Applied I Full-1

Applied Mathematics I
CHAPTER 1: Revision of functions and their graphs

Function: Let A and B are two non-empty sets. Then a relation from to is called from
to is denoted by iff
i. Domain of = and range of
ii. No element of A is mapped by to more than one element in B.
i.e., if ( ) and (x, z) then y = z
The set is the of and the set ( ) denoted by ( ) * | ( ) for some
+ is called the of the function
If ( ) , we say that is
Domain of is pre-image of under and is the of under
Examples
i. √ for is a function.
If ( ) , we say that is the value of at , and we write ( )
Since x is allowed to assume arbitrary values in the domain of , we called an
variable and we say that y depends on x so that y is called the variable.
ii. F = {(1,2), (2,3), (1,5)}, F is not a function because (1,2) F and (1,5) F but 2 5.
iii. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {1, 2, 7} then {(1,2),(2,2),(3,1),(5,7)} is not a function since domain
of i.e., there exist no such that ( )
iv. F = {(0,0), (1,1), (2,2), (3,8), (4,0), (-1,0), (3,0)} is a not function since (4,0) F and (3,0) F such
that second coordinates are identical.
v. Sketch the graph of a function
( ) 2
Solution:
vi. Sketch the graph of the function ( )
Solution: The equation of the graph is , it shows the equation of the line with slope 2 and y-
intercept -1. We can draw the graph by using the above information.
vii. Sketch the graph of ( ) √

Solution: we first observe that √ is defined when so the domain of is
* | + , ). Then we plot the points given by the following table and use them to sketch the
graph of the following.
X -2 -1 0 1 2 3
( )
0 1 √ √ 2 √
√
1
Vertical line test

A curve in the xy-plane is the graph of a function of x if and only if the vertical line intersects the curve at
exactly one point.
Examples
In the following figures ( ) is a function since the vertical line intersect the curve exactly at one point.
But ( ) and ( ) are not functions since the vertical line intersect the curve at more than one point.
Symmetry
Let , then we say that S is a symmetric set if and only if whenever
Examples
The following sets are symmetric sets.
i. The set of Integers
ii. The set of real numbers
iii. [-2,2], [-4,4], and [- - are symmetric sets
The following are not symmetric sets
i. The set of positive integers
ii. [-2,1], [-3,5], and [1, ] are not symmetric sets.
Even function
A function is said to be an even function if and only if ( ) ( )
Odd function
A function is said to be an odd function if and only if ( ) ( )
Examples
Determine whether each function is odd, even or neither of both.
i. ( )
ii. ( )
iii. ( )
Solutions
i. ( ) , then ( ) ( ) ( ) then it is an odd function.
ii. ( ) , then ( ) ( ) not even
( ) ( ) ( ) not odd. Therefore g(x) is neither even nor odd.
iii. ( ) then ( ) ( ). Therefore it is an even function (also constant function).

So every constant function is an even function.
Note:
i. A function whose graph is symmetrical with respect to y-axis is an even function.
ii. A function whose graph is symmetrical with respect to origin is an odd function.
Example
Which of the following graphs are even or odd?
2
Solution
Graph (a) is an odd function since it is symmetric with respect to origin.
Graph (b) is an even function since it is symmetric with respect to y-axis.
Graph (c) is symmetric neither about the y-axis nor about the origin. So it is neither even nor odd.
Types of functions
One-to-one function: A function is said to be one-to-one if and only if the different elements in
the domain have distinct images. In other words
A function is said to be one-to-one if and only if ( ) ( ) whenever , for
Example
Show that ( ) is a one-to-one function.
Solution
Suppose are real numbers such that and ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) which contradicts the statement
. Hence ( ) ( ) whenever .
Therefore ( ) is one-to-one.
Horizontal line test
A function is one-to-one if no horizontal straight line intersects its graph in more than one point.
Conversely, if the graph of a function is intersected by a horizontal line at one point, then the function
is one-to-one.
Example
Which of the following graphs are one-to-one?
Solution
In the first figure, the horizontal line intersects the graph at two points then it is not one-to-one
function.
In the second figure, the horizontal line intersects the graph exactly one point then it is one-to-one
function.
Onto function
3
A function is said to be an onto function if and only if there is such that

( ) In other words
A function is said to be onto function if and only if the range of is B.
Example
Show that a function defined by ( ) is onto.
Solution
Let range of such that ( ) for domain of
( ) Since is real, is also real.
Now . / . /
So every real number has a pre-image in R. Hence, the range of is R. Therefore is onto function.
One-to-one correspondence
Suppose If is both one-to-one and onto function then we say that is one-to-one
correspondence.
Example
Show that a function defined by ( ) is one-to-one correspondence.
Solution
(i) Let . Hence,
( ) ( ).
Therefore is one-to-one.
(ii) Let where ( )
( ) .
is real, since is real.
Now ( ) .
So every real number has a pre-image in R. Hence, the range of is R. Therefore, is onto.
The function is one-to-one and onto, therefore it is a one-to-one correspondence.
Identity function
A function is said to be an identity function if ( ) . Identity function denoted by
.
Example
Suppose *( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )+ is an Identity function where A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
Increasing function and Decreasing function
Let the interval I be contained in the domain of the function . Then,
i. is increasing on I if for every two numbers and in I whenever ,
( ) ( ).
ii. is decreasing on I if for every two numbers and in I whenever ,
( ) ( ).
iii. is constant on I if for every two numbers and in I whenever ,
( ) ( ).
Example
We can see the examples of Increasing, decreasing and constant functions in the following figure.
4
Composite function
Suppose and , then the composite function of and written as by
( )( ) , ( )-
Example
Suppose and where A = {a, b, c, d}, B = {1, 2, 3, 4}, and C = {2, 6, 8, 7} then
Find (gof)(x).
Solution
Here (gof)(x) = {(a, 2), (b, 6), (c, 8), (d, 7)},
Example
Given ( ) and ( ) then Find ( )( ) ( )( )
Solution
i. ( )( ) , ( )- ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
ii. ( )( ) , ( )- ( ) ( )
Absolute value Functions

Introduction: As you know distance whose value is non-negative is a very important concept. In this
section we will discuss about a concept known as absolute value, which is related to distance, along with
techniques of solving inequalities and equations involving absolute values. Moreover we will discuss
about functions.
Definition 5: The absolute value of a real number a denoted by | a |, is a measure of the size (or
magnitude) of a , regardless of its sign, and is defined by
|a| = {
5
Example |3|=3, |-2.5|=2.5, |0|=0.

Remark: For any real number a , | a | ≥ 0.
Theorem: For any real number a , √ = | a |
Proof: For any real number a , a 2= (+ a ) 2=(- a ) 2, the number + a and – a are square roots of a 2.
If a ≥ 0, then + a is the nonnegative square root of a 2, and if a < 0, then - a is the nonnegative square
root of a 2. Since a2 denote the nonnegative square root of a 2, we have
√ = a if a 0.
√ = -a if a < 0, thus by definition of absolute value we have √ = | a |
Theorem: If a and b are real numbers, then
a) |- a | = | a |
b) | a b| = | a | |b|
| |
c) | | = | |, b
Proof: a) By theorem 2.2, |- a | = (−a)2 = a2 = |a |
b) |a b| = (ab)2 = a2b2 = a2 b2 =| a ||b|
√ | |
c) | | = √( ) = √ = =| |
√
Activity 1: For any positive integer n, show that| | = | || || |…..| | in particular |
n n
a |=| a |
The distance d between points x1 and x2 on the real line is given by d= |x2-x1|=|x1-x2|
Thus for k>0 |x-a| < k means x is within k units of a.
Equivalently, a – k < x < a + k ⇔ –k < x – a < k
And
|x-a|>k means x is more than k units away from a
Equivalently,
x < a - k or x > a + k
⇔ x–a <-k or x – a > k
Theorem: If a is any real number, then -|a| ≤ a ≤ |a|
Proof (i) If a ≥ 0, then we can write –a ≤ a ≤ a, from which it follows that
-|a| ≤ a ≤ |a|.
(ii) If a < 0, we can write a ≤ a ≤ -a and –a = |a| or a =-|a|,
or equivalently -|a| ≤ a ≤ |a|
From results (i) and (ii) it follows that, -|a|≤ a ≤ |a|, which completes the proof.
Theorem: If a and b are any two real numbers, then
i) |a + b|<|a|+|b| (Triangle inequality)
ii) ||a|-|b||≤|a-b|
Proof: i) From theorem 1.4, -|a|≤ a ≤|a| and -|b|≤ b ≤| b|
Adding these inequalities, we obtain
-(|a|+|b|)≤ a+b ≤ (|a|+|b|)………(*)
If a + b > 0, then a + b = |a + b|. Hence the right hand side inequality of the
Inequality (*) becomes
|a + b| ≤ |a| + |b|………(1)
If a + b <0, then a + b =-|a + b|. This and the left hand side inequality of (*) yields
-(|a|+|b|) ≤ -|a + b|, and multiplying both side of this inequality by -1 ,
we obtain
|a| + |b|>| a + b|………(2)
From (1) and (2) we can generalize for any two real numbers a and b that,
|a + b|≤ |a| + |b|
6
Proof: (ii) By triangle inequality,

|(a - b) + b|| ≤ |a - b| + |b|
⇔|a| ≤ |a - b| + |b|
⇔ |a| - |b|≤|a - b|………(*)
And
|(b-a)+a|≤| b - a| + |a|
⇔ |b| ≤ |b - a| + |a|
⇔|b|-|a| ≤ |b - a|=|a - b|……(**)
It is known that ||a|-|b|| is the larger of –(|a|-|b|) and (|a|-|b|)
Thus, from (*) and (**) and the above reason, we obtain
||a|-|b||≤|a – b| which completes the proof.
Activities 2: Solve for x and express the solution as intervals if possible.
a) |5x-2|=|3+2x| c) 2 ≤ | x + 1| ≤ 5
b) . d) |x+1|=3x-5
| | | |
c) | | - 6|x + 2|=16 )
3: Prove that if |x +1| < 3, then |x + 3| < 5
CHAPTER 2: VECTORS AND VECTOR SPACES

2.1. VECTORS
Certain Physical quantities such as mass, area, density, volume, etc., that possess only
magnitude are called scalars. On the other hand, there are physical quantities such as force,
displacement, velocity, acceleration, etc that has both magnitude and direction. Such quantities
are called vectors.
The concept of a vector is essential for the whole course. It provides the foundation and
geometric motivation for everything that follows. Hence the properties of vectors, both
algebraic and geometric, will be discussed in this unit.
Definition of Points in n-space
We know that, once a unit length is selected, a number x can be used to represent a point on a
line. A pair of numbers (i.e. a couple of numbers) (x, y) can be used to represent a point in the
plane. A triple of numbers (x, y, z) can be used to represent a point in space. The following
pictures illustrate these representations:
7
We can say that a single number represents a point in 1-space (A), a couple represents a point
in 2-space (B) and a triple represents a point in 3-space (C).
Although we cannot draw a picture to go further, we can say that a quadruple of numbers (x, y
z, w) or (x1, x2, x3, x4) represent a point in 4-sapce.
Activity: Define a point in n-space, where n is a positive integer.
The set of all points in n-space is represented by  n . For the point X in  n , represented by n-
tuple of real numbers (x1, x2, …, xn), the numbers x1, x2;…, xn are called the coordinates of X.
Example: The space we live in can be considered as a 3 space. After selecting an origin and a
coordinate system, we can describe the position of a point (body, particle, etc.) by 3
coordinates. We can extend this space to a 4 dimensional space, with a fourth coordinate, for
example, time. If you select the origin of the time axis as the birth of Christ, how do we describe
a body with negative time co-ordinate? What if the birth of the earth is taken as the origin of
time?
If A = (a1, a2, ., an) and B = (b1, b2, …, bn) are points in the same space  n , and if c is a real
number then
i. A and B are equal (or represent the same point) if a1 = b1, a2 = b2, … and an = bn.
ii. A + B, A – B and cA are defined to the points whose coordinates are (a 1 + b1, a2 + b2,
…, an + bn), (a1-b1, a2-b2, …,an - bn) and (ca1, ca2, …, can), respectively.
Example 1) Let A = (1,2), B = (-3,4) , then A+B=(-2,6), A-B = (4,-2), -3A=(-3,-6)
2) Let X = (1, 0, π, 4), Y = (2, 4,-2π,-6), then 2X+Y = (4, 4, 0, 2) and X-(1/2) Y = (0,-2, 2π,
7).
Vectors in n-space, Geometric interpretation in 2 and 3- spaces
Every pair of distinct points A and B in  n determines a directed line segment with initial point
at A and terminal point at B. We call such a directed line segment a vector and denote it by AB
. The length of the line segment is the magnitude of the vector. Although AA has zero length,
and strictly speaking, no direction, it is convenient to view it as a vector. It is called a zero or a
null vector. It is often denoted by O .
Two vectors AB and CD will be considered to be equal (or equivalence), AB = CD , if they
have the same magnitude and direction.
Notice that the definition of equality of two vectors does not require that the vectors have the
same initial and terminal points. Rather it suggests that we can move vectors freely provided
we make no change in magnitude and direction.
Activity
Let (a1, a2) be the coordinate representation of A and let (b1, b2)
be that of B.
Let P be the point (b1-a1, b2 –a2). If O is the origin, is OP in the
direction
of AB ?
Is length of OP equal to the length of AB ?
Is OP = AB ?
8
If your answer for the above questions is yes, then we can conclude that any vector V= AB in
the plane is a vector OP with initial point at the origin. This is the only vector whose initial
point is the origin and P = B – A, which is equal to AB . Moreover,V = OP is uniquely
determined by its terminal point P. If P = (x, y), then we shall write V = (x, y) and refer to it as
the coordinate representation of V relative to the chosen coordinate system. In view of this, we
shall call (x, y) either a point or a vector, depending on the interpretation which we have in
mind. So if V = AB , then we can write V = B – A. In view of this two vectors AB and CD
are equal (or equivalence) if B – A = D – C.
Example: If P = (1, 3), Q = (-1,0), R = (0, -1) and S = (-2, -4) then QP  RS
As numbers can be added subtracted and multiplies, vectors can be combined in the following
ways.
Let A = (a1, a2) and B = (b1, b2) vectors and t be a real number. The sum
A + B = (a1 + b1, a2 + b2)
The difference A – B = (a1 - b1, a2 – b2)
The scalar multiple tA = (t a1, t a2)
The geometric interpretation of the above vector operations is that A + B is a vector obtained
by placing the initial point of B on the terminal point of A.
If t > 0, then tA is a vector in the direction of A. What about if t < 0? A and tA are said to have
opposite direction.( see figure a and b)
tA
for t > 0 Fig. a for t < 0 Fig. b

We can extend the above notions to vectors in  but the geometric interpretations for n > 3
n
are difficult. Hence we focus on algebraic aspects of vectors.

If A = (a1, a2, …, an) and B = (b1, b2, …, bn) are vectors in  n and if t is any real number, then
A  B   a 1  b 1 , a 2  b 2 ,.., a n  b n 
tA = (ta1, ta2, …, tan)
A and B are said to be parallel vectors iff either A = tB for some real number t or B = tA. In
other words, A and B are parallel iff one is a scalar multiple of the other.
Using the arrow notation PQ and RS are parallel if and only if
Q – P = t(S – R) or S – R = t(Q – P) for some real number t.
Activity
1) Let A = (6, -2, 4). Find two vectors C and D which are parallel to A. Are C and D also parallel to
each other?
2) Let P = (3,7), Q = (-4,2), R = (5,1), S = (-16,-14). Is PQ parallel to RS ?
9
Using the above definitions and applying the associative and commutative properties of real
numbers, one can prove the following theorem.
n
Theorem: Let A, B and C be any members of  , and let m and n be any real numbers. Then
a) m ( nA )  ( mn ) A Associativity
b) ( A  B )  C  A  ( B  C )
c) A  B  B  A Commutatively
d) ( m  n ) A  mA  nA
e) m ( A  B )  mA  mB Distributive property
f) 0 . A  O
g) A  O  A
Proof c) A  B  ( a 1 , a 2 ,..., a n )  ( b 1 , b 2 ,..., b n )
= ( a 1  b 1 , a 2  b 2 ,..., a n  b n )
= ( b 1  a 1 , b 2  a 2 ,..., b n  a n )
= ( b 1 , b 2 , ..., b n )  ( a 1 , a 2 ,..., a n )
= BA
Example:
A boat captain wants to travel due south at
40 knots. If the current is moving northwest
at 16 knots, in what direction and magnitude
should he works the engine?
Solution: we have u = v + w where u corresponds to the engine’s vector and w corresponds to

the velocity of the current. We have u = -40j and w =  8 2 i + 8 2 j
Hence v = u – w = -40j – (  8 2 i + 8 2 j) = 8 2 i – (40 + 8 2 )j. The magnitude is
 ( 40  8
2 2
(8 2) 2) = 52.5.
 40  8 2 
The direction is arctan    = -1.35 radians
 
 8 2 
Exercise :
1. Given three vectors A = (1, 1, 1), B = (-1, 2, 3) and C = (0, 3, 4), find
a. A+B c. A+B – C
b. 2A – B d. A – 3B + 10C
2. Determine whether  and  can be found to satisfy the vector equations
a. (2, 1, 0) =  (-2, 0, 2) +  (1, 1, 1). b. (-3, 1, 2) =  (-2, 0, 2) +  (1,1,1)
The Distance Formula
The distance formula is derived from the three dimensional version of the Pythagorean theorem, which is
displayed below:
The distance between two points (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2) is given by:
10
D  ( x 2  x1 )  ( y 2  y1 )  ( z 2  z1 )
2 2 2
Scalar product and norm of vector, orthogonal projection, and direction cosines
Let A = (a1, a2,…, an) and B = (b1, b2, …, bn) be two vectors. The scalar product of A and B is the number A.B
defined by
A .B  a 1 b 1  a 2 b 2  ...  a n b n
Note: The scalar product is also called a dot product or inner product.
Example
1) Given A = (3, -1) and B = (2, 3), then A.B = 3
2) i . j  O , where i = (1, 0, 0) and j = (0, 1, 0).
The scalar product satisfies many of the laws that hold for real numbers. The basic ones are:
a) A .B  B . A
b) t ( A .B )  ( tA ). B  A .( tB )
c) ( A  B ). C  A .C  B .C
d) If A  O is the zero vector, then A . A  0 , and otherwise A . A  0
Activity: Proof the above properties.
Example: Given A = (3, 2,-1) and B = (2,0, 3), and C = (1,-1,1), then
a. A.B = B.A = 3
b. 2(A.B) = 6
c. (A+B).C = A.C + B.C = 5
Activity: Find A.A, B.B, and C.C. Are all positive values?
Exercise : Given the vectors A = (1,-1,2), B = (-2,0,2), C = (3,2,1). Evaluate
a. A.C b. B.C c. (A + B).C d. A.(2B + 3C) e. (A.B)C
The length, or norm or magnitude of vector A = (a1, a2… an), denoted by ||A||, can be expressed in terms
of the scalar product. By definition
2
 a 1  a 2  ...  a n
2 2 2
A
and A . A  ( a 1 , a 2 ,..., a n ).( a 1 , a 2 ..., a n )  a 1  a 2  ...  a n

2 2 2
Thus, the norm of the vector A is the number:

||A|| = a 1  a 2  ...  a n
2 2 2
Example: If A = (-1, 2, 3) then A  1 4  9  14
Note: 1. A unit vector is a vector having norm or length 1.

