Applied Maths I PDF

Applied Mathematics I DMU
CHAPTER ONE
REVISION OF FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS
Function: Let A and B are two non-empty sets. Then a relation from to is called from to
is denoted by iff
i. Domain of = and range of
ii. No element of A is mapped by to more than one element in B.
i.e., if and (x, z) then y = z
The set is the of and the set denoted by for some

is called the of the function
If , we say that is
Domain of is pre-image of under and is the of under
Examples
i. for is a function.
If , we say that is the value of at , and we write
Since x is allowed to assume arbitrary values in the domain of , we called an variable

and we say that y depends on x so that y is called the variable.
ii. F = {(1,2), (2,3), (1,5)}, F is not a function because (1,2) F and (1,5) F but 2 5.
iii. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {1, 2, 7} then {(1,2),(2,2),(3,1),(5,7)} is not a function since domain of
i.e., there exist no such that
iv. F = {(0,0), (1,1), (2,2), (3,8), (4,0), (-1,0), (3,0)} is a not function since (4,0) F and (3,0) F such that
second coordinates are identical.
v. Sketch the graph of a function
vi. Sketch the graph of the function
Yetwale Hailu[MSc] Page 1

Solution: The equation of the graph is , it shows the equation of the line with slope 2 and y-
intercept -1. We can draw the graph by using the above information.
vii. Sketch the graph of

Solution: we first observe that is defined when so the domain of is
. Then we plot the points given by the following table and use them to sketch the
graph of the following.
X -2 -1 0 1 2 3
0 1 2
Vertical line test:A curve in the xy-plane is the graph of a function of x if and only if the vertical line
intersects the curve at exactly one point.
Examples
In the following figures is a function since the vertical line intersect the curve exactly at one point. But
and are not functions since the vertical line intersect the curve at more than one point.

Symmetry
Let , then we say that S is a symmetric set if and only if whenever
Examples
The following sets are symmetric sets.
i. The set of Integers

ii. The set of real numbers
iii. [-2,2], [-4,4], and [- are symmetric sets
The following are not symmetric sets
i. The set of positive integers

ii. [-2,1], [-3,5], and [1, ] are not symmetric sets.
Even function
A function is said to be an even function if and only if
Odd function
A function is said to be an odd function if and only if
Examples
Determine whether each function is odd, even or neither of both.
i.
ii.
iii.

Solutions
i. , then then it is an odd function.

ii. , then not even
not odd. Therefore g(x) is neither even nor odd.
iii. then . Therefore it is an even function (also constant function). So
every constant function is an even function.
Note: i. A function whose graph is symmetrical with respect to y-axis is an even function.
ii. A function whose graph is symmetrical with respect to origin is an odd function.
Example
Which of the following graphs are even or odd?
Solution: Graph (a) is an odd function since it is symmetric with respect to origin.
Graph (b) is an even function since it is symmetric with respect to y-axis.
Graph (c) is symmetric neither about the y-axis nor about the origin. So it is neither even nor odd.
Types of functions
One-to-one function: A function is said to be one-to-one if and only if the different elements in the
domain have distinct images. In other words a function is said to be one-to-one if and only if
whenever , for .

Example
Show that is a one-to-one function.
Solution
Suppose are real numbers such that and
which contradicts the statement
. Hence whenever .
Therefore is one-to-one.
Horizontal line test: A function is one-to-one if no horizontal straight line intersects its graph in more than
one point.Conversely, if the graph of a function is intersected by a horizontal line at one point, then the
function is one-to-one.
Example: Which of the following graphs are one-to-one?
Solution: In the first figure, the horizontal line intersects the graph at two points then it is not one-to-one
function.
In the second figure, the horizontal line intersects the graph exactly one point then it is one-to-one function.
Onto function
A function is said to be an onto function if and only if there is such that In

other words a function is said to be onto function if and only if the range of is B.

Example
Show that a function defined by is onto.
Solution
Let range of such that for domain of
Since is real, is also real.
Now
So every real number has a pre-image in R. Hence, the range of is R. Therefore is onto function.
One-to-one correspondence
Suppose If is both one-to-one and onto function then we say that is one-to-one
correspondence.
Example
Show that a function defined by is one-to-one correspondence.
Solution
(i) Let . Hence,
Therefore is one-to-one.
(ii) Let where
is real, since is real.

Now .
So every real number has a pre-image in R. Hence, the range of is R. Therefore, is onto.
The function is one-to-one and onto, therefore it is a one-to-one correspondence.
Identity function
A function is said to be an identity function if . Identity function denoted by .
Example
Suppose is an Identity function where A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
Increasing function and Decreasing function
Let the interval I be contained in the domain of the function . Then,
i. is increasing on I if for every two numbers and in I whenever ,

.
ii. is decreasing on I if for every two numbers and in I whenever ,
.
iii. is constant on I if for every two numbers and in I whenever ,
.
Example: We can see the examples of Increasing, decreasing and constant functions in the following figure.
Composite function
Suppose and , then the composite function of and written as by

Example
Suppose and where A = {a, b, c, d}, B = {1, 2, 3, 4}, and C = {2, 6, 8, 7} then
Find (gof)(x).
Solution
Here (gof)(x) = {(a, 2), (b, 6), (c, 8), (d, 7)},
Example: Given and then Find
Solution
i.
ii.
Absolute value Functions

Introduction: As you know distance whose value is non-negative is a very important concept. In this section
we will discuss about a concept known as absolute value, which is related to distance, along with techniques
of solving inequalities and equations involving absolute values. Moreover we will discuss about functions.
Definition 5: The absolute value of a real number a denoted by | a |, is a measure of the size (or magnitude) of
a , regardless of its sign, and is defined by

|a| =
Example |3|=3, |-2.5|=2.5, |0|=0.

Remark: For any real number a , | a | ≥ 0.
Theorem : For any real number a , = | a|

Proof: For any real number a , a 2 = (+ a ) 2 =(- a ) 2 , the number + a and – a are square roots of a 2.
If a ≥ 0, then + a is the nonnegative square root of a 2, and if a < 0, then - a is the nonnegative square root of
a 2 . Since a2 denote the nonnegative square root of a 2, we have
= a if a 0.
= -a if a < 0, thus by definition of absolute value we have = | a|

Theorem : If a and b are real numbers, then
a) |- a | = | a |
b) | a b| = | a | |b|
c) | | = ,b
Proof: a) By theorem 2.2, |- a | = (−a)2 = a2 = |a |

b) |a b| = (ab)2 = a2 b2 = a2 b2 =| a ||b|
c) | | = = = =
Activity 1: For any positive integer n, show that| |=| || || |…..| | in particular | a n |=| a |n
The distance d between points x1 and x2 on the real line is given by d= |x2 -x1 |=|x1 -x2 |
Thus for k>0 |x-a| < k means x is within k units of a.
Equivalently, a – k < x < a + k ⇔–k < x – a < k
And
|x-a|>k means x is more than k units away from a
Equivalently,
x < a - k or x > a + k
⇔ x–a <-k or x – a > k
Theorem : If a is any real number, then -|a| ≤ a ≤ |a|
Proof (i) If a ≥ 0, then we can write –a ≤ a ≤ a, from which it follows that-|a| ≤ a ≤ |a|.
(ii) If a < 0, we can write a ≤ a ≤ -a and –a = |a| or a =-|a|,

or equivalently -|a| ≤ a ≤ |a|
From results (i) and (ii) it follows that, -|a|≤ a ≤ |a|, which completes the proof.
Theorem : If a and b are any two real numbers, then
i) |a + b|<|a|+|b| (Triangle inequality)
ii) ||a|-|b||≤|a-b|
Proof: i) From theorem 1.4, -|a|≤ a ≤|a| and -|b|≤ b ≤| b|
Adding these inequalities, we obtain
-(|a|+|b|)≤ a+b ≤ (|a|+|b|)………(*)
If a + b > 0, then a + b = |a + b|. Hence the right hand side inequality of the
inequality (*) becomes
|a + b| ≤ |a| + |b|………(1)
If a + b <0, then a + b =-|a + b|. This and the left hand side inequality of (*) yields
-(|a|+|b|) ≤ -|a + b|, and multiplying both side of this inequality by -1 ,
we obtain
|a| + |b|>| a + b|………(2)
From (1) and (2) we can generalize for any two real numbers a and b that,
|a + b|≤ |a| + |b|
Proof: (ii) By triangle inequality,
|(a - b) + b|| ≤ |a - b| + |b| ⇔|a| ≤ |a - b| + |b|
⇔ |a| - |b|≤|a - b|………(*)

And
|(b-a)+a|≤| b - a| + |a|⇔ |b| ≤ |b - a| + |a|
⇔|b|-|a| ≤ |b - a|=|a - b|……(**)
It is known that ||a|-|b|| is the larger of –(|a|-|b|) and (|a|-|b|)
Thus, from (*) and (**) and the above reason, we obtain
||a|-|b||≤|a – b| which completes the proof.
Activities 2: Solve for x and express the solution as intervals if possible.
a) |5x-2|=|3+2x| c) 2 ≤ | x + 1| ≤ 5
b) . d) |x+1|=3x-5

c) - 6|x + 2|=16
3: Prove that if |x +1| < 3, then |x + 3| < 5
CHAPTER TWO
VECTORS AND VECTOR SPACES
2.1. VECTORS
Certain Physical quantities such as mass, area, density, volume, etc., that possess only magnitude are called
scalars. On the other hand, there are physical quantities such as force, displacement, velocity, acceleration,
etc that has both magnitude and direction. Such quantities are called vectors.
The concept of a vector is essential for the whole course. It provides the foundation and geometric motivation
for everything that follows. Hence the properties of vectors, both algebraic and geometric, will be discussed
in this unit.
Definition of Points in n-space
We know that, once a unit length is selected, a number x can be used to represent a point on a line. A pair of
numbers (i.e. a couple of numbers) (x, y) can be used to represent a point in the plane. A triple of numbers (x,
y, z) can be used to represent a point in space. The following pictures illustrate these representations:
We can say that a single number represents a point in 1-space (A), a couple represents a point in 2-space (B)
and a triple represents a point in 3-space (C).

Although we cannot draw a picture to go further, we can say that a quadruple of numbers (x, y z, w) or (x1 , x2 ,
x3 , x4 ) represent a point in 4-sapce.
Activity : Define a point in n-space, where n is a positive integer.
The set of all points in n-space is represented by  n . For the point X in  n , represented by n-tuple of real
numbers (x1 , x2 , …, xn ), the numbers x1 , x2;…, xn are called the coordinates of X.
Example: The space we live in can be considered as a 3 space. After selecting an origin and a coordinate
system, we can describe the position of a point (body, particle, etc.) by 3 coordinates. We can extend this
space to a 4 dimensional space, with a fourth coordinate, for example, time. If you select the origin of the time
axis as the birth of Christ, how do we describe a body with negative time co-ordinate? What if the birth of the
earth is taken as the origin of time?
If A = (a1 , a2 , ., an ) and B = (b1 , b2 , …, bn ) are points in the same space  n , and if c is a real number then
i. A and B are equal (or represent the same point) if a 1 = b1 , a2 = b2 , … and an = bn .

ii. A + B, A – B and cA are defined to the points whose coordinates are (a 1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , …, an + bn ),
(a1 -b1 , a2-b2 , …,an - bn ) and (ca1 , ca2 , …, can ), respectively.
Example 1) Let A = (1,2), B = (-3,4) , then A+B=(-2,6), A-B = (4,-2), -3A=(-3,-6)
2) Let X = (1, 0, π, 4), Y = (2, 4,-2π,-6), then 2X+Y = (4, 4, 0, 2) and X-(1/2) Y = (0,-2, 2π, 7).
Vectors in n-space, Geometric interpretation in 2 and 3- spaces

Every pair of distinct points A and B in  n determines a directed line segment with initial point at A and
terminal point at B. We call such a directed line segment a vector and denote it by AB . The length of the line
segment is the magnitude of the vector. Although AA has zero length, and strictly speaking, no direction, it
is convenient to view it as a vector. It is called a zero or a null vector. It is often denoted by O .
Two vectors AB and CD will be considered to be equal (or equivalence), AB = CD , if they have the same
magnitude and direction.
Notice that the definition of equality of two vectors does not require that the vectors have the same initial and
terminal points. Rather it suggests that we can move vectors freely provided we make no change in magnitude
and direction.

Activity
Let (a1, a2 ) be the coordinate representation of A and let (b 1 , b2 ) be that of B.
Let P be the point (b1 -a1 , b2 –a2 ). If O is the origin, is OP in the direction
of AB ?
Is length of OP equal to the length of AB ?
Is OP = AB ?
If your answer for the above questions is yes, then we can conclude that any vector V= AB in the plane is a
vector OP with initial point at the origin. This is the only vector whose initial point is the origin and P = B –
A, which is equal to AB . Moreover,V = OP is uniquely determined by its terminal point P . If P = (x, y), then
we shall write V = (x, y) and refer to it as the coordinate representation of V relative to the chosen coordinate
system. In view of this, we shall call (x, y) either a point or a vector, depending on the interpretation which
we have in mind. So if V = AB , then we can write V = B – A. In view of this two vectors AB and CD
are equal (or equivalence) if B – A = D – C.
Example : If P = (1, 3), Q = (-1,0), R = (0, -1) and S = (-2, -4) then QP  RS
As numbers can be added subtracted and multiplies, vectors can be combined in the following ways.
Let A = (a1 , a2 ) and B = (b1 , b2 ) vectors and t be a real number. The sum
A + B = (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 )
The difference A – B = (a1 - b1 , a2 – b2 )

The scalar multiple tA = (t a1 , t a2 )
The geometric interpretation of the above vector operations is that A + B is a vector obtained by placing the
initial point of B on the terminal point of A.
If t > 0, then tA is a vector in the direction of A. What about if t < 0? A and tA are said to have opposite
direction.( see figure a and b)
tA

for t > 0 Fig. a for t < 0 Fig. b
We can extend the above notions to vectors in n but the geometric interpretations for n > 3 are difficult.
Hence we focus on algebraic aspects of vectors.
If A = (a1 , a2 , …, an ) and B = (b1 , b2 , …, bn ) are vectors in  n and if t is any real number, then
A  B  a1  b1 , a 2  b2 ,.., a n  bn 
tA = (ta1 , ta2 , …, tan )
A and B are said to be parallel vectors iff either A = tB for some real number t or B = tA. In other
words, A and B are parallel iff one is a scalar multiple of the other.
Using the arrow notation PQ and RS are parallel if and only if

Q – P = t(S – R) or S – R = t(Q – P) for some real number t.
Activity
1) Let A = (6, -2, 4). Find two vectors C and D which are parallel to A. Are C and D also parallel to each
other?
2) Let P = (3,7), Q = (-4,2), R = (5,1), S = (-16,-14). Is PQ parallel to RS ?

Using the above definitions and applying the associative and commutative properties of real numbers, one can
prove the following theorem.
Theorem: Let A, B and C be any members of  , and let m and n be any real numbers. Then
n
a) m(nA)  (mn) A Associativity

b) (A  B)  C  A  (B  C)
c) A  B  B  A Commutativity
d) (m  n) A  mA  nA
Distributive property
e) m( A  B)  mA  mB
f) 0.A  O
g) A  O  A
Proof c) A  B  (a1 , a 2 ,..., a n )  (b1 , b 2 ,..., b n )
= (a1  b1 , a 2  b 2 ,..., an  bn )
= (b1  a1 , b 2  a 2 ,..., bn  an )
= (b1 , b 2 , ..., b n )  (a1 , a 2 ,..., a n )

= BA
Example:
A boat captain wants to travel due south at 40 nots.If the current is moving northwest
at 16 knots, in what direction and magnitude should he works the engine?
Solution: we have u = v + w where u corresponds to the engine’s vector and w
corresponds to the velocity of the current. We have u = -40j and w =  8 2 i + 8 2 j
Hence v = u – w = -40j – (  8 2 i + 8 2 j) = 8 2 i – (40 + 8 2 )j. The magnitude is
(8 2) 2  (40  8 2 ) 2 = 52.5.
 40  8 2 
The direction is arctan    = -1.35 radians

 8 2 
Exercise :
1. Given three vectors A = (1, 1, 1), B = (-1, 2, 3) and C = (0, 3, 4), find
a. A+B c. A+B – C
b. 2A – B d. A – 3B + 10C
2. Determine whether  and  can be found to satisfy the vector equations
a. (2, 1, 0) =  (-2, 0, 2) +  (1, 1, 1). b. (-3, 1, 2) =  (-2, 0, 2) +  (1,1,1)
The Distance Formula

The distance formula is derived from the three dimensional version of the Pythagorean theorem, which is
displayed below:
The distance between two points (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and (x2 , y2 , z2 ) is given by:
D  ( x2  x1 ) 2  ( y 2  y1 ) 2  ( z 2  z1 ) 2
Scalar product and norm of vector, orthogonal projection, and direction cosines
Let A = (a1 , a2 ,…,an ) and B = (b1 , b2 , …, bn ) be two vectors. The scalar product of A and B is the number
A.B defined by
A.B  a1b1  a 2b 2  ...  anbn
Note: The scalar product is also called a dot product or inne r product.
Example
1) Given A = (3, -1) and B = (2, 3), then A.B = 3
2) i.j  O , where i = (1,0,0) and j = (0,1,0).
The scalar product satisfies many of the laws that hold for real numbers. The basic ones are:
a) A.B  B.A
b) t(A.B)  (tA).B  A.(tB)
c) (A  B).C  A.C  B.C
d) If A  O is the zero vector, then A.A  0 , and otherwise A.A  0
Activity : Proof the above properties.
Example : Given A = (3, 2,-1) and B = (2,0, 3), and C = (1,-1,1), then
a. A.B = B.A = 3
b. 2(A.B) = 6
c. (A+B).C = A.C + B.C = 5
Activity: Find A.A, B.B, and C.C. Are all positive values?
Exercise : Given the vectors A = (1,-1,2), B = (-2,0,2), C = (3,2,1). Evaluate
a. A.C b. B.C c. (A + B).C d. A.(2B + 3C) e. (A.B)C
The length, or norm or magnitude of vector A = (a1 , a2 , …, an ), denoted by ||A||, can be expressed in
terms of the scalar product. By definition

 a12  a 22  ...  an2

2
A
and A.A  (a1 , a2 ,..., an ).(a1 , a2 ..., an )  a12  a22  ...  an2
Thus, the norm of the vector A is the number:
||A|| = a12  a 22  ...  an2
Example : If A = (-1, 2, 3) then A  1  4  9  14
Note: 1. A unit vector is a vector having norm or length 1.
2. A  0 A0
 1 1 1 
Example: If A   , ,  , then A  (1 / 3)  (1 / 3)  (1 / 3)  1
 3 3 3
Any non-zero vector can be fully represented by providing its magnitude and a unit vector along its

direction. Let A be a unit vector in the direction of A. Then
 A
A
A
Example: Given a vector A = (1, 1, 1). Find a unit vector in the direction of A.
Solution:
A  1  1  1  3 , then the unit vector in the direction of A is:
 A (1,1,1)  1 1 1  1
A    , ,   (1,1,1)
A 3  3 3 3 3
Activity 1. Given three vectors A = (1, 1, 1), B = (-1, 2, 3) and C = (0, 3, 4), find the unit vector in the
direction of A+B – C.
2. The vectors i (1, 0, 0), j = (0, 1, 0) and k = (0, 0, 1) are unit vectors in the direction of
positive x, y and z axis, respectively. Find a unit vector in the direction of A = (-1, 2, 3).
Let A, B be two n-tuples of vectors. We define the distance between A and B to be
A  B  ( A  B).( A  B)

Note: Let A be any vector and x   , then A   A and xA  x A
The following theorem gives us a geometric interpretation for the scalar product.
Theorem: Let A  (a1 , a 2 , a 3 ) and B  (b1 , b 2 , b 3 ) be non-zero vectors and let  be the angle between
A and B (0    ) . Then A.B  A B cos 
Proof: Consider a triangle formed by A, B and A  B
A  B  A  B  2 A B cos 
2 2 2
(Why?)
 ( a1  b1 )2  ( a 2  b2 )2  ( a3  b3 )2  a12  a 22  a32  b12  b22  b32  2 A B cos  After
cancellation, we get, a1b1  a 2b 2  a3b 3  A B cos 
 A.B  A B cos 
Activity: Given two non-zero vectors A and B, how do you find the angle between them? Take, for
example, A = (2, -1, 2), B = (1, -1, 0) and find the angle between them.

