing we have:
Also
The identity element is .
Property 6: Inverse Element

An element is called an inverse of under the binary operation if:
where is the identity element under the operation

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Common Inverse Elements
For a binary operation addition , where the identity element , the inverse any real
number, say , is the negative of that particular number i.e. –
Illustration
Thus the inverse of is under addition.
ALSO
For a binary operation multiplication where the identity element , the inverse of
any real number, say , is the reciprocal of that particular number i.e. .
Illustration
Thus the inverse of is under multiplication.
NB: does not have an inverse under multiplication.

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Identifying/finding the inverse element using a Cayley Table
To find the inverse identify the cell in every row/column which contains the identity element
and in this case the identity is . Thus the element in the first row is the inverse of the
element in the corresponding first column.
Since thus in our case:
where the elements are .
Thus
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

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Finding the inverse using a binary definition
Worked Problem
Question
If , where , find , the inverse of .
Suggested Solution
NB: We have to find the identity element first.
We know that
Now and replacing we have:

Now:
Let the inverse be .
Since then:

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GROUP
Definition: A group is a non-empty set with a binary operation which satisfies the
following properties: (i) Closure
(ii) Associativity
(iii) Identity
(iv) Inverse
Properties of a Group
o A group has properties which are: Closure, Associativity, Identity and Inverse.
o If the group is Commutative then it is called an Abelian group.
Property 1: Closure
For every elements and in , the result must also lie in i.e
where .
Worked Problem
Question
Given that then suppose , . Show that is closed under
multiplication modulo .
Suggested Solution
Since therefore that is closed under multiplication modulo .

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Property 2: Associative
For every
Worked Problem
Question
Show that , under multiplication modulo is associative.
Suggested Solution
The Cayley table for is given by:
Checking for Associativity:

Let .
LHS
RHS
Since LHS RHS the associative axiom/property holds.
Property 3: Identity element

An element , for all is called an identity element for .
Worked Problem
Question
Find the identity element for , under multiplication modulo

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Suggested Solution
NB: When finding the identity element using the Cayley table find where the elements match
the outer elements i.e. the row that matches the top upper row (in green) and the column
that matches the outside column (in blue). The intersection of that column and row gives
the identity element.
Property 4: Inverse
Every element has its own inverse.
For every in there exists such that .
Worked Problem
Question
Find the inverse element for , under multiplication modulo
Suggested Solution

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NB: When finding the inverse element using the Cayley table first find the identity element.
Now identify the identity element (in blue) for each element. The number or element on
the 1st row of that column or 1st column of that row is the inverse of that element.
The inverse of:
How to show that a given set is a group?
If you are asked to show whether or not something is a group in an exam you must tick off
each of the above criteria one-by-one i.e. it has to satisfy all the above properties. If one of
the properties is not met then it is not a group. Also there must be no duplication of elements
in rows and columns
Special Property: Commutative

A commutative group is called an Abelian group.
Definition: A group is abelian if for all elements .

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NB: When using a Latin Square/ Cayley table, a group is Abelian when it is symmetrical
along the leading diagonal or simply when the elements reflect along the leading
diagonal.
How to observe symmetry along the leading diagonal?
(i) The elements on the leading diagonal are the same
OR
The elements on the leading diagonal are the symmetric
either
or

Page 21
How to identify commutation using the leading diagonal?
The elements are reflecting along the leading diagonal

SUBGROUPS
Definition: If is a nonempty subset of a group , then is a subgroup of if is a

group under the same operation as .
Properties of a Subgroup
If the following three points are met then we say is subgroup
1. is a nonempty subset of a group of

2. is a group itself
3. and use the same binary operation.
Types of Subgroups
1. Trivial subgroup
A subgroup includes the subset containing just the identity set