2. A  0  A  0
 1 1 1 
Example: If A   , ,  , then A  (1 / 3 )  (1 / 3 )  (1 / 3 )  1
 3 3 3 
11
Any non-zero vector can be fully represented by providing its magnitude and a unit vector along its

direction. Let A be a unit vector in the direction of A. Then

A
A 
A
Example: Given a vector A = (1, 1, 1). Find a unit vector in the direction of A.
Solution:
A  1  1  1  3 , then the unit vector in the direction of A is:

A (1,1,1 )  1 1 1  1
A     , ,   (1,1,1 )
A 3  3 3 3  3
Activity 1. Given three vectors A = (1, 1, 1), B = (-1, 2, 3) and C = (0, 3, 4), find the unit vector in the direction
of A+B – C.
2. The vectors i (1, 0, 0), j = (0, 1, 0) and k = (0, 0, 1) are unit vectors in the direction of positive x,
y and z axis, respectively. Find a unit vector in the direction of A = (-1, 2, 3).
Let A, B be two n-tuples of vectors. We define the distance between A and B to be
A B  ( A  B ).( A  B )
Note: Let A be any vector and x   , then A   A and xA  x A

The following theorem gives us a geometric interpretation for the scalar product.
Theorem: Let A  (a 1 , a 2 , a 3 ) and B  (b 1 , b 2 , b 3 ) be non-zero vectors and let  be the angle between A
and B (0     ) . Then A .B  A B cos 
Proof: Consider a triangle formed by A,B and A B
2 2 2
A B  A  B 2 A B cos  (Why?)
 ( a 1  b1 )
2
 ( a 2  b2 )
2
 ( a 3  b3 )
2
 a
2
1
2 2 2 2 2
 a  a  b  b  b  2 A
2 3 1 2 3
B cos  After
cancellation, we get, a 1b 1  a 2 b 2  a 3 b 3  A B cos 
 A .B  A B cos 
Activity: Given two non-zero vectors A and B, how do you find the angle between them? Take, for example,
A = (2, -1, 2), B = (1, -1, 0) and find the angle between them.

Two non-zero vectors are said to be orthogonal (Perpendicular) if the angle between them is .
2
Note: Two non-zero vectors A and B are said to be orthogonal (Perpendicular) if A.B= 0.
12
Activity: Which of the following pairs of vectors are perpendicular?
a. (1,-1,1), and (2,1,5)

b. (-5,2,7), and (3,-1,2)
c. (1,-1,1), and (2,3,1)
d. (  ,2,1), and (2,-  ,0)
2. Suppose A.B = A.C, what can you deduce about A, B and C?
Exercise: 1. Show that A B  A B if and only if A.B=0.
2. Let A1, A2, …, Ar be non-zero vectors such that Ai.Aj = o if i  j .

Let c1, c2, …., cr be numbers such that c1A1+ c2A2+…..+ crAr = 0.
Show that ci = 0 for all i = 1,2, 3, …, r.
The following are two of the important inequalities
Theorem: Let A and B be vectors. Then
a) A .B  A B (Schwarz inequality)
b) A  B  A  B (Triangle inequality)
Proof a) If one of A or B is a zero vector then both sides of the inequality are equal to 0. Suppose both A
and B are non-zero.
From A .B  A B cos  ,
A .B  A B | cos  | Which implies A .B  A B (Why?)
2
b) From the fact that V  V .V ,
2
A  B  (A  B ) . (A  B )
 A . A  2 A .B  B .B
2 2
 A  2 A .B  B
2 2
 A  2 A .B  B ( why ?)
2 2
 A  2 A B  B ( why ?)
A 
2
  B
By taking the square roots,
A B  A  B
Remark: The inequalities of Theorem 1.3.2 hold true also for any vectors A and B in Rn.
13
We now define the component of a vector in the direction of another vector.
Let A and B be two non-zero vectors.
Let  be the angle between them.
From the terminal point of B drop a perpendicular to the
line containing A.
The vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ has magnitude OD  B cos  , 0   , and its direction is either the same as that of
A or opposite to it depending on whether  is acute or obtuse.
1
Since A is a unit vector in the direction of A and since OD has magnitude B cos  and is in the
A
direction of A or opposite to A, we can write

1
OD  B cos   A
A
 A .B 
Or OD   A (why?)
 A 2 
 
This vector is called the projection of B along A and is denoted by Proj A
B .
 A .B 
  A
B
That is, Pr oj
 A 2 
A
 
A .B
We call t  2
the component of B along A.
A
 tA t
B B
Note: 1. Pr oj A
is parallel to A. That is Pr oj A
, for some
B
2. B - Pr oj A
is orthogonal (perpendicular) to A.
 1 
Example: Let A = (3, -1, -2) and B =  2 ,  3,  , then
 2
 A .B 
 A  6  31  12  4 8
Proj A
B =   A   , , 
 A 2  9 1 4  7 7 7 
 
 
   
=  A .B  6  3  1  64  96 16 
Proj B
A B    B   , , 
   
 B 2  1  53 53 53 
   4  9  
 4 
14
Activity: One application of projections of vector arises in the definition of the work done by a force on a
moving body. Find another application.
Given a non-zero vector u  (u 1 , u 2 , u 3 ) in  3 . The direction cosines of the vector u are:
u1 u2 u3
Cos   , Cos   , Cos  
u u u
Where the direction angles,  ,  , and  are the angles that the vector makes with the positive x, y, and z-
axes respectively.
Remark:   Cos   Cos  1

2 2 2
Cos
Example: Let u = (1, -2, 3). Find the direction cosines of u.
Solution: Since u  u .u  (1,  2 , 3 ).( 1,  2 , 3 )  1 4  9  14
u1 1 u2 2 u3 3
Thus the direction cosines are: Cos    , Cos    , and Cos   
u 14 u 14 u 14
Activity: Is Cos 2   Cos 2   Cos 2   1 ?

The Vector product
The second type of product of two vectors is the cross product. Unlike the dot product, the cross product of
two vectors is a vector.
Definition: The cross product (or vector product) A x B of two vectors A = (a1, a2, a3) and B = (b1, b2, b3) is
defined by A x B = (a2 b3 – a3 b2, a3 b1 – a1 b3, a1 b2 - a2 b1)
3
Note that the cross product is defined in 
Example: Let A = (2, -1, 3) and B = (-1, -2, 4)
A x B = (-4 + 6, -3 – 8, -4 –1) = (2, -11, -5)
Activity: Find B x A.
The following are some of the basic properties of cross product
Theorem : For vectors A, B and C,
1) A x B = -(B x A)
2) A x A = O
3) tA x B = t(A x B) = A x (tB), t 
  A .B 
2 2 2 2
4) AxB  A B
5) C. (A x B) = B. (C x A) = A. (B x C)
6) (A + B) x C = (A x C) + (B x C)
7) C x (A + B) = (C x A) + (C x B)
8) A . (A x B) = 0 and B. (A x B) = 0 (that is, AxB is perpendicular to both A and B.)
9) (AxB) x C = (A. C) B – (B.C)A
Proof : The following is the proof for 1, 2 and 8. The rest are left as an exercise
1) From the definition of cross product,
15
A x B = (a2 b3 – a3 b2, a3 b1 – a1 b3, a1 b2 – a2 b1)

For B x A, interchange A and B to obtain
B x A = (b2 a3 – b3 a2, b3 a1 - b1 a3, b1 a2 - b2 a1)
= (a2 b3 – a3 b2, a3 b1 - a1 b3, a1 b2 - a2 b1)
= - (A x B)
2) A x A = (a2 a3 – a3 a2, a3 a1 - a1 a3, a1 a2 - a2 a1)
= (0, 0, 0)
8) Setting C = A in 5) yields
A . (A x B) = B . (A x A)
= B.0 (why?)
=0
By setting C = B in 5),
B .(A x B) = A . (B x B)
= A.0=0
This shows that for non zero vectors A and B, the cross product A x B is orthogonal to both A and B.
Activity: Are the usual commutative and associative laws valid? i.e. for any vectors A, B and C in  3 , is A x B
= B x A?
Is A x (B x C) = (A x B) x C?
Exercise: Let A = (2,1,0), B = (2,-1,1) and C = (0,1,1). Find
a. AxB b. (AxB)xC c. (A.C)B – (B.C)A d. BxC e. Ax(BxC)
From 4) of theorem 1.4.1, we derive an important formula for the norm of the cross product.
  A .B 
2 2 2 2
AxB  A B
2 2 2 2 2
 A B  A B cos  (  is the angle between A and B)
1  cos 
2 2
 
2
A B
2 2
 
2
A B sin
 AxB  A B sin  (For 0    , sin is nonnegative)

Activity:
- For the unit vectors i , j and k , find i  j , j  k and k  i . What is j  i?
- If A and B are parallel, what is A B?
- If A and B are orthogonal, What is A  B ?
Exercise:
1. Find a unit vector perpendicular to both A = (2,-3,1) and B = (1,2,-4).
2. Prove that (A – B)x(A + B) = 2(AxB).
Application on area and volume
Let u and v be vectors and consider the parallelogram that the two vectors make. Then
u  v = Area of the Parallelogram
The direction of uxv is a right angle to the parallelogram that follows the right hand rule.
16
To find the volume of the parallelepiped spanned by three vectors u, v, and w, we find the triple product:
u .( vxw ) = Volume
This can be found by computing the determinant of the three vectors:
u1 v1 w1
u2 v2 w2 = u 1 (v 2 w 3  v 3 w 2 )  v1 (u 2 w 3  u 3 w 2 )  w1 (u 2 v 3  u 3 v 2 )
u3 v3 w3
Example :
1. Find the area of the parallelogram which is formed by the two vectors u= (1, 3, 2) and v= (-2, 1, 3).
2. Find the volume of the parallelepiped spanned by the vectors
u = (3, -2, -1), v = (1, 3, 2), and w = (-2, 1, 3).
Solution: 1. The area of the parallelogram is given by:
u  v  (1, 3 , 2 )  (  2 ,1, 3 )  ( 7 ,  7 , 7 )  147
2. The volume of the parallelepiped spanned by the three vectors is:

u .( vxw )  ( 3 ,  2 ,  1).  (1, 3 , 2 )  (  2 ,1, 3 )   ( 3 ,  2 ,  1).( 7 ,  7 , 7 )  28
Exercise: Find the area of the triangle having vertices at u = (3, -2, -1), v = (1, 3, 2), and w = (-2, 1, 3).
Lines and planes
Activity : Given two vectors A and B with B  0, consider vectors of the form A + tB, where t varies over all
real numbers. The vector A + 2B, for example is as shown in the figure. Show the vectors A + tB
1 3
for t = 0, 1, 3, , -1, -2, , what kind of figure is generated by these vectors? i.e. what is the
2 2
collection of all points which are terminal points of A + tB?
Definition: A line  is any set of the form { p : p  A  tB , t   } where B is assumed to be a non-zero

vector and A is a fixed point on the line.
Note that if (x, y, z) is on line  and if A = (a1, a2, a3) and B = (b1, b2, b3 then
(x, y, z) = (a1, a2, a3) + t(b1, b2, b3) for some real number t.
Activity: Is point A on  ? Is B parallel to
a vector formed by any two
points of  ?
P = A + tB is a vector equation of a line through A.
17
Example 1.6.1 Find equation of a line through P1 = (0, 1, 2) and P2 = (-1, 1, 1).
Solution: We need a point A on the line and a vector B parallel to the vector
formed by two point of the line.
Take A = P1 and B = P2 – P1. Then
A + t B = (0, 1, 2) + t (-1, 0, -1)
(x, y, z) = (0, 1, 2) + t (-1, 0, -1) is equation of the line. By giving distinct values for t we will
obtain distinct points on the line. Find some of the points.
Note: The equation of a line passing through points A and B is given by:
P = A + t(B – A) or P = (1 – t)A + B, t  
Exercise: Let the line L1 passes through the points (5,1,7) and (6,0,8) and the line L 2 passes through the
points (3,1,3) and (  1, 3 ,  ) . Find the value of  for which the two lines intersect.
Suppose P = (x, y, z) is a point on line  through A = (a1, a2 a3) in the direction of B = (b1, b2, b3). Then p =
A + tB  (x, y, z) = (a1, a2, a3) + t(b1, b2, b3) or equivalently
x = a1 + b1t
y = a2 + b2t
z = a3 + b3t
These equations are parametric equation of a line and t is called a parameter.
1
Activity: 1) Find the parametric equation of a line that contains (2, -1, 1) and is parallel to the vector (3, , 0).
2
2) From the parametric equation of a line in 
3
, derive the equation
y  a1 y  a2 z  a3
 
b1 b2 b3
It is called standard form of equation of a line.
If the line is on a plane show that the standard form reduces to an
equation of the form y = mx + c.
Two lines  and m given by A1 + tB1 and A2 + tB2 are said to be parallel if B1 and B2 are parallel. That is the
vectors P1 – Q1 and P2 – Q2 are parallel for any two points P1, Q1 of  and P2, Q2 of m.
Let  be a line through A in the direction of B ( B  0 ) . Consider the distance between  and the origin. This
distance is the minimum of the lengths of all vectors with initial point the origin and terminal point on  .
2
That is, minimum of A  tB for any real number t. Now put f ( t )  A  tB
2 2
This is a quadratic function whose graph opens upward: f (t )  A  2 t ( A.B )  t
2
B
 2 A .B  A .B
So it has minimum at: t  2
 2
2 B B
Let Po be a point and n be a non zero
vector. We define the plane passing
through Po to perpendicular to n to be
the collection of all points P such that
the vector p o p is perpendicular n.
According to our definition, if P is any point on the plane through P0 and perpendicular to n,
then n.⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =0 or n.(p- )= 0
18
Activity: Starting from the equation n.⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =0, show that equation of a plane through point
Po = (xo, yo, zo) perpendicular to n = (a, b, c) is
ax + by + cz = d where d = axo + byo + czo.
This equation can be written as n.P = d. The vector n is said to be normal to the plane.
Hence a plane is any set of the form {P: n.P = d}. Where N is a given non-zero vector and d is
a given number.
Example: Find an Equation of the plane that contains point (-2, 4, 5) and that is normal to (7, 0, -6).
Solution: The equation of the plane is given by 7(x+2)+0(y-4)-6(z-5) = 0 or 7x- 6z = -44
Activity: Does this plane intersect the y-axis?
Two planes in 3 spaces are said to be parallel if their normal vectors are parallel. They are
said to be perpendicular if their normal vectors are perpendicular. The angle between two
planes is defined to be the angle between their normal vectors.
Activity:
1. A plane passes through (-1, 2, 3) and is perpendicular to the y-axis. What is the
equation?
2. Consider the planes x + 2y - 3z = 2 and 15x - 9y – z = 2. Are they parallel or
perpendicular planes? Or neither parallel nor perpendicular?
Exercise: Find the equation of the plane passing through the three points P 1 = (2,1,1), P2 =
(3,-1,1), P3 = (4,1,-1).
Plane
Let Q be a point outside a plane normal to n. We define the distance from point Q to the plane
as follows. Let Po be the point of intersection of the line through Q, in the direction of N, and
the plane through P. The distance d from Q to the plane is the distance between Q and
Now we find a formula for this distance. Clearly d  Pr oj