Two non- zero vectors are said to be orthogonal (Perpendicular) if the angle between them is .
2
Note: Two non-zero vectors A and B are said to be orthogonal (Perpendicular) if A.B= 0.
Activity: 1. Which of the following pairs of vectors are perpendicular?
a.(1,-1,1), and (2,1,5) b.(-5,2,7), and (3,-1,2) c.(1,-1,1), and (2,3,1) d. (  ,2,1), and (2,-  ,0)
2. Suppose A.B = A.C, what can you deduce about A, B and C?
Exercise : 1. Show that A  B  A  B if and only if A.B=0.
2. Let A1 , A2 , …, Ar be non- zero vectors such that Ai.Aj = o if i  j .

Let c1 , c2 , …., cr be numbers such that c1 A1 + c2 A2 +…..+ crAr = 0.

Show that ci = 0 for all i = 1,2, 3, …, r.
The following are two of the important inequalities
Theorem : Let A and B be vectors. Then
a) A.B  A B (Schwarz inequality)
b) A  B  A  B (Triangle inequality)
Proof a) If one of A or B is a zero vector then both sides of the inequality are equal to 0.
Suppose both A and B are non-zero.
From A.B  A B cos  ,
A.B  A B | cos  | which implies A.B  A B (Why?)
 V.V ,
2
b) From the fact that V
AB  ( A  B) . ( A  B)
2
 A.A  2 A.B  B.B

 A  2A.B  B
2 2
 A  2 A.B  B
2 2
(why ?)
 A 2 A B  B
2 2
(why ?)
 A  B 
2
By taking the square roots,
AB  A  B
Remark: The inequalities of Theorem 1.3.2 hold true also for any vectors A and B in Rn .
We now define the component of a vector in the direction of another vector.
Let A and B be two non-zero vectors.
Let  be the angle between them.

From the terminal point of B drop a perpendicular to the line containing A.
The vector has magnitude OD  B cos  , 0     , and its direction is either the same as that
of A or opposite to it depending on whether  is acute or obtuse.
1
Since A is a unit vector in the direction of A and since OD has magnitude B cos  and is in the
A
direction of A or opposite to A, we can write
OD   B cos  1
A
A
 A.B 
or OD   A (why?)
 A2
 
This vector is called the projection of B along A and is denoted by Proj A B .
 A.B 
That is, Pr oj AB   2  A
 A 
 
A.B
We call t  2
the component of B along A.
A
Note: 1. Pr oj AB is parallel to A. That is Pr oj AB  tA , for some t  
2. B - Pr oj AB is orthogonal (perpendicular) to A.
 1
Example: Let A = (3, -1, -2) and B =  2,  3,  , then
 2
 
Proj A B =  A.B2 A   6  3  1 A   12 ,  4 ,  8 
   9 1 4  7 7 7 
 A 
 
   
Proj B A =  A.B   6  3  1  B   64 ,  96 , 16 
 B 
2   1   53 53 53 
 B  49 
 4

Activity: One application of projections of vector arises in the definition of the work done by a force on a
moving body. Find another application.
Given a non- zero vector u  (u1 , u 2 , u3 ) in  3 . The direction cosines of the vector u are:
u1 u u
Cos  , Cos  2 , Cos  3
u u u
Where the direction angles,  ,  , and  are the angles that the vector makes with the positive x, y, and z-
axes respectively.
Remark: Cos 2  Cos 2   Cos 2  1
Example: Let u = (1, -2, 3). Find the direction cosines of u.
Solution: Since u  u.u  (1,2,3).(1,2,3)  1  4  9  14
Thus the direction cosines are: Cos  u1  1 , Cos  u 2   2 , and Cos  u 3  3

u 14 u 14 u 14
Activity: Is Cos 2  Cos 2   Cos 2  1?
The Vector product
The second type of product of two vectors is the cross product. Unlike the dot product, the cross product
of two vectors is a vector.
Definition: The cross product (or vector product) A x B of two vectors A = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) and B = (b1 , b2 , b3)
is defined by A x B = (a2 b3 – a3 b2 , a3 b1 – a1 b3 , a1 b2 - a2 b1 )
Note that the cross product is defined in 

3
Example: Let A = (2, -1, 3) and B = (-1, -2, 4)
A x B = (-4 + 6, -3 – 8, -4 –1) = (2, -11, -5)
Activity: Find B x A.

The following are some of the basic properties of cross product
Theorem : For vectors A, B and C,
1) A x B = -(B x A)
2) A x A = O
3) tA x B = t(A x B) = A x (tB), t 
AxB  A B  A.B
2 2 2 2
4)
5) C. (A x B) = B. (C x A) = A. (B x C)
6) (A + B) x C = (A x C) + (B x C)
7) C x (A + B) = (C x A) + (C x B)
8) A . (A x B) = 0 and B. (A x B) = 0 (that is, AxB is perpendicular to both A and B.)
9) (AxB) x C = (A. C) B – (B.C)A
Proof : The following is the proof for 1, 2 and 8. The rest are left as an exercise
1) From the definition of cross product,

A x B = (a2 b3 – a3 b2 , a3 b1 – a1 b3 , a1 b2 – a2 b1 )
For B x A, interchange A and B to obtain
B x A = (b2 a3 – b3 a2 , b3 a1 - b1 a3 , b1 a2 - b2 a1 )
= (a2 b3 – a3 b2 , a3 b1 - a1 b3 , a1 b2 - a2 b1 )
= - (A x B)
2) A x A = (a2 a3 – a3 a2 , a3 a1 - a1 a3 , a1 a2 - a2 a1 )
= (0, 0, 0)
8) Setting C = A in 5) yields
A . (A x B) = B . (A x A)
= B.0 (why?)
=0

By setting C = B in 5),
B .(A x B) = A . (B x B)
= A.0=0
This shows that for non zero vectors A and B, the cross product A x B is orthogonal to both A and B.
Activity: Are the usual commutative and associative laws valid? i.e. for any vectors A, B and C in 3 , is
A x B = B x A?
Is A x (B x C) = (A x B) x C?
Exercise: Let A = (2,1,0), B = (2,-1,1) and C = (0,1,1). Find
a. AxB b. (AxB)xC c. (A.C)B – (B.C)A d. BxC e. Ax(BxC)

From 4) of theorem 1.4.1, we derive an important formula for the norm of the cross product.
 A B  A.B
2 2 2 2
AxB
2 2 2 2
 A B  A B cos 2  (  is the angle between A and B)
 A B 1  cos 2 
2 2
 A B sin 2 
2 2
 AxB  A B sin  (For 0    , sin is nonnegative)
Activity :
- For the unit vectors i, j and k , find i  j , j  k and k  i . What is j  i ?
- If A and B are parallel, what is A B?
- If A and B are orthogonal, What is A  B ?
Exercise : 1. Find a unit vector perpendicular to both A = (2,-3,1) and B = (1,2,-4).

2. Prove that (A – B)x(A + B) = 2(AxB).

Application on area and volume
Let u and v be vectors and consider the parallelogram that the two vectors make. Then
u  v = Area of the Parallelogram
The direction of uxv is a right angle to the parallelogram that follows the right hand rule.
To find the volume of the parallelepiped spanned by three vectors u, v, and w, we find the triple product:
u.(vxw) = Volume
This can be found by computing the determinant of the three vectors:

u1 v1 w1
u2 v2 w2 = u1 (v2 w3  v3 w2 )  v1 (u 2 w3  u3 w2 )  w1 (u 2 v3  u3 v2 )
u3 v3 w3
Example :
1. Find the area of the parallelogram which is formed by the two vectors u= (1, 3, 2) and v= (-2, 1, 3).
2. Find the volume of the parallelepiped spanned by the vectors
u = (3, -2, -1), v = (1, 3, 2), and w = (-2, 1, 3).
Solution: 1. The area of the parallelogram is given by:
u  v  (1,3,2)  (2,1,3)  (7,7,7)  147
2. The volume of the parallelepiped spanned by the three vectors is:

u.(vxw)  (3,2,1).(1,3,2)  (2,1,3)  (3,2,1).(7,7,7)  28
Exercise: Find the area of the triangle having vertices at u = (3, -2, -1), v = (1, 3, 2), and w = (-2, 1, 3).
Lines and planes
Activity : Given two vectors A and B with B  0, consider vectors of the form A + tB, where t varies over
all real numbers. The vector A + 2B, for example is as shown in the figure. Show the vectors A

1 3
+ tB for t = 0, 1, 3, , -1, -2, , what kind of figure is generated by these vectors? i.e. what
2 2
is the collection of all points which are terminal points of A + tB?
Lines: A line  is any set of the form {p : p  A  tB, t } where B is assumed to be a non-zero vector
and A is a fixed point on the line.
Note that if (x, y, z) is on line  and if A = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) and B = (b1 , b2 , b3 then
(x, y, z) = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) + t(b1 , b2 , b3 ) for some real number t.
Activity: Is point A on  ? Is B parallel to
a vector formed by any two
points of  ?
P = A + tB is a vector equation of a line through A
Example 1.6.1 Find equation of a line through P1 = (0, 1, 2) and P2 = (-1, 1, 1).
Solution: We need a point A on the line and a vector B parallel to the vector
formed by two point of the line.
Take A = P1 and B = P2 – P1 . Then
A + t B = (0, 1, 2) + t (-1, 0, -1)

(x, y, z) = (0, 1, 2) + t (-1, 0, -1) is equation of the line. By giving distinct values for t we
will obtain distinct points on the line. Find some of the points.
Note: The equation of a line passing through points A and B is given by:
P = A + t(B – A) or P = (1 – t)A + B, t  
Exercise: Let the line L1 passes through the points (5,1,7) and (6,0,8) and the line L2 passes through the
points (3,1,3) and (1,3,  ) . Find the value of  for which the two lines intersect.
Suppose P = (x, y, z) is a point on line  through A = (a1 , a2 a3 ) in the direction of B = (b1 , b2 , b3 ).

Then p = A + tB  (x, y, z) = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) + t(b1, b2, b3 ) or equivalently
x = a1 + b1 t
y = a2 + b2 t
z = a3 + b3 t
These equations are parametric equation of a line and t is called a parameter.
1
Activity:1) Find the parametric equation of a line that contains (2,-1,1) and is parallel to the vector (3,
2
,0).
2) From the parametric equation of a line in  3 , derive the equation
y  a1 y  a2 z  a3
 
b1 b2 b3
It is called standard form of equation of a line.

If the line is on a plane show that the standard form reduces to an equation of the form y = mx + c.
Two lines  and m given by A1 + tB1 and A2 + tB2 are said to be parallel if B1 and B2 are parallel. That
is the vectors P1 – Q1 and P2 – Q2 are parallel for any two points P1 , Q 1 of  and P2 , Q 2 of m.
Let  be a line through A in the direction of B ( B  0) . Consider the distance between  and the origin.
This distance is the minimum of the lengths of all vectors with initial point the origin and terminal point
on  . That is, minimum of A  tB for any real number t. Now put f (t )  A  tB

2
This is a quadratic function whose graph opens upward: f (t )  A  2t ( A.B)  t 2 B

2 2

 2 A.B  A.B
So it has minimum at: t  2
 2
2B B
Planes: Let Po be a point and n be a

non zero vector. We define the plane
passing through Po to perpendicular
to n to be the collection of all points P
such that the vector pop is

perpendicular n.
According to our definition, if P is any point on the plane through P 0 and perpendicular to
n, then n. =0 or n.(p- =0
Activity: Starting from the equation n. =0, show that equation of a plane through point
Po = (xo , yo , zo ) perpendicular to n = (a, b, c) is
ax + by + cz = d where d = axo + byo + czo .

This equation can be written as n.P = d. The vector n is said to be normal to the plane.
Hence a plane is any set of the form {P: n.P = d}. Where N is a given non- zero vector and
d is a given number.
Example : Find an Equation of the plane that contains point (-2, 4, 5) and that is normal to
(7, 0, -6).
Solution: The equation of the plane is given by 7(x+2)+0(y-4)-6(z-5) = 0 or 7x- 6z = -44
Activity : Does this plane intersect the y-axis?
Two planes in 3 spaces are said to be parallel if their normal vectors are parallel. They are
said to be perpendicular if their normal vectors are perpendicular. The angle between two
planes is defined to be the angle between their normal vectors.
Activity: 1. What is the equation of a plane passing through (-1, 2, 3) and is perpendicular
to the y-axis.
2.Consider the planes x + 2y - 3z = 2 and 15x - 9y – z = 2. Are they parallel or

perpendicular planes? Or neither parallel nor perpendicular?

Exercise : Find the equation of the plane passing through the three points P 1 = (2,1,1), P2 =
(3,-1,1), P3 = (4,1,-1).
Let Q be a point outside a plane
normal to n. We define the distance
from point Q to the plane as follows.
Let Po be the point of intersection of
the line through Q, in the direction of
N, and the plane through P.
The distance d from Q to the plane is the distance between Q and P0 . Now we find a formula for this
distance. Clearly d  Pr oj QP
= Pr oj QP
N
QP
 N.QP 
However, Pr ojN QP   N
 N2 
 
 N.QP  N.QP N.QP

Hence d   N  N =
 N2  N
2
N
 
Therefore the distance d of a point Q from a plane through P which is normal to N is given by:
N.QP
d 
N
Exercises
1. Let A = (0, 1, 5) ,B = . Find the angle between A and B.

2. Which of he following vectors are parallel or perpendicular to (1, 1, -1)?
a) (2, 2, -2) d) (1, 0, 1)
 1 1 1 
b) (2, -2, 0) e)  , , 
 2 2 2
c) (-2, 2, 2) f)
3. a) Find all vectors that are orthogonal to E1 = (1, 0, 0)
b) Find all vectors that are orthogonal to both E1 and E3 = (0, 0, 1)
c) Find all vectors that are orthogonal to E1 , E2 and E3 = (0, 0, 1)

4. Find a non- zero vector orthogonal to (1, 2, -1)
5. Find a unit vector in the direction of (3, -1, 2, 4)
 1 1 1   1 1 2   1 1 
6. Let U1   , ,  , U 2   , ,  , U3   , ,0 
 3 3 3  6 6 6  2 2 
a) Show that each u1 , u2 , u3 is orthogonal to the other two and that each is a unit vector
b) Find the projection of E1 on each of u1 , u2 , u3
c) Find the projection of A = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) on u1 .
7. In the following cases compute (A x B).C
a) A = (1, 2, 0) B = (-3, 1, 0), C = (4, 9, -3)
b) A = (-3, 1, -2) B = (2, 0, 4), C = (1, 1, 1)

8. Prove that two non-zero vectors A and B are perpendicular if and only if A  A  tB for every
number t.
9. If A + B + C = 0. Show that A x B = B x C = C x A
10. Find a formula for the area of a parallelogram whose vertices, in order, are
P, Q, R & S.
Show that A  B A  B  A  B
2 2
11.
12. Find parametric equations of lines through

a) (-5, -6, 8) and (1, 3, 7) b. (10, 3, 1) and (6, -2, -3)
13. Find equation of a plane through points
(0, 1, 0), (0, -1, -1) and (1, 2, 1)
14. Find a point of intersection of the lines {p:p = (1, -5, 2) + t(-1, 1, 0)} and {p:p = (3, -3, 1) +
t(4, 0, -1)}
15. Prove that the line {p:p = (1, 3, -1) + t(0, 3, 5)} lies entirely in the plane
{(x, y, z): 2x – 5y + 3z = -16}
16. Find the intersection point of the lines {p:p = (-2, 4, 6) + t(1, 2, 3)} and {p:p = (-2, 1, 6) + t(3,
2, 1)}. Find equation of the plane containing the two lines.
17. Find all points of intersection of the line {p:p = t(1, -3, 6)} and the plane {p:x + 3y + z = 2}
18. Prove that if B.N = 0 and A is on the plane {p:(p – po ).N = 0} then the entire line {p:p = A + tB}
lies in the plane.
DMU Page 29
19. Find a line through the point po = (-5, 2, 1) and normal to the plane {(x, y, z): x = y}
20. Find a line through (xo , yo , zo ) and normal to the plane {(x, y, z): ax + by + cz = d}
21. Let  be a line given by A + tB and let P be a point on  different from A. For point Q not on  ,
B x PQ
show that the distance d of Q form the line  is given by: d 
B
22. Let  be the line x = 1 + 2t, y = -1 + 3t, z = -5 + 7t. Find the two points on  at a distance 3
units from the plane 2(x-1) + 2(y+3) –z = 0
23. The set of all points equidistant from (0, 1, 5) and 5, -1, 3) is a plane. Find the equation.
2.2. Vector spaces
Definition: Let K be a set of numbers. We shall say that K is field if it satisfies the following conditions:
a) If x, y are elements of K then x + y and xy are also elements of K.
b) If x is an element of K, then –x is also an element of K. Furthermore, if x  0, then x-1
is also an element of K.
c) 0 and 1 are elements of K.
Example: The set of all real numbers  and the set of all complex numbers ℂ are fields.
Activity: Are ℤ (The set of all integers) and Q (the set of all rational numbers fields?
Remark: The essential thing about a field is that its elements can be added and multiplied and the results are
also elements of the field. Moreover, every element can be divided by a non-zero element.
Definition: A vector space V over a field K is a set of objects which can be added and can be multiplied by
elements of K. It satisfies the following properties.
V1 ) For any u, v  V and a  K, we have u + v  V and au V
V2 ) For any u, v, w  V, (u + v) + w = u + (v + w)
V3 ) There is an element of V, denoted by O (called the zero element), such that 0 + u = u + 0 = u for
all elements u of V.
V4 ) For u  V, there exists –u  V such that u + (- u) = 0
V5 ) For u, v  V, we have u + v = v + u
V6 ) For u, v  V and a  k, a(u + v) = au + av
V7 ) For u  V and a, b  k, (a + b) u = au + bu and (ab) u = a(bu)
V8 ) For u  v, 1u = u
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Activity: What is the name given for each of the above properties? Axioms of vector space
Other properties of a vector space can be deduced from the above eight properties. For example, the property
0u = O can be proved as :
0u + u = 0u + 1.u (by V8 )
= (0 + 1) u (by V7 )
= 1. u
=u
By adding –u to both sides of ou + u = u, we have 0u = O
Examples of different models of a vector space
1) Consider sets 2 and 
Clearly, for V = 2 and k = , properties V1 and V2 hold.
The element 0 of 2 that satisfied v3 is 0 = (0, 0).
The other 5 properties can be easily verified. Hence 2 is a vector space over.
2) Let V = 2 and K = ℂ
For any u, v  2 , we have u + v  2 .
But for a  ℂ, au is not always in 2 .

For example for a = 3i and u = (1, -2), au = (3i, -2i)  2 .
Hence 2 is not vector space over ℂ.
Thus when dealing with vector spaces, we shall always specify the field over which we take the
vector space.
3) Let F be the set of all functions form  to , for any f and g in F, f + g is a function from  to 
defined by (f + g) (x) = f(x) + g(x).
For a  , af = af(x) is in F.
The zero element O of F is the zero function f(x) = 0 for all x  .
By verifying the other properties, we can see that F is a vector space over .
The algebraic properties of elements of an arbitrary vector space are very similar to those of elements of 2 ,
3 , or n . Consequently, we call elements of a vector space as vectors
Activity : Which of the following are vector spaces?
a. C on 2 b. Cn over ℂ c . Qn over Q d . n over ℂ
DMU Page 31
Subspaces, Linear Combinations and generators
Definition: Suppose V is a vector space over k and W is a subset of V. If, under the addition and scalar
multiplication that is defined on V, W is also a vector space then we call W a subspace of V.
Using this definition and the axioms of a vector space, we can easily prove the following:
A subset W of a vector space V is called a subspace of V if:
i) W is closed under addition. That is, if u, w  W, then u + w  W
ii) W is closed under scalar multiplication. That is, if uW and a  k, then auW.
iii) W contains the additive identity 0.
Then as W  V, properties V1 – V8 are satisfied for the elements of W.
Hence W itself is a vector space over k. We call W a subspace of V.
Example: Consider H = {(x, y): x, y   and x + 4y = 0} .
H is a subset of the vector space 2 over . To shojw that H is a subspace of V, it is enough to show the
above three properties hold in H.
Let u = (x1 , y1 ) and w = (x2, y2 ) be in H. Then x1 + 4y1 = 0 and x2 + 4y2 = 0
u + w = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ) and (x1 + x2 ) + 4(y1 +j y2 ) = x1 + 4y + x2 + 4y2 = 0 + 0 = 0 Which shows
uwH.
For a  , au  ax1 , ax 2  and ( ax1 )  4( ax 2 )  a( x1  4 x 2 ) = 0a = 0.