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2. Improper subgroup
The group itself since is a subset itself.
3. A proper subgroup
It is any subgroup with order not one or the same as the original group.
The order of a group
The order of a group is the number of elements the group contains. If a group contains an
infinite number of elements it is said to be of infinite order.
The order of an Element
The order of an element, say is the smallest positive integer ( ) in which we raise the
element to get the identity element i.e. and it is denoted: . If there is no
such an element then has an infinite order.
Worked Problem
Question
Find all the subgroups for the set , under multiplication modulo .
Suggested Solution

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NB: A subgroup has to satisfy the following properties:
1. is a nonempty subset of a group of
2. is a group itself
3. and use the same binary operation.
For the set , the subgroups are:

(i) the identity - trivial subgroup
(ii) the group itself - improper subgroup
NB: For each proper Subgroup we have to check if the closure property holds since a
subgroup is also a Group under the same binary operation as the main set.
(iii) The proper subgroups are:
a)
There are now new elements it is closed

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b)
c)

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SOLVED PAST EXAMINATION PROBLEMS
Question 1
The set of matrices
under matrix multiplication. Construct its Cayley table/Latin square.

Suggested Solution
The Cayley table for this group is given by:
NB: The elements are obtained as follows:

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Question 2
The set of complex numbers forms a group under complex number
multiplication.
(i) Construct its Cayley table/Latin square.
(ii) Hence show that is a group
(iii)Write down all subgroups of .
Suggested Solution
(i) The Cayley table for this group is given by:

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NB: The elements are determined as follows:
(ii) Checking if it is a group or not

(a) Checking for closure:
There are no new elements in the Cayley table i.e. all values in set are there. Hence
it is closed.
(b) Checking for Associativity
Let
LHS

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RHS
Since LHS RHS the associative axiom holds.
(c) The identity element is .
(d) The inverse of:

o is –
o is (self inverse)
o is (self inverse)
o is
Since all properties hold is a group.
(iii)For the set , the subgroups are:
a. the identity - trivial subgroup
b. the group itself - improper subgroup
c. The only proper subgroup is
There are a new elements it is closed.
Note:
 and are not a proper subgroups because they do not satisfy the
closure

There is a new element it is not closed.

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
Question 3
(i) Show that the set of numbers , under multiplication , does not form a
group.
(ii) The set of numbers , under multiplication , forms a group. Write
down the value of .
Suggested Solution
(i) The Cayley table for this set is given by:
NB: The elements are calculated as follows:
We then write down these remainders in the table.
The leading diagonal contains ’s which are not in the original set. Hence the closure
property does not hold and therefore it does not form a group.

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(ii) The Cayley table for this set is given by:
There is a new element so if the closure property will hold and the set will
form a group.
Question 4
The set S consists of all non-singular real numbers such that , where
(i) Prove that each matrix A must be of the form .
(ii) State clearly the restrictions on the value of such that is in
Suggested Solution
(i) Let and .
Now
Comparing corresponding elements

(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(Matrix conforms to the required form).
(ii) Since is non-singular .

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Question 5
The set S consists of the numbers , where . ( denotes the set of integers
). Prove that the element of S, under multiplication forms a commutative group
G. (You may assume that addition of integers is associative and commutative.)
Suggested Solution
Checking for Closure:
Since it is closed under multiplication
LHS
RHS
Since LHS = RHS it is associative.
The identity element is
The inverse element is
Checking for Commutative:
Let .
LHS

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RHS
Since LHS RHS element of S, under multiplication forms a commutative group G.
OR
Since it is commutative
Since all four group properties hold and it is also commutative it is a commutative group

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Question 6
A group G of order 6 has the combination table shown below.
(i) State, with a reason, whether or not is commutative.