QP
= Pr oj
QP
N
QP
 N .QP 
However, Pr oj N QP   N
 N 2 
 
 N .QP  N .QP N .QP

Hence d   N  N =
 N 2  N
2
N
 
19
Therefore the distance d of a point Q from a plane through P which is normal to N is given by:
N .QP
d 
N
Exercises
1. Let A = (0, 1, 5) ,B = . Find the angle between A and B.
2. Which of he following vectors are parallel or perpendicular to (1, 1, -1)?
a) (2, 2, -2) d) (1, 0, 1)
 1 1 1 
b) (2, -2, 0) e)  , , 
 2 2 2
c) (-2, 2, 2) f)
3. a) Find all vectors that are orthogonal to E1 = (1, 0, 0)
b) Find all vectors that are orthogonal to both E1 and E3 = (0, 0, 1)
c) Find all vectors that are orthogonal to E1, E2 and E3 = (0, 0, 1)
4. Find a non-zero vector orthogonal to (1, 2, -1)
5. Find a unit vector in the direction of (3, -1, 2, 4)
 1 1 1   1 1 2   1 1 
6. Let U 1   , ,  , U 2
  , ,  , U3   , ,0 
 3 3 3   6 6 6   2 2 
a) Show that each u1, u2, u3 is orthogonal to the other two and that each is a
unit vector
b) Find the projection of E1 on each of u1, u2, u3
c) Find the projection of A = (a1, a2, a3) on u1.
7. In the following cases compute (A x B).C
a) A = (1, 2, 0) B = (-3, 1, 0), C = (4, 9, -3)
b) A = (-3, 1, -2) B = (2, 0, 4), C = (1, 1, 1)
8. Prove that two non-zero vectors A and B are perpendicular if and only if A  A  tB
for every number t.
9. If A + B + C = 0. Show that A x B = B x C = C x A
10. Find a formula for the area of a parallelogram whose vertices, in order, are
P, Q, R & S.
2 2
11. Show that A  B A  B  A  B
12. Find parametric equations of lines through
a) (-5, -6, 8) and (1, 3, 7)b. (10, 3, 1) and (6, -2, -3)
13. Find equation of a plane through points
(0, 1, 0), (0, -1, -1) and (1, 2, 1)
14. Find a point of intersection of the lines {p:p = (1, -5, 2) + t(-1, 1, 0)} and {p:p = (3, -3,
1) + t(4, 0, -1)}
15. Prove that the line {p:p = (1, 3, -1) + t(0, 3, 5)} lies entirely in the plane
{(x, y, z): 2x – 5y + 3z = -16}
DMU Page 20
16. Find the intersection point of the lines {p:p = (-2, 4, 6) + t(1, 2, 3)} and {p:p = (-2, 1,
6) + t(3, 2, 1)}. Find equation of the plane containing the two lines.
17. Find all points of intersection of the line {p:p = t(1, -3, 6)} and the plane {p:x + 3y +
z = 2}
18. Prove that if B.N = 0 and A is on the plane {p:(p – po).N = 0} then the entire line {p:p
= A + tB} lies in the plane.
19. Find a line through the point po = (-5, 2, 1) and normal to the plane {(x, y, z): x = y}
20. Find a line through (xo, yo, zo) and normal to the plane {(x, y, z): ax + by + cz = d}
21. Let  be a line given by A + tB and let P be a point on  different from A. For point
Q not on  , show that the distance d of Q form the line  is given by:
B x PQ
d 
B
22. Let  be the line x = 1 + 2t, y = -1 + 3t, z = -5 + 7t. Find the two points on  at a
distance 3 units from the plane 2(x-1) + 2(y+3) –z = 0
23. The set of all points equidistant from (0, 1, 5) and 5, -1, 3) is a plane. Find the
equation.
2.2. Vector spaces

Definition: Let K be a set of numbers. We shall say that K is field if it satisfies the following
conditions:
a) If x, y are elements of K then x + y and xy are also elements of K.
b) If x is an element of K, then –x is also an element of K. Furthermore, if x
 0, then x-1 is also an element of K.
c) 0 and 1 are elements of K.
Example: The set of all real numbers  and the set of all complex numbers ℂ are fields.
Activity: Are ℤ (The set of all integers) and Q (the set of all rational numbers fields?
Remark: The essential thing about a field is that its elements can be added and multiplied and
the results are also elements of the field. Moreover, every element can be divided
by a non-zero element.
Definition: A vector space V over a field K is a set of objects which can be added and can be
multiplied by elements of K. It satisfies the following properties.
V 1) For any u, v  V and a  K, we have u + v  V and a u  V
V 2) For any u, v, w  V, (u + v) + w = u + (v + w)
V 3) There is an element of V, denoted by O (called the zero element), such that 0 + u = u +
0 = u for all elements u of V.
V 4) For u  V, there exists –u  V such that u + (-u) = 0
V 5) For u, v  V, we have u + v = v + u
V 6) For u, v  V and a  k, a(u + v) = au + av
V 7) For u  V and a, b  k, (a + b) u = au + bu and (ab) u = a(bu)
V 8) For u  v, 1u = u
DMU Page 21
Activity: What is the name given for each of the above properties?
Other properties of a vector space can be deduced from the above eight properties. For
example, the property 0u = O can be proved as :
0u + u = 0u + 1.u (by V8)
= (0 + 1) u (by V7)
= 1. u
=u
By adding –u to both sides of ou + u = u, we have 0u = O
Examples of different models of a vector space
1) Consider sets 2 and 
Clearly, for V = 2 and k = , properties V1 and V2 hold.
The element 0 of 2 that satisfied v3 is 0 = (0, 0).
The other 5 properties can be easily verified. Hence 2 is a vector space over.
2) Let V = 2 and K = ℂ
For any u, v  2, we have u + v  2.
But for a  ℂ, au is not always in 2.
For example for a = 3i and u = (1, -2), au = (3i, -2i)  2 .
Hence 2 is not vector space over ℂ.
Thus when dealing with vector spaces, we shall always specify the field over which we
take the vector space.
3) Let F be the set of all functions form  to , for any f and g in F, f + g is a function from
 to  defined by (f + g) (x) = f(x) + g(x).
For a  , af = af(x) is in F.
The zero element O of F is the zero function f(x) = 0 for all x  .
By verifying the other properties, we can see that F is a vector space over .
The algebraic properties of elements of an arbitrary vector space are very similar to those of
elements of 2, 3, or n. Consequently, we call elements of a vector space as vectors
Activity : Which of the following are vector spaces?
a) C on 2
b) Cn over ℂ
c) Qn over Q
d) n over ℂ
Subspaces, Linear Combinations and generators
Definition: Suppose V is a vector space over k and W is a subset of V. If, under the addition and
scalar multiplication that is defined on V, W is also a vector space then we call W a subspace of
V.
Using this definition and the axioms of a vector space, we can easily prove the following:
A subset W of a vector space V is called a subspace of V if:
i) W is closed under addition. That is, if u, w  W, then u + w  W
ii) W is closed under scalar multiplication. That is, if uW and a  k, then auW.
iii) W contains the additive identity 0.
Then as W  V, properties V1 – V8 are satisfied for the elements of W.
Hence W itself is a vector space over k. We call W a subspace of V.
DMU Page 22
Example: Consider H = {(x, y): x, y   and x + 4y = 0} .

H is a subset of the vector space 2 over . To show that H is a subspace of V, it is enough to
show the above three properties hold in H.
Let u = (x1, y1) and w = (x2, y2) be in H. Then x1 + 4y1 = 0 and x2 + 4y2 = 0
u + w = (x1 + x2, y1 + y2) and (x1 + x2) + 4(y1 + y2) = x1 + 4y + x2 + 4y2 = 0 + 0 = 0 Which shows
u w  H .
For a   , au   ax 1 , ax 2  and ( ax 1 )  4 ( ax 2 )  a ( x 1  4 x 2 ) = 0 a = 0.
Hence au  H. Now, the element O of 2 is (0, 0). 0 + 4(0) = 0. Hence O = (0, 0) is in H.
 H is a subspace of 2
Activity: Take any vector A in 3. Let W be the set of all vectors B in 3 where B.A = 0. Discuss
whether W is a subspace of 3 or not.
Definition: Let v1, v2, …, vn be elements of a vector space V over k. Let x 1, x2, …, xn be
elements of k. Then an expression of the form x1v1 + x2v2 +… + xn vn is called a linear
combination of v1, v2, …, vn..
Example: The sum 2(3, 1) + 4(-1, 2) +(1, 0) is a linear combination of (3, 1), (-1, 2) and (1, 0). As
this sum is equal to (3, 10), we say that (3, 10) is a linear combination of the three ordered
pairs.
Activity:
i) Take two elements v1 and v2 of 3. Let W be the set of all linear combinations of
v1 & v2. Show that W is a subspace of  3 . W is called the subspace generated by
v1 and v2
ii) Generalize i) by showing that a set w generated by elements v 1, v2, …,
vn of a vector space V is a subspace.
Linear dependence and independence of vectors
Definition: Let V be a vector space over k. Elements v1, v2, …, vn of V are said to be linearly
independent if and only if the following condition is satisfied:
whenever a1, a2, …, an are in k such that a1v1 + a2v2 + … + anvn = 0, then ai = 0 for all
i = 1, 2, …, n.
If the above condition does not hold, the vectors are called linearly dependent. In other words
v1, v2,…, vn are linearly dependent if and only if there are numbers a1, a2, …, an where a1v1 +
a2v2 + … + anvn = 0 for at least one non-zero ai.
Example: Consider v1 = (1, -1,1) , v2 = (2, 0, -1) and v3 = (2, -2, 2)
i) a1v1 + a2v2 = a1 (1, -1, 1) + a2 (2, 0, -1) = (a1 + 2a2, -a1, a1 – a2)
a1v1 + a2v2 = 0  a1 + 2a2 = 0, -a1 = 0 and a1 – a2 = 0
 a1 = 0 and a2 = 0
Hence v1 & v2 are linearly independent.
ii) a1v1 + a2v3 = a1 (1, -1, 1) + a2 (2, -2, 2)
= (a1 + 2a2, -a1 – 2a2 , a1 +2 a2)
a1v1 + a2v3 = 0  a1 + 2a2 = 0, -a1 – 2a2 = 0 and a1 +2 a2 = 0
 a1 = -2a2
Take a1 = 2 and a2 = -1, we get 2(1, -1, 1) + (-1) (2, -2, 2) = 0.
As the constants are not all equal to zero, v1 and v3 are linearly dependent.
Activity: Show that v1, v2 and v3 are also linearly dependent.
DMU Page 23
Remark: If vectors are linearly dependent, at least one of them can be written as a linear
combination of the others.
Activity: Show that (1, 0, 0, …,0), (0, 1,0,…)…, (0,0,0, …, 1) are linearly independent vectors in
n.
Bases and dimension of a vector space
Definition: If elements e1, e2, …, en of a vector space V are linearly independent and generate V,
then the set B = {e1, e2, …, en} is called a basis of V. we shall also say that the
elements e1, e2,…, en constitute or form a basis of V.
Example:
1) Show that e1 = (0, -1) and e2 = (2, 1) form a basis of 2.
Solution: we have to show that
i) e1 and e2 are linearly independent
ii) They generate 2 i.e every element (x,y) of 2 can be written as a linear
combination of e1and e2.
i) a1 e1 + a2 e2 = O  a1(0, -1) + a2(2,1) = (0, 0)
 2a2 = 0 and –a1 + a2 = 0
 a2 = 0 and a1 = 0
 e1 and e2 are linearly independent
ii) (x, y) = a1e2 + a2 e2  (x, y) = (0, -a1) + (2a2, a2)
 x = 2a2 and y = -a1 + a2
x
 a2 = and a1 = a2 – y … (*)
2
x 2y
=
2
Therefore, given any (x, y), we can find a1 and a2 given by (*) and (x, y) can be written as
a linear combination of e1 and e2 as
(x, y) =  x  2y  x 
  ( 0 ,  1)    ( 2 , 1)
 2   2
4  6
For example, (4, 3) =   ( 0 ,  1) 
4
  ( 2 ,1 )
 2  2
Or (4, 3) = -(0, -1) + 2(2, 1)
Note that {(1, 0), (0, 1)} is also a basis of 2. Hence a vector space can have two or more basis.
Find other bases of 2.
2) Show that e1 = (2, 1, 0) and e2 = (1, 1, 0) form a basis of 3.
Solution: e1 = (2, 1, 0) and e2 = (1, 1, 0) are linearly independent but they do not generate
3. There are no numbers a1 and a2 for which
(3, 4, 2) = a1 (2, 1, 0) + a2 (1, 1, 0).
Hence {(2, 1, 0), (1,1,0)} is not a basis of 3.
The vectors E1 = (1, 0, 0) , E2 = (0, 1, 0), E3 = (0, 0, 1) are linearly independent and every element
(x, y, z) of 3 can be written as
(x, y, z) = x(1, 0, 0) + y(0, 1, 0) + z (0, 0, 1)
= xE1 + yE2 + zE3
DMU Page 24
Hence {E1, E2, E3} is a basis of 3.

Note that the set of elements E1 = (1, 0, 0,…,0), E2 = (0, 1, 0, … 0),…,En = (0, 0, 0, …,1) is a basis of
n. It is called a standard basis.
Let B = {e1 , e2, …, en} be a basis of V. since B generates V, any u in V can be represented as u =
a1e1 + a2 e2 + … + an en. Since the ei are linearly independent, such a representation is unique.
We call (a1, a2, …, an) the coordinate vector of u with respect to the basis B, and we call ai the i –
th coordinate.
Example:
1) In 1) of example 3.3.1 The coordinate vector of (4,3) with respect to the basis
{(0, -1), (2,1)} is (-1, 2). But with respect to the standard basis it is (4, 3).
Find coordinates of (4,3) in some other basis of 2.
2) Consider the set V of all polynomial functions f:    which are of degree less than or
equal to 2.
Every element of V has the form f(x) = bx2 + cx + d, where b, c, d  
V is a vector space over  (show).
Clearly, e1 = x2, e2 = x and e3 = 1 are in V and a1e1 + a2 e2 + a3e3 = O
(0 is the zero function)
 a1x2 + a2e2 + a3 e3 = 0 for all x
 a1 = a2 = a3 = 0.
Which shows e1, e2 and e3 are linearly independent
bx2 + cx + d = a1e1 + a2e2 + a3e3 for all x
 bx2 + cx + d = a1x2 + a2x + a3
 b = a1, c = a2 and d = a3
Thus e1, e2 and e3 generate V.
 {x2, x1 1} is a basis of V and the coordinate vector of an element
f(x) = bx2 + cx + d is (b, c, d)
The coordinate vector of x2 – 3x + 5 is (1, -3, 5)
Activity: Show that the polynomials
E1 = (x – 1)2 = x2 – 2x + 1
E2 = x – 1
and E3 = 1
form a basis of a vector space V defined in 2) of example 2.5.2. What is the coordinate
of f(x) = 2x2 – 5x + 6 with respect to the basis {E1, E2, E3}?
3
E = {(1, 0, 0), (0,1,0), (0,0,1)} and B = {(-1,1,0), (-2, 0, 2), (1, 1, 1)} are bases of  and each has
3
three elements. Can you find a basis of  having two elements? four elements?
The main result of this section is that any two bases of a vector space have the same number of
elements. To prove this, we use the following theorem.
Theorem: Let V be a vector space over the field K. Let {v1, v2,…,vn} be a basis of V. If w1,
w2,…,wm are elements of V, where m > n, then w1, w2, …, wm are linearly
dependent.
Proof (reading assignment)
Theorem: Let V be a vector space and suppose that one basis B has n elements, and another
basis W has m elements. Them m = n.
DMU Page 25
Proof: As B is a basis, m > n is impossible. Otherwise by theorem 3.4.1, W will be a linearly

dependent set. Which contradicts the fact that W is a basis. Similarly, as W is a basis, n >
m is also impossible. Hence n = m.
Definition: Let V be a vector space having a basis consisting of n elements. We shall say that n is
the dimension of V. It is denoted by dim V.
Remarks :
1. If V = {0}, then V doesn’t have a basis, and we shall say that dim v is zero.
2. The zero vector space or a vector space which has a basis consisting of a finite number of
elements, is called finite dimensional. Other vector spaces are called infinite
dimensional.
Example:
3
1)  over  has dimension 3. In general  n over  has dimension n.
2)  over  has dimension 1. In fact, {1} is a basis of  , because
a . 1  0  a  0 and
any number x   has a unique expression x  x . 1 .
Definition: The set of elements {v1, v2, …,vn}of a vector space V is said to be a maximal set of
linearly independent elements if v1, v2, …,vn are linearly independent and if given
any element w of V, the elements w,v1, v2, …, vn are linearly dependent.
Example: In  3 {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 1), (0, 2, 1)} is a maximal set of linearly independent elements.
We now give criteria which allow us to tell when elements of a vector space constitute a basis.
Theorem: Let V be a vector space and {v1, v2, …,vn}be a maximal set of linearly independent
elements of V. Then {v1, v2, …,vn}is a basis of V.
Proof: It suffices to show that v1, v2, …,vn generate V. (Why?)
Let w .
Then w, v1, v2, …,vn are linearly dependent (why?).
Hence there exist numbers ao, a1, a2, …, an not all 0 such that
ao w + a1v1 + a2v2 + …+ anvn = O
In particular a o  0 (why?
Therefore, by solving for w,
 a1 a2  an
w  V1  V 2 ... Vn
ao ao ao
This proves that w is a linear combination of v1, v2, …,vn.
Theorem: Let dim V = n, and let v1, v2, …,vn be linearly independent elements of v. Then
{v1, v2, …,vn} is a basis of v.
Proof: According to theorem 3.4.1, {v1, v2, …,vn} is a maximum set of linearly independent
elements of V.
Hence it is a basis by theorem 2.5.3
Corollary: Let W be a subspace of V. If dim W = dimV, then V = W
Example: Let, V  R , U  ( 0 , 0 , x 3 ), x 3    , and W  ( x 1 , x 2 , 0 ), x 1 , x 2    .
3
Show that V is the direct sum of W and U.