Hence au  H. Now, the element O of 2 is (0, 0). 0 + 4(0) = 0. Hence O = (0, 0) is in H.
 H is a subspace of 2
Activity: Take any vector A in 3 . Let W be the set of all vectors B in 3 where B.A = 0. Discuss whether
W is a subspace of 3 or not.
Definition: Let v1 , v2 , …, vn be elements of a vector space V over k. Let x1 , x2 , …, xn be elements of
k. Then an expression of the form x1 v1 + x2 v2 +… + xn vn is called a linear combination of v1 , v2 , …, vn..
Example: The sum 2(3, 1) + 4(-1, 2) +(1, 0) is a linear combination of (3, 1), (-1, 2) and (1, 0). As this sum
is equal to (3, 10), we say that (3, 10) is a linear combination of the three ordered pairs.
Activity:
i) Take two elements v1 and v2 of 3 . Let W be the set of all linear combinations of v1 & v2.
Show that W is a subspace of  3 . W is called the subspace generated by v1 and v2
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ii) Generalize i) by showinkg that a set w generated by elements v1 , v2 , …, vn of a
vector space V is a subspace.
Linear dependence and independence of vectors
Definition: Let V be a vector space over k. Elements v1 , v2 , …, vn of V are said to be linearly independent
if and only if the following condition is satisfied:
whenever a1 , a2 , …, an are in k such that a1 v1 + a2 v2 + … + an vn = 0, then ai = 0 for all
i = 1, 2, …, n.
If the above condition does not hold, the vectors are called linearly dependent. In other words v1 , v2 ,…, vn
are linearly dependent if and only if there are numbers a 1 , a2 , …, an where a1 v1 + a2 v2 + … + an vn = 0 for at
least one non- zero ai.
Example: Consider v1 = (1, -1,1) , v2 = (2, 0, -1) and v3 = (2, -2, 2)
i) a1 v1 + a2 v2 = a1 (1, -1, 1) + a2 (2, 0, -1) = (a1 + 2a2, -a1 , a1 – a2 )
a1 v1 + a2 v2 = 0  a1 + 2a2 = 0, -a1 = 0 and a1 – a2 = 0
 a1 = 0 and a2 = 0
Hence v1 & v2 are linearly independent.
ii) a1 v1 + a2 v3 = a1 (1, -1, 1) + a2 (2, -2, 2)
= (a1 + 2a2, -a1 – 2a2 , a1 +2 a2 )
a1 v1 + a2 v3 = 0  a1 + 2a2 = 0, -a1 – 2a2 = 0 and a1 +2 a2 = 0
 a1 = -2a2
Take a1 = 2 and a2 = -1, we get 2(1, -1, 1) + (-1) (2, -2, 2) = 0.
As the constants are not all equal to zero, v1 and v3 are linearly dependent.
Activity: Show that v1 , v2 and v3 are also linearly dependent.
Remark: If vectors are linearly dependent, at least one of them can be written as a linear
combination of the others.
Activity: Show that (1, 0, 0, …,0), (0, 1,0,…)…, (0,0,0, …, 1) are linearly independent vectors in n .
Bases and dime nsion of a vector space
Definition: If elements e1 , e2 , …, en of a vector space V are linearly independent and generate V, then the set
B = {e1 , e2 , …, en} is called a basis of V. we shall also say that the elements e1 , e2 ,…, en
constitute or form a basis of V.
Example:
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1) Show that e1 = (0, -1) and e2 = (2, 1) form a basis of 2 .
Solution: we have to show that
i) e1 and e2 are linearly independent
ii) They generate 2 i.e every element (x,y) of 2 can be written as a linear combination of
e1 and e2 .
i) a1 e1 + a2 e2 = O  a1 (0, -1) + a2 (2,1) = (0, 0)
 2a2 = 0 and –a1 + a2 = 0
 a2 = 0 and a1 = 0
 e1 and e2 are linearly independent
ii) (x, y) = a1 e2 + a2 e2  (x, y) = (0, -a1 ) + (2a2 , a2 )
 x = 2a2 and y = -a1 + a2
x
 a2 = and a1 = a2 – y … (*)
2
x  2y
=
2
Therefore, given any (x, y), we can find a 1 and a2 given by (*) and (x, y) can be written as a linear
combination of e1 and e2 as
(x, y) =  x  2 y  (0,  1)   x  (2, 1)

 2  2
 4  6 4
For example, (4, 3) =   (0,1)    (2,1)
 2  2
Or (4, 3) = -(0, -1) + 2(2, 1)
Note that {(1, 0), (0, 1)} is also a basis of 2 . Hence a vector space can have two or more basis. Find other
bases of 2 .
2) Show that e1 = (2, 1, 0) and e2 = (1, 1, 0) form a basis of 3 .
Solution: e1 = (2, 1, 0) and e2 = (1, 1, 0) are linearly independent but they do not generate 3 . There
are no numbers a1 and a2 for which
(3, 4, 2) = a1 (2, 1, 0) + a2 (1, 1, 0).
Hence {(2, 1, 0), (1,1,0)} is not a basis of 3 .
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The vectors E1 = (1, 0, 0) , E2 = (0, 1, 0), E3 = (0, 0, 1) are linearly independent and every element (x, y, z)
of 3 can be written as
(x, y, z) = x(1, 0, 0) + y(0, 1, 0) + z (0, 0, 1)
= xE1 + yE2 + zE3
Hence {E1 , E2 , E3 } is a basis of 3 .
Note that the set of elements E1 = (1, 0, 0,…,0), E2 = (0, 1, 0, … 0),…,En = (0, 0, 0, …,1) is a basis of n . It
is called a standard basis.
Let B = {e1 , e2 , …, en } be a basis of V. since B generates V, any u in V can be represented as u = a1 e1 + a2
e2 + … + an en . Since the ei are linearly independent, such a representation is unique. We call (a1 , a2, …, an )
the coordinate vector of u with respect to the basis B, and we call ai the i – th coordinate.
Example:
1) In 1) of example 3.3.1 The coordinate vector of (4,3) with respect to the basis
{(0, -1), (2,1)} is (-1, 2). But with respect to the standard basis it is (4, 3).
Find coordinates of (4,3) in some other basis of 2 .

2) Consider the set V of all polynomial functions f:    which are of degree less than or equal to 2.
Every element of V has the form f(x) = bx 2 + cx + d, where b, c, d  
V is a vector space over  (show).
Clearly, ek1 = x2, e2 = x and e3 = 1 are in V and a1e1 + a2 e2 + a3e3 = O
(0 is the zero function)
 a1x2 + a2e2 + a3 e3 = 0 for all x
 a1 = a2 = a3 = 0.
Which shows e1 , e2 and e3 are linearly independent
bx2 + cx + d = a1 e1 + a2 e2 + a3 e3 for all x
 bx2 + cx + d = a1 x2 + a2 x + a3
 b = a1 , c = a2 and d = a3
Thus e1 , e2 and e3 generate V.
 {x2 , x1 1} is a basis of V and the coordinate vector of an element
f(x) = bx2 + cx + d is (b, c, d)
The coordinate vector of x2 – 3x + 5 is (1, -3, 5)
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Activity: Show that the polynomials
E1 = (x – 1)2 = x2 – 2x + 1
E2 = x – 1
and E3 = 1
form a basis of a vector space V defined in 2) of example 2.5.2. What is the coordinate of f(x) = 2x2
– 5x + 6 with respect to the basis {E1 , E2 , E3 }?
E = {(1, 0, 0), (0,1,0), (0,0,1)} and B = {(-1,1,0), (-2, 0, 2), (1, 1, 1)} are bases of  3 and each has three
elements. Can you find a basis of  3 having two elements? four elements?
The main result of this section is that any two bases of a vector space have the same number of elements. To
prove this, we use the following theorem.
Theorem: Let V be a vector space over the field K. Let {v1 , v2 ,…,vn } be a basis of V. If w1 , w2 ,…,wm are
elements of V, where m > n, then w1 , w2 , …, wm are linearly dependent.
Proof (reading assignment)
Theorem: Let V be a vector space and suppose that one basis B has n elements, and another basis W has m
elements. Them m = n.
Proof: As B is a basis, m > n is impossible. Otherwise by theorem 3.4.1, W will be a linearly dependent set.
Which contradicts the fact that W is a basis. Similarly, as W is a basis, n > m is also impossible.
Hence n = m.
Definition: Let V be a vector space having a basis consisting of n elements. We shall say that n is the
dime nsion of V. It is denoted by dim V.
Remarks :
1. If V = {0}, then V doesn’t have a basis, and we shall say that dim v is zero.
2. The zero vector space or a vector space which has a basis consisting of a finite number of
elements, is called finite dimensional. Other vector spaces are called infinite dime nsional.
Example:
1)  3 over  has dimension 3. In general  n over  has dimension n.

2)  over  has dimension 1. In fact, {1} is a basis of  , because
a .1  0  a  0 and
any number x   has a unique expression x  x.1 .
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Definition: The set of elements {v1 , v2 , …,vn }of a vector space V is said to be a maximal set of linearly
independent elements if v1 , v2 , …,vn are linearly independent and if given any element w of V,
the elements w,v1 , v2 , …, vn are linearly dependent.
Example: In  3 {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 1), (0, 2, 1)} is a maximal set of linearly independent elements.
We now give criteria which allow us to tell when elements of a vector space constitute a basis.
Theorem: Let V be a vector space and {v1 , v2 , …,vn }be a maximal set of linearly independent elements of
V. Then {v1 , v2 , …,vn }is a basis of V.
Proof: It suffices to show that v1 , v2 , …,vn generate V. (Why?)
Let w .
Then w, v1 , v2 , …,vn are linearly dependent (why?).
Hence there exist numbers ao , a1 , a2 , …, an not all 0 such that
ao w + a1 v1 + a2 v2 + …+ an vn = O
In particular a o  0 (why?
Therefore, by solving for w,
 a1 a  an
w V1  2 V2 ... Vn
ao ao ao
This proves that w is a linear combination of v1 , v2 , …,vn .
Theorem: Let dim V = n, and let v1 , v2 , …,vn be linearly independent elements of v. Then
{v1 , v2 , …,vn } is a basis of v.
Proof: According to theorem 3.4.1, {v1 , v2 , …,vn } is a maximum set of linearly independent elements of V.
Hence it is a basis by theorem 2.5.3
Corollary: Let W be a subspace of V. If dim W = dimV, then V = W
Example: Let, V  R , U  (0,0, x3 ), x3   , and W  ( x1 , x2 ,0), x1 , x2  . Show that V is

3
the direct sum of W and U.

Solution: Since V, U and W are vector spaces, and in addition to that U and W are subspaces of V.
The sum of U and W is: U + W = ( x1 , x2 , x3 ), x1 , x2 , x3    R  V

3
Thus; V = U + W
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The intersection of U and W is: U  W  0
Therefore, V is the direct sum of W and U.
Activity
1. Let, V  R , U  ( x1 ,0, x3 ), x1 , x3  , and W  (0, x2 ,0), x2  . Show that V is the direct
3
sum of W and U.
2. Let, V  R , U  ( x1 , x2 ,0), x1 , x2   , and W  (0,0, x3 ), x3  . Show that V is the direct

3
sum of W and U.
Exercise
1. Let k be the set of all numbers which can be written in the form a  b 2 , where a, b are rational
numbers. Show that k is a field.
2. Show that the following sets form subspaces
a. The set of all (x, y) in  2 such that x = y
b. The set of all (x, y) in  2 such that x – y = 0
c. The set of all (x, y, z) in  3 such that x + y = 3z
d. The set of all (x, y, z) in  3 such that x = y and z = 2y
3. If U and W are subspaces of a vector space V, show that U  W and U  W are subspaces.
4. Decide whether the following vectors are linearly independent or not (on )
a) (, 0) and (0, 1)
b) (-1, 1, 0) and (0, 1, 2)
c) (0, 1, 1), (0, 2, 1), and (1, 5, 3)
5. Find the coordinates of X with respect to the vectors A, B and C

a. X = (1, 0, 0), A = (1, 1, 1), B = (-1, 1, 0), C = (1, 0, -1)
b. X = (1, 1, 1) , A = (0, 1, -1), B = (1, 1, 0), C = (1, 0, 2)
6. Prove: The vectors (a, b) and (c, d) in the plane are linearly dependent if and only if ad – bc = 0
7. Find a basis and the dimension of the subspace of  4 generated by
{(1, -4, -2, 1), (1, -3, -1, 2), (3, -8, -2, 7)}.
8. Let W be the space generated by the polynomials x3 + 3x2 – x + 4, and
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2x3 + x2 – 7x – 7. Find a basis and the dimension of W.
10. What is the dimension of the space of 2 x 2 matrices? Give a basis for this space. Answer the
same question for the space of n x m matrices.
11. Find the dimensions of the following
a) The space of n x n matrices all of whose elements are 0 except possibly the diagonal
elements.
b) The space of n x n upper triangular matrices
c) The space of n x n symmetric matrices
d) The space of n x n diagonal matrices
12. Let V be a subspace of 3 . What are the possible dimensions for V? Show that if
V 3 , then either V = {0}, or V is a straight line passing through the origin, or V is a plane passing
through the origin.
CHAPTER TWO
MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS
3.1. Matrices
The concept of matrices has had its origin in various types of linear problems, the most important of which
concerns the nature of solutions of any given system of linear equations. Matrices are also useful in
organizing and manipulating large amounts of data. Today, the subject of matrices is one of the most
important and powerful tools in Mathematics which has found applications to a very large number of
disciplines such as Engineering, Business and Economics, statistics etc.
Definition and Examples of Matrices
Definition : A rectangular arrangement of mn numbers (real or complex) in to m horizontal rows and n
vertical columns enclosed by a pair of brackets [ ], such as
 a11 a12 ... a1n 
a a 22 ... a 2 n 
 21
 . . . 
 . . . 
 
 . . . 
a m1 a m1 ... a mn 
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is called an m  n (read “m by n”) matrix or a matrix of order m  n .
Parentheses ( ) are also commonly used to enclose numbers constituting matrices.
Before we go any further, we need to familiarize ourselves with some terms that are associated with
matrices. The numbers in a matrix are called the entries or the elements of the matrix. For the entry a ij , the
first subscript i specify the row and the second subscript j the column in which the entry appears. That is, a ij
is an element of matrix A which is located in the i th row and j th column of the matrix A. Whenever we talk
about a matrix, we need to know the order of the matrix.
The order of a matrix is the number of rows and columns it has. When we say a matrix is a 3 by 4 matrix,
we are saying that it has 3 rows and 4 columns. The rows are always mentioned first and the columns
second. This means that a 3  4 matrix does not have the same order as a 4  3 matrix. It must be noted that
even though an m n matrix contains mn elements, the entire matrix should be considered as a single entity.
In keeping with this point of view, matrices are denoted by single capital letters such as A, B, C and so on.
Remark: By the size of a matrix or the dimension of a matrix we mean the order of the matrix.
1 5 2 
Example : Let A   .
0 3 6 
Solution: Since A has 2 rows and 3 columns, we say A has order 2  3 , where the number of rows is
specified first. The element 6 is in the position a23 (read a two three) because it is in row 2 and column 3.
  1 4 7
 
Example: What is the value of a 23 and a 32 in A   2 3 1 ?
 5 7 8 
Solution: a 23 , the element in the second row and third column, is 1 and a 32 , the element in the third row
and second column, is 7. What is the size of this matrix?

Activity: 1. Suppose A is a 5x7 matrix, then
a. A has 7 rows. (True/False)
b. a ij is an element of A for i = 6 and j = 4.(True/False)
c. For what values of i and j, a ij is an element of A?
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4 8 
 4  7 5
2. Suppose A    and B   7 1 

8 1 6  5 6 
a. What is the order of A and B?

b. Find a 22 , a13 , b13 and b31 .
It is customary to abbreviate the matrix
 a11 a12 ... a1n 

a a 22 ... a 2 n 
 21
A  
. . . 
. . . 
 
 . . . 
a m1 am2 ... a mn 
by the symbol ( a ij )m  n or more simply ( a ij ) . This notation merely indicates what type of symbols we are
using to denote the general entry.
Example : Form a 4 by 5 matrix, B, such that bij = i + j.

Solution: Since the number of rows is specified first, this matrix has four rows and
five columns.
 b11 b12 b13 b14 b15  2 3 4 5 6

b b 22 b 23 b 24 b 25  3 4 5 6 7
B   21  = .
b 31 b 32 b 33 b 34 b 35  4 5 6 7 8
   
b 41 b 42 b 43 b 44 b 45  5 6 7 8 9
Activity : Form a 4 by 3 matrix, B, such that
a) bij  i  j b) bij  (1) i  j
Definition: Two matrices A and B are said to be equal, written A = B, if they are of the same order and if all
corresponding entries are equal.
5 1 0  2  3 1 0  9 
For example,     but 9 2    . Why?
2 3 4   2 3 2  2  2
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 x  y 6 1 6
Example : Given the matrix equation      . Find x and y.
 x  y 8 3 8
x y 1
Solution: By the definition of equality of matrices,
x y  3
solving gives x = 2 and y = -1.
Activity : Find the values of x, y, z and w which satisfy the matrix equation
 x  y 2x  z  1 5 
a.     
2 x  y 3 z  w   0 13
x  3 2 y  x 0  7
b.     
 z  1 4 w  6 3 2 w 
Types of matrices: Square, identity, scalar, diagonal, triangular, symmetric, and skew
symmetric matrices
Certain types of matrices, which play important roles in matrix theory, are now considered.
Row Matrix: A matrix that has exactly one row is called a row matrix. For example, the matrix
A  5 2  1 4 is a row matrix of order 1 4 .
Column Matrix: A matrix consisting of a single column is called a column matrix. For example, the
3 
 
matrix B   1 is a 3  1 column matrix.
4 
Ze ro or Null Matrix: A matrix whose entries are all 0 is called a zero or null matrix. It is usually denoted
0 0 0 0 
by 0m n or more simply by 0. For example, 0    is a 2  4 zero matrix.
0 0 0 0 
Square Matrix: An m  n matrix is said to be a square matrix of order n if m = n. That is, if it has the
same number of columns as rows.
 3 4 6 
  2  1
For example,  2 1 3  and 
5 6 
are square matrices of order 3 and 2 respectively.
 5 2  1 
 
In a square matrix A  a ij of order n, the entries a11 , a 22 , ..., a nn which lie on the diagonal extending
from the left upper corner to the lower right corner are called the main diagonal entries, or more simply
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3 2 4 
the main diagonal. Thus, in the matrix C = 1 6 0  the entries c11  3, c22  6 and c33  8
5 1 8 
constitute the main diagonal.

Note: The sum of the entries on the main diagonal of a square matrix A of order n is called the trace of A.
n
That is, Trace of A = a
i 1
ii
.
Activity : Find the trace of C in the above example.