(ii) Write down the inverse of each element
Suggested Solution
(i) It is not commutative because:
 the leading diagonal elements (in red) are not symmetric
 elements are not reflecting along the leading diagonal
 More formally we can use the following:
Commutative property
Let :
LHS:
(in blue)
RHS:
(in green)
Since LHS RHS is not commutative
(ii) The identity element is
NB: To find the identity you look for the intersection of the row which is identical to the
outside row and column which is identical to the outside column.
The inverse of:

 is
 is

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 is
 is (self inverse)
 is (self inverse).
NB: To find the inverse identify the cell in every row/column which contains the identity
element and in this case the identity is . Thus the element in the first row is the
inverse of the element in the corresponding first column.
Question 7
For the group of matrices of the form under matrix addition, where , state the
identity element and the inverse of
Suggested Solution
(i) The identity element is
(ii) The inverse of
Question 8
consists of the set with the operation of multiplication .
Write down the operation table and, assuming Associativity, show that is a group.
Suggested Solution
(i) The Cayley table for is given by:

Page 35
Checking for closure:
Since there no new elements in the Cayley table and all values in set are contained in the
table it is closed.
The associative property holds (from the assumption)
OR
Let ;
LHS
RHS
Since LHS RHS the associative axiom holds.
The inverse of:

Page 36
Question 9
The group G consists of the set combined under multiplication
. Find the inverse of each element.
Suggested Solution
The Cayley table for set G is given by:
The inverse of:

 is
 is
 is
 is

Page 37
Question 10
Elements of the set are combined according to the operation table shown below.
(i) Verify that .

(ii) Assuming that the associative property holds for all elements, prove that the set
, with the operation table shown, forms a group .
Suggested Solution
(i) LHS
.
NB: in red and in green
RHS
.
NB: in blue and in purple
Since LHS = RHS .
(ii) Checking for basic axioms of a group.

Since there no new elements in the Cayley table and all values in set are contained in
the table it is closed.
Checking for Associative:

The associative property holds – check in (i)

Page 38
The inverse of:
 is
 is
Question 11
If is the set of all matrices of the form :{ and },
(i) Prove that forms a group under matrix multiplication.

[Assume matrix multiplication is associative]
(ii) Determine whether is
1. Abelian,
2. closed under matrix addition.
Suggested Solution
If is the set of all matrices of the form :{ and },
(i) Checking for Closure:

Let :{ and }
{ and }
is closed under matrix multiplication
Checking for Association:

is associative (from the assumption)
Checking for Identity:

Page 39
Let the identity element be where { and }
has an identity
Checking for Inverse:
Let the inverse element be where { and }
has an inverse
Alternatively, since the identity is we can find the inverse using the formal
procedure of finding an inverse of a matrix.
Since all four properties/ axioms hold forms a group under matrix multiplication.
(ii) Determining whether is

1. Abelian,
Let :{ and }

Page 40
{ and }
Also
{ and }
Since and is Abelian.
2. closed under matrix addition.

Checking for Closure:
Let :{ and }
{ , } and also conforms to
is closed under matrix addition
Question 12
consists of the set of matrices of the form where and are real and
, combined under operation of matrix multiplication.
(i) Prove that is a group. You may assume that matrix multiplication is associative.
(ii) Determine whether is commutative.
Suggested Solution
(i) consists of the set of matrices of the form
Checking for closure
Let and

Page 41
Now:
Also:
Hence is closed under matrix multiplication
Checking for association

is associative under matrix multiplication (Assumption)
Checking for identity

Let be the identity element of .
Since , is invertible
Checking for inverse

Since is invertible therefore its inverse is given by:
Since all the four properties hold is a group.
(ii) Checking for commutation
Let and
Now:
Also:
Since is commutative under matrix multiplication

Page 42
Question 13
The function is defined by for . The
function g is defined by .
(i) Show that and that .
It is given that are elements of a group under the operation of composition of

functions.
The element is the identity, where for .
(ii) The inverse of the element is denoted by h. Find .

(iii)Construct the operation table for the elements of the group .
Suggested Solution
(i)

Page 43
(ii)
Let
(iii) Constructing the Cayley table:

Page 44
Page 45
Page 46
Question 14
A set has its elements defined using elements of a minute hand of a clock as
follows:
turn of or multiples of minutes

turn of minutes
turn of minutes
turn of minutes
The multiplication rule means “when turn is followed by turn ” the result is
equivalent to a single turn of .
(i) Construct a multiplication table for the elements.