Solution: Since V, U and W are vector spaces, and in addition to that U and W are subspaces of
V.
DMU Page 26
The sum of U and W is: U + W = ( x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ), x 1 , x 2 , x 3     R  V

3
Thus; V = U + W
The intersection of U and W is: U  W  0 
Therefore, V is the direct sum of W and U.
Activity
1. Let, V  R , U  ( x 1 , 0 , x 3 ), x 1 , x 3    , and W  ( 0 , x 2 , 0 ), x 2    . Show that V is
3
the direct sum of W and U.

2. Let, V  R , U  ( x 1 , x 2 , 0 ), x 1 , x 2    , and W  ( 0 , 0 , x 3 ), x 3    . Show that V is
3
the direct sum of W and U.

Exercise
1. Let k be the set of all numbers which can be written in the form a  b 2 , where a, b are
rational numbers. Show that k is a field.
2. Show that the following sets form subspaces
a. The set of all (x, y) in  2 such that x = y
b. The set of all (x, y) in  2 such that x – y = 0
c. The set of all (x, y, z) in  3 such that x + y = 3z
d. The set of all (x, y, z) in  3 such that x = y and z = 2y
3. If U and W are subspaces of a vector space V, show that U  W and U  W are
subspaces.
4. Decide whether the following vectors are linearly independent or not (on )
a) (, 0) and (0, 1)
b) (-1, 1, 0) and (0, 1, 2)
c) (0, 1, 1), (0, 2, 1), and (1, 5, 3)
5. Find the coordinates of X with respect to the vectors A, B and C
a. X = (1, 0, 0), A = (1, 1, 1), B = (-1, 1, 0), C = (1, 0, -1)
b. X = (1, 1, 1) , A = (0, 1, -1), B = (1, 1, 0), C = (1, 0, 2)
6. Prove: The vectors (a, b) and (c, d) in the plane are linearly dependent if and only if ad –
bc = 0
7. Find a basis and the dimension of the subspace of  4 generated by
{(1, -4, -2, 1), (1, -3, -1, 2), (3, -8, -2, 7)}.
8. Let W be the space generated by the polynomials x3 + 3x2 – x + 4, and
2x3 + x2 – 7x – 7. Find a basis and the dimension of W.
10. What is the dimension of the space of 2 x 2 matrices? Give a basis for this space.
Answer the same question for the space of n x m matrices.
11. Find the dimensions of the following
a) The space of n x n matrices all of whose elements are 0 except possibly the
diagonal elements.
b) The space of n x n upper triangular matrices
c) The space of n x n symmetric matrices
d) The space of n x n diagonal matrices
12. Let V be a subspace of 3. What are the possible dimensions for V? Show that if
DMU Page 27
V 3, then either V = {0}, or V is a straight line passing through the origin, or V is a
plane passing through the origin.
DMU Page 28
CHAPTER 3: Matrices and Determinants

3.1. Matrices
The concept of matrices has had its origin in various types of linear problems, the most
important of which concerns the nature of solutions of any given system of linear equations.
Matrices are also useful in organizing and manipulating large amounts of data. Today, the
subject of matrices is one of the most important and powerful tools in Mathematics which has
found applications to a very large number of disciplines such as Engineering, Business and
Economics, statistics etc.
Definition and Examples of Matrices
Definition: A rectangular arrangement of mn numbers (real or complex) in to m horizontal rows
and n vertical columns enclosed by a pair of brackets [ ], such as
 a 11 a 12 ... a 1n 
 
a a 22 ... a 2n
 21 
 . . . 
 . . . 
 
 . . . 
 a m 1 a m1 ... a mn 
is called an m  n (read “m by n”) matrix or a matrix of order m  n .

Parentheses ( ) are also commonly used to enclose numbers constituting matrices.
Before we go any further, we need to familiarize ourselves with some terms that are associated
with matrices. The numbers in a matrix are called the entries or the elements of the matrix.
For the entry a ij , the first subscript i specify the row and the second subscript j the column in
which the entry appears. That is, a ij is an element of matrix A which is located in the i
th
row
and j th column of the matrix A. Whenever we talk about a matrix, we need to know the order
of the matrix.
The order of a matrix is the number of rows and columns it has. When we say a matrix is a 3 by
4 matrix, we are saying that it has 3 rows and 4 columns. The rows are always mentioned first
and the columns second. This means that a 3  4 matrix does not have the same order as a 4  3
matrix. It must be noted that even though an m  n matrix contains mn elements, the entire
matrix should be considered as a single entity. In keeping with this point of view, matrices are
denoted by single capital letters such as A, B, C and so on.
Remark: By the size of a matrix or the dimension of a matrix we mean the order of the matrix.
1 5 2
Example: Let A    .
0 3 6
Solution: Since A has 2 rows and 3 columns, we say A has order 2  3 , where the number of
rows is specified first. The element 6 is in the position a23 (read a two three) because it is in row
2 and column 3.
 1 4 7
 
Example: What is the value of a 23 and a 32 in A  2 3 1 ?
 
 5 7 8 
DMU Page 29
Solution: , the element in the second row and third column, is 1 and a 32 , the element in
a 23
the third row and second column, is 7. What is the size of this matrix?
Activity: 1. suppose A is a 5x7 matrix, then
a. A has 7 rows. (True/False)
b. a ij is an element of A for i = 6 and j = 4.(True/False)
c. For what values of i and j, a ij is an element of A?
 4 8 
4  7 5  
2. Suppose A    and B  7 1
 
8 1 6
 5 6 
a. What is the order of A and B?

b. Find a 22 , a 13 , b 13 and b 31 .
It is customary to abbreviate the matrix
 a 11 a 12 ... a 1n 
 
a a 22 ... a 2n
 21 
 . . . 
A 
 . . . 
 
 . . . 
 a m 1 am2 ... a mn 
by the symbol ( a ij )m  n or more simply ( a ij ) . This notation merely indicates what type of
symbols we are using to denote the general entry.
Example: Form a 4 by 5 matrix, B, such that bij = i + j.

Solution: Since the number of rows is specified first, this matrix has four rows and
five columns.
 b 11 b 12 b 13 b 14 b 15   2 3 4 5 6
   
b 21 b 22 b 23 b 24 b 25 3 4 5 6 7
B    = .
 b 31 b 32 b 33 b 34 b 35   4 5 6 7 8
   
 b 41 b 42 b 43 b 44 b 45   5 6 7 8 9
Activity : Form a 4 by 3 matrix, B, such that
i j
a) b ij  i  j b) b ij  (  1)
Definition: Two matrices A and B are said to be equal, written A = B, if they are of the same
order and if all corresponding entries are equal.
5 1 0 2  3 1 0  9 
For example,      but 9 2     . Why?
2 3 4  2 3 2  2 2
x  y 6 1 6
Example: Given the matrix equation      . Find x and y.
x  y 8 3 8
DMU Page 30
x  y  1
Solution: By the definition of equality of matrices,
x  y  3
Solving gives x = 2 and y = -1.
Activity: Find the values of x, y, z and w which satisfy the matrix equation
 x  y 2x  z  1 5 
a.     
2 x  y 3z  w   0 13 
x  3 2 y  x 0  7
b.     
z 1 4w  6 3 2w 
Types of matrices: Square, identity, scalar, diagonal, triangular, symmetric, and
skew symmetric matrices
Certain types of matrices, which play important roles in matrix theory, are now considered.
Row Matrix: A matrix that has exactly one row is called a row matrix. For example, the matrix
A  5 2  1 4  is a row matrix of order 1  4 .
Column Matrix: A matrix consisting of a single column is called a column matrix. For example,
3 
 
the matrix B  1 is a 31 column matrix.
 
 4 
Zero or Null Matrix: A matrix whose entries are all 0 is called a zero or null matrix. It is usually
0 0 0 0
denoted by 0m n or more simply by 0. For example, 0    is a 24 zero
0 0 0 0
matrix?
Square Matrix: An m  n matrix is said to be a square matrix of order n if m = n. That is, if it
has the same number of columns as rows.
 3 4 6 
  2  1
For example, 
2 1 3

and   are square matrices of order 3 and 2 respectively.
5 6 
 5 2  1 
In a square matrix   of order n, the entries

A  a ij a 11 , a 22 , ..., a nn which lie on the diagonal
extending from the left upper corner to the lower right corner are called the main diagonal
3 2 4
 
entries, or more simply the main diagonal. Thus, in the matrix C = 1 6 0

the entries
 5 1 8 
c 11  3 , c 22  6
and c 33  8 constitute the main diagonal.
Note: The sum of the entries on the main diagonal of a square matrix A of order n is called the
n
trace of A. That is, Trace of A =  a ii .

i 1
Activity: Find the trace of C in the above example.

Triangular Matrix: A square matrix is said to be an upper (lower) triangular matrix if all entries
below (above) the main diagonal are zeros.
DMU Page 31
 5 0 0 0
2 4 8   
  
1 3 0 0

For example, 
0 1 2

and are upper and lower triangular matrices,
 6 1 2 0
 0 0  3   
 2  4 8 6
respectively.
Diagonal Matrix: A square matrix is said to be diagonal if each of the entries not falling on the
main diagonal is zero. Thus a square matrix A  a ij  is diagonal if a ij  0 for i  j .
Activity: What about for i = j?
5 0 0
 
For example, 
0 0 0

is a diagonal matrix?
 0 0 7 
Notation: A diagonal matrix A of order n with diagonal elements a 11 , a 22 , ..., a nn is denoted

by A  diag ( a 11 , a 22 , ..., a nn )
Scalar matrix: A diagonal matrix whose all the diagonal elements are equal is called a scalar
matrix.
2 0 0
 
For example, 
0 2 0

is a scalar matrix.
 0 0 2 
 k , ifi  j
Note: Let   be a square matrix. A is a scalar matrix if and only if a
A  a ij ij
  .
 0 , ifi  j
Identity Matrix or Unit Matrix: A square matrix is said to be identity matrix or unit matrix if all
its main diagonal entries are 1’s and all other entries are 0’s. In other words, a diagonal matrix
whose all main diagonal elements are equal to 1 is called an identity or unit matrix. An identity
matrix of order n is denoted by In or more simply by I.
1 0 0
  1 0
For example, I3  0 1 0 is identity matrix of order 3. I 2    is identity matrix of
  
0 1
 0 0 1 
order 2.
Note: Let   be a square matrix. A is an identity matrix if and only if
A  a ij
Algebra of matrices
 30 18   36 20   66 ? 
     
Activity: 20 12  24 18  ? 30 . Can you guess what number should appear in the
     
 16 10   20 12   ? ? 
entries marked by question mark?
DMU Page 32
Addition of matrices: Let A and B be two matrices of the same order. Then the addition of A
and B, denoted by A + B, is the matrix obtained by adding corresponding entries
of A and B. Thus, if
A  ( a ij )m  n and B  ( b ij )m  n , then A  B  ( a ij  b ij )m  n .
Remark: Notice that we can add two matrices if and only if they are of the same order. If they
are, we say they are conformable for addition. Also, the order of the sum of two matrices is
same as that of the two original matrices.
Activity: Given the matrices A, B, and C below
 1 2 4   2 -1 3   4 
   
A=  2 3 1  B=  2 4 2  C =  2 
5 0 3   3 6 1   3 
Find, if possible. a) A + B b) B + C
If A is any matrix, the negative of A, denoted by –A, is the matrix obtained by replacing each
entry in A by its negative. For example, if
 2  1  2 1 
   
A  5 4 , then  A   5  4
   
  6 0   6 0 
Properties of Addition of Matrices

1. Matrix addition is commutative. That is, if A and B are two matrices of the same order,
then A + B = B + A.
2. Matrix addition is associative. That is, if A, B and C are three matrices of the same order,
then (A + B) + C = A + (B + C).
3. Existence of additive identity. That is, if 0 is the zero matrix of the same order as that of
the matrix A, then A + 0 = A = 0 + A.
4. Existence of additive inverse. That is, if A is any matrix, then
A + (-A) = 0 = (-A) + A
Note: The zero matrix plays the same role in matrix addition as the number zero does in
addition of numbers.
Subtraction of Matrices: Let A and B be two matrices of the same order. Then by
A – B, we mean A + (-B). In other words, to find A – B we subtract each entry of B from
the corresponding entry of A.
4  1 0 2 
   
Example : Let A  2 3 and B  5  2
   
 5  7   6 1 
4  0 1 2   4  3
   
Then A  B  2  5 3  ( 2 )   3 5
   
 5  6  7  1    1  8 
Multiplication of a Matrix by a Scalar

Let A be an m  n matrix and k be a real number (called a scalar). Then the multiplication of A
by k, denoted by k A, is the m  n matrix obtained by multiplying each entry of A by k. This
operation is called scalar multiplication.
DMU Page 33
0 2 3 7 6 3
Example : If A  and B    . Find 2A + 3B.
2 1 4 1 4 5
0 2 3 0 4 6 7 6 3  21 18 9 
Solution: 2A 2     and 3B  3     
2 1 4 4 2 8 1 4 5  3 12 15 
0 4 6  21 18 9   21 22 15 
2 A  3B         
4 2 8  3 12 15  7 14 23 
2 3 8

Example : Express the matrix equation x   y   2  as a system of equations and
1  5  11 
solve.
Solution: The given matrix equation gives
2 x  3 y   16  2 x  3 y   16 
             
 x  5 y   22   x  5y   22 
By equality of matrices we have
2 x  3 y  16
x  5 y  22
Solving gives x = 2, y = -4
Properties of scalar multiplications
1. If A and B are two matrices of the same order and if k is a scalar, then
k ( A  B )  kA  kB
2. If k1 and k2 are two scalars and if A is a matrix, then
k 1  k 2  A  k 1 A  k 2 A
3. If k1 and k2 are two scalars and if A is a matrix, then
k 1 k 2  A  k 1 ( k 2 A )  k 2 ( k 1 A )
Multiplication of Matrices
While the operations of matrix addition and scalar multiplication are fairly straightforward, the
product AB of matrices A and B can be defined under the condition that the number of columns
of A must be equal to the number of rows of B. If the number of columns in the matrix A equals
the number of rows in the matrix B, we say that the matrices are conformable for the product
AB.
Because of wide use of matrix multiplication in application problems, it is important that we
learn it well. Therefore, we will try to learn the process in a step by step manner. We first
begin by finding a product of a row matrix and a column matrix.
 a 
Example : Given A = [ 2 3 4 ] and B =  b  , find the product AB.
 c 
Solution: The product is a 1  1 matrix whose entry is obtained by multiplying the
corresponding entries and then forming the sum.
 a 
AB = [ 2 3 4 ]  b 
 c 
DMU Page 34
= [ (2a + 3b + 4c)]
Note that AB is a 1  1 matrix, and its only entry is 2a + 3b + 4c.
 5 
Example : Given A = [2 3 4] and B =  6  , find the product AB.
 7 
 5 
Solution: AB = [ 2 3 4 ]  6  = 10  18  28   56 
 7 
Note: In order for a product of a row matrix and a column matrix to exist, the number of
entries in the row matrix must be the same as the number of entries in the column matrix.
Example : Here is an application: Suppose you sell 3 T-shirts at $10 each, 4 hats at $15 each,
and 1 pair of shorts at $20. Then your total revenue is
3
 
10 15 20   4    (10  3 )  (15  4 )  ( 20  1 )   110 
            
Pr ice 1 Re venue

Quantity
 5 3 
Example : Given A = [ 2 3 4 ] and B =  6 4  , find the product AB.
7 5 
Solution: We already know how to multiply a row matrix by a column matrix. To find the
product AB, in this example, we will be multiplying the row matrix A to both the first
and second columns of matrix B, resulting in a 1  2 matrix.
AB = [ 2 . 5 + 3 . 6 + 4 . 7 2.3 + 3.4+ 4.5 ]
= [ 56 38 ]
We have just multiplied a 1  3 matrix by a matrix whose order is 3  2. So unlike addition and
subtraction, it is possible to multiply two matrices with different dimensions as long as the
number of entries in the rows of the first matrix is the same as the number of entries in
columns of the second matrix.
Activity: 1. Given the matrices E, F, G and H, below
 1 2 
 2 -1   –3 
E =  4 2  F =  3 2  G = [ 4 1 ] H =  –1 
   
3 1 
Find, if possible. a) GH b) FH c) EF d) FE
2. Given the matrices R, S, and T below.