Triangular Matrix: A square matrix is said to be an upper (lower) triangular matrix if all entries below
(above) the main diagonal are zeros.
5 0 0 0
2 4 8   1
  3 0 0 
For example, 0 1 2  and  are upper and lower triangular matrices, respectively.
6 1 2 0
0 0  3  
 2  4 8 6
Diagonal Matrix: A square matrix is said to be diagonal if each of the entries not falling on the main
 
diagonal is zero. Thus a square matrix A  a ij is diagonal if a ij  0 for i  j .
Activity : What about for i = j?
5 0 0 
 
For example, 0 0 0  is a diagonal matrix.
0 0 7 
Notation: A diagonal matrix A of order n with diagonal elements a11 , a 22 , ..., a nn is denoted by
A  diag ( a11 , a 22 , ..., a nn )
Scalar matrix: A diagonal matrix whose all the diagonal elements are equal is called a scalar matrix.
2 0 0 
 
For example, 0 2 0  is a scalar matrix.
0 0 2 
k , ifi  j
Note: Let A  a ij  be a square matrix. A is a scalar matrix if and only if a ij   .
0, ifi  j
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Identity Matrix or Unit Matrix: A square matrix is said to be identity matrix or unit matrix if all its main
diagonal entries are 1’s and all other entries are 0’s. In other words, a diagonal matrix whose all main
diagonal elements are equal to 1 is called an identity or unit matrix. An identity matrix of order n is denoted
by In or more simply by I.
1 0 0 
1 0
For example, I 3  0 1 0  is identity matrix of order 3. I 2    is identity matrix of order 2.
 0 1 
0 0 1
Note: Let A  a ij  be a square matrix. A is an identity matrix if and only if
Algebra of matrices
30 18 36 20 66 ? 

Activity : 20 12  24 18    ? 30 . Can you guess what number should appear in the entries
16 10 20 12   ? ? 
marked by question mark?

Addition of matrices: Let A and B be two matrices of the same order. Then the addition of A and B,
denoted by A + B, is the matrix obtained by adding corresponding entries of A and B. Thus, if
A  ( a ij )m  n and B  ( bij )m  n , then A  B  ( a ij  bij )m  n .
Remark: Notice that we can add two matrices if and only if they are of the same order. If they are, we say
they are conformable for addition. Also, the order of the sum of two matrices is same as that of the two
original matrices.
Activity : Given the matrices A, B, and C below
1 2 4   2 -1 3  4 
     
A=  2 3 1  B=  2 4 2  C=  2 
5 0 3   3 6 1  3 
Find, if possible. a) A + B b) B + C
If A is any matrix, the negative of A, denoted by –A, is the matrix obtained by replacing each entry in A by
its negative. For example, if
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2  1  2 1 
A   5 4  , then  A   5  4 

 6 0   6 0 
Properties of Addition of Matrices

1. Matrix addition is commutative. That is, if A and B are two matrices of the same order, then A + B =
B + A.
2. Matrix addition is associative. That is, if A, B and C are three matrices of the same order, then (A +
B) + C = A + (B + C).
3. Existence of additive identity. That is, if 0 is the zero matrix of the same order as that of the matrix A,
then A + 0 = A = 0 + A.
4. Existence of additive inverse. That is, if A is any matrix, then
A + (-A) = 0 = (-A) + A
Note: The zero matrix plays the same role in matrix addition as the number zero does in
addition of numbers.
Subtraction of Matrices: Let A and B be two matrices of the same order. Then by
A – B, we mean A + (-B). In other words, to find A – B we subtract each entry of B from the
corresponding entry of A.
4  1 0 2 
Example : Let A  2 3  and B  5  2
 
5  7  6 1 
4  0  1  2   4  3
Then A  B  2  5 3  ( 2 )   3 5 
 
5  6  7  1    1  8 
Multiplication of a Matrix by a Scalar

Let A be an m  n matrix and k be a real number (called a scalar). Then the multiplication of A by k,
denoted by k A, is the m  n matrix obtained by multiplying each entry of A by k. This operation is called
scalar multiplication.
0 2 3 7 6 3
Example : If A   and B    . Find 2A + 3B.
2 1 4  1 4 5
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0 2 3 0 4 6  7 6 3 21 18 9 
Solution: 2A  2      and 3B  3   
2 1 4  4 2 8  1 4 5  3 12 15
 0 4 6 21 18 9  21 22 15 
2 A  3B         
4 2 8  3 12 15  7 14 23
 2 3 8
Example : Express the matrix equation x    y    2  as a system of equations and solve.
1 5 11
Solution: The given matrix equation gives
2 x  3 y  16  2 x  3 y  16 
 x   5 y   22   x 5y   22 
         
By equality of matrices we have
2 x  3 y  16
x  5 y  22
Solving gives x = 2, y = -4
Properties of scalar multiplications
1. If A and B are two matrices of the same order and if k is a scalar, then
k ( A  B)  kA  kB
2. If k1 and k2 are two scalars and if A is a matrix, then
k1  k2 A  k1 A  k2 A
3. If k1 and k2 are two scalars and if A is a matrix, then
k1k 2 A  k1 (k 2 A)  k 2 (k1 A)
Multiplication of Matrices
While the operations of matrix addition and scalar multiplication are fairly straightforward, the product AB
of matrices A and B can be defined under the condition that the number of columns of A must be equal to the
number of rows of B. If the number of columns in the matrix A equals the number of rows in the matrix B,
we say that the matrices are conformable for the product AB.
Because of wide use of matrix multiplication in application problems, it is important that we learn it well.
Therefore, we will try to learn the process in a step by step manner. We first begin by finding a product of a
row matrix and a column matrix.
 a 
 
Example : Given A = [ 2 3 4 ] and B =  b  , find the product AB.
 c 
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Solution: The product is a 1  1 matrix whose entry is obtained by multiplying the corresponding entries
and then forming the sum.
 a 
 
AB = [ 2 3 4 ]  b 
 c 
= [ (2a + 3b + 4c)]
Note that AB is a 1  1 matrix, and its only entry is 2a + 3b + 4c.
5 
 
Example : Given A = [ 2 3 4 ] and B =  6  , find the product AB.
7 
5 
 
Solution: AB = [ 2 3 4 ]  6  = 10  18  28  56
7 
Note: In order for a product of a row matrix and a column matrix to exist, the number of entries in the row
matrix must be the same as the number of entries in the column matrix.
Example : Here is an application: Suppose you sell 3 T-shirts at $10 each, 4 hats at $15 each, and 1 pair of
shorts at $20. Then your total revenue is
 3
 

10 15 20  4   (10  3)  (15  4)  (20  1)   110

    
1

Pr ice Re venue
Quantity
  5 3
6 4 
Example : Given A = [ 2 3 4 ] and B =   , find the product AB.
7 5 
Solution: We already know how to multiply a row matrix by a column matrix. To find the product AB, in
this example, we will be multiplying the row matrix A to both the first and second columns of
matrix B, resulting in a 1  2 matrix.
AB = [ 2 . 5 + 3 . 6 + 4 . 7 2.3 + 3.4+ 4.5 ]
= [ 56 38 ]
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We have just multiplied a 1  3 matrix by a matrix whose order is 3  2. So unlike addition and subtraction, it
is possible to multiply two matrices with different dimensions as long as the number of entries in the rows of
the first matrix is the same as the number of entries in columns of the second matrix.
Activity : 1. Given the matrices E, F, G and H, below

1 2 
   2 -1   –3 
E=  4 2  F=   G=
[4 1] H= 
3 1  3 2 –1 
Find, if possible. a) GH b) FH c) EF d) FE
2. Given the matrices R, S, and T below.
1 0 2   0 –1 2   –2 3 0 
     
R=  2 1 5  S= 3 1 0  T=  –3 2 2 
2 3 1  4 2 1   –1 1 0 
Find 2RS – 3ST.
We summarize matrix multiplication as follows:
In order for product AB to exist, the number of columns of A, must equal the number of rows of B. If matrix
A is of dimension m  n and B of dimension n  p, the product AB will have the dimension m  p. Let
A  ( a ij ) be an m  n matrix and B  ( b jk ) be an n  p matrix. Then the product AB is the m  p matrix
defined by AB  ( c ik ), where
n
c ik  a i 1 b1k  a i 2 b2 k  ...  a in bnk   a ij b jk , I = 1,2,…,m and k = 1,2,…,p
j 1
Thus, the product AB is the m  p matrix, where each entry c ik of AB is obtained by multiplying
corresponding entries of the i th row of A by those of the kth column of B and then finding the sum of the
results.
Activity :1. If a matrix A is 3x5 and the product AB is 3x7, then what is the order of B?
2. How many rows does X have if XY is a 2x6 matrix?
Remark: The definition refers to the product AB, in that order, A is the left factor called pre factor and B is
the right factor called post factor.
1  4 
   2 4 1 6 
Example: Find the product AB if A  5 3  and B   
0 2   2 7 3 8
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Solution: Since the number of columns of A is equal to the number of rows of B, the
product AB=C is defined. Since A is 3 2 and B is 2  4 , the product AB
will be 3 4
c11 c12 c13 c14 

AB  c 21 c 22 c 23 c 24 
c 31 c 32 c 33 c 34 
The entry c11 is obtained by summing the products of each entry in row 1
of A by the corresponding entry in column 1 of B, that is.
c11  ( 1 )( 2 )  ( 4 )( 2 )  10 . Similarly, for C 21 we use the entries in
row 2 of A and those in column 1 of B, that is C 21 = (5) (-2) + (3) (2) = -4.
Also, C12 = (1) (4) + (-4) (7) = -24
C13 = (1) (1) + (-4) (3) = -11
C14 = (1) (6) + (-4) (8) = -26
C22 = (5) (4) + (3) (7) = 41
C23 = (5) (1) + (3 ) (3) = 14
C24 = (5) (6) + (3) (8) = 54
C31 = (0) (-2) + (2) (2) = 4
C32 = (0) (4) + (2) (7) = 14
C33 = (0) (1) + (2) (3) = 6
C34 = (0) (6) + (2) (8) = 16
 10  24  11  26 
 54 
Thus AB    4 41 14
 4 14 6 16 
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Observe that the product BA is not defined since the number of columns of B is not equal to the number of
rows of A. This shows that matrix multiplication is not commutative. That is, for any two matrices A and B,
it is usually the case that AB  BA (even if both products are defined).
1 0 1 2
Example : Let A    , and B    , then
0 0  1 0
1 2 1 0
AB    , BA    . Thus, AB  BA .
0 0  1 0
Activity . Which of the following are defined?
 3  a
i) 5 2 10    iii)   c d 
 4 b
a
ii) a b c d  iv) a b   
b
3 2  a b 
2. If A    and B    , find a and b such that AB = BA.
4 1  3 5
Note: 1. AB = 0 does not necessarily imply A = 0 or B = 0.
2. AB = AC does not necessarily imply B = C.
 1 1 1  1 2 3  0 0 0 
     
Example 1) Let A    3 2  1 , B  2 4 6 , then AB  0 0 0 .
 2 1 0  1 2 3 0 0 0
1  3 2  1 4 1 0  3 1  1  2
  2 1 1 1   
2) Let A  2 1  3 , B    , C  3  2  1  1  then
1  2 1 2  2  5  1 0 
4  3  1    
   
 3  3 0 1 
 1 15 0  5
AB     AC . But B  C .
 3 15 0  5
 
 
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In this chapter, we will be using matrices to solve linear systems. Later, we will be asked to express linear
systems as the matrix equation AX = B, where A, X, and B are matrices. The matrix A is called the
coefficient matrix.
Example 3 :Verify that the system of two linear equations with two unknowns:
ax  by  h
can be written as AX = B, where
cx  dy  k
a b  x  h 
A=  X =   and B =  
c d  y k
Solution:If we multiply the matrices A and X, we get
a b   x   ax + by 
AX =  = 
c d   y  cx + dy 
If AX = B, then
 ax + by  h 
 cx + dy  =  k 
If two matrices are equal, then their corresponding entries are equal.
Therefore, it follows that
ax  by  h
cx  dy  k
Activity : Express the following system as AX = B.

2x  3y  4z  5
3x  4 y  5 z  6
5x  6z  7
Properties of Matrix multiplication
If A, B and C are any matrices, and if I is an identity matrix, then the following hold, whenever the
dimensions of the matrices are such that the products are defined.
A(BC) = (AB)C Associative Law
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A.I = I.A =A
(The order of I and A Multiplicative Identity Law
is the same)
A(B + C) = AB + AC Left Distributive Law
(A + B)C =AC+BC Right Distributive Law
A.0 = 0.A = 0 Multiplication by Zero
Remark: For real numbers, a multiplied by itself n times can be written as an .

Similarly, a square matrix A multiplied by itself n times can be written as
An . Therefore, A2 means AA, A3 means AAA and so on.
Exercise:
1 2 3  4 5 6  1  2 1
 2  , B   1 0 1 and C   1 2 3
1. If A   1 0
 1  3  1  2 1 2   1  2 2
Find each of the following
(i) A + B ii) 2B – 3C
iii) A+B–C iv) A – 2B + 3C v) 2A – C

 5 2 2 4  1 3
2. Let A  , B  , C 
 1 3  6 1 7 2
Find the following: i) AB ii) BC iii) (AB)C iv) A(BC)
4  1  4 
 
3. If A  4 0  4  , compute A2 . Is it equal to I3 , where I3 is the identity matrix of order 3?
3  1  3
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Transpose of a matrix
Definition: Let A be an m  n matrix. The transpose of A, denoted by A' or A t , is the n m matrix

obtained from A by interchanging the rows and columns of A. Thus the first row of A is the first column of
At, the second row of A is the second column of At and so on.
 2 3
2  4 6  t  
Example : If A    , then A    4 1 
3 1 4  6 4
 
Activity : Find a 3x3 matrix A for which A = At.
Properties: a) If A and B have the same order,  A  B t  At  B t . b) For a scalar k , kAt  kA t .
c) If A is m  n and B is n  p , then ( AB ) t  B t At .  t  A
d) A t
Definition: A square matrix A is said to be orthogonal if AA t  At A  I

1  1  1
Example: A    is orthogonal (verify)
2 1 1 
Definition 3.3.3: A square matrix A  ( a ij ) is said to be symmetric if A t  A , or equivalently, if
a ij  a ji for each i and j.
2 1 5 
 
Example: A   1 0  3  is symmetric.
5  3 6 
 
a 3 4 8
 
 b c 3 9 
Activity: 1. For A  is to be a symmetric matrix, what numbers
 d e f 10 
 
g h i j 

should the letters a to j represent?
2. a) Does a symmetric matrix have to be square?
b) Are all square matrices symmetric?
Definition: A square matrix A  a ij   is said to be skew symmetric if A t   A , or equivalently, if
a ij  a ji for each i and j
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Remark: aii  aii  2aii  0 or aii  0 . Hence elements of main diagonal of a skew-symmetric matrix are
all zero.
 0 5 7 0  5  7 
  t  
Example : For A    5 0 3  , A   5 0  3    A . So A is skew-symmetric.
7  3 0 7 3 0 
  
Properties of symmetric and skew-symmetric matrices
1. For any square matrix A, A + At is symmetric and A – At is skew- symmetric
2. If A and B are two symmetric (or skew symmetric) matrices of the same order, then so is A + B.
Proof (exercise)
3. If A is symmetric or skew symmetric, then so is kA. Proof (exercise)
4. Let A and B be symmetric matrices of the same order. The product AB is symmetric if and only if
AB = BA.
Proof: AB is symmetric  ( AB )t  AB  B t At  AB
 BA  AB
Suppose AB = BA. Then (AB)t = BtAt = BA = AB
Exercise
1. a) Form a 4 by 5 matrix, B, such that bij = i*j, where * represents multiplication.
b) What is BT? c) Is B symmetric? Why or why not?
3  1 0   2 4 3 
2. Given A  2 4 5 and B=  5 1 7  . Verify that
 
   
1 3 6   2 3 8 
i) ( A  B) t  At  B t , ii) ( AB) t  B t At iii) (2 A) t  2 At
1 1 1
3. Let A    , is At A is symmetric
1 2 3
Ele mentary row and column operations
Elementary row operations:
1. (Replacement) Replace one row (say Ri ) by the sum of itself and a multiple of another row (say
R j ). This is abbreviated as Ri  k R j  Ri .
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2. (Interchange) Interchange two rows (say Ri and R j ). This is abbreviated as Ri  R j .
3. (Scaling) Multiply all entries in a row (say Ri ) by a nonzero constant (scalar) k. This is
abbreviated as Ri  k Ri
For elementary column operations “row” by “column” in (1), (2) and (3) above.
We say that two matrices are row equivalent if one is obtained from the other by a finite sequence of
elementary row operations.
It is important to note that row operations are reversible. If two rows are intercha nged, they can be returned
to their original positions by another interchange. If a row is scaled by a nonzero constant c, then multiplying
1
the new row by produces the original row. Finally, consider a replacement operation involving two rows,
c
say rows i and j, and suppose c times row i is added to row j to produce a new row j. To “reverse” this
operation, add – c times row i to the new row j and obtain the original row j.
Example : Find the elementary row operation that transforms the first matrix in to the second, and then find
the reverse row operation that transforms the second matrix in to the first.
1 3  1 1 3  1
0 2  4  , 0 1  2 
   
0  3 4  0  3 4 
1 3  1 1 3  1
  0 1  2 
Solution: 0 2  4 R2 ½ R2  
0  3 4  0  3 4 
1 3  1 1 3  1
0 2  4  0 1  2 
  2R2 R2  
0  3 4  0  3 4 
Activity 3.4.1: Find the elementary row operation that transforms the first matrix in to the second, and then
find the reverse row operation that transforms the second matrix in to the first.
0 5  3 1 5  2  1 3  1 5  1 3  1 5 
  0 5  3   0 1  4 2 
a) 1 5  2,   b) 0 1  4 2 ,  
2 1 8  2 1 8  0 2  5  1 0 0 3  5
In the definition that follows, a nonzero row (or column) in a matrix means a row (or column) that contains
at least one non-zero entry; a leading entry of a row refers to the left most nonzero entry (in a non zero row).
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Definition : A matrix is in echelon form (or row echelon form) if it has the following three properties:
1) All nonzero rows are above any rows of all zeros.
2) Each leading entry of a row is in a column to the right of the leading entry of the row above it.
3) All entries in a column below a leading entry are zero.
If a matrix in echelon form satisfies the following additional condition then it is in reduced echelon
form (or row re duced echelon form)
4) The leading entry in each non zero row is 1
5) Each leading 1 is the only nonzero entry in its column.
Example : The following matrices are in row echelon form, in fact the second
matrix is in row reduced echelon form
 
2  3 2 1 1 0 0 29
0 1  4 8 , 0 1 0 16 
 5  
0 0 0  0 0 1 1 
 2
Definition : (i) A matrix which is in row echelon form is called an echelon matrix.
(ii) A matrix which is in row reduced echelon form is called a reduced echelon matrix.
Note: 1) Each matrix is row equivalent to one and only one row reduced echelon matrix.
But a matrix can be row equivalent to more than one echelon matrices.
2) If matrix A is row equivalent to an echelon matrix U, we call U an echelon
form of A. If U is in reduced echelon form, we call U the reduced echelon form of A.
Activity : Determine which of the following matrices are in row reduced echelon form and which others are
in row echelon form (but not in reduced echelon form)
1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 1 1 0
  0 0 0  1 1 0
a) 0 1 0 b)   c) 
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0  
0 0 0 0
0 2 3 4 5 1 0  5 0  8 3
0 0 3 4 5 0 1 4  1 0 6
d)  e) 
0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 1 0
   
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
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1 3 0 0 3
1 3 5 7  0 0 1 0 0
a) 2 4 6 8 b) 
0 0 0 0 0
3 5 7 9  
0 0 0 3 1
1 0 1 0 0
0  1  2  1 3 0
0 1 0 1
c)  d)  2 4 5  5 3
0 1 0 2 1
   3  6  6 8 3
0 0 0 1 1
System of Linear equations
In this section we will present certain systematic methods for solving system of linear equations
Definition : A linear equation in the variables x1 , x 2 ,..., x n over the real field
 is an equation that can be written in the form

a1 x1  a 2 x 2  ....  a n x n  b (1)
where b and the coefficients a1 , a 2 ,..., a n are given real numbers.