Show that the table forms a group.
(ii) Find the order of each element.
(iii) Write down a subset of which forms a group on its own.
Suggested Solution
(i) The multiplication table is given by:
Elements are calculated as follows:

turn of or multiples of minutes
turn of minutes
turn of minutes
turn of minutes

Page 47
Checking for basic axioms of a group
Since there no new elements in the Cayley table and all values in set are contained in
the table it is closed.
Checking for Associative:
LHS
.
RHS
.

Page 48
Since LHS RHS it is associative
The inverse of:
 is
 is .
(ii) The multiplication table is given by:
The order of an element, say is the smallest positive integer ( ) in which we raise the
element to get the identity element i.e. and it is denoted . If there is
no such an element then has an infinite order.
REMEMBER that turn of or multiples of minutes
Powers of will never give a multiple of
Since is a multiple of

Page 49
Powers of will never give a multiple of
(iii)For the set , the subgroups are:
a. the identity - trivial subgroup
b. the group itself - improper subgroup
c. The only proper subgroup is
There are a new elements it is closed.
Note:
 and are not a proper subgroups because they do not satisfy the
closure

Page 50

The subset of which forms a group on its own is any subgroup of i.e. or or

Page 51
Past Examination Questions
Question 1
Given that under addition .
a) Show that
i. forms a group,
ii. is an Abelian group.
b) Find all subgroups of
Question 2
(i) The operation is defined by , where and are real numbers and
is a real constant.
(a) Prove that the set of real numbers, together with the operation , forms a group.
(b) State with a reason, whether the group is commutative.
(ii) The operation by , where and are positive real numbers. By giving
a numerical example in each case, show that two of the basic groups properties are not
necessarily satisfied.
Question 3
(i) on ,a set of rational numbers. Is commutative?
(ii) If and , find .
(iii) Find the values of such that if .
Question 4
The set M consists of the six matrices , where . It is given that
forms a group under matrix multiplication, with numerical addition and

multiplication both being carried out .

Page 52
(i) Determine whether is a commutative group, justifying your answer.
(ii) Write down the identity element of the group and find the inverse of
Question 5
Find all Latin squares of side in standard form with respect to the sequence . For
each square found determine whether or not it is the multiplication table of a group.
Question 6
The set of polynomials , where and , is denoted by . Assuming the
Associativity property holds, prove that , under addition, is a group.
Question 7
Show that the Latin square given above is not the multiplication table of a group.
Question 8
Groups A, B, C and D are defined as follows:
A: The set under multiplication modulo .
B: The set under multiplication modulo .
C: The set under multiplication modulo .
D: The set under multiplication.

Page 53
(i) Write the identity element for each of groups A, B, C and D
(ii) Prove the closure property for D
(iii) Elements of the set are combined under
addition. State which of the four basics group properties are not satisfied.
(Justification is not required.)
Question 9
consist of the set of matrices of the form , where and are real and
, combined under the operation of matrix multiplication.

(i) Prove that is a group. You may assume that the matrix is associative.
(ii) Determine whether is commutative.
Question 10
Given that .
(a) Show that
(i) is a group under multiplication modulo .
(ii) is an abelian group.
(b) Find all subgroups of .
Question 11
(i) If , where , addition . Determine whether forms a
group or not.
(ii) Find the value of
(a) .
(b)
(iii) If , evaluate .

Page 54
Question 12
(a) Is the binary operation closed on .
(b) If where , find the identity element .
(c) Show that does not form a group under multiplication .
Question 13
Consider the set of all matrices of the form , where is a non-zero rational
number. Show that , under operation of matrix multiplication, forms a group, (You may
assume that matrix multiplication is associative).
Question 14
A group has distinct elements , where is the identity element and is the
binary operation.
(i) Prove that if and , the set of elements forms a subgroup

of .
(ii) Prove that if , and , the set elements does not
form a subgroup of .
Question 15
The group consists of the set combined under
multiplication modulo . Find the inverse of each element.
Question 16
If , where , multiplication . Show that is not a group.