 1 0 2   0 –1 2   –2 3 0 
  S =  3 1 0  T =  –3 2 2 
R=  2 1 5  
 2 3 1  4 2 1  –1 1 0 
Find 2RS – 3ST.
We summarize matrix multiplication as follows:
DMU Page 35
In order for product AB to exist, the number of columns of A, must equal the number of rows of
B. If matrix A is of dimension m  n and B of dimension n  p, the product AB will have the
dimension m  p. Let A  ( a ij ) be an m  n matrix and B  ( b jk ) be an n  p matrix. Then
the product AB is the m  p matrix defined by AB  ( c ik ), where
n
c ik  a i 1 b 1 k  a i 2 b 2 k  ...  a in b nk   a ij b jk , I = 1,2,…,m and k = 1,2,…,p
j1
Thus, the product AB is the m  p matrix, where each entry c ik of AB is obtained by

multiplying corresponding entries of the ith row of A by those of the kth column of B and then
finding the sum of the results.
Activity: 1. If a matrix A is 3x5 and the product AB is 3x7, then what is the order of B?
2. How many rows does X have if XY is a 2x6 matrix?
Remark: The definition refers to the product AB, in that order, A is the left factor called pre
factor and B is the right factor called post factor.
1  4
   2 4 1 6
Example: Find the product AB if A  5 3 and B   
 
 2 7 3 8
 0 2 
Solution: Since the number of columns of A is equal to the number of rows of B, the
product AB=C is defined. Since A is 3  2 and B is 2  4 , the product AB
will be 3  4
 c 11 c 12 c 13 c 14 
 
AB  c 21 c 22 c 23 c 24
 
 c 31 c 32 c 33 c 34 
The entry c11 is obtained by summing the products of each entry in row 1
of A by the corresponding entry in column 1 of B, that is.
c 11  ( 1 )(  2 )  (  4 )( 2 )   10 . Similarly, for C21 we use the entries in
row 2 of A and those in column 1 of B, that is C21 = (5) (-2) + (3) (2) = -4.
Also, C12 = (1) (4) + (-4) (7) = -24
C13 = (1) (1) + (-4) (3) = -11
C14 = (1) (6) + (-4) (8) = -26
C22 = (5) (4) + (3) (7) = 41
C23 = (5) (1) + (3 ) (3) = 14
C24 = (5) (6) + (3) (8) = 54
C31 = (0) (-2) + (2) (2) = 4
C32 = (0) (4) + (2) (7) = 14
C33 = (0) (1) + (2) (3) = 6
C34 = (0) (6) + (2) (8) = 16
  10  24  11  26 
 
Thus AB   4 41 14 54
 
 4 14 6 16 
DMU Page 36
Observe that the product BA is not defined since the number of columns of B is not equal to the
number of rows of A. This shows that matrix multiplication is not commutative. That is, for any
two matrices A and B, it is usually the case that AB  BA (even if both products are defined).
1 0 1 2
Example: Let A    , and B    , then
0 0 1 0
1 2 1 0
AB    , BA    . Thus, AB  BA .
0 0 1 0
Activity. Which of the following are defined?
 3  a
i)  5 2 10   

iii)  
  c d 
 4 b
a
ii)  a b  c d  iv)  a b   
b
3 2 a b
2. If A    and B    , find a and b such that AB = BA.
4 1 3 5
Note: 1. AB = 0 does not necessarily imply A = 0 or B = 0.
2. AB = AC does not necessarily imply B = C.
 1 1 1  1 2 3 0 0 0
     
Example 1) Let A   3 2 1 , B  2 4 6 , then AB  0 0 0 .
     
  2 1 0   1 2 3   0 0 0 
1  3 2  1 4 1 0 3 1 1  2
     
A  2  3 2 1 1 1 3  2 1 1
2) Let 
1

, B    , C    then
1  2 1 2 2  5 1 0 
 4  3  1     
   
 3  3 0 1 
 
1 15 0  5
AB     AC . But B  C .
 3 15 0  5
 
 
In this chapter, we will be using matrices to solve linear systems. Later, we will be asked to
express linear systems as the matrix equation AX = B, where A, X, and B are matrices. The
matrix A is called the coefficient matrix.
Example 3 :Verify that the system of two linear equations with two unknowns:
ax  by  h
can be written as AX = B, where
cx  dy  k
DMU Page 37
 a b   x   h 
A =  c d  X =  y  and B =  k 
     
Solution:If we multiply the matrices A and X, we get
 a b   x   ax + by 
AX =  c d   y  =  cx + dy 
     
If AX = B, then
 ax + by   h 
  =  
 cx + dy   k 
If two matrices are equal, then their corresponding entries are equal.
Therefore, it follows that
ax  by  h
cx  dy  k
Activity : Express the following system as AX = B.
2x  3y  4z  5
3x  4 y  5z  6
5x  6z  7
Properties of Matrix multiplication
If A, B and C are any matrices, and if I is an identity matrix, then the following hold, whenever
the dimensions of the matrices are such that the products are defined.
( ) ( ) Associative Law
(The order of I and A is the same) Multiplicative Identity Law
( ) Left Distributive Law
( ) Right Distributive Law
Multiplication by Zero
Remark: For real numbers, a multiplied by itself n times can be written as an.
Similarly, a square matrix A multiplied by itself n times can be written as
An. Therefore, A2 means AA, A3 means AAA and so on.
Exercise:
 1 2 3   4 5 6  1  2 1
     
1. If A  1 0 2 , B  1 0 1 and C  1 2 3
     
 1  3  1   2 1 2    1  2 2 
Find each of the following

(i) A + B ii) 2B – 3C
iii) A+B–C iv) A – 2B + 3C v) 2A – C
 5 2 2 4 1 3
2. Let A   , B   , C   
 1 3 6 1 7 2
Find the following: i) AB ii) BC iii) (AB)C iv) A(BC)
DMU Page 38
4 1  4
 
3. If A  4

0  4 ,

compute A2. Is it equal to I3, where I3 is the identity matrix of order 3?
 3 1  3 
Transpose of a matrix
Definition: Let A be an m  n matrix. The transpose of A, denoted by A' or A t , is the n  m
matrix obtained from A by interchanging the rows and columns of A. Thus the first row of A is
the first column of At, the second row of A is the second column of At and so on.
 2 3
2  4 6 t
 
Example : If A   , then A   4 1

3 1 4  
 6 4
Activity : Find a 3x3 matrix A for which A = At.

Properties: a) If A and B have the same order,  A  B
t
 A
t
 B
t
. b) For a scalar
k,  kA  t  kA
t
.
A t 
t
c) If A is m  n and B is , then ( AB )  B A . d)
t t t
n p  A
t t
Definition: A square matrix A is said to be orthogonal if AA  A A  I
1 1  1
Example: A    is orthogonal (verify)
 
2 1 1 
t
Definition 3.3.3: A square matrix A  ( a ij ) is said to be symmetric if A  A , or equivalently,
if a ij  a ji for each i and j.
2 1 5 
 
Example: A  1 0  3 is symmetric.
 
5  3 6 
a 3 4 8 
 
b c  3 9 
Activity: 1. For A  is to be a symmetric matrix, what numbers
 
d e f 10
 
 
g h i j 
should the letters a to j represent?
2. a) Does a symmetric matrix have to be square?
b) Are all square matrices symmetric?
Definition: A square matrix A  a ij  is said to be skew symmetric if A
t
 A , or equivalently,
if a ij   a ji for each i and j
DMU Page 39
Remark: a ii   a ii  2 a ii  0 or a ii  0 . Hence elements of main diagonal of a skew-symmetric

matrix are all zero.
 0 5 7 0  5 7
  t
 
Example : For A   5 0 3, A  5 0  3   A . So A is skew-symmetric.
   
7  3 0 7 3 0 
Properties of symmetric and skew-symmetric matrices

1. For any square matrix A, A + At is symmetric and A – At is skew- symmetric
2. If A and B are two symmetric (or skew symmetric) matrices of the same order, then so is
A + B. Proof (exercise)
3. If A is symmetric or skew symmetric, then so is kA. Proof (exercise)
4. Let A and B be symmetric matrices of the same order. The product AB is symmetric if
and only if AB = BA.
t t t
Proof: AB is symmetric  ( AB )  AB  B A  AB
 BA  AB
Suppose AB = BA. Then (AB)t = BtAt = BA = AB
Exercise
1. a) Form a 4 by 5 matrix, B, such that bij = i*j, where * represents multiplication.
b) What is BT? c) Is B symmetric? Why or why not?
3 1 0  2 4 3
 
2. Given A  2 4 5 and B=  5 1 7

. Verify that
   
 1 3 6   2 3 8 
i) (A  B)  A  B , ii)  B A iii) (2 A)  2 A
t t t t t t t t
( AB )
1 1 1
3. Let A   , is A t A is symmetric
1 2 3
Elementary row and column operations
Elementary row operations:
1. (Replacement) Replace one row (say R i ) by the sum of itself and a multiple of
another row (say R j ). This is abbreviated as R i  k R j  R i .
2. (Interchange) Interchange two rows (say R i and R j
). This is abbreviated as Ri  R j
.
3. (Scaling) Multiply all entries in a row (say R i ) by a nonzero constant (scalar) k. This is
abbreviated as R i  k R i
For elementary column operations “row” by “column” in (1), (2) and (3) above.
We say that two matrices are row equivalent if one is obtained from the other by a finite
sequence of elementary row operations.
It is important to note that row operations are reversible. If two rows are interchanged, they
can be returned to their original positions by another interchange. If a row is scaled by a
1
nonzero constant c, then multiplying the new row by produces the original row. Finally,
c
consider a replacement operation involving two rows, say rows i and j, and suppose c times row
DMU Page 40
i is added to row j to produce a new row j. To “reverse” this operation, add – c times row i to
the new row j and obtain the original row j.
Example : Find the elementary row operation that transforms the first matrix in to the second,
and then find the reverse row operation that transforms the second matrix in to the first.
1 3  1 1 3  1
   
0 2  4 , 0 1  2
   
 0  3 4   0  3 4 
1 3  1 1 3  1
   
Solution: 0 2  4 ½R2 R2 0 1  2
   
 0  3 4   0  3 4 
1 3  1 1 3  1
   
0 1  2 R2 2R2 0 2  4
   
 0  3 4   0  3 4 
Activity 3.4.1: Find the elementary row operation that transforms the first matrix in to the
second, and then find the reverse row operation that transforms the second matrix in to the
first.
0 5  3 1 5  2 1 3 1 5  1 3 1 5 
       
a) 1 5  2 , 0 5  3 b) 0 1  4 2 , 0 1  4 2
       
 2 1 8   2 1 8   0 2  5  1   0 0 3  5 
In the definition that follows, a nonzero row (or column) in a matrix means a row (or column)
that contains at least one non-zero entry; a leading entry of a row refers to the left most
nonzero entry (in a non zero row).
Definition : A matrix is in echelon form (or row echelon form) if it has the following three
properties:
1) All nonzero rows are above any rows of all zeros.
2) Each leading entry of a row is in a column to the right of the leading entry of the
row above it.
3) All entries in a column below a leading entry are zero.
If a matrix in echelon form satisfies the following additional condition then it is in
reduced echelon form (or row reduced echelon form)
4) The leading entry in each non zero row is 1
5) Each leading 1 is the only nonzero entry in its column.
Example: The following matrices are in row echelon form, in fact the second
Matrix is in row reduced echelon form
DMU Page 41
 
2  3 2 1 1 0 0 29 
 
0  
1  4 8 , 0 1 0 16
  
5
0 0 0   0 0 1 1 
 2
Definition : (i) A matrix which is in row echelon form is called an echelon matrix.
(ii) A matrix which is in row reduced echelon form is called a reduced echelon
matrix.
Note: 1) Each matrix is row equivalent to one and only one row reduced echelon matrix.
But a matrix can be row equivalent to more than one echelon matrices.
2) If matrix A is row equivalent to an echelon matrix U, we call U an echelon
form of A. If U is in reduced echelon form, we call U the reduced echelon form of A.
Activity : Determine which of the following matrices are in row reduced echelon form and
which others are in row echelon form (but not in reduced echelon form)
1 0 1 0 0 2 3 4 5
1 0 1 1 1 1    
    0 1 1 0 0 0 3 4 5
a) 0 1 0 b) 0 0 0 c)   d)  
    0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 5
 0 0 0   0 0 0     
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0  5 0 8 3 1 3 0 0 3
  1 3 5 7  
0 1 4 1 0 6   0 0 1 0 0
e)   f) 2 4 6 8 g)  
0 0 0 0 1 0   0 0 0 0 0
   3 5 7 9   
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 1
1 0 1 0 0
   1  2 1 3 0
0 0 1 0 1  
h)   i)  2 4 5  5 3
0 1 0 2 1  
   3  6  6 8 3 
0 0 0 1 1
System of Linear equations
In this section we will present certain systematic methods for solving system of linear equations
Definition: A linear equation in the variables x 1 , x 2 ,..., x n over the real field  Is an equation
that can be written in the form
a 1 x 1  a 2 x 2  ....  a n x n  b (1)
where b and the coefficients a 1 , a 2 ,..., a n are given real numbers.
Definition: A system of linear equations (or a linear system) is a collection of one or more
linear equations involving the same variables, say x 1 , x 2 ,..., x n .
Now consider a system of m linear equations in n-unknowns x 1 , x 2 ,..., x n :
DMU Page 42
a 11 x 1  a 12 x 2  ...  a 1 n x n  b 1
a 21 x 1  a 22 x 2  ...  a 2 n x n  b 2
.
(2)
.
a m 1 x 1  a m 2 x 2  ...  a mn x n  b m
If b 1  b 2  ...  b m  0 then we say that the system is homogeneous. If bi  0 for some
i{1,2,3, . . ., m} then the system is called non homogeneous. In matrix notation, the linear
system (2) can be written as AX  B where
 a 11 a 12 ... a 1n   x1   b1 
     
a a 22 ... a 2n x b
 21   2   2 
 .   .   . 
A  , X  and B 
 .   .   . 
     
 .   .   . 
 a m 1 am2 ... a mn   x n   b m 
We call A the coefficient matrix of the system (2).

Observe that entries of the k-th column of A are the coefficients of the variable x k in (2).
The m  ( n  1 ) matrix whose first n columns are the columns of A (the coefficient matrix) and
whose last column is B is called the augmented matrix of the system. We denote it by [AB].
The augmented matrix determines the system (2) completely because it contains all the
coefficients and the constants to the right side of each equation in the system. For example for
the non homogeneous linear system
x1  3 x 2  x 3  2
x2  2x3  4 (3)
 2 x1  3 x 2  3 x 3  5
 1 3  1  1 3 1 2
   
The matrix A  0 1  2 is the coefficient matrix and 0 1  2 4 is the
   
  2  3  3    2  3  3 5 
augmented matrix.
Are the coefficient matrix and the augmented matrix of a homogeneous linear system equal?
Why?
A solution of a linear system in n-unknowns x 1 , x 2 ,..., x n is an n-tuple ( s 1 , s 2 ,..., s n ) of real
numbers that makes each of the equations in the system a true statement when si is
substituted for xi, i = 1,2, . . ., n. The set of all possible solutions is called the solution set of the
linear system. We say that two linear systems are equivalent if they have the same solution set.
Activity: Give the coefficient matrix and the augmented matrix of the linear system
DMU Page 43
x1  3 x 2  2 x 3
x 1  11 x 3
2 x1  x 2  4 x 3  0
 x1  x 2  2
2) Does the linear system have a solution?
x1  x 2  0
u  v  2
3) Find the solution set of the linear system
u  v 1
How many solutions does it have?
 3
2 x1  x 2  x3  8  13 
4) Given the system  2 . Is  5, ,3  a solution of the linear
 x1  4 x 3  7  2 
  25 
system? What about (-7, -22, 0) and  3, ,1  ?
 2 
The activity given above illustrates the following general fact about linear systems.
A system of linear equations has either
1. no solution, or
2. exactly one solution, or
3. Infinitely many solutions.
We say that a linear system is consistent if it has either one solution or infinitely many
solutions; a system is inconsistent if it has no solution.
Activity :
1. The homogeneous linear system AX  O is consistent for any m  n matrix A.
Explain, why?
2. Consider a linear system of two equations in two unknowns, give geometric
interpretation if the system has
i) no solution ii) exactly one solution iii) many solutions
Do the same for a linear system of three equations in three unknowns.
Solving a linear system
This is the process of finding the solutions of a linear system. We first see the technique of
elimination (Gaussian elimination method) and then we add two more techniques, matrix
inversion method and Cramer’s rule.
Gaussian Elimination Method
The Gaussian elimination method is a standard method for solving linear systems. It applies to
any system, no matter whether m < n, m = n or m > n (where m and n are number of equations
and variables respectively). We know that equivalent linear systems have the same solutions.
Thus the basic strategy in this method is to replace a given system with an equivalent system,
which is easier to solve.
The basic operations that are used to produce an equivalent system of linear equations are the
following:
1. Replace one equation by the sum of itself and a multiple of another equation.
2. Interchange two equations
3. Multiply all the terms in an equation by a non zero constant.
DMU Page 44
Activity: Why these three operations do not change the solution set of the system?
We illustrate this technique by using the following example.
Example: Solve the system
x1  3 x 2  x 3  2
x2  2x3  4
 2 x1  3 x 2  3 x 3  5
Solution: We perform the elimination procedure with and without matrix notation of the
system. For each step we put the resulting system and its augmented matrix side by side for
comparison:
x1  3 x 2  x 3  2  1 3 1 2
 
x2  2x3  4 0 1  2 4
 
 2 x1  3 x 2  3 x 3  5   2  3  3 5 
We keep x1 in the first equation and eliminate it from the other equations. For this replace the
third equation by the sum of itself and two times equation 1.
2 .eq . 1  : 2 x1  6 x 2  2 x 3  4
 eq . 3  :  2 x1  3 x 2  3 x 3  5
[ New eq . 3 ] 3x2  5x3  9

We write the new equation in place of the original third equation:
x1  3 x 2  x 3  2 1 3 1 2
 
x2  2x3  4 R3 R3 + 2R1 0 1  2 4
 
3x2  5x3  9  0 3  5 9 
Next use the x2 in equation 2 to eliminate 3x2 in equation 3.