Definition : A system of linear equations (or a linear system) is a collection of one or more linear
equations involving the same variables, say x1 , x 2 ,..., x n .
Now consider a system of m linear equations in n-unknowns x1 , x 2 ,..., x n :
a11 x1  a12 x 2  ...  a1n x n  b1

a 21 x1  a 22 x 2  ...  a 2 n x n  b2
.
(2)
.
.
a m1 x1  a m 2 x 2  ...  a mn x n  bm
If b1  b2  ...  bm  0 then we say that the system is homogeneous. If bi  0 for some
i{1,2,3, . . ., m} then the system is called non homogeneous. In matrix notation, the linear system (2) can
be written as AX  B where
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 a11 a12 ... a1n   x1   b1 

a a 22 ... a 2 n  x  b 
 21  2  2
A    , X    and B   
. . .
.  . .
     
 .   .   . 
a m1 am2 ... a mn   x n  bm 
We call A the coefficient matrix of the system (2).

Observe that entries of the k-th column of A are the coefficients of the variable x k in (2).
The m  (n  1) matrix whose first n columns are the columns of A (the coefficient matrix) and whose last
column is B is called the augmented matrix of the system. We denote it by [AB]. The augmented matrix
determines the system (2) completely because it contains all the coefficients and the constants to the right
side of each equation in the system. For example for the non homogeneous linear system
x1  3 x 2  x 3  2
x 2  2 x3  4 (3)
 2 x1  3 x 2  3 x 3  5
1 3  1 1 3  1 2

The matrix A   0 1  2 is the coefficient matrix and 0 1  2 4 is the augmented matrix.

 2  3  3  2  3  3 5
Are the coefficient matrix and the augmented matrix of a homogeneous linear system equal? Why?
A solution of a linear system in n-unknowns x1 , x2 ,..., xn is an n-tuple ( s1 , s 2 ,..., s n ) of real numbers that
makes each of the equations in the system a true statement when si is substituted for x i, i = 1,2, . . ., n. The set
of all possible solutions is called the solution set of the linear system. We say that two linear systems are
equivalent if they have the same solution set.
Activity: Give the coefficient matrix and the augmented matrix of the linear system
x1  3 x 2  2 x 3
x1  11x 3
2 x1  x 2  4 x 3  0
 x1  x 2  2
2) Does the linear system have a solution?
x1  x 2  0
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uv  2
3) Find the solution set of the linear system
u v 1
How many solutions does it have?
 3
2 x  x 2  x 3  8  13 
4) Given the system  1 2 . Is  5, ,3  a solution of the linear system? What
 x1  4 x 3  7  2 
  25 
about (-7, -22, 0) and  3, ,1 ?
 2 
The activity given above illustrates the following general fact about linear systems.
A system of linear equations has either
1. no solution, or
2. exactly one solution, or
3. Infinitely many solutions.
We say that a linear system is consistent if it has either one solution or infinitely many solutions; a system is
inconsistent if it has no solution.
Activity :
1. The homogeneous linear system AX  O is consistent for any m  n matrix A.
Explain, why?
2. Consider a linear system of two equations in two unknowns, give geometric interpretation if the
system has
i) no solution ii) exactly one solution iii) many solutions
Do the same for a linear system of three equations in three unknowns.
Solving a linear system
This is the process of finding the solutions of a linear system. We first see the technique of elimination
(Gaussian elimination method) and then we add two more techniques, matrix inversion method and Cramer’s
rule.
Gaussian Elimination Method
The Gaussian elimination method is a standard method for solving linear systems. It applies to any system,
no matter whether m < n, m = n or m > n (where m and n are number of equations and variables
respectively). We know that equivalent linear systems have the same solutions. Thus the basic strategy in
this method is to replace a given system with an equivalent system, which is easier to solve.
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The basic operations that are used to produce an equivalent system of linear equations are the following:
1. Replace one equation by the sum of itself and a multiple of another equation.
2. Interchange two equations
3. Multiply all the terms in an equation by a non zero constant.
Activity : Why these three operations do not change the solution set of the system?
We illustrate this technique by using the following example.

Example : Solve the system
x1  3 x 2  x 3  2
x 2  2 x3  4
 2 x1  3 x 2  3 x 3  5
Solution: We perform the elimination procedure with and without matrix notation of the system. For each
step we put the resulting system and its augmented matrix side by side for comparison:
x1  3 x 2  x 3  2 1 3  1 2
x 2  2 x3  4 0 1  2 4

 2 x1  3 x 2  3 x 3  5  2  3  3 5
We keep x1 in the first equation and eliminate it from the other equations. For this replace the third equation
by the sum of itself and two times equation 1.
2.eq.1 : 2 x1  6 x 2  2 x 3  4
 eq.3 :  2 x1  3 x 2  3 x 3  5
[ New eq.3] 3 x 2  5 x3  9
We write the new equation in place of the original third equation:
x1  3 x 2  x 3  2 1 3  1 2
x 2  2 x3  4 0 1  2 4 
R3 R3 + 2R1  
3 x 2  5 x3  9 0 3  5 9
Next use the x2 in equation 2 to eliminate 3x2 in equation 3.

 3.eq.2 :  3 x 2  6 x 3  12
 eq.3 : 3 x 2  5 x3  5
[ New eq.3] x 3  3
The resulting equivalent system is:
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x1  3 x 2  x 3  2 1 3  1 2 
x 2  2 x3  4 R3 R3 – 3R2 0 1  2 4 
 
x 3  3 0 0 1  3
Now we eliminate the –2x3 term form equation 2. For this we use x3 in equation 3.
2.eq.3 : 2 x 3  6
 eq.2 : x 2  2 x3  4
[ New eq.3] x3  3
From this we get
x1  3 x 2  x 3  2 1 3  1 2 
x2  2 R2 R2 +2R3 0 1 0  2 
 
x 3  3 0 0 1  3
Again by using the x3 term in equation 3, we eliminate the –x3 term in equation 1.
1.eq.3 : x 3  3
 eq.1 : x1  3 x 2  x 3  2
[ New eq.1] x1  3 x 2  1
Thus we get the system
x1  3 x 2  1 1 3 0  1
x 2  2 0 1 0  2 
R1 R1 +R3  
x 3  3 0 0 1  3
Finally, we eliminate the 3x 2 term in equation 1. We use the x2 term in equation 2 to eliminate the 3x 2 term
above it.
 3.eq.2 :  3x2  6
 eq.1 : x1  3 x 2  2
[ New eq.1] x1 5
So we have an equivalent system (to the original system) that is easier to solve.
x1 5
1 0 0 5 
x2  2 0 1 0  2 
R1 R1 – 3R2  
x3  3
0 0 1  3
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Thus the system has only one solution, namely (5, -2, -3) or x1  5, x 2  2, x 3  3 . To verify that (5, -2, -
3) is a solution, substitute these values in to the left side of the original system, and compute:
5 + 3(-2) - (-3) = 5 – 6 + 3 = 2
-2 - 2(-3) = -2 + 6 = 4
-2(5) - 3(-2) - 3(-3) = -10 + 6 + 9 = 5
It is a solution, as it satisfies all the equation in the given system (3).
Example: illustrates how operations in a linear system correspond to operations on the appropriate rows of
the augmented matrix. The three basic operations listed earlier correspond to the three elementary row
operations on the augmented matrix.
Let us see how elementary row operations on the augmented matrix of a given linear system can be used to
determine a solution of the system. Suppose a system of linear equations is changed to a new one via row
operations on its augmented matrix. By considering each type of row operation it is easy to see that any
solution of the original system remains a solution of the new system.
Conversely, since the original system can be produced via row operations on the new system, each solution
of the new system is also a solution of the original system. From this we have the following important
property.
 If the augmented matrices of two linear systems are row equivalent, then the two systems have the same
solution set.
Thus to solve a linear system by elimination we first perform appropriate row operations on the augmented
matrix of the system to obtain the augmented matrix of an equivalent linear system which is easier to solve
and use back substitution on the resulting new system. This method can also be used to answer questions
about existence and uniqueness of a solution whenever there is no need to solve the system completely.
In Gaussian elimination method we either transform the augmented matrix to an echelon matrix or a reduced
echelon matrix. That is we either find an echelon form or the reduced echelon form of the augmented matrix
of the system. An echelon form of the augmented matrix enables us to answer the following two fundamental
questions about solutions of a linear system. These are:
1. Is the system consistent; that is, does at least one solution exists?
2. If a solution exists, is it the only one; that is, is the solution unique?
Example : Determine if the following system is consistent. If so how many solutions does it have?
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x1  x 2  x 3  3
x1  5 x 2  5 x 3  2
2 x1  x 2  x 3  1
1  1 1 3 
 
Solution: The augmented matrix is A  1 5  5 2
2 1  1 1
Let us perform a finite sequence of elementary row operations on the augmented matrix.
1  1 1 3  R   R  R 1  1 1 3   2 R1 R 3
A B  1 5  5 2    

2 1 2
0 6  6  1 R

3
  
 
2 1  1 1 2 1  1 1 
 
1  1 1 3 1
R3  2 R 2  R3 1  1 1 3 
0 6  6  1     0 6  6  1 
   9
0 3  3  5 0 0 0  
 2
The corresponding linear system of the last matrix is
x1  x 2  x 3  3
6 x 2  6 x 3  1 (*)
9
0 
2
9
But the last equation 0. x1  0. x 2  0. x 3  is never true. That is there are no values x1 , x 2 , x 3 that satisfy
2
the new system (*). Since (*) and the original linear system have the same solution set, the original system is
inconsistent (has no solution).
Example : Use Gaussian elimination to solve the linear system
2x  y  z  2
 2x  y  z  4
6x  3y  2z   9
Solution: The augmented matrix of the given system is
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 2 1 1 2
A B   2 1 1 4 

 6  3  2  9
Let us find an echelon form of the augmented matrix first. From this we can determine whether the system is
consistent or not . If it is consistent
we go a head to obtain the reduced echelon form of [AB] , which enable us to describe explicitly all the
solutions.
 2 1 1 2
R2 R1 R2 
2 1 1 2
3  3R1 R 3
 
 2 1 1 4       0 0 2 6  R
    
   
 6  3  2  9 6  3  2  9
2  1 1 2  R 3 5 R 2  R 3  2  1 1 2 1
0 0 2  2

6    0 0 2 6    R 2 2 R 2

0 0  5  15 0 0 0 0
 2  1 1 2 2  1 0  1 1
0 0 1 3 R 1  R 2 R1
    R1 2 R1
     0 0 1 3   
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 1  1
1 2
0
2
0 0 1 3
 
0 0 0 0
 
The associated linear system to the reduced echelon form of [AB] is

x  1
2
y  21
z  3
0  0
The third equation is 0x  0y  0z  0 . It is not an inconsistency, it is always true what ever values we
take for x, y, z. The system is consistent and if we assign any value  for y in the first equation, we get
x  1
2
 1
2
 . From the second we have z = 3. Thus x  1
2
 1
2
 , y =  and z = 3 is the solution of the
given system, where  is any real number. There are an infinite number of solutions, for example,
1
x= 2
, y = 0, z = 3
x = 0, y = 1, z = 3 and so on.
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In vector form the general solution of the given system is of the form ( 21  12  ,  , 3) where    . What
dose this represents in  3 ?

Remark: A system of linear equation AX  B is consistent iff the ranks of the coefficient matrix and the
augmented matrix are equal.
x1  x2  x4  1
Activity : Find the solution set of the system: x1  x 2  x3  2 .
x 2  x3  x 4  0
Exercise :
1. Find the solution set of the following system:
2 x1  x 2  3x3  1
x1  3x 2  5 x3  2 x 4  11
x1  x 2  2 x3  2
a. c. 3x1  2 x 2  7 x3  5 x 4  0
4 x1  3x 2  x3  3
2 x1  x 2  x 4  7
x1  5 x3  3
x1  2 x 2  3x3  x 4  0 x1  3x 2  2 x3  5 x 4  10
b. 3x1  x 2  5 x3  x 4  0 d. 3x1  2 x 2  5 x3  4 x 4  5
2 x1  x 2  x 4  0 2 x1  x 2  x3  5 x 4  5
x yz 6
2. For what values of  and  the system: x  2 y  3z  10 , has
x  2 y  z  
i. No solution ii. Unique solution iii. Infinitely many solution
3. Let M mxn = the set of all mxn matrices. Is Mmxn a vector space under matrix addition and scalar
multiplication?
 0 1    a b  
4. Let W    x   . Is W a subspace of M2x2 , where M 2 x 2    a, b, c, d   ?
 0 x    c d  
 0 x   a b  
5. Let W    x, y   . Is W a subspace of M2x2 , where M 2 x 2    a, b, c, d   ?
 0 y   c d  
3.2. Determinants
We interrupt our discussion of matrices to introduce the concept of the determinant function. Remember that
a matrix is simply an ordered arrangement of elements; it is meaningless to assign a single numerical value
to a matrix.
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However, if A is a square matrix, then the determinant function associates with A exactly one numerical
value called the determinant of A, that gives us valuable information about the matrix. By denoting the
determinant of A by A or det A we can think of the determinant function as correspondence:
A  A
square matrix det er min ant of A
In this case, the straight bars do NOT mean absolute value; they represent the determinant of the matrix. We
will see some of the uses of the determinant in the subsequent sections. For now, let's find out how to
compute the determinant of a matrix so that we can use it later.
Definition: (Determinant of order 1): Let A  a11  be a square matrix of order 1. Then determinant of A is
defined as the number a11 itself. That is, a11  a11 .
Example 3  3 ,  5  5 and 0  0
a11 a12 
Definition: (Determinant of order 2): Let  be a 2  2 matrix, then
a 21 a 22 
A  a11a 22  a12 a 21 .
That is, the determinant of a 2  2 matrix is obtained by taking the product of the entries in the main
diagonal and subtracting from it the product of the entries in the other diagonal.
To define the determinant of a square matrix A of order n(n > 2), we need the concepts of the minor and the
cofactor of an element.
Let A  a ij be a determinant of order n. The minor of aij, is the determinant that is left by deleting the ith
row and the jth column. It is denoted by Mij.

a11 a12 a13
For example, given the 3 x 3 determinant a 21 a 22 a 23 . The minor of a11 is
a 31 a 32 a 33
a 22 a 23 a 21 a 23
M 11  , the minor of a12 is M 12  , and so on.
a32 a33 a32 a33
Let A  a ij be a determinant of order n. The cofactor of aij denoted Cij or Aij, is defined as ( 1 )i  j M ij ,
where i + j is the sum of the row number i and column number j in which the entry lies. Thus
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a11 a12 a13

 M ij , if i  j is even
Cij   . For example, the cofactor of a12 in the 3 x 3 determinant a 21 a 22 a 23 is
 M ij , if i  j is odd
a 31 a 32 a 33
a 21 a 23 a 21 a 23
C 12  ( 1 )1  2  
a 31 a 33 a 31 a 33
 0 1 2
 
Example : Evaluate the cofactor of each of the entries of the matrix:  1 2 3 
3 1 1
 
Solution: C11 = -1, C21 = 1 , C31 = -1, C12 = 8, C13 = -5, C22 = -6, C32 = 2, C23 = 3, C33 = -1
Activity : Evaluate the cofactor of each of the entries of the given matrices:
2 3 4   2 0  1
   
a.  3 2 1  b.  5 1 0 
1 1  2 0 1 3 
   
Definition :( Determinant of order n): If A is a square matrix of order n (n >2), then its determinant may be
calculated by multiplying the entries of any row (or column) by their cofactors and summing the resulting
products. That is,
det A  ai1Ci1  ai 2 Ci 2  .....  ain Cin Or det A  a1 j C1 j  a2 j C2 j  .....  anjCnj
Remark: It is a fact that determinant of a matrix is unique and does not depend on the row or column chosen
for its evaluation.
1 3 4
Example : Find the value of 0 2 5
2 6 3
Solution: Choose a given row or column. Let us arbitrarily select the first row. Then
1 3 4
2 5 0 5 0 2
0 2 5  (1)  ( 3 )( 1 ) 4 = 1(6  30)  3(0  10)  4(0  4)
6 3 2 3 2 6
2 6 3
= 22
If we had expanded along the first column, then
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1 3 4
2 5 3 4
0 2 5  (1)  0  (2)  1(6  30)  2(15  8) = 22, as before
6 3 2 5
2 6 3
1 2 0 1
3 1 4 1
Example : Find the value of A 
2 0 3 3
4 3 1 2
Solution: Expanding along first row, we have
A  a11C11  a12 C12  a13C13  a14 C14 = a11M 11  a12 M 12  a13M 13  a14 M 14
1 4 1 3 4 1 3 1 4
= ( 1 ) 0  3 3  2  2  3 3  0  ( 1 )  2 0  3 = 54 – 94 + 13 = -27
3 1 2 4 1 2 4 3 1
Activity : Compute the determinant of A if:
1 3 5 1 5 0
   
a. A  2 1 1 c. A   2 4  1
 3 4 2 0  2 0 
   
 5 7 2 2   3 0 0 0
   
 0 3 0  4  5 2 0 0
b. A d. A  
5 8 0 3  8 3 1 0
   
 0 5 0  6   4 7 5 2 
 
Note: 1. det I n  1 , where I n is an identity matrix of order n.
2. det A  The product of the diagonal elements, if A is a diagonal matrix or lower triangular matrix or
upper triangular matrix.
The following diagram called Sarrus’ diagram, enables us to write the value of the determinant of order 3
very conveniently. This technique does not hold for determinant of
higher order.
Working Rule: Make the Sarrus’ diagram by repeating the first

two columns of the determinant as shown below. Then multiply
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the elements joined by arrows. Assign the positive sign to an expression if it is formed by a downward arrow
and negative sign to an expression if it is formed by an upward arrow.
Value: a11a22a33  a12a23a31  a13a21a32  a31a22a13  a32a23a11  a33a21a12
2 1 3
Example : Find the value of A  5 7 0 with the help of Sarrus’
4 1 6
diagram
Solution: The Sarrus’ diagram for the given determinant is to the
right. Thus the value of the determinant is
A  (2)(7)(6)  (1)(0)(4)  (3)(5)(1)  (4)(7)(3)  (1)(0)(2)  (6)(5)(1)  45

Exercise:
2 1 5
3 2 2 a
1) Evaluate the following determinants: a) b) c)  3 4  1
5 4 a 2
0 6 1
1 2 3 
 
2) Let A  4 5 4 . Determine each of the following
3 2 1
a) the minor of a21 b) the minor of a22 c) the cofactor of a22

d) the cofactor of a23 e) the cofactor of a32 .
Properties of Determinants
We now state some useful properties of determinants. These properties help a good deal in the evaluation of
determinants. We use the notations Ri and Cj to denote respectively the i-th row and the j-th column of a
determinant.
Property 1: The value of a determinant remains unchanged if rows are changed into columns and columns
into rows. That is,
a11 a12 a13 a11 a 21 a31
a 21 a 22 a 23  a12 a 22 a32 or det A  det At
a31 a32 a33 a13 a 23 a33
Remark: In terms of matrices, if A is a square matrix, then A  A' .
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Property 2: If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are interchanged, the value of the determinant so
obtained is the negative of the value of the original determinant. That is,
a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13
a 21 a 22 a 23   a31 a32 a33 .
a31 a32 a33 a 21 a 22 a 23
Remark: The notation Ri  R j ( C i  C j ) is used to represent interchange of ith and jth row (column).
Property 3: If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are identical, the value of the determinant is zero.
a1 b1 c1
That is, a1 b1 c1  0 . R1 and R2 are identical
a2 b2 c2
Property 4: If each element of a row (or column) of a determinant is multiplied by a constant k, the value of
the determinant so obtained is k times the value of the original determinant. That is,
a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13
ka 21 ka 22 ka 23  k a 21 a 22 a 23
a 31 a 32 a 33 a 31 a 32 a 33
Remark: 1. The notation Ri  k Ri ( C i  k C i ) is used to represent multiplication of each element of ith
row (column) by the constant k.