Page 55
ZIMSEC PAST EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
Question 1
ZIMSEC SPECIMEN NOVEMBER 2018 PAPER 2
Let be the set of matrices of the form where .
Show that
(i) does not form a group under matrix addition. [4]

(ii) forms an Abelian group under matrix multiplication. [6]
[Assume associativity.]
Question 2
ZIMSEC NOVEMBER 2018 PAPER 2
a)(i) Show that the set of integers
under multiplication forms a group. [7]
(ii) Write down any three subgroups. [3]
b) The set under the operation of composition of functions forms a group H,

where
Show the operation table for . [6]

Page 56
Question 3
ZIMSEC JUNE 2019 PAPER 2
Show that the set forms a group under multiplication. [6]
Question 4
ZIMSEC NOVEMBER 2019 PAPER 2
(i) If is a set of all matrices of the form where , show that forms
a group under addition of matrices. [7]

(ii) Verify if the set forms a group under addition modulo . [9]

Page 57
ASANTE SANA

Page 58
*******DONT BE SATISFIED BY MEDIOCRE WHILST EXCELLENCE
IS THERE*******
CONSTRUCTIVE COMMENTS ON THE FORM

OF THE PRESENTATION, INCLUDING ANY
OMISSIONS OR ERRORS, ARE WELCOME.
***ENJOY***
Nyasha P. Tarakino (Trockers)
+263772978155/+263717267175
ntarakino@gmail.com

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GROUPS

Compiled by: Nyasha P. Tarakino (Trockers)

Tarakino N.P. (Trockers) ~ 0772978155/ 0717267175

 define a binary operation

Tarakino N.P. (Trockers) ~ 0772978155/ 0717267175

o A binary operation is represented by

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o The set of remainders/residues when dividing two integers together ( is called

Find the value of:

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Properties of a Binary Operation

A binary operation has the following properties: Closure, Associativity, Distribution,

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Now and one would say it is closed.

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Members in blue are not contained in is not closed under

If and . Is closed under ?

How to find the elements of the table?

All values in the table are contained in is closed under

Tarakino N.P. (Trockers) ~ 0772978155/ 0717267175

Since addition and multiplication are commutative then:

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Since both LD and RD hold the operation distributive over .

Property 5: Identity Element

then is called an identity element for the operation

Common Identity Elements

Identifying/finding the identity element using a Cayley Table

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Finding the identity using a binary definition

The identity element is .

Property 6: Inverse Element

where is the identity element under the operation

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Thus the inverse of is under addition.

Thus the inverse of is under multiplication.

NB: does not have an inverse under multiplication.

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Since thus in our case:

where the elements are .

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The identity element is .

Tarakino N.P. (Trockers) ~ 0772978155/ 0717267175

Since therefore that is closed under multiplication modulo .

Tarakino N.P. (Trockers) ~ 0772978155/ 0717267175

Checking for Associativity:

Since LHS RHS the associative axiom/property holds.

Property 3: Identity element

Tarakino N.P. (Trockers) ~ 0772978155/ 0717267175

The identity element is .

Tarakino N.P. (Trockers) ~ 0772978155/ 0717267175

The inverse of:

How to show that a given set is a group?

Special Property: Commutative

Definition: A group is abelian if for all elements .

Tarakino N.P. (Trockers) ~ 0772978155/ 0717267175

How to observe symmetry along the leading diagonal?

(i) The elements on the leading diagonal are the same

Tarakino N.P. (Trockers) ~ 0772978155/ 0717267175

The elements are reflecting along the leading diagonal

Definition: If is a nonempty subset of a group , then is a subgroup of if is a

If the following three points are met then we say is subgroup