 3 .eq . 2  :  3 x 2  6 x 3   12
 eq . 3  : 3x2  5x3  5
[ New eq . 3 ] x3  3
The resulting equivalent system is:
x1  3 x 2  x 3  2 1 3 1 2 
 
x2  2x3  4 R3 R3 – 3R2 0 1  2 4
 
x3  3  0 0 1  3 
Now we eliminate the –2x3 term form equation 2. For this we use x3 in equation 3.
2 .eq . 3  : 2 x 3  6
 eq . 2  : x2  2x3  4
[ New eq . 3 ] x3  3
From this we get
x1  3 x 2  x 3  2 1 3 1 2 
 
x2  2 R2 R2 +2R3 0 1 0  2
 
x3  3  0 0 1  3 
Again by using the x3 term in equation 3, we eliminate the –x3 term in equation 1.
DMU Page 45
1 .eq . 3  : x 3  3
 eq . 1  : x1  3 x 2  x 3  2
[ New eq . 1 ] x1  3 x 2  1
Thus we get the system
x1  3 x 2  1 1 3 0  1
 
x2  2 R1 R1+R3 0 1 0  2
 
x3  3  0 0 1  3 
Finally, we eliminate the 3 x 2 term in equation 1. We use the x2 term in equation 2 to eliminate
the 3 x 2 term above it.
 3 .eq . 2  :  3x2  6
 eq . 1  : x1  3 x 2  2
[ New eq . 1 ] x1  5
So we have an equivalent system (to the original system) that is easier to solve.
x1  5
1 0 0 5 
x2  2  
R1 R1 – 3R2 0 1 0  2
x3  3  
 0 0 1  3 
Thus the system has only one solution, namely (5, -2, -3) or x 1  5 , x 2   2 , x 3   3 . To verify
that (5, -2, -3) is a solution, substitute these values in to the left side of the original system, and
compute:
5 + 3(-2) - (-3) = 5 – 6 + 3 = 2
-2 - 2(-3) = -2 + 6 = 4
-2(5) - 3(-2) - 3(-3) = -10 + 6 + 9 = 5
It is a solution, as it satisfies all the equation in the given system (3).
Example: illustrates how operations in a linear system correspond to operations on the
appropriate rows of the augmented matrix. The three basic operations listed earlier correspond
to the three elementary row operations on the augmented matrix.
Let us see how elementary row operations on the augmented matrix of a given linear system
can be used to determine a solution of the system. Suppose a system of linear equations is
changed to a new one via row operations on its augmented matrix. By considering each type of
row operation it is easy to see that any solution of the original system remains a solution of the
new system.
Conversely, since the original system can be produced via row operations on the new system,
each solution of the new system is also a solution of the original system. From this we have the
following important property.
 If the augmented matrices of two linear systems are row equivalent, then the two systems
have the same solution set.
Thus to solve a linear system by elimination we first perform appropriate row operations on the
augmented matrix of the system to obtain the augmented matrix of an equivalent linear system
which is easier to solve and use back substitution on the resulting new system. This method can
DMU Page 46
also be used to answer questions about existence and uniqueness of a solution whenever there
is no need to solve the system completely.
In Gaussian elimination method we either transform the augmented matrix to an echelon
matrix or a reduced echelon matrix. That is we either find an echelon form or the reduced
echelon form of the augmented matrix of the system. An echelon form of the augmented
matrix enables us to answer the following two fundamental questions about solutions of a
linear system. These are:
1. Is the system consistent; that is, does at least one solution exists?
2. If a solution exists, is it the only one; that is, is the solution unique?
Example: Determine if the following system is consistent. If so how many solutions does it
have?
x1  x 2  x 3  3
x1  5 x 2  5 x 3  2
2 x1  x 2  x 3  1
1 1 1 3
 
Solution: The augmented matrix is A  1 5  5 2
 
 2 1 1 1 
Let us perform a finite sequence of elementary row operations on the augmented matrix.
1 1 1 3 1 1 1 3 
R 2   R 1 R 2 R 3   2 R 1 R 3
 A B    1 5  5

2 




0 6  6

 1      

 2 1 1 1   2 1 1 1 
 
1 1 1 3  
1
R 2 R 3 1 1 1 3
R3  
 
2
0 6  6 1       0 6  6 1
 
 9
 0 3  3  5   
0 0 0
 2
The corresponding linear system of the last matrix is
x1  x 2  x 3  3
6 x 2  6 x 3  1 (*)
9
0 
2
 9
But the last equation 0.x1  0.x 2  0.x 3  is never true. That is there are no values
2
that satisfy the new system (*). Since (*) and the original linear system have the same
x1, x 2 , x 3
solution set, the original system is inconsistent (has no solution).

Example: Use Gaussian elimination to solve the linear system
DMU Page 47
2x  y  z  2
 2x  y  z  4
6x  3y  2 z   9
Solution: The augmented matrix of the given system is
 2 1 1 2 
A B     2 1 1 4


 6  3  2  9 
Let us find an echelon form of the augmented matrix first. From this we can determine whether
the system is consistent or not . If it is consistent
we go a head to obtain the reduced echelon form of [AB] , which enable us to describe
explicitly all the solutions.
 2 1 1 2  2 1 1 2 
R 2  R 1 R 2 R 3  3 R 1 R 3
   
 2 1 1 4      0 0 2 6      
   
 6  3  2  9   6  3  2  9 
2 1 1 2  5
R 3 2 R 2  R 3 2 1 1 2 1
    R 2 2 R 2
0 0 2 6      0 0 2 6    
   
 0 0  5  15   0 0 0 0 
2 1 1 2 2 1 0  1 1
  
R    R 1 R 1
0 0 1 3 R 1  2 R 1
 0 0 1 3   2  
   
 0 0 0 0   0 0 0 0 
 1  1
1 0
 
2 2
0 0 1 3 
 
0 0 0 0 
 
The associated linear system to the reduced echelon form of [AB] is
1
x  1
2
y  2
z  3
0  0
The third equation is 0 x  0 y  0 z  0 . It is not an inconsistency, it is always true whatever
values we take for x, y, z. The system is consistent and if we assign any value  for y in the first
equation, we get x  21  12  . From the second we have z = 3. Thus x  21  12  , y =  and z
= 3 is the solution of the given system, where  is any real number. There are an infinite
number of solutions, for example,
x = 21 , y = 0, z = 3
x = 0, y = 1, z = 3 and so on.
In vector form the general solution of the given system is of the form ( 21  12  ,  , 3 ) where  
 . What does this represents in  3 ?
DMU Page 48
Remark: A system of linear equation AX  B is consistent iff the ranks of the coefficient
matrix and the augmented matrix are equal.
x1  x 2  x 4  1
Activity: Find the solution set of the system: x1  x 2  x 3   2 .

x2  x3  x4  0
Exercise:
1. Find the solution set of the following system:
2 x1  x 2  3 x 3  1
x 1  3 x 2  5 x 3  2 x 4  11
x1  x 2  2 x 3   2
a. c. 3 x1  2 x 2  7 x 3  5 x 4  0
4 x1  3 x 2  x 3   3
2 x1  x 2  x 4  7
x1  5 x 3  3
x1  2 x 2  3 x 3  x 4  0 x 1  3 x 2  2 x 3  5 x 4  10
b. 3 x1  x 2  5 x 3  x 4  0 d. 3 x1  2 x 2  5 x 3  4 x 4   5
2 x1  x 2  x 4  0 2 x1  x 2  x 3  5 x 4  5
x  y  z  6
2. For what values of  and  the system: x  2 y  3 z  10 , has
x  2 y  z  
i. No solution ii. Unique solution iii. Infinitely many solution
3. Let M mxn = the set of all mxn matrices. Is Mmxn a vector space under matrix addition and
scalar multiplication?
 0 1   a b 
4. Let W     x  
 . Is W a subspace of M2x2, where M 2x2
    a, b, c, d   

 0 x   c d 
?
 0 x 
5. Let W     x, y   
 . Is W a subspace of M2x2, where
 0 y 
 a b 
M 2x2
    a, b, c, d   
 ?
 c d 
3.2. Determinants
We interrupt our discussion of matrices to introduce the concept of the determinant function.
Remember that a matrix is simply an ordered arrangement of elements; it is meaningless to
assign a single numerical value to a matrix.
However, if A is a square matrix, then the determinant function associates with A exactly one
numerical value called the determinant of A, that gives us valuable information about the
matrix. By denoting the determinant of A by A or det A we can think of the determinant
function as correspondence:
A  A
square matrix det er min ant of A
DMU Page 49
In this case, the straight bars do NOT mean absolute value; they represent the determinant of
the matrix. We will see some of the uses of the determinant in the subsequent sections. For
now, let's find out how to compute the determinant of a matrix so that we can use it later.
Definition: (Determinant of order 1): Let A   a 11  be a square matrix of order 1. Then
determinant of A is defined as the number a 11 itself. That is, a 11  a 11 .
Example 3  3 ,  5  5 and 0  0
 a 11 a 12 
Definition: (Determinant of order 2): Let   be a 2  2 matrix, then
 a 21 a 22 
A  a 11 a 22  a 12 a 21 .
That is, the determinant of a 2  2 matrix is obtained by taking the product of the entries in
the main diagonal and subtracting from it the product of the entries in the other diagonal.
To define the determinant of a square matrix A of order n(n > 2), we need the concepts of the
minor and the cofactor of an element.
Let A  a ij be a determinant of order n. The minor of aij, is the determinant that is left by
deleting the ith row and the jth column. It is denoted by Mij.
a 11 a 12 a 13
For example, given the 3 x 3 determinant a 21 a 22 a 23 . The minor of a 11 is

a 31 a 32 a 33
a 22 a 23 a 21 a 23
M 11
 , the minor of a 12 is M 12
 , and so on.
a 32 a 33 a 32 a 33
Let A  a ij be a determinant of order n. The cofactor of aij denoted Cij or Aij, is defined as
i j
( 1 ) M ij , where i + j is the sum of the row number i and column number j in which the
 M ij , if i  j is even
entry lies. Thus C ij   . For example, the cofactor of a12 in the 3 x 3
 M ij , if i  j is odd

a 11 a 12 a 13
determinant a 21 a 22 a 23 is
a 31 a 32 a 33
1  2 a 21 a 23 a 21 a 23
C 12  ( 1 )  
a 31 a 33 a 31 a 33
0 1 2
 
Example: Evaluate the cofactor of each of the entries of the matrix: 1 2 3
3 1 1 

Solution: C11 = -1, C21 = 1 , C31 = -1, C12 = 8, C13 = -5, C22 = -6, C32 = 2, C23 = 3, C33 = -1
Activity: Evaluate the cofactor of each of the entries of the given matrices:
DMU Page 50
2 3 4  2 0  1
   
a. 3 2 1  b. 5 1 0 
1 1  2  0 1 3 
 
Definition :( Determinant of order n): If A is a square matrix of order n (n >2), then its
determinant may be calculated by multiplying the entries of any row (or column) by their
cofactors and summing the resulting products. That is,
det A  a i 1 C i 1  a i 2 C i 2  .....  a in C in Or det A  a 1 j C 1 j  a 2 j C 2 j  .....  a nj C nj
Remark: It is a fact that determinant of a matrix is unique and does not depend on the row or
column chosen for its evaluation.
1  3 4
Example: Find the value of 0 2 5

 2 6 3
Solution: Choose a given row or column. Let us arbitrarily select the first row. Then
1  3 4
2 5 0 5 0 2
0 2 5  (1)  (  3 )(  1 )  4 = 1 ( 6  30 )  3 ( 0  10 )  4 ( 0  4 )
6 3  2 3  2 6
 2 6 3
= 22
If we had expanded along the first column, then
1  3 4
2 5  3 4
0 2 5  (1 )  0  (2)  1 ( 6  30 )  2 (  15  8 ) = 22, as before
6 3 2 5
 2 6 3
1 2 0 1
3 1 4 1
Example: Find the value of A 
 2 0  3 3
4 3 1 2
Solution: Expanding along first row, we have

A  a 11 C 11  a 12 C 12  a 13 C 13  a 14 C 14 = a 11 M 11  a 12 M 12
 a 13 M 13
 a 14 M 14
1 4 1 3 4 1 3 1 4
=( 1 ) 0  3 3  2 2  3 3  0  (1) 2 0  3 = 54 – 94 + 13 = -27
3 1 2 4 1 2 4 3 1
Activity: Compute the determinant of A if:

1 3 5 1 5 0 
   
a. A  2 1 1 c. A  2 4  1
3 4 2  0  2 0 
 
DMU Page 51
 5  7 2 2   3 0 0 0
   
 0 3 0  4  5  2 0 0
b. A  d. A 
 5 8 0 3   8 3 1 0
   
   
 0 5 0  6  4  7 5 2
Note: 1. det I n  1 , where I n is an identity matrix of order n.
2. det A  The product of the diagonal elements, if A is a diagonal matrix or lower
triangular matrix or upper triangular matrix.
The following diagram called Sarrus’ diagram, enables us to write the
value of the determinant of order 3 very conveniently.
This technique does not hold for determinant of higher order.
Working Rule: Make the Sarrus’ diagram by repeating the first two
columns of the determinant as shown below. Then multiply the
elements joined by arrows. Assign the positive sign to an expression if
it is formed by a downward arrow and negative sign to an expression if it is formed by an
upward arrow.
Value: a 11 a 22 a 33  a 12 a 23 a 31  a 13 a 21 a 32  a 31 a 22 a 13  a 32 a 23 a 11  a 33 a 21 a 12
2 1 3
Example: Find the value of A  5 7 0 with the help of Sarrus’ diagram
4 1 6
Solution: The Sarrus’ diagram for the given determinant is to the right. Thus
the value of the determinant is
A  ( 2 )( 7 )( 6 )  (  1)( 0 )( 4 )  ( 3 )( 5 )( 1)  ( 4 )( 7 )( 3 )  (1)( 0 )( 2 )  ( 6 )( 5 )(  1)  45
Exercise:
2 1 5
3 2  2 a
1) Evaluate the following determinants: a) b) c)  3 4 1
5  4 a 2
0 6 1
1 2 3
 
2) Let A  4 5 4 . Determine each of the following
 
 3 2 1 
a) the minor of a21 b) the minor of a22 c) the cofactor of a22

d) the cofactor of a23 e) the cofactor of a32.
Properties of Determinants
We now state some useful properties of determinants. These properties help a good deal in the
evaluation of determinants. We use the notations Ri and Cj to denote respectively the i-th row
and the j-th column of a determinant.
Property 1: The value of a determinant remains unchanged if rows are changed into columns
and columns into rows. That is,
DMU Page 52
a 11 a 12 a 13 a 11 a 21 a 31
det A  det A
t
a 21 a 22 a 23  a 12 a 22 a 32 or
a 31 a 32 a 33 a 13 a 23 a 33
Remark: In terms of matrices, if A is a square matrix, then A  A' .

Property 2: If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are interchanged, the value of the
determinant so obtained is the negative of the value of the original determinant. That is,
a 11 a 12 a 13 a 11 a 12 a 13
a 21 a 22 a 23   a 31 a 32 a 33 .
a 31 a 32 a 33 a 21 a 22 a 23
Remark: The notation R i  R j ( C i  C j ) is used to represent interchange of ith and jth row
(column).
Property 3: If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are identical, the value of the
a1 b1 c1
determinant is zero. That is, a1 b1 c1  0 . R1 and R2 are identical

a2 b2 c2
Property 4: If each element of a row (or column) of a determinant is multiplied by a constant k,

the value of the determinant so obtained is k times the value of the original determinant. That
a 11 a 12 a 13 a 11 a 12 a 13
is, ka 21 ka 22 ka 23  k a 21 a 22 a 23
a 31 a 32 a 33 a 31 a 32 a 33
Remark: 1. The notation R i  k R i ( C i  k C i ) is used to represent multiplication of each

element of ith row (column) by the constant k.
2. det( kA )  k n det A , where k is any real number and A is an nxn matrix.
Property 5: If to the elements of a row (or column) of a determinant are added k times the
elements of another row (or column), the value of the determinant so obtained is equal to the
value of the original determinant. That is,
a 11 a 12 a 13 a 11  ka 31 a 12  ka 32 a 13  ka 33
a 21 a 22 a 23  a 21 a 22 a 23
a 31 a 32 a 33 a 31 a 32 a 33
Property 6: If each element of a row (or column) of a determinant is the sum of two
elements, the determinant can be expressed as the sum of two determinants. That is,
a 11 a 12 a 13 a 11 a 12 a 13 a 11 a 12 a 13
a 21 a 22 a 23  a 21 a 22 a 23  a 21 a 22 a 23
a 31  b 1 a 32  b 2 a 33  b 3 a 31 a 32 a 33 b1 b2 b3
1 18 72
Example : Find the value of the determinant A  2 40 148

3 45 150
DMU Page 53
Solution: By applying various properties of determinants, we make maximum number of zeros

in a row or a column. We shall make maximum number of zeros in C1. Performing the
operations R 2  R 2  2 R 1 and R 3  R 3  2 R 1 (property 5),
1 18 72
4 4
A  0 4 4 = = 24 - 36 = -12
9 6
0 9 6
y  z x y
2
Example : Show that z  x z x  ( x  y  z )( x  z )
x  y y z
y  z x y
Solution: Let   z  x z x . Performing R 1  R 1  R 2 , R 1  R 1  R 3 , we get

x  y y z
2( x  y  z ) x  y  z x  y  z 2 1 1
  z  x z x = ( x  y  z ) z  x z x
x  y y z x  y y z
Performing C 1  C 1  2C 2 and C2  C2  C3 , we get

0 0 1
=   ( x  y  z) x  z z  x x (Property 5)
x  y y  z z
= ( x  y  z )( x  z ) 2
Activity : Evaluate the following determinants by using the properties listed above:
1  3 1  2
3 1 43 2 4 6
2  5 1  2
a) 2 7 35 b) 7 9 11 c)
0  4 5 1
1 3 17 8 10 12
 3 10  6 8
Product of two determinants
Theorem : The determinant of the product of two matrices of order n is the product of their
determinants. That is, AB  A B .
3 0 2 5 3 0 2 5
Example : Let A    and B    , then AB  A B   ( 3 )( 3 )  9
4 1 1 4 4 1 1 4
Example : Let A and B be 3x3 matrix with det A = 2 and det B = -3.
Find det (2ABt).
Solution: det( 2 AB t )  2 3 det A det B t  8 ( 2 )(  3 )   48 , since det B = det Bt.
DMU Page 54
Adjoint and Inverse of a matrix
Definition: Let A = (aij) be a square matrix of order n and let Cij be the cofactor of aij. Then the
adjoint of A, denoted by adj A, is defined as the transpose of the cofactor matrix (Cij).
 1 2 3
 
Example: Find adj A, if A  1 0 1
 
 4 3 2 
Solution: We have C11=-3, C12=6, C13= -3, C21=5, C22=-10, C23=5, C31=2,C32=-4, C33=2.
 3 5 2 
 
Thus, adj A  6  10  4 .
 