2. det(kA)  k n det A , where k is any real number and A is an nxn matrix.
Property 5: If to the elements of a row (or column) of a determinant are added k t imes the elements of
another row (or column), the value of the determinant so obtained is equal to the value of the original
determinant. That is,
a11 a12 a13 a11  ka 31 a12  ka 32 a13  ka 33
a 21 a 22 a 23  a 21 a 22 a 23
a 31 a 32 a 33 a 31 a 32 a 33
Property 6: If each element of a row (or column) of a determinant is the sum of two elements, the
determinant can be expressed as the sum of two determinants. That is,
a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13
a 21 a 22 a 23  a 21 a 22 a 23  a 21 a 22 a 23
a 31  b1 a 32  b2 a 33  b3 a 31 a 32 a 33 b1 b2 b3
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1 18 72
Example : Find the value of the determinant A  2 40 148
3 45 150
Solution: By applying various properties of determinants, we make maximum number of zeros in a row or a
column. We shall make maximum number of zeros in C 1 . Performing the operations R2  R2  2R1 and
R3  R3  2R1 (property 5),
1 18 72
4 4
A  0 4 4 = = 24 - 36 = -12
9 6
0 9 6
yz x y
Example : Show that z  x z x  ( x  y  z )( x  z )2
x y y z
yz x y
Solution: Let   z  x z x . Performing R1  R1  R2 , R1  R1  R3 , we get
x y y z
2( x  y  z ) x  y  z x yz 2 1 1
 zx z x = (x yz) z x z x
x y y z x y y z
Performing C1  C1  2C 2 and C 2  C 2  C 3 , we get
0 0 1
=  (x yz) xz zx x (Property 5)
x y yz z
= ( x  y  z )( x  z )2
Activity : Evaluate the following determinants by using the properties listed above:
1 3 1 2
3 1 43 2 4 6
2 5 1  2
a) 2 7 35 b) 7 9 11 c)
0 4 5 1
1 3 17 8 10 12
 3 10  6 8
Product of two determinants
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Theorem : The determinant of the product of two matrices of order n is the product of their determinants.
That is, AB  A B .
3 0  2 5  3 0 2 5
Example : Let A    and B    , then AB  A B   (3)(3)  9
4 1  1 4  4 1 1 4
Example : Let A and B be 3x3 matrix with det A = 2 and det B = -3.
Find det (2ABt ).
Solution: det(2 AB t )  23 det A det B t  8(2)(3)  48 , since det B = det Bt .
Adjoint and Inve rse of a matrix
Definition: Let A = (aij) be a square matrix of order n and let C ij be the cofactor of aij. Then the adjoint of
A, denoted by adj A, is defined as the transpose of the cofactor matrix (C ij).
 1 2 3
 
Example: Find adj A, if A   1 0 1
 4 3 2
Solution: We have C11 =-3, C12 =6, C13 = -3, C21 =5, C22 =-10, C23 =5, C31 =2,C32 =-4, C33 =2.
 3 5 2
 
Thus, adj A   6  10  4 .
 3 5 2 
1 5 0
 
Activity: Find adj A if A  2 4  1
0  2 0 
Properties of the Adjoint of a matrix

1. If A is a square matrix of order n, then
A(adj A) = |A| In = (adj A)A, where In is an identity matrix of order n.
2. If A is a square matrix of order n, then adj ( A' )  ( adjA )'
3. If A and B are two square matrices of the same order, then
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adj(AB) = adj(B) adj (A).
 2 1 3
Example : If A   2 0 1 , verify that A(adjA) = |A| I3 = (adjA)A
 4 5 6 
Solution: We have |A| = 2(-5)-1(12+4)+3(10) = -10 – 16 + 30 = 4

Now C11 =-5, C12 =-16, C13 =10, C21 = 9, C22 =24, C23 =-14, C31 =1, C32 =4, C33 =-2.
 5 9 1
Therefore, 
adj A   16 24 4 
 10  14  2
 2 1 3   5 9 1 4 0 0  1 0 0 
   0 4 0   4 0 1 0   A I
Hence A( adjA )   2 0 1  16 24 4
=     3
 4 5 6   10  14  2 0 0 4  0 0 1
Similarly, it can be proved that ( adjA ) A  A I 3
Definition : Let A be a square matrix of order n. Then a square matrices B of order n, if it exists, is called an
inve rse of A if AB = BA = In . A matrix A having an inverse is called an inve rtible matrix. It may easily be
seen that if a matrix A is invertible, its inverse is unique. The inverse of an invertible matrix A is denoted by
A-1 .
Does every square matrix possess an inverse? To answer this let us consider the matrix
0 0 
A  . If B is any square matrix of order 2, we find that AB = BA = 0.
0 0 
We thus see that there cannot be any matrix B for which AB and BA both are equal to I2 . Therefore A is not
invertible. Hence, we conclude that a square matrix may fail to have an inverse. However, if A is a square
matrix such that A  0 , then A is invertible and
1
A1  adj A . For, we know that A( adjA )  ( adiA ) A  A I n
A
 1   1  1 1
A adjA    adjA  A  I n . Thus A is invertible and A  adjA .
 A   A  A
   
A square matrix A is said to be singular (not invertible) if A  0 , and it is called non-singular (inve rtible)
if A  0 .
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6 7  1
Example : Find  if the matrix A  3  5  has no inverse.
9 11  
Solution: 6(2  55)  7(3  45)  (33  9 )  0
 2  2  8  0
 (  2)(  4)  0
   2 or   4
3 1 2
 
Example : If A  2  3  1 , then A  3( 3  2 )  1( 2  1 )  2( 4  3 )  8
1 2 1 
Since A  0 , A is non-singular or invertible.
Activity : Find A-1 .
2 0 0 
 
Further, if B  3  1 4  then B  0 and it is singular.
5  2 8 
1
Note: If A is an invertible nxn matrix, then AA-1 = In and det A-1 = , where det A  0 .
det A
Properties of the inverse of a matrix
1. A square matrix is invertible if and only if it is non-singular.

2. The inverse of the inverse is the original matrix itself, i.e. A  1 )1  A 
3. The inverse of the transpose of a matrix is the transpose of its inverse, i.e.,
At 1  A1 t

4. If A and B are two invertible matrices of the same order, then AB is also invertible and moreover,
 AB 1  B 1 A1
 4  2 1
 
Example : Find the inverse of the matrix A= 7 3 3 .
2 0 1
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1
Solution: A  ( 4 )( 3 )  ( 2 )( 1 )  1( 6 )  8  0 . Thus A 1 exists and is given by A  1  adjA . To
A
find adjA, let Cij denote the cofactor of aij, the element in the ith row and jth column of |A|. Thus C 11 =3, C12
3 2  9
= -1, C13 =-6, C21 = 2, C22 =2, C23 =-4, C31 =-9 C32 =-5 and C33 =26. adj A    1 2  5 . Hence

 6  4 16 
 3 2  9
adj A    1 2  5 
1 1
A1 
A 8
 6  4 16 
 1 4 0
a b   
Activity: 1. Find the inverse of A, if i) A    ii) A   1 2 2
c d   0 0 2
 3 4  2 8 
2. Find matrix A such that A  .
6 2 9 4 
3. If AX  b then X  A1b . (True/False)
Cramer’s rule for solving system of linear equations (homogeneous and non homogeneous)
Suppose we have to solve a system of n linear equations in n unknowns Ax = b. Let Ai (b) be the matrix
obtained from A by replacing column i by the vector b and Ak be the k-th column vector of matrix A.
Now let e 1 , e2 , . . . en be columns of the n × n identity matrix I and Ii (x) be the matrix obtained from I by
replacing column i by x.
If Ax = b then by using matrix multiplication we have
AIi (x) = A[e 1 . . . x . . . en ] = [Ae 1 . . . Ax . . . Aen ]
= [A1 . . . b . . . An ] = Ai (b)
By the multiplicative property of determinants, (detA)(detIi (x)) = det Ai (b)
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The second determinant on the left is x i. (Make a cofactor expansion along the ith row.) Hence (det A). x i =
det A i (b)
det Ai (b). Therefore if detA  0 then we have x i  .
det A
This method for finding the solutions of n linear equations in n unknowns is known as Cramer’s Rule.
Example : Solve the following system of linear equations by Cramer’s Rule.
2x1  x 2  x 3  6
x1  4x 2  2x 3   4
3x1  x3  7
Solution: Matrix form of the given system is Ax  b
 2 1 1   x1   6 
     
where A   1 4  2  x   x2  and b    4
3 0 1  x   7 
   3  
det A i (b)
By Cramer’s Rule, x i  (i  1, 2, 3)
det A
2 1 1
det A  1 4  2  3
3 0 1
6 1 1 2 6 1
4 4 2 1 4 2
det A1 (b) 7 0 1 6 det A2 (b) 3 7 1 3
x1    2 , x2     1 and
det A 2 3 det A 2 3
2 1 6
1 4 4
det A3 (b) 3 0 7 3
x3     1.
det A 2 3
Example : Solve the following system of linear equations by Cramer’s Rule.
2 x1  x 2 7
 3x1  2 x3   8
x 2  2 x3   3
Solution: Matrix form of the given system is Ax  b
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 2 1 0  x1   7 
     
where A    3 0 1  x   x2  and b    8
 0 1 2 x    3
   3  
det A i (b)
By Cramer’s Rule, x i  (i  1, 2, 3)
det A
2 1 0
det A   3 0 1  4
0 1 2
7 1 0 2 7 0
8 0 1 3 8 1
det A1 (b)  3 1 2 6 3 det A2 (b) 0 3 2 16
x1     , x2    4 and
det A 4 4 2 det A 4 4
2 1 7
3 0 8
det A3 (b) 0 1 3  14  7
x3     .
det A 4 4 2
Activity 1: Use Cramer’s rule to solve each of the following
a) 2z + 3 = y + 3x b) –a + 3b – 2c = 7
x – 3z = 2y + 1 3a + 3c = -3
3y + z = 2-2x 2a + b + 2c = -1
2. Consider the system of homogeneous n linear equations in n unknowns Ax = 0. Discuss about the cases
that we can use Cramer’s Rule.
For the non homogeneous system Ax  b , if det A  0 , then the Cramer’s rule does not give any
information whether or not the system has a solution. However, in the case of homogeneous system we have
the following useful theorem.
Theorem : A system of n homogenous linear equations in n unknowns Ax = 0, has a non trivial solution if
det A  0 . If det A  0, it has only the trivial solution x1 = x2 = … = xn = 0.
 6 7  1
 
Example : Let A   3  5  . Find the value(s) of  if Ax  0 has non- zero solution.
 9 11  
 
Solution: det A = 0
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6 7 1
 3  5 0
9 11 
 6(2  55)  7(3  45)  (33  9 )  0
 2  2  8  0
 (  2)(  4)  0 or   2,   4
REMARK:
1. If A is a 2x2 matrix, the area of the parallelogram determined by the columns of A is det A.
2. If A is a 3x3 matrix, the volume of the parallelepiped determined by the columns of A is det A.
CHAPTER 4
Limits and Continuity
4.1 Limits and Continuity
4.1 Limit of a function
Introduction: The concept of limit and continuity play a fundamental role throughout the calculus.
The basic idea underlying the concept of the limit of a function at a point is to study the behavior of
at points close to but not necessarily equal to .
Example
Study the behavior of at
Solution
Let us investigate the behavior of the function defined by for values of x near to 2.
The following table gives values of for values of close to 2 but not equal to 2.
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From the above table and the graph of , we see that when is close to 2 (on either side of 2), is close
to 4. We express this by saying
The notation for this is
Limit
We write
Usually read as
If we can make the values of arbitrarily close to L (as close to L as we like) by
Taking to be sufficiently close to but not equal to .
Left-hand limit
We write
Usually read as
if we can make the values of
arbitrarily close to L by taking to be sufficiently close to and less than
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Right-hand limit
We write
Usually read as
if we can make the values of
arbitrarily close to L by taking to be sufficiently close to and greater than
Graphical representation of Left-hand limit and Right-hand limit
By comparing limit definition with Left-hand limit and Right-hand limit, the following is true.
Example
The graph of a function is shown in the following figure. Use it to state the values (if exist) of the
following:
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Solution
From the given graph
Since the left and right limits are different, so we conclude that does not exist.
The graph also shows that
This time the left and right limits are same, so we have
4.1 Formal definition of limit
Let be a function defined on some open interval that contains the number
, except possibly at itself. Then we say that the limit of as
approaches is L, and we write
if for every number there is a corresponding number such that
Example
Prove that
Solution
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Step1: Preliminary analysis of the problem (guessing a value for )
Let be a given positive number. We want to find a number such that
But Therefore we want
that is,
This suggests that we should choose .
Step2: Proof (showing that the works).
Given , choose . If then
Thus
Therefore, by the definition of a limit,
4.2 One-sided limits
Left-hand limit
Right-hand limit
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Example
Use definition to prove that
Solution
Step1: Guessing a value for
Let be a positive number. Here and so we want to find a number such that
that is,
Squaring both sides of the inequality we get
This suggests that we should choose
Step2: Showing that works
Given , let . If , then
So
Thus
According to definition, this shows that
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4.3 Infinite limits
Let be a function defined on some open interval that contains the number , except
possibly at itself. Then
means that for every positive number M there is a corresponding number
such that
This says that the value of can be made arbitrarily
large (larger than any given number M) by taking close
enough to (within a distance , where depends on M).
The geometrical representation is shown in the following
figure.
Given any horizontal line y = M, we can find a number
such that if we restrict to lie in the interval
then the curve lies above the line
we can see that if a large M is chosen, then a smaller

may be required.
Similarly
Let be a function defined on some open interval that contains the number , except
possibly at itself. Then
means that for every negative number N there is a corresponding number
such that
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The graphical representation can be seen
in the following figure. This says that the value of
become large negative as gets close to ‘ ’.
Given any horizontal line y = N, we can find a number
such that if we restrict x to lie in the interval
, then the curve lies below the
Line y = N.
Example
Solution
Step 1: Guessing a value for
Given , we want to find such that
that is,
or
This suggest that we should take
Step 2: Showing that this works.

If is given, let
If then
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Thus
Therefore, by definition,
4.4 Limits at Infinity
Definition 1
Let be a function defined on some interval Then
means that for every there is a corresponding number N such that
The graphical representation can be seen in the following figure. It illustrates
Definition 2
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Let be a function defined on some interval Then
means that for every there is a corresponding number N such that
The geometrical representation can be seen in the following figure. It illustrates
Example
Solution
Step 1: guessing a value for N
Given , we want to find N such that
In computing the limit we assume , then we get
Therefore we want
This suggest that we should take
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Step 2: Proof (showing that N works)
Given , we choose
Let Then
Thus
Therefore, by definition we proved
4.5 Basic limit theorems

Theorem 1: Limit of a function is unique whenever the limit exists.
Proof: Let
If possible, suppose that
Let us take
Since then
By definition for there exists such that
--------------- (1)
Since then
By definition for there exists such that
-------------- (2)
Let
Thus from (1) and (2), for there exists such that and
Now
Therefore This is absurd.
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Therefore our assumption that is wrong.
Therefore
Therefore is unique.
So the limit of a function is unique whenever the limit exist is proved.
Theorem 2: If then show that

Proof: for any given there exists such that
We have
Therefore proved
Theorem 3: (Sum Rule)
If and both exist, then
Proof: Let be given. We must find such that
Using the triangle inequality, we can write
---------------- (1)
We make less than by making each of the terms and
less than
Since and , there exists a number such that
Similarly, since , there exists a number such that
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Let . Notice that
If
and also
Therefore, by (1),
Therefore,
Thus, by the definition of a limit,
Theorem 4: (Product Rule)

Proof: Let be given. We must find such that
In order to get terms that contains and , we add and subtract as

follows:
(by triangle inequality)
We want to make each of these terms less than

Since there is a number such that
Also there is a number such that if then
and therefore
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Let . If then we have

and , so we can combine the inequalities to obtain
This shows that
Theorem 5: (Quotient Rule)
Proof: First let us show that
To do this we must show that, given there exists such that
Observe that
We know that we can make the numerator small. But we also need to know that the denominator
is not small when is near Since , there is a number such that,
whenever we have
and therefore
This shows that
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and so, for these values of
Also, there exists such that
Let Then, for we have
It follows that Finally, using product rule, we obtain
Theorem 6: Suppose that is a constant and the limits and

both exist, then
Proof: If we take in product law, we get
Theorem 7: (Difference Rule)

Proof: Use sum rule and product rule with we have
Therefore,
Theorem 8: (Squeeze theorem)
Statement: If for all in an open interval that contains (except possibly
at ) and
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Proof: Let be given. Since there is a number such that
that is,
that is,
Let If then and so
In particular,
and so Therefore,
Example
Find and justify each step.
Solution
(by sum and difference rule)
(by product rule)
.
Example
Find and justify each step.
Solution
(by quotient rule)
(by sum, difference & product rule)
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Example
Show that
Solution
First note that we cannot use
because does not exist. However, since
Then we have
We know that
Taking in the squeeze theorem, we obtain
Example
Find
Solution: because
through negative values as (Note that
4.6 Formal definition of continuity
Note that the above definition implicitly requires three things if is continuous at
i. (i.e., is in the domain of )

ii. exists
iii.
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If is not continuous at , we say that is discontinuous at , or has discontinuity at .
Example
Show that the function
Solution
Given
i.
ii.
iii.
Therefore is continuous at
Example
Show that is discontinuous at where
Solution
i.
ii.
iii. But
Therefore, the function is not continuous at 2.
4.6 One-sided continuity
A function is continuous from the right at a numbe r if
and is continuous from the left at if
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Definition
A function is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at every number in the

interval. (At an endpoint of the interval we understand continuous to mean continuous
from the right or continuous from the left).
Example
Show that the function is continuous on the interval

Solution
If , then using the limit rules, we have
Thus, by definition is continuous at if .
We must also calculate the right-hand limit at and the left-

hand limit at .
So is continuous from the right at .
Similarly,
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So is continuous from the left at .
Therefore, according to above definition, is continuous on
The graph of is sketched in above figure. It is the lower half of the circle
Theorem: If and are continuous at and is a constant, then the following functions
are also continuous at :
Theorem
i. Any polynomial is continuous everywhere; that is, it is continuous on
ii. Any rational function is continuous wherever it is defined; that is, it is

Continuous on its domain.
Theorem
If is continuous at and is continuous at then is
continuous at .
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Theorem
If is a positive even integer, then is continuous on
If is a positive odd integer, then is continuous on .
4.7 The Intermediate Value Theorem
Suppose that is continuous on the closed interval and

let be any number strictly between and . Then
there exists a number in such that
The Intermediate value theorem states that a continuous function takes on every intermediate value
between the
function values . It is illustrated in the following figure.
Example
Let . Find a real number with such that
Solution
Here , and
So
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Example
Let . Find a real number with such that

Solution
is continuous on since it is polynomial function.
Also, since
Therefore, there exist a number with such that
. But hence
CHAPTER 5
5.1 Definition of Derivative
The derivative of a function at a number , denoted by is
if this limit exists.
If we write then and approaches if and only if approaches

Therefore an equivalent way of stating the definition of the derivative, is
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Example
Find the derivative of the function at the number
Solution
From definition of derivative, we have
Therefore,
Geometric interpretation of derivative as a slope of tangent

The tangent line to is the line through whose slope is equal to , the
derivative of at
Thus the geometric interpretation of a derivative is shown in the following figure.
Using the point-slope form of the equation of a line, we have the following:
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If exists, then an equation of the tangent line to the curve at the point
is
Example
Find an equation of the tangent line to the parabola at the point
Solution
From definition of derivative, we have
Therefore,
Therefore the slope of the tangent line at is
Thus the equation of the tangent line, shown in the following

Figure, is
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The derivative as a function

If we replace by in the above definition, we obtain
Example
Find if
Solution
5.2 Differentiable functions

If we use the traditional notation to indicate that the independent variable is and
the dependent variable is , then some common alternative notations for the derivative are as follows:
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The symbols and are called differentiation operators because they indicate the operation of
differentiation. Which is the process of calculating a derivative.
Consider and find the derivative of at (1, ∞). Since 1 is the left end point of domain of
we can not apply the definition of derivative her. Thus is evaluated as from the
right of 1 and we call it right- side derivative of , defined by .
The right-side derivative of any function at the point (a, f(a)) is defined by .
Similarly the left-side derivative of at the point (a, f(a)) is defined by .
Example: Find the derivative of = at the point (1, 1).
Solution: the function changes its direction suddenly at the point (1,1), we use left and right side derivative.
Left side derivative: = = =
= =2
Right side derivative: = = =0
Then the left side derivative 2 and the right side derivative 0 are not equal.
Therefore the derivative of at x = 1 does not exist.
Definition:
i, A function is differentiable on some open interval (a, b)if and only if is
differentiable at every point on (a, b).
ii, A function is differentiable on an closed interval if and only if is
differentiable at every point on (a, b) and and exists.
Example: Compute the derivative of i,
ii,
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Theorem: If is differentiable at , then is continuous at but converse is not true
For example, the function is continuous at 0 but it is not differentiable at 0.

but it is not differentiable at 0.
Differentiation Formulas
If is a constant function, then
Example
Find , if
Solution
Given is a constant function. So
The Power Rule: If where is a positive integer, then
Example
Find
Solution
Example
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If , find the equation of the tangent to the graph of at the point
Solution
The slope is which we calculate as follows:
Therefore the equation of the tangent at (1, 1) is
5.3 Derivatives of sum, product, and quotient

Theorem 1: Suppose is a constant and exist. If then
exists and
Proof
Theorem 2: Suppose exist. If then exists and
Proof
Theorem 3: Suppose exist. If H then exists and
Proof
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We can prove similarly like above theorem.
Theorem 4: (Product rule)

If and both exists, then
Or In short
Proof
Theorem 5: If and both exists, then exists and
where
Proof
We can separate in this expression by adding and subtracting the term in the
numerator:
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Theorem 6: If , where is a positive integer, then

Proof
Example
Find if
Solution
By the product rule, we have
Example
Let then
Solution
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5.4 Chain Rule
If and are both differentiable functions, then
Example
Find
Solution
Let
Let then
Example
If where , find at
Solution
Using the Chain Rule, we have
When , so
The Power Rule Combined with the Chain Rule

If is any real number and is differentiable, then
Alternatively,
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Example
Differentiate
Solution: Taking and , we have
5.5 Implicit Differentiation

This consists of differentiating both sides of the relation with respect to x and then solving the resulting
equation for
Example
(a) If find .
(b) Find the equation of the tangent to the circle at the point (3, 4).
Solution
(a) Differentiate both sides of the equation
--------------- (1)
Remembering that y is a function of x and using the Chain rule, we have
---------------- (2) substitute in (1)
Thus,
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Now we solve this equation for
(b) At the point (3,4) we have so
An equation of the tangent to the circle at (3, 4) is therefore
or
Example
Find .
Solution
Differentiating implicitly with respect to x and remembering that y is a function of x.
By using Chain Rule on the left side and the Product Rule and Chain Rule on the right side,
we get:
Collect the terms that involve , we get
So
5.6 Higher order derivatives

If the derivative of a differentiable function is itself differentiable then the derivative of is denoted
by and is called the second derivative of .
As long as we have differentiability, we can continue the process of differentiating derivatives to obtained
third, fourth, fifth order and so on higher derivatives of . The successive derivatives of denoted by
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Example
If
Solution:
Example: If then find
Solution: Given
.
Example
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The equation of motion of a particle is where is measured in centimeters and
in seconds. Find the acceleration as a function of time. What is the acceleration after 2s?
Solution
The velocity and acceleration are
The acceleration after 2 s is

Example
Find
Solution
The first few derivatives of are as follows:
We see that the successive derivative occur in a cycle of length 4 and, in particular,
Therefore,
and, differentiating three more times, we have
Related Rates
In a related rates problem the idea is to compute the rate of change of one quantity in terms of the rate of
change of another quantity (which may be more easily measured). The following procedure is to find an
equation that relates the two quantities and then use the Chain Rule to differentiate both sides with
respect to time.
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i. Read the problem carefully
ii. Draw a diagram if possible
iii. Introduce notation. Assign symbols to all quantities that are functions of time
iv. Express the given information and the required rate in terms of derivatives
v. Write an equation that relates the various quantities of the problem. If necessary, use the geometry
of the situation to eliminate one of the variables by substitution
vi. Use the Chain Rule to differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to
vii. Substitute the given information into the resulting equation and solve for the unknown rate.
Example
A ladder 10 ft long rests against a vertical wall. If the bottom of the ladder slides away from the wall at a
rate of 1 , how fast is the top of the ladder sliding down the wall when the bottom of the ladder is 6 ft
from the wall?
Solution
We first draw a diagram and label it as in the following figure.
Let meters be the distance from the bottom of the ladder to

the wall and meters the distance from the top of the ladder to
the ground.
Note that and are both functions of (time).
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Given that and we need to find when
In this problem, the relationship between and is given by the Pythagorean Theorem:
Differentiating each side with respect to using the Chain Rule, we have
and solving this equation for the desired rate, we obtain
When , the Pythagorean Theorem gives and so, substituting these values and
and we have
Example
A water tank has the shape of an inverted circular cone with base radius 2 m and height 4 m. If water is
being pumped into the tank at a rate of 2 , find the rate at which the water level is rising when the
water is 3 m deep.
Solution
We first sketch the cone and label it as in the following figure.
Let V be the volume of the water,
be the radius of the surface,
be the height at time , where is measured in minutes.
Given that and we need to find
When is 3 m.
The quantities V and h are related by the equation
But it is very useful to express V as a function of h alone. In order to

eliminate r we use the similar triangles to write
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and the expression for V becomes
Now we can differentiate each side with respect to r:
so
substituting and we have
5.7a)Derivatives of Trigonometric functions
Example
Calculate
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Solution
Example
If then find
Solution
Example
Differentiate
Solution
Using the product rule, we have
Example
Differentiate
Solution
By using Quotient rule, we have
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5.7b) Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Example
Differentiate
Solution
Example
Differentiate
Solution
5.7c) Derivatives of Exponential Functions
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Example
Differentiate
Solution
Let then we have
By Chain Rule, we have
Example
Find if
Solution
Given
By using product rule, we have
5.7d) Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions
Example
Differentiate
Solution: Let . Then
By using Chain Rule, we have
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Example
Find
Solution
Let then
Example
Find
Solution
Let , then
Example
Find if .
Solution
Since
It follows that
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Thus
Therefore
5.7e) Derivative of the general exponential function
Example
Find
Solution
5.7f) Logarithmic Differentiation
Steps in Logarithmic Differentiation

1.Take logarithms of both sides of an equation
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2.Differentiate implicitly with respect to x
3.Solve the resulting equation for
Example
Differentiate
Solution
Use logarithmic differentiation, we have
Example
Differentiate
Solution
We take logarithms of both sides of the equation
Differentiating implicitly with respect to gives
Solving for we get
Example Find given , for
Solution: Using the result z = (apply exponential differentiation)
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= = power law of logarithm
= logarithmic differentiation and Chain rule
= Substitute for
5.7g) Hyperbolic Functions
Definition of the Hyperbolic Functions
Hype rbolic Identities
Example
Prove (a)
Solution
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(a)
(b) We know the hyperbolic identity
If we divide both sides by we get
or
5.7h) Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions
Example:
Prove that
Solution:
By definition of the Hyperbolic Function,
Then
= -
=
=
Therefore, .
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5.7i) Derivatives of Inverse Hyperbolic Function
Example
Prove that
Solution
Let . Then
If we differentiate this equation implicitly with respect to , we get
Since and
we have , so
Example
Find
Solution
By using Inverse Hyperbolic Functions and the Chain Rule, we have
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CHAPTER 6
6.1 Extreme values of functions
A function f has an absolute maximum at c if for all x

in D, where D is the domain of f. The number f(c) is called the
maximum value of f on D.
Similarly, f has an absolute minimum at c if f(c) f(x) for all x in D
and the number f(c) is called the minimum value of f on D.
The maximum and minimum values of f are called the extreme values
of f.
The following figure shows the graph of a function with

absolute maximum at and absolute minimum at . Note that
(d, f(d)) is the highest point on the graph and (a, f(a)) is the
lowest point.
If we consider only values of near [for instance, if we
restrict our attention to the interval ], then is the
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largest of those values of and is called a local maximum
value of f. Likewise, is called a local minimum value of f because for x near c
[in the interval , for instance]. The function f also has a local minimum at
In general we have the following definition.
A function f has a local maximum (or relative maximum) at c if

there is an open interval I containing c such that f(c) f(x) for all
x in I.
Similarly, f has a local minimum at c if there is an open interval
I containing c such that f(c) f(x) for all x in I.
Example
The function takes on its (local and absolute)
maximum value of 1 infinitely many times, since for any integer n and for all x.
Likewise, is its minimum value, where n is any
integer.
Example
If then because
Therefore is the absolute (and local) minimum value of It
is the fact that the origin is the lowest point on the Parabola
(see in the following figure). However, there is no highest point on
Mini mum val ue 0, no maxi mum
the parabola and so this function has no maximum value.
Example
From the graph of the function , (shown in following figure), we see that this function has neither
an absolute maximum value nor an absolute minimum value. In fact, it has no local extreme values either.
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6.2 The Extreme Value Theorem
If f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b], then f attains an absolute maximum value f(c)
and an absolute minimum value f(d) at some numbers c and d in [a, b].
This can be seen in the following figure.
Example
The function
Is defined on the closed interval [0, 2] but has no maximum value. Note that the range of f is the interval [0,
1). The function takes on values arbitrarily close to 1 but never actually attains the value 1. This does not
contradict the Extreme Value Theorem because f is not continuous on [0, 2]. In fact, it has a discontinuity at
Fermat’s Theorem
If has a local extremum (that is, maximum or minimum) at and if exists, then
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Critical number
A critical number of a function f is a number c in the domain of f such that either

does not exist.
Example
Find the critical numbers of
Solution
By using the product rule, we have
Therefore, and doesn’t exist when .
Thus the critical numbers are and 0.
Use the following steps to find absolute maximum and minimum values
To find the absolute maximum and minimum values of a continuous function f on a closed
interval [a, b]:
1. Find the values of f at the critical numbers of f in (a, b).
2. Find the values of f (a) and f (b).
3. The largest of the values from steps 1 and 2 is the absolute maximum value; the
smallest of these values is the absolute minimum value.
Example
Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of the function
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Solution
Since f is continuous on [ , we can use the
above procedure to find absolute maximum and

minimum values
Since exsts for all , the only critical numbers of f occur
when
Note that each of these critical numbers lies in the interval [ .
The values of f at these critical numbers are
The values of f at the endpoints of the interval are
By comparing these four numbers, we see that the absolute maximum value is and
the absolute minimum values is .
Note that in this example the absolute maximum occurs at an endpoint, whereas the absolute minimum
occurs at a critical number. We can see the graph of f in the above figure.
6.3 The Mean Value Theorem and its Application
Many of the results of this chapter depend on one central fact, which is called the Mean Value Theore m.
But to arrive at the Mean Value Theorem we first need the
following result:
Rolle’s Theorem
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Let be a function that satisfies the following three hypotheses:
1. is continuous on the closed interval
2. is differentiable on the open interval
3.
Then there is a number in such that
Proof
The following graph shows some functions that satisfy the above three hypotheses. In each case it appears
that there is at least one point on the graph where the tangent is horizontal and therefore
Thus Rolle’s Theorem is plausible.
There are three cases:

Case 1:
Then so the number can be taken to be any number in
Case 2: for some in [as in Figure 1(b) or 1 (c)]
By the extreme Value Theorem (which we can apply by hypothesis 1) has a maximum value somewhere
in . Since , it must attain this maximum value at a number in the open interval .
Then has a local maximum at and, by hypothesis 2, is differentiable at . Therefore , by
Fermat’s Theorem.
Case 3: for some in [as in Figure 1(c) or (d)]
By the Extreme Value Theorem, has a minimum value in and, since , it attains this
minimum value at a number in . Again by Fermat’s Theorem
Example
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Verify Rolle’s Theorem for the function in
Solution
Let
Since is a polynomial in hence is continuous in
It is obvious that exists in
Therefore, satisfies all the conditions of Rolle’s Theorem

Let
Therefore,
Thus Rolle’s Theorem is verified.
The Mean Value Theorem
Let be a function that satisfies the following hypotheses:

1. is continuous on the closed interval
2. is differentiable on the open interval
Then there is a number in such that
equivalently,
Proof
Define a function as ----------------- (1)
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Where A is a constant to be determined such that
----------------- (2)
From , we have
Therefore ---------------------- (3)
Since is continuous in and A is constant.

Therefore, from (1), is continuous in
Since is differentiable in is derivable and A is a constant
Therefore, from (1), is derivable in
Also from (2), we have
Therefore, satisfies all the conditions of Rolle’s Theorem.
there exists
------------------------ (4)
By substituting (3) in (4), we get
Example
Verify Mean Value Theorem for the function in
Solution
Since is a polynomial in it is continuous in

Also
exists in
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Hence Mean Value Theorem is verified.
6.3 Monotonic Functions

In sketching the graph of a function it is very useful to know where it rises and where it falls. The graph
shown in following figure rises from to , falls from to , and rises again from to . The function is
said to be increasing on the interval [ ], decreasing on [ ], and increasing again on [ ]. Note that if
and are any two numbers between and with , then . We use this as the
defining property of an increasing function.
Definition
A function is called increasing on an interval if
whenever in
It is called decreasing on if
whenever in
A function that is increasing or decreasing on is called monotonic on .
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Test for Monotonic Functions
Suppose is continuous on and differentiable on .

(a) If for all in ( ), then is increasing on [ ].
(b) If for all in ( ), then is decreasing on [ ].
Example
Find where the function is increasing and where it is decreasing.
Solution
To use the Test for Monotonic Functions we have to know

and where
This depends on the signs of the three factors of
We divide the real line into intervals whose endpoints are

the critical numbers -1, 0, and 2 and arrange our work in a
chart. A plus sign indicates that the given expression is
positive, and a minus sign indicates that it is negative.
The last column of the chart gives the conclusion based on the
Test for Monotonic Functions. From this information and the values of at the critical numbers, the graph
is sketched in above figure.
Interval
decreasing on (
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increasing on
decreasing on
increasing on
6.4 First and Second Derivative Tests
The First Derivative Test
Suppose that is a critical number of a continuous function

(a) If changes from positive to negative at then has
a local (relative) maximum at
(b) If changes from negative to positive at , then has
a local (relative) minimum at
(c) If does not change sign at (that is, is positive on
both sides of or negative on both sides), then has
no local extremum at
Example
Find the local (relative) extrema of and
sketch its graph.
Solution
First we find the critical numbers of
The derivative when that is,
Also does not exist when .
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So the critical numbers are and 1.
Next we set up a chart, dividing the real line into intervals with the critical numbers as end points.
Interval
increasing on
decreasing on
increasing on
The Second Derivative Test
Suppose is continuous on an open interval that

contains
(a) If and then has a
relative (local) minimum at
(b) If and then has a
relative (local) maximum at
(c) If and then there will
be no conclusion about the extreme value of
at
Example
Let using the second derivative test,
find the relative extreme values of
Solution
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We have only two extreme values of
has relative maximum value at
has relative minimum value at
Note that
6.5 Concavity and Inflection points
Concavity
If the graph of lies above all of its tangents on an interval , then it is called concave
upward on . If the graph of lies below all of its tangents on , it is called concave
downward on .
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In the above figure tangents are drawn at several points. In the curve lies above the tangents and is
called on . In the curve lies below the tangents and is called
on
The test for Concavity
Suppose is twice differentiable on an interval .

(a) If for all in , then the graph of is concave upward on .
(b) If for all in , then the graph of is concave downward on .
Point of Inflection
A point on a curve is called a point of inflection if the curve changes from concave
upward to concave downward or from concave downward to concave upward at .
Example
Determine where the curve is concave upward and where it is concave downward. Find
the inflection points and sketch the curve.
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Solution
If then
Since when ,
the critical numbers are ±1. Also
⇔ ⇔ ⇔
⇔ ⇔ or
Therefore f is increasing on the intervals and
[1, and is decreasing on [ .
By the First Derivative Test, is a local maximum
value and is a local minimum value.
To determine the concavity we compute the second
derivative:
Thus when and when .

The Test for Concavity then tells us that the curve is concave downward on ( ) and
concave upward on ( .
Since the curve changes from concave downward to concave upward when
the point ( ) is a point of inflection.
We used this information to sketch the curve in above Figure.
Example
Discuss the curve with respect to concavity, points of inflection, and local extrema. Use this
information to sketch the curve.
Solution
If , then
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To find the critical numbers we set and

obtain and .
To use the Second Derivative Test we evaluate at
these critical numbers:
Since and is a
local minimum.
Since the Second Derivative Test gives no
information about the critical number . But since for
and also for the First Derivative Test tells us that
does not have a local extremum at .
Since when or , we divide the real line into intervals with these numbers as endpoints
and complete the following chart.
Interval Concavity
upward
downward
upward
The point is an inflection point since the curve changes from concave upward to concave downward
there.
Also is an inflection point since the curve changes from concave downward to concave upward
there.
Using the local minimum, the intervals of concavity, and the inflection points, we sketch the curve in the
above Figure.
6.6 Curve Sketching

Apply the following procedure for Sketching a Curve
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A. Domain: The first step is to determine the domain of , that is, the set of values of for which
is defined.
B. Intercepts: The - intercept is and tells us where the curve intersects the -axis. To find the -
intercepts, we set and solve for .
C. Symmetry: (i) If for all in , that is, the
equation of the curve is unchanged when is replaced by
– , then is an even function and the curve is symmetric

about the -axis. This means that our work is cut in half. If
we know what the curve looks like for , then we need
only reflect about the -axis to obtain the complete curve
(see in the Figure (a)). Here are some examples: and .
(ii) If for all in , then is an odd function and the curve is symmetric about the
origin. Again we can obtain the complete curve if we
know what it looks like for [see in the
figure(b)]. Some simple examples of odd functions are
and .
(iii) If for all in , where is a
positive constant, then is called a periodic function
and the smallest such number is called the period.
For instance, has period and has period . If we know what the graph looks
like in an interval of length , then we can use translation to sketch the entire graph (see in the
following Figure).
D. Asymptotes:
(i) Horizontal Asymptotes. if either or then the line
is a horizontal asymptote of the curve
If it turns out that (or , then we do not have an asymptote to the right, but
that is still useful information for sketching the curve.
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(ii) Vertical Asymptotes. The line is a vertical asymptote if at least one of the following
statements is true:
(For rational functions you can locate the vertical asymptotes by equating the denominator to 0 after
canceling any common factors. But for other functions this method does not apply.) Furthermore, in
sketching the curve it is very useful to know exactly which of the above statements is true. If is not
defined but is an endpoint of the domain of , then you should compute or ,
whether or not this limit is infinite.
E. Intervals of Increase or Decrease: Use the Test for Monotonic Functions. Compute and find
the intervals on which is positive ( is increasing) and the intervals on which is negative
( is decreasing).
F. Local Maximum and Minimum Values: Find the critical numbers of [the numbers where
or does not exist]. Then use the First Derivative Test. If changes from positive to
negative at a critical number , then is a local maximum. If changes from negative to positive
at , then is a local minimum. Although it is usually preferable to use the First Derivative Test,
you can use the Second Derivative Test if is a critical number such that Then
implies that is a local minimum, whereas implies that is a local
maximum.
G. Concavity and Points of Inflection Compute and use the Test for Concavity. The curve is
concave upward where and concave downward where Inflection points
occur where the direction of concavity changes.
H. Sketch the Curve Using the information in items A to G, draw the graph. Draw in the asymptotes as
broken lines. Plot the intercepts, maximum and minimum points, and inflection points. Then make
the curve pass through these points, rising and falling according
to E, with concavity according to G, and approaching the asymptotes. If additional accuracy is
desired near any point, you can compute the value of the derivative there. The tangent indicates
the direction in which the curve proceeds.
Example
DMU Page 142

Discuss the curve under the headings A to H.
Solution
A. The domain is
{
B. The - and - intercepts are both 0.
C. Since is even. The curve is symmetric about the -axis.
Therefore, the line is a horizontal asymptote.