  3 5 2 
1 5 0 
 
Activity: Find adj A if A  2 4 1
 
 0  2 0 
Properties of the Adjoint of a matrix

1. If A is a square matrix of order n, then
A(adj A) = |A| In = (adj A)A, where In is an identity matrix of order n.
2. If A is a square matrix of order n, then adj ( A' )  ( adjA )'
3. If A and B are two square matrices of the same order, then
adj(AB) = adj(B) adj (A).
 2 1 3
 
Example : If A  2 0 1 , verify that A(adjA) = |A| I3 = (adjA)A
 
  4 5 6 
Solution: We have |A| = 2(-5)-1(12+4)+3(10) = -10 – 16 + 30 = 4

Now C11=-5, C12=-16, C13=10, C21 = 9, C22=24, C23=-14, C31=1, C32=4, C33=-2.
  5 9 1 
 
Therefore , adj A   16 24 4
 
 10  14  2 
 2 1 3   5 9 1  4 0 0 1 0 0
       
Hence A ( adjA )  2 0 1  16 24 4 = 0 4 0  4 0 1 0  A I3
       
  4 5 6   10  14  2   0 0 4   0 0 1 
Similarly, it can be proved that ( adjA ) A  A I 3

Definition : Let A be a square matrix of order n. Then a square matrices B of order n, if it exists, is
called an inverse of A if AB = BA = In. A matrix A having an inverse is called an invertible matrix. It
may easily be seen that if a matrix A is invertible, its inverse is unique. The inverse of an invertible
matrix A is denoted by A-1.
Does every square matrix possess an inverse? To answer this let us consider the matrix
DMU Page 55
0 0
A    . If B is any square matrix of order 2, we find that AB = BA = 0.
0 0
We thus see that there cannot be any matrix B for which AB and BA both are equal to I2.
Therefore A is not invertible. Hence, we conclude that a square matrix may fail to have an
inverse. However, if A is a square matrix such that A  0 , then A is invertible and
1 1
A  adj A . For, we know that A ( adjA )  ( adiA ) A  A I n
A
 1   1  1 1
A adjA    adjA  A  I n . Thus A is invertible and A  adjA .
 A   A  A
   
A square matrix A is said to be singular (not invertible) if A  0 , and it is called non-singular
(invertible) if A  0 .
6 7  1
 
Example : Find  if the matrix A  3  5 has no inverse.
 
 9 11  
Solution: 6 (   55 )  7 ( 3  
2
45 )  ( 33  9  )  0
 2  2  8  0
 (   2 )(   4 )  0
   2 or   4
3 1 2 
 
Example : If A  2

 3 1

, then A  3 (  3  2 )  1 ( 2  1 )  2 ( 4  3 )  8
 1 2 1 
Since A  0 , A is non-singular or invertible.

Activity : Find A-1.
2 0 0
 
Further, if B   3 1 4

then B  0 and it is singular.
 5  2 8 
1
Note: If A is an invertible nxn matrix, then AA-1 = In and det A-1 = , where det A  0 .
det A
Properties of the inverse of a matrix
1. A square matrix is invertible if and only if it is non-singular.
2. The inverse of the inverse is the original matrix itself, i.e.  A  1 )  1  A 
3. The inverse of the transpose of a matrix is the transpose of its inverse, i.e.,
A t   
1 t
1
 A
4. If A and B are two invertible matrices of the same order, then AB is also invertible and
moreover,  AB   B  1 A  1
1
DMU Page 56
4  2 1
 
Example : Find the inverse of the matrix A=  7 3 3

.
 2 0 1 
1
Solution: A  ( 4 )( 3 )  (  2 )( 1 )  1 (  6 )  8  0 . Thus A exists and is given by
1 1
A  adjA . To find adjA, let Cij denote the cofactor of aij, the element in the ith row and jth
A
column of |A|. Thus C11=3, C12 = -1, C13=-6, C21 = 2, C22=2, C23=-4, C31=-9 C32=-5 and C33 =26.
 3 2  9  3 2  9
  1 1 1  
adj A   1 2  5 . Hence A  adj A  1 2  5
  A 8  
  6  4 16    6  4 16 
 1 4 0
a b  
Activity: 1. Find the inverse of A, if i) A    ii) A  1 2 2
 
c d
 0 0 2 
3 4 2 8
2. Find matrix A such that A     .
6 2 9 4
1
3. If AX  b then X  A b . (True/False)
Cramer’s rule for solving system of linear equations (homogeneous and non homogeneous)
Suppose we have to solve a system of n linear equations in n unknowns Ax = b. Let Ai(b) be the
matrix obtained from A by replacing column i by the vector b and Ak be the k-th column vector
of matrix A.
Now let e1, e2, . . . en be columns of the n × n identity matrix I and Ii(x) be the matrix obtained
from I by replacing column i by x.
If Ax = b then by using matrix multiplication we have
AIi(x) = A[e1 . . . x . . . en] = [Ae1 . . . Ax . . . Aen]
= [A1 . . . b . . . An] = Ai(b)
By the multiplicative property of determinants, (detA)(detIi(x)) = det Ai(b)
The second determinant on the left is xi. (Make a cofactor expansion along the ith row.) Hence
det A i ( b )
(det A). xi = det Ai(b). Therefore if detA  0 then we have xi  .
det A
This method for finding the solutions of n linear equations in n unknowns is known as Cramer’s
Rule.
Example : Solve the following system of linear equations by Cramer’s Rule.
DMU Page 57
2x1  x 2  x 3  6
x1  4x 2  2x 3   4
3x1  x3  7
Solution: Matrix form of the given system is Ax  b
2 1 1   x1   6 
     
where A  1 4  2 x  x2  and b   4
     
3 0 1  x3   7 
det A i ( b )
By Cramer’s Rule, xi  ( i  1, 2 , 3 )
det A
2 1 1
det A  1 4  2  3
3 0 1
6 1 1 2 6 1
 4 4  2 1  4  2
det A 1 ( b ) 7 0 1 6 det A 2 ( b ) 3 7 1  3
x1     2 , x2     1 and
det A 2 3 det A 2 3
2 1 6
1 4  4
det A 3 ( b ) 3 0 7 3
x3     1.
det A 2 3
Example : Solve the following system of linear equations by Cramer’s Rule.
2 x1  x 2  7
 3 x1  2 x 3   8
x2  2 x3   3
Solution: Matrix form of the given system is Ax  b
 2 1 0  x1   7 
     
where A   3 0 1 x   x2  and b   8
 0 1 2  x   3
  3  
det A i ( b )
By Cramer’s Rule, xi  ( i  1, 2 , 3 )
det A
2 1 0
det A   3 0 1  4
0 1 2
DMU Page 58
7 1 0 2 7 0
8 0 1  3 8 1
det A 1 ( b )  3 1 2 6 3 det A 2 ( b ) 0  3 2 16
x1     , x2     4 and
det A 4 4 2 det A 4 4
2 1 7
 3 0 8
det A 3 ( b ) 0 1 3  14  7
x3     .
det A 4 4 2
Activity 1: Use Cramer’s rule to solve each of the following
a) 2z + 3 = y + 3x b) –a + 3b – 2c = 7
x – 3z = 2y + 1 3a + 3c = -3
3y + z = 2-2x 2a + b + 2c = -1
2. Consider the system of homogeneous n linear equations in n unknowns Ax = 0. Discuss
about the cases that we can use Cramer’s Rule.
For the non homogeneous system Ax  b , if det A  0 , then the Cramer’s rule does not give
any information whether or not the system has a solution. However, in the case of
homogeneous system we have the following useful theorem.
Theorem : A system of n homogenous linear equations in n unknowns Ax = 0, has a non trivial
solution if det A  0 . If det A  0 , it has only the trivial solution x1 = x2 = … =
xn = 0.
6 7  1
 
Example : Let A  3  5  . Find the value(s) of  if Ax  0 has non-zero solution.
9 11  

Solution: det A = 0
6 7 1
 3  5  0
9 11 
 6 (
2
 55 )  7 ( 3   45 )  ( 33  9  )  0
   2  8  0
2
 (   2 )(   4 )  0 or   2,   4
REMARK:
1. If A is a 2x2 matrix, the area of the parallelogram determined by the columns of A is det
A.
2. If A is a 3x3 matrix, the volume of the parallelepiped determined by the columns of A is
det A.
DMU Page 59
CHAPTER 4
Limits and Continuity
4.1 Limits and Continuity
4.1 Limit of a function
Introduction: The concept of limit and continuity play a fundamental role throughout the
calculus.
The basic idea underlying the concept of the limit of a function at a point is to study the
behavior of at points close to but not necessarily equal to .
Example
Study the behavior of ( ) at
Solution
Let us investigate the behavior of the function defined by ( ) for values of x
near to 2. The following table gives values of ( ) for values of close to 2 but not equal to 2.
From the above table and the graph of , we see that when is close to 2 (on either side of 2),
( ) is close to 4. We express this by saying ( )
The notation for this is

( )
Limit
We write ( )
( )
Usually read as ( )
If we can make the values of ( ) arbitrarily close to L (as close to L as we like) by
Taking to be sufficiently close to but not equal to .
Left-hand limit
We write ( )
Usually read as ( ) ,
( ) - if we can make the values of ( )
arbitrarily close to L by taking to be sufficiently close to and less than
DMU Page 60
Right-hand limit
We write ( )
Usually read as ( ) ,
( ) - if we can make the values of ( )
arbitrarily close to L by taking to be sufficiently close to and greater than
Graphical representation of Left-hand limit and Right-hand limit
By comparing limit definition with Left-hand limit and Right-hand limit, the following is true.
( ) ( ) ( )
Example
The graph of a function is shown in the following figure. Use it to state the values (if exist) of
the following:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Solution
From the given graph
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) Since the left and right limits are different, so we conclude that ( ) does not exist.
The graph also shows that
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) This time the left and right limits are same, so we have ( )
DMU Page 61
4.1 Formal definition of limit

Let be a function defined on some open interval that contains the number , except
possibly at itself. Then we say that the limit of ( ) as approaches is L, and we write
( )
if for every number there is a corresponding number such that
| ( ) | | |
Example
Prove that ( )
Solution
Step1: Preliminary analysis of the problem (guessing a value for )
Let be a given positive number. We want to find a number such that
|( ) | | |
But |( ) | | | | ( )| | | Therefore we want
| | | |
that is, | | | |
This suggests that we should choose ⁄ .
Step2: Proof (showing that the works).
Given , choose ⁄ . If | | then
|( ) | | | | ( )| | | . /
Thus
|( ) | | |
Therefore, by the definition of a limit,
( )
4.2 One-sided limits
Left-hand limit
( )
| ( ) |
Right-hand limit
( )
| ( ) |
Example
Use definition to prove that √
Solution
Step1: Guessing a value for
Let be a positive number. Here and so we want to find a
number such that
|√ |
DMU Page 62
that is, √
Squaring both sides of the inequality √ we get
This suggests that we should choose

Step2: Showing that works
Given , let . If , then
√ √ √
So |√ |
Thus |√ |
According to definition, this shows that √
4.3 Infinite limits

possibly at itself. Then ( )
means that for every positive number M there is a corresponding number
such that ( ) | |
This says that the value of ( ) can be made arbitrarily

large (larger than any given number M) by taking close
enough to (within a distance , where depends on M).
The geometrical representation is shown in the following
figure.
Given any horizontal line y = M, we can find a number
such that if we restrict to lie in the interval
( ) then the curve ( ) lies above the line
we can see that if a large M is chosen, then a smaller
may be required.
Similarly
possibly at itself. Then ( )
means that for every negative number N there is a corresponding number
such that ( ) | |
The graphical representation can be seen

in the following figure. This says that the value of
( )
become large negative as gets close to ‘ ’.
Given any horizontal line y = N, we can find a
number
such that if we restrict x to lie in the interval
DMU Page 63
( ), then the curve ( ) lies below the Line y = N.

Example
Use definition to prove that
Solution
Step 1: Guessing a value for
Given , we want to find such that
| |
that is, | |
or | | | |
√
This suggest that we should take
√
Step 2: Showing that this works.
If is given, let
√
If | | then
| |
Thus | |
Therefore, by definition,
4.4 Limits at Infinity

Definition 1
Let be a function defined on some interval ( ) Then

( )
means that for every there is a corresponding number N such that
| ( ) |
The graphical representation can be seen in the following figure. It illustrates ( )
DMU Page 64
Definition 2
Let be a function defined on some interval ( ) Then

( )
means that for every there is a corresponding number N such that
| ( ) |
The geometrical representation can be seen in the following figure. It illustrates

( )
Example
Use definition to prove that
Solution
Step 1: guessing a value for N
Given , we want to find N such that
| |
In computing the limit we assume , then we get
| | | |
Therefore we want
This suggest that we should take

Step 2: Proof (showing that N works)
Given , we choose
Let Then
| | | |
Thus | |
Therefore, by definition we proved
DMU Page 65
4.5 Basic limit theorems

Theorem 1: Limit of a function is unique whenever the limit exists.
Proof: Let ( )
If possible, suppose that ( ) ( )
Let us take | |
Since ( ) then
By definition for there exists such that | | | ( ) |
--------------- (1)
Since ( ) then
By definition for there exists such that | | | ( ) |
-------------- (2)
Let ( )
Thus from (1) and (2), for there exists such that | ( ) | and | ( ) |
Now | | | ( ) ( ) |
| ( )| | ( ) |
| ( ) | | ( ) | 0 | |1 | |
Therefore | | | | This is absurd.
Therefore our assumption that is wrong.
Therefore
Therefore ( ) is unique.
So the limit of a function is unique whenever the limit exist is proved.
Theorem 2: If ( ) then show that | ( )| | |
Proof: ( ) for any given there exists such that
| ( ) | | |
We have | ( ) | || ( )| | || , | | || | | || -
|| ( )| | || | ( ) | | |
|| ( )| | || | |
Therefore | ( ) | | | proved
Theorem 3: (Sum Rule)
If ( ) and ( ) both exist, then , ( ) ( )-
Proof: Let be given. We must find such that

| ( ) ( ) ( )| | |
Using the triangle inequality, we can write
| ( ) ( ) ( )| |, ( ) - , ( ) -|
| ( ) | | ( ) | ---------------- (1)
We make | ( ) ( ) ( )| less than by making each of the terms | ( ) | and
| ( ) | less than ⁄
Since and ( ) , there exists a number such that
| ( ) | | |
Similarly, since ( ) , there exists a number such that
| ( ) | | |
DMU Page 66
Let * +. Notice that

If | | | | | |
and also | ( ) | | ( ) |
Therefore, by (1),
| ( ) ( ) ( )| | ( ) | | ( ) |
Therefore,
| ( ) ( ) ( )| | |
Thus, by the definition of a limit,
, ( ) ( )-
Theorem 4: (Product Rule)
Proof: Let be given. We must find such that
| ( ) ( ) ( )| | |
In order to get terms that contains | ( ) | and | ( ) |, we add and subtract ( ) as
follows:
| ( ) ( ) | | ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) |
|, ( ) - ( ) , ( ) -|
|, ( ) - ( )| | , ( ) | (by triangle inequality)
| ( ) || ( )| | || ( ) |
We want to make each of these terms less than ⁄
Since ( ) there is a number such that
| ( ) | | |
( | |)
Also there is a number such that if | | then | ( ) |
and therefore
| ( )| | ( ) | | ( ) | | | | |
| ( ) | | |
( | |)
Let * +. If | | then we have | | | |
and | | , so we can combine the inequalities to obtain

| ( ) ( ) | | ( ) || ( )| | || ( ) |
( | |) | |
( | |) ( | |)
This shows that , ( ) ( )-
Theorem 5: (Quotient Rule)