Since the denominator is when ,
we compute the following limits:
Therefore, the lines and are

vertical asymptotes.
E.
when and when

is increasing on and and
decreasing on and
The only critical number is Since changes from positive

to negative at is a local maximum by the First
Derivative Test.
Since for all , we have
⇔ ⇔
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And ⇔ Thus the curve is concave upward on the intervals and
and concave downward on . It has no point of inflection since and are not in the domain of
.
Using the information in A to G, we sketch the curve in above Figure.
6.7 Tangent Line Approximations
By the definition of approaches to a, then approaches Hence for values of x
close enough to a, is close to .
------------ (1)
That means for very close to
If we let then Hence (1) can be written in the an alternative form as

--------------------- (2)
Which is a good approximation when is very close to zero. This approximation of given in (1) or in (2)
is called tangent line approximation (linear approximation) of near , and the function
is called the linearization of at
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Example 1 Find the linearization (linear approximation) of the function at and use it
to approximate the number
Solution The derivative of is
and so we have and
Putting these values into linearization, we get
The corresponding tangent line approximation is
In particular, we have:
The actual value of is about 1.99499.

Example 2 Find the linear approximation of the function at = 1 and use it approximate the
number
Solution : The derivative of is
and so we have and
Putting these values into linearization, we get
The corresponding tangent line approximation is
In particular, we have: = 2.05
The actual value of is about 2.04939.
DMU Page 145

Exercise: Approximate the number
6.5 Indeterminate forms and L’Hospital Rule

In general, if we have a limit of the form
Where both then this limit may or may not exist and is called an
Indeterminate form of type .
Similarly, if both and , then the limit may or may not exist and is
called an indeterminate form of type
We introduce a systematic method, known as L’Hospital Rule, for the evaluation of indeterminate forms.
L’Hos pital Rule

Suppose and are differentiable and on an open interval I that contains
(except possibly at ). Suppose that
and
or that and
(In other words, we have an indeterminate form of type ) Then
If the limit on the right side exists ( ).
Example 1
Find .
Solution
Since ,
we can apply L’Hospital Rule
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Example 2
Calculate .
Solution
We have ,
so L’Hospital Rule gives
Since the limit on the right side is also indeterminate, but a second
application of L’Hospital Rule gives
Example 3
Evaluate .
Solution
The given limit is indeterminate because while . Writing
we have as
so L’Hospital Rule gives
Indeterminate Differences
If and , then the limit
Example 4
Compute
Solution
First notice that and as , so the limit is indeterminate.
Here we use a common denominator:
DMU Page 147

Note that the use of L’Hospital Rule is justified

because and as
Example 5
Calculate
Solution
First notice that as . We have and
so the given limit is indeterminate.
Let
Then
So, L’Hospital Rule gives
So far we have computed the limit of ,

but what we want the limit of y.
To find this we use the fact that :
DMU Page 148

CHAPTER 7: THE INTEGRAL
7.1. Antiderivatives
A function is called an antiderivative of on an interval if for all in .
Theorem
If is an antiderivative of on an interval , then the most general antiderivative of on

is
Where is an arbitrary constant
Example
Find the most general antiderivative of each of the following functions:
(a) (b)
Solution
(a) If then so an antiderivative of sine is –cosine.
The most general antiderivative is
(b)
Thus the general antiderivative of is
This is valid for since then is defined on the interval ( .
DMU Page 149

Table of Anti-Differentiation Formulas
Function Particular antiderivative
Example
Find all functions such that

Solution
We want to find an antiderivative of
Using the formulas together with Theorem, we obtain
Example
DMU Page 150

Find if and .
Solution
The general antiderivative of
is
To determine C we use the fact that
Thus we have C = 2, so the particular solution is
Example
A particle moves in a straight line and has acceleration given by Its initial velocity is
and its initial displacement is Find its position function
Solution
Since antidifferentiation gives
Note that
But we are given that so and
Since is the antiderivative of
This gives
We are given that so and the required position function is
DMU Page 151

7.2 Partitions, lower sum, upper sum, Riemann sum

Partition
Let be a closed interval. If , then the finite set
is called a .
The points are called .
The sub-intervals are called the segments of the partition P.
The subinterval is denoted by , its length is denoted by .
The maximum of the lengths of subintervals of a partition P i.e. max is called the norm
of the partition P and is denoted by
Upper and Lower Riemann Sums
Let be defined on the interval and
and let be a partition of and let
be the supermum and infimum of in the subinterval

Then the upper and lower Riemann sum are defined by
read as Upper Riemann sum of corresponding to the partition P.
read as Lower Riemann sum of corresponding to the partition P.

Riemann sum
If is a function defined on a closed interval let P be a partition of with partition points
where
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Choose points in and let
Then is called a Riemann sum
Example
Let and consider the partition of the interval by means of the set of partition
points
In this example
The lengths of the subintervals are
Thus the norm of the partition is
Suppose we choose
Then the corresponding Riemann sum is
Note
In this example, is not a positive function and so the Riemann sum does not represent a sum of areas of
rectangles. But it does represent the sum of the areas of the rectangles above the
minus the sum of the areas of the rectangles below the .
7.3 Definite Integrals
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If is a function defined on a closed interval [ ], let be a partition of [ ] with

partition points where
Choose points in [ ] and let and }.

Then the definite integral of from to is
If this limit exists.

If the limit does exist, then is called integrable on the interval [ ].
If then
If then
Theorem
If is either continuous or monotonic on then f is integrable on that is
the definite integral exist.
Theorem
If f is integrable on [a, b], then
DMU Page 154

Example
Evaluate
Solution
Here we have
Since f is continuous, we know it is integrable.
This integral cannot be interpreted as an area because takes on both positive and negative values. But it
can be interpreted as the difference of areas , where are shown in the above figure.
Midpoint Rule
Where
and midpoint of [ ]
DMU Page 155

Example
Use the Midpoint Rule with to approximate
Solution
The partition points are
So the midpoints of the five intervals are
The width of the interval is
So the Midpoint Rule gives
Since the integral represents

an area and the approximation given by the Midpoint Rule is the sum of the areas of the rectangles shown
in the above figure.
7.4 Basic properties of definite integral
Suppose that all of the following integrals exist. Then
1. where is any constant.
2.
3. , where is any constant.
4.
5.
DMU Page 156

Example
Use the properties of integrals and evaluate
Solution
Using the properties 2 and 3 of integrals, we get
Example
Use the properties of integrals and evaluate
Solution
Since
We use the property 5 to split the integral at 0:
7.5. Techniques of integration
DMU Page 157

7.5.1 Integration by Parts
This is called the formula for integration by parts. It is perhaps easier to remember in the following
notation.
Let and Then and so, by substitution rule, the formula
for integration by parts becomes
Example
Find .
Solution
Suppose we choose
Then
Thus, using above Formula, we have
Example
Evaluate
Solution
Here we do not have much choice for and . Let
DMU Page 158

Then
Integrating by parts, we get
Example Find .
Solution
Let
Then
Integration by parts gives
-------------------- (1)
We use integration by parts a second time to find
This time with and .
Then , and
Putting this in (1), we get
Example Calculate
Solution
DMU Page 159

Let
Then
By using the Formula, we get
To evaluate this integral we use the substitution

Then When when so
Therefore
7.5.2 Trigonometric Substitution
Expression Substitution Identity
Example
Evaluate .
Solution
Let where .
Then and
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Note that because
Thus the Inverse Substitution Rule gives
----------------- (1)
by using trigonometric identities,
since
since
Putting above values in (1), we get
Example
Find .
Solution
It would be possible to use the trigonometric substitution .

But the direct substitution is simpler, because then and
Example
Evaluate .
Solution
We can transform the integrand into a function for which trigonometric substitution is appropriate by first
completing the square under the root sign:
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This suggests that we make the substitution
Then and , so
We now substitute giving and so
7.5.3 Integration of Rational functions by Partial Fractions

Let us consider a rational function
Where P and Q are polynomials. It is possible to express f as a sum of simpler fractions provided that the
degree of P is less than the degree of Q.
Such a rational function is called proper.
If
Where then the degree of P is and we write
If is improper, that is, then we divide Q into P until a remainder is obtained such
that the division statement is
Where S and R are also polynomials.

Example
DMU Page 162

Find .
Solution
Since the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator,
we first perform the long division. This enables us to write
Example
Evaluate .
Solution
Since the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator,
we do not need to divide. We factor the denominator as
Since the denominator has three distinct linear factors, the partial fraction decomposition of the integrand
(2) has the form
----------------- (1)
To determine the values of A, B, and C, we multiply both sides of this equation by

obtaining
------------ (2)
Expanding the right side of Equation 4 and writing it in the standard form for polynomials, we get
------------- (3)
The polynomials in Equation (3) are identical, so their coefficients must be equal.
Solving, we get , and so
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Example
Find .
Solution
The first step is to divide. The result of long division is
The second step is to factor the denominator
Since we know that is a factor and we obtain
Since the linear factor occurs twice, the partial fraction decomposition is
Multiplying by we get
Now we equate coefficients:
Solving, we obtain and so
DMU Page 164

Example
Evaluate .
Solution
Since the degree of the numerator is not less than the degree of the denominator, we first divide and
obtain
Notice that the quadratic is irreducible because

its discriminant is This means it cannot be factored, so we do not need to use the
partial fraction technique.
To integrate the given function we complete the square in the denominator:
let then and so
Example
Evaluate
Solution
The form of the partial fraction decomposition is
DMU Page 165

Multiplying by we have
If we equate coefficients, we get the system
Which has the solution A and Thus
To evaluate the final integral we substitute Then we have and

so
Thus
DMU Page 166

where
7.6. Fundamental theorem of calculus
The fundamental theorem of calculus, Part 1
If is continuous on , then the function defined by
Is continuous on [ ] and differentiable on , and
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2
If is continuous on , then
Where is any antiderivative of , that is .
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
DMU Page 167

Suppose is continuous on .
1. If then
2. where is any antiderivative of , that is
Example
Find .
Solution
Here we have to be careful to use the Chain Rule in conjunction with Part 1 of the Fundamental Theorem.
Let . Then
Example Evaluate the integral .
Solution
The function is continuous on [-2, 1] and
its antiderivative is ,
so Part 2 of the Fundamental Theorem gives
7.7. Indefinite integral and their properties

The notation is traditionally used for an antiderivative of f and is called an Indefinite Integral. Thu
means
DMU Page 168

Table of Indefinite Integrals
Improper Integrals
Definite integrals when either the integrands or the interval of integrations are unbounded are
called improper integrals ,as opposed to integrals of continuous functions over bounded intervals ,which
are called proper integrals.
Integrals with unbounded integrands
We say that f is unbounded near c if f is unbounded either on every open interval of the form (c,x) or on
every open interval of the form (x,c).For example , and are unbounded near 0.
We now consider a function f that is continuous at every point in (a,b] and unbounded near a.
By assumption f is continuous on the interval [c,b] for any c in (a,b) ,so that is defined for such
c.If the one sided limit exists, then we define by the formula
= and say that the integral converges.Otherwise we say that
diverges and do not assign any number to the integral.
Example 1.Show that converges and compute its value.
DMU Page 169

Solution. is continuous at every point in (0,1] and is unbounded near 0.Thus =
Provided that the limit exists .Now for 0< c <1 we have
y
=2
And =2
1
Consequently converges ,and =2
x
1
This means that the shaded region has area 2.
Example 2. Show that diverges.
If f is continuous at every point of (a,b) and is unbounded near both a and b,we say that
Converges if for some point d in (a,b) both the integrals and converge. Otherwise ,we
say that diverges.
Integrals over unbounded intervals
Integrals of the form and are also called improper integrals.If f is continuous on
[a, ),then is a proper integral for any b a.This fact allows us to say that converges
if exists. In that event ,
As before, the integral diverges otherwise. The improper integral is handled in an analogous
way.
Example. Show that diverges.
Solution. Let d=1 .We will show that ,and hence ,diverges.
To determine that diverges we compute for any c in (0,1).Since
DMU Page 170

= -1
And since = ,we know that diverges. This implies that diverges.
We say that converges if both and converge, for some number d. In
that case , = + .
Example.Determine whether converges.
Solution.The integrand is continuous on ( ).To show that the integral converges, we will show
that and both converge.
CHAPTER 8: Application of integration

8.1 Area
The area of the region bounded by the curves

and the lines and where f and g are continuous and
for all in , is
Example
Find the area of the region bounded by the parabolas and .
Solution
We first find the points of intersection of the parabolas by
solving their equations simultaneously.
This gives or .
Thus so
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The points of intersection are (0,0) and (1, 1) and the region
is shown in above Figure.
When using the formula for area, it is important to ensure
that when In this case we can see from the diagram that
for
and so we choose Then
Definition
The area between the curves and and

between is
Example
Find the area of the region bounded by the curves and .

Solution
The points of intersection occur when that is, when (since
The region is sketched in following figure. Observe that when but

when
Therefore the required area is
DMU Page 172

8.2. Volume
Formula for a volume of revolution:
It applies only when the axis of rotation is the x – axis.

Example
Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating about the -axis the region under the curve from
0 to 1.
Solution
The region is shown in following Figure.
Taking and in Formula,

we find that the volume of the solid is
Definition
The above formula applies only when the axis of rotation is

the y – axis .
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Example
Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region bounded by around
the y-axis.
Solution
Since the axis of rotation is the -axis, we write
the curve in the form .
The region and the solid with a typical disk are
sketched in following Figure. Using Formula
with , we have
Volumes by Cylindrical Shells
The volume of the solid is
where
Example
Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating about the -axis the region bounded by
Solution
The region and solid are sketched in following figure.
By using formula, the volume of rotation as
DMU Page 174

Example
Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating about the -axis the region between
Solution
We use Formula to find the volume obtained by rotating
about the -axis the region under from 0 to 1 and
then we subtract the corresponding volume for the region under . Thus
Work
It means that the total amount of effort required to perform a task.
If an object moves along a straight line with position function , then the force on the object (in the
same direction) is defined by Newton’s Second Law of Motion as the product of its mass and its
acceleration:
-------------------- (1)
In the SI metric system, the mass is measured in kilograms

(kg), the displacement in meters (m), the time in seconds (s),
DMU Page 175

and the force in newtons (N=kg-m/ . Thus a force of 1 acting on a mass of 1 kg produces an
acceleration of 1 m/ .
In the British engineering system the fundamental unit is chosen to be the unit of force, which is the pound.
In the case of constant acceleration, the force is also constant and
The work done is defined to be the product of the force and the distance that the object moves:
-------------- (2)
If is measured in newtons and in meters, then the unit for is a newton-meter, which is called a joule
(J).
If is measured in pounds and in feet, then the unit for is a foot-pound (ft-lb),
which is about 1.36 J.
Example
(a) How much work is done in lifting a 1.2-kg book off the floor to put it on a desk that is 0.7 m high?
Use the fact that the acceleration due to gravity is .
(b) How much work is done in lifting a 20-lb weight 6 ft off the ground?
Solution
(a) The force exerted is equal and opposite to that exerted by gravity, so Equation (1) gives
And then Equation 2 gives the work done as
(b) Here the force is given as , so the work done is
Note
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That in part (b), unlike part (a), we did not have to multiply by because we were given the weight (which
is a force) and not the mass of the object.
Work done in moving the object from
Example
When a particle is at a distance feet from the origin, a force of pounds acts on it. How much
work is done in moving it from
Solution
The work done is ft-lb.
Example
A force of 40 N is required to hold a spring that has been stretched from its natural length of 10 cm to a
length of 15 cm. How much work is done in stretching the spring from 15 cm to 18 cm?
Solution
According to Hooke’s Law, the force required to hold
the spring stretched meters beyond its natural length
is When the spring is stretched from 10 cm
to 15 cm, the amount stretched is 5cm= 0.05 m.
This means that so
DMU Page 177

Hooke’s law
Thus and the work done in stretching the
spring from 15 cm to 18 cm is
8.3 Improper Integrals
Definite integrals when either the integrands or the interval of integrations are unbounded are
called improper integrals ,as opposed to integrals of continuous functions over bounded intervals ,which
are called proper integrals.
Integrals with unbounded integrands
We say that f is unbounded near c if f is unbounded either on eve ry open interval of the form (c,x) or on
every open interval of the form (x,c).For example , and are unbounded near 0.
We now consider a function f that is continuous at every point in (a,b] and unbounded near a.
By assumption f is continuous on the interval [c,b] for any c in (a,b) ,so that is defined for such
c.If the one sided limit exists, then we define by the formula
= and say that the integral converges.Otherwise we say that
diverges and do not assign any number to the integral.
Example 1.Show that converges and compute its value.
Solution. is continuous at every point in (0,1] and is unbounded near 0.Thus =
.Provided that the limit exists .Now for 0<c<1 we have
=2
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And =2
Consequently converges ,and =2
This means that the shaded region has area 2.
Example 2. Show that diverges.
If f is continuous at every point of (a,b) and is unbounded near both a and b,we say that
Converges if for some point d in (a,b) both the integrals and converge. Otherwise ,we
say that diverges.
Integrals over unbounded intervals
Integrals of the form and are also called improper integrals.If f is continuous on
[a, ),then is a proper integral for any b a.This fact allows us to say that converges
if exists. In that event ,
As before, the integral diverges otherwise. The improper integral is handled in an analogous
way.
Example. Show that diverges.
Solution. Let d=1 .We will show that ,and hence ,diverges.
To determine that diverges we compute for any c in (0,1).Since
= -1
And since = ,we know that diverges. This implies that diverges.
DMU Page 179

We say that converges if both and converge, for some number d. In
that case , = + .
Example.Determine whether converges.
Solution.The integrand is continuous on ( ).To show that the integral converges, we will show
that and both converge.
DMU Page 180

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Applied Mathematics I DMU

REVISION OF FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS

The set is the of and the set denoted by for some

Domain of is pre-image of under and is the of under

Since x is allowed to assume arbitrary values in the domain of , we called an variable

vi. Sketch the graph of the function

Yetwale Hailu[MSc] Page 1

vii. Sketch the graph of

Yetwale Hailu[MSc] Page 2

Let , then we say that S is a symmetric set if and only if whenever

The following sets are symmetric sets.

i. The set of Integers

i. The set of positive integers

A function is said to be an even function if and only if

A function is said to be an odd function if and only if

Determine whether each function is odd, even or neither of both.

Yetwale Hailu[MSc] Page 3

i. , then then it is an odd function.

Which of the following graphs are even or odd?

Graph (b) is an even function since it is symmetric with respect to y-axis.

Yetwale Hailu[MSc] Page 4

Show that is a one-to-one function.

Suppose are real numbers such that and

which contradicts the statement

Example: Which of the following graphs are one-to-one?

A function is said to be an onto function if and only if there is such that In

Yetwale Hailu[MSc] Page 5

Show that a function defined by is onto.

Let range of such that for domain of

Since is real, is also real.

Show that a function defined by is one-to-one correspondence.

(i) Let . Hence,

(ii) Let where

is real, since is real.

Yetwale Hailu[MSc] Page 6

The function is one-to-one and onto, therefore it is a one-to-one correspondence.

A function is said to be an identity function if . Identity function denoted by .

Suppose is an Identity function where A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.

Increasing function and Decreasing function

Let the interval I be contained in the domain of the function . Then,

i. is increasing on I if for every two numbers and in I whenever ,

Suppose and , then the composite function of and written as by

Yetwale Hailu[MSc] Page 7

Example: Given and then Find

Absolute value Functions

Yetwale Hailu[MSc] Page 8

Example |3|=3, |-2.5|=2.5, |0|=0.

Theorem : For any real number a , = | a|

= -a if a < 0, thus by definition of absolute value we have = | a|

Proof: a) By theorem 2.2, |- a | = (−a)2 = a2 = |a |

Yetwale Hailu[MSc] Page 9

⇔ |a| - |b|≤|a - b|………(*)

Yetwale Hailu[MSc] Page 10

3: Prove that if |x +1| < 3, then |x + 3| < 5

Definition of Points in n-space

Yetwale Hailu[MSc] Page 11

Activity : Define a point in n-space, where n is a positive integer.

i. A and B are equal (or represent the same point) if a 1 = b1 , a2 = b2 , … and an = bn .

Vectors in n-space, Geometric interpretation in 2 and 3- spaces

is convenient to view it as a vector. It is called a zero or a null vector. It is often denoted by O .

Yetwale Hailu[MSc] Page 12

Is length of OP equal to the length of AB ?

The difference A – B = (a1 - b1 , a2 – b2 )