( )
If ( ) and ( ) both exist, then ( )
Proof: First let us show that
( )
To do this we must show that, given there exists such that
DMU Page 67
| | | |
( )
Observe that
| ( )|
| ( )
| ( )|
|
We know that we can make the numerator small. But we also need to know that the
denominator
is not small when is near Since ( ) , there is a number such that,
whenever | | we have
| |
| ( ) |
and therefore
| |
| | | ( ) ( )| | ( )| | ( )| | ( )|
This shows that
| ( )| | |
and so, for these values of
| ( )| | || ( )| | | | |
Also, there exists such that
| ( ) | | |
Let * + Then, for | | we have
| ( )|
| ( )
| ( )|
|
It follows that Finally, using product rule, we obtain
( )
( )
( )( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
Theorem 6: Suppose that is a constant and the limits ( ) and
( ) both exist, then , ( )-
Proof: If we take ( ) in product law, we get
, ( )- , ( ) ( )- ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Theorem 7: (Difference Rule)
Proof: Use sum rule and product rule with we have
, ( ) ( )- , ( ) ( ) ( )- ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Therefore, , ( ) ( )-
Theorem 8: (Squeeze theorem)
Statement: If ( ) ( ) ( ) for all in an open interval that contains (except possibly
at ) and ( ) ( ) ( )
Proof: Let be given. Since ( ) there is a number such that
| ( ) | | |
DMU Page 68
that is, ( ) | |
| ( ) | | |
that is, ( ) | |
Let * + If | | then | | and | | so
( ) ( ) ( )
In particular,
( )
and so | ( ) | Therefore, ( )
Example
Find ( ) and justify each step.
Solution
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (by sum and difference rule)
(by product rule)
( ) ( ) .
Example
Find and justify each step.
Solution
(by quotient rule)
( )
(by sum, difference & product rule)

( ) ( )
( )
Example
Show that
Solution
First note that we cannot use
because does not exist. However, since

Then we have | | | |
We know that
| | | |
Taking ( ) | | ( ) ( ⁄ ) ( ) | | in the squeeze theorem, we
obtain
Example
Find
Solution: because
DMU Page 69
⁄ ⁄ through negative values as (Note that ⁄ ⁄ )

4.6 Formal definition of continuity
( ) ( )
Note that the above definition implicitly requires three things if is continuous at
i. ( ) (i.e., is in the domain of )
ii. ( ) exists
iii. ( ) ( )
If is not continuous at , we say that is discontinuous at , or has discontinuity at .
Example
Show that the function ( )
Solution
Given ( )
i. ( ) ( )
ii. ( )
iii. ( )
Therefore ( ) is continuous at
Example
Show that ( ) is discontinuous at where
( ) {
Solution
i. ( )
( )( )
ii. ( )
iii. But ( ) ( )
Therefore, the function ( ) is not continuous at 2.
4.6 One-sided continuity
A function is continuous from the right at a number if

( ) ( )
and is continuous from the left at if
( ) ( )
DMU Page 70
Definition
A function is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at every number in the

interval. (At an endpoint of the interval we understand continuous to mean continuous
from the right or continuous from the left).
Example
Show that the function ( ) √ is continuous on the interval , -
Solution
If , then using the limit rules, we have
( ) ( √ )
√
√ ( )
√ ( )
Thus, by definition is continuous at if .
We must also calculate the right-hand limit at and the left-hand limit at .
( ) ( √ )
√ ( )
( )
So is continuous from the right at .
Similarly, ( ) ( √ )
√ ( ) ( )
So is continuous from the left at .
Therefore, according to above definition, is continuous on , -
The graph of is sketched in above figure. It is the lower half of the circle ( )
Theorem: If and are continuous at and is a constant,

then the following functions are also continuous at :
( )
Theorem
i. Any polynomial is continuous everywhere; that is, it is continuous on
( )
ii. Any rational function is continuous wherever it is defined; that is, it is
Continuous on its domain.
DMU Page 71
Theorem
If is continuous at and is continuous at ( ) then ( )( ) ( ( )) is continuous
at .
Theorem
If is a positive even integer, then ( ) √ is continuous on , )
If is a positive odd integer, then is continuous on ( ).
4.7 The Intermediate Value Theorem
Suppose that is continuous on the closed interval , - and let

be any number strictly between ( ) and ( ). Then there
exists a number in ( ) such that
( )
The Intermediate value theorem states that a continuous function takes on every intermediate
value between the
function values ( ) ( ). It is illustrated in the following figure.
Example
Let ( ) . Find a real number with such that ( )
Solution
Here , ( ) and ( )
So ( ) ( )
( )
( )
⁄
Example
Let ( ) . Find a real number with such that ( )
Solution
is continuous on ( ) since it is polynomial function.
Also, ( ) ( ) since ( ) ( )
Therefore, there exist a number with such that ( )
( )
√ √ √
. But hence
DMU Page 72
CHAPTER 5
5.1 Definition of Derivative
The derivative of a function at a number , denoted by ( ) is

( ) ( )
( )
if this limit exists.
If we write then and approaches if and only if approaches

Therefore an equivalent way of stating the definition of the derivative, is
( ) ( )
( )
Example
Find the derivative of the function ( ) at the number
Solution
From definition of derivative, we have
( ) ( )
( )
[( ) ( ) ] , -
( )
Therefore, ( )
Geometric interpretation of derivative as a slope of tangent
The tangent line to ( ) ( ( )) is the line through ( ( )) whose slope is equal to
( ), the derivative of at
Thus the geometric interpretation of a derivative is shown in the following figure.
DMU Page 73
Using the point-slope form of the equation of a line, we have the following:
If ( ) exists, then an equation of the tangent line to the curve

( ) at the point
( ( )) is
( ) ( )( )
Example
Find an equation of the tangent line to the parabola
at the point ( )
Solution
From definition of derivative, we have
( ) ( )
( )
[( ) ( ) ] , -
( )
Therefore, ( )
Therefore the slope of the tangent line at ( ) is
( ) ( )
Thus the equation of the tangent line, shown in the following
Figure, is
( ) ( )( )
The derivative as a function

If we replace by in the above definition, we obtain
( ) ( )
( )
Example
Find if ( )
Solution
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )( ) ( )( )
( )( )
( ) ( )
( )( )
DMU Page 74
( )( )
( )( )
( )
5.2 Differentiable functions
If we use the traditional notation ( ) to indicate that the independent variable is and
the dependent variable is , then some common alternative notations for the derivative are as
follows:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
The symbols and ⁄ are called differentiation operators because they indicate the
operation of differentiation. Which is the process of calculating a derivative.
Consider ( ) √ and find the derivative of at (1, ∞). Since 1 is the left end point of
( ) ( )
domain of we can not apply the definition of derivative her. Thus is evaluated
as from the right of 1 and we call it right- side derivative of , defined by
( ) ( )
.
( ) ( )
The right-side derivative of any function at the point (a, f(a)) is defined by .
( ) ( )
Similarly the left-side derivative of at the point (a, f(a)) is defined by .
Example: Find the derivative of ( ) = * at the point (1, 1).
Solution: the function changes its direction suddenly at the point (1,1), we use left and right
side derivative.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( )
Left side derivative: = = =
= =2
( ) ( )
Right side derivative: = = =0
Then the left side derivative 2 and the right side derivative 0 are not equal.
Therefore the derivative of at x = 1 does not exist.
Definition:
i, A function is differentiable on some open interval (a, b)if and only if is differentiable
at every point on (a, b).
ii, A function is differentiable on an closed interval , - if and only if is differentiable
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
at every point on (a, b) and and exists.
Example: Compute the derivative of i, ( ) √

ii, ( )
DMU Page 75
Theorem: If is differentiable at , then is continuous at but converse is not true
For example, the function ( ) | | is continuous at 0 but it is not differentiable at 0.

( ) | | ( ) but it is not differentiable at 0.
Differentiation Formulas
If is a constant function, ( ) then ( )
Example
Find ( ), if ( )
Solution
Given ( ) is a constant function. So ( )
The Power Rule: If ( ) where is a positive integer, then

( )
Example
Find ( )
Solution
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Example
If ( ) , find the equation of the tangent to the graph of at the point
( )
Solution
The slope is ( ) which we calculate as follows:
( )
( )
Therefore the equation of the tangent at (1, 1) is
( )
5.3 Derivatives of sum, product, and quotient
Theorem 1: Suppose is a constant and ( ) ( ) exist. If ( ) ( ) then
( ) exists and ( ) ( )
Proof
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
, -
DMU Page 76
( ) ( )
( )
Theorem 2: Suppose ( ) ( ) exist. If ( ) ( ) ( ) then ( ) exists and
( ) ( ) ( )
Proof
( ) ( )
( )
, ( ) ( )- , ( ) ( )-
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
, -
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Theorem 3: Suppose ( ) ( ) exist. If H( ) ( ) ( ) then ( ) exists and
( ) ( ) ( )
Proof
We can prove similarly like above theorem.
Theorem 4: (Product rule)

If ( ) ( ) ( ) and ( ) ( ) both exists, then ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Or In short ( )
Proof
( ) ( )
( )
, ( ) ( )- , ( ) ( )-
, ( ) ( )- ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) , ( ) ( )-
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
, ( ) ( ) -
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Theorem 5: If ( ) ( )⁄ ( ) and ( ) ( ) both exists, then ( ) exists and
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) where ( )
, ( )-
Proof
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
We can separate in this expression by adding and subtracting the term ( ) ( ) in
the
numerator:
, ( ) ( )- ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) , ( ) ( )-
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
DMU Page 77
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
, ( )-
Theorem 6: If ( ) , where is a positive integer, then ( )

Proof
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
Example
Find ( ) if ( ) ( )( )
Solution
By the product rule, we have
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )( ) ( )( )
Example
Let then
Solution
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )( ) ( )( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
5.4 Chain Rule
If ( ) and ( ) are both differentiable functions, then
Example
Find ( ) ( ) √
Solution
Let ( ) √
Let then √
( ) ( ) ( )
√ √ √
DMU Page 78
Example
If where , find at
Solution
Using the Chain Rule, we have ( )( )
When ( ) , so
| ( )( ) .
The Power Rule Combined with the Chain Rule

If is any real number and ( ) is differentiable, then
( )
Alternatively,
, ( )- , ( )- ( )
Example
Differentiate ( )
Solution: Taking ( ) and , we have
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
5.5 Implicit Differentiation

This consists of differentiating both sides of the relation with respect to x and then solving the
resulting equation for
Example
(a) If find .
(b) Find the equation of the tangent to the circle at the point (3, 4).
Solution
(a) Differentiate both sides of the equation
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) --------------- (1)
Remembering that y is a function of x and using the Chain rule, we have
( ) ---------------- (2) substitute in (1)
Thus,
Now we solve this equation for
DMU Page 79
(b) At the point (3,4) we have so
An equation of the tangent to the circle at (3, 4) is therefore

( )
or
Example
Find ( ) .
Solution
Differentiating implicitly with respect to x and remembering that y is a function of x.
By using Chain Rule on the left side and the Product Rule and Chain Rule on the right side,
we get:
( ) ( ) ( )
Collect the terms that involve , we get
( ) ( ) ( )
So
( )
( )
5.6 Higher order derivatives
If the derivative of a differentiable function is itself differentiable then the derivative of
is denoted by and is called the second derivative of .
As long as we have differentiability, we can continue the process of differentiating derivatives
to obtained third, fourth, fifth order and so on higher derivatives of . The successive
derivatives of denoted by
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ( ))
Example
( )
If ( ) ( )
Solution: ( )
( )
( ) ( )( )
( ) ( )( )( )
( )( )
( )( )( )( )
( )( ) ( )( )( )( )( )
( )( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( )
( )( ( )
)
( )
Example: If then find
Solution: Given
DMU Page 80
( )
( )
.
Example
The equation of motion of a particle is where is measured in
centimeters and in seconds. Find the acceleration as a function of time. What is the
acceleration after 2s?
Solution
The velocity and acceleration are
( )
( )
The acceleration after 2 s is ( )
Example
Find
Solution
The first few derivatives of are as follows:
We see that the successive derivative occur in a cycle of length 4 and, in particular,
( )
Therefore,
and, differentiating three more times, we have
Related Rates
In a related rates problem the idea is to compute the rate of change of one quantity in terms of
the rate of change of another quantity (which may be more easily measured). The following
procedure is to find an equation that relates the two quantities and then use the Chain Rule to
differentiate both sides with respect to time.
i. Read the problem carefully
ii. Draw a diagram if possible
iii. Introduce notation. Assign symbols to all quantities that are functions of time
iv. Express the given information and the required rate in terms of derivatives
v. Write an equation that relates the various quantities of the problem. If necessary, use
the geometry of the situation to eliminate one of the variables by substitution
vi. Use the Chain Rule to differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to
vii. Substitute the given information into the resulting equation and solve for the unknown
rate.
DMU Page 81
Example
A ladder 10 ft long rests against a vertical wall. If the bottom of the ladder slides away from the
wall at a rate of 1 , how fast is the top of the ladder sliding down the wall when the bottom
of the ladder is 6 ft from the wall?
Solution
We first draw a diagram and label it as in the following figure.
Let meters be the distance from the bottom of the ladder to the wall and meters the
distance from the top of the ladder to the ground.
Note that and are both functions of (time).
Given that ⁄ and we need to find ⁄ when
In this problem, the relationship between and is given by the Pythagorean Theorem:
Differentiating each side with respect to using the Chain Rule, we have
and solving this equation for the desired rate, we obtain
When , the Pythagorean Theorem gives and so, substituting these values and
and ⁄ we have
( )
Example
A water tank has the shape of an inverted circular cone with base radius 2 m and height 4 m. If
water is being pumped into the tank at a rate of 2 , find the rate at which the water
level is rising when the water is 3 m deep.
Solution
We first sketch the cone and label it as in the
following figure.
Let V be the volume of the water,
be the radius of the surface,
be the height at time , where is
measured in minutes.
Given that ⁄ and we need to
find ⁄
DMU Page 82
When is 3 m. The quantities V and h are related by the equation
But it is very useful to express V as a function of h alone. In order to eliminate r we use the
similar triangles to write
and the expression for V becomes

( )
Now we can differentiate each side with respect to r:
so
substituting and ⁄ we have
( )
5.7a)Derivatives of Trigonometric functions
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Example
Calculate
Solution
Example
If ( ) then find ( )
Solution
( ) ( )
( )
( )
DMU Page 83
, . / . /-
Example
Differentiate
Solution
Using the product rule, we have
( )
Example
Differentiate ( )
Solution
By using Quotient rule, we have
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
, -
( )
( )
, -
( )
5.7b) Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
( ) ( )
√ √
( ) ( )
√ √
( ) ( )
Example
Differentiate
Solution
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) √
Example
Differentiate ( ) √
Solution
⁄
( ) √ (√ )
DMU Page 84
√
√ ( )
( )
5.7c) Derivatives of Exponential Functions
( )
Example
Differentiate
Solution
Let then we have
By Chain Rule, we have
Example
Find if
Solution
Given
By using product rule, we have
( ) ( )( )
( )
5.7d) Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions
( ) ( ) ( )
Example
Differentiate ( )
Solution: Let . Then
By using Chain Rule, we have
( )
Example
Find ( )
Solution
Let then
Example
Find
√
Solution
DMU Page 85
Let , then
√
, -
√
√
(√ ) ( )( ⁄ )( ) ⁄
√
( )
( )( ) ( )( )
Example
Find ( ) if ( ) | |.
Solution
Since
( ) {
( )
It follows that
( ) {
( )
Thus ( ) ⁄
Therefore
| |
5.7e) Derivative of the general exponential function

( )
Example
Find
Solution
( ) ( )( )
( )
5.7f) Logarithmic Differentiation
Steps in Logarithmic Differentiation

1.Take logarithms of both sides of an equation ( )
2.Differentiate implicitly with respect to x
3.Solve the resulting equation for
DMU Page 86
Example
Differentiate √
Solution
Use logarithmic differentiation, we have
√
√
√
√
. / √ . /
√ √ √
Example
⁄ √
Differentiate ( )
Solution
We take logarithms of both sides of the equation
( ) ( )
Differentiating implicitly with respect to gives
Solving for ⁄ we get

. /
⁄ √
. /
( )
Example Find given , for
Solution: Using the result z = (apply exponential differentiation)
( )
=
( ) ( )
, -= [ ]= [ ] power law of logarithm
( )
= (( ) ) logarithmic differentiation and Chain rule
( )
= . /
( )
= . / Substitute for
5.7g) Hyperbolic Functions
Definition of the Hyperbolic Functions
DMU Page 87
Hyperbolic Identities
( ) ( )
( )
( )
Example
Prove (a) ( )
Solution
(a) . / ( )
(b) We know the hyperbolic identity
If we divide both sides by we get
or
5.7h) Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions
Example:
Prove that
Solution:
By definition of the Hyperbolic Function,
Then . /
= . /- . /
=
=
Therefore, .
5.7i) Derivatives of Inverse Hyperbolic Function
DMU Page 88
√ | |√
√ √
Example
Prove that √
Solution
Let . Then
If we differentiate this equation implicitly with respect to , we get
Since and
we have √ , so
√ √
Example
Find ( )
Solution
By using Inverse Hyperbolic Functions and the Chain Rule, we have
( ) ( )
( )
DMU Page 89
CHAPTER 6
6.1 Extreme values of functions
A function f has an absolute maximum at c if ( ) ( ) for all x in D, where D is the

domain of f. The number f(c) is called the maximum value of f on D.
Similarly, f has an absolute minimum at c if f(c) f(x) for all x in D and the number f(c) is
called the minimum value of f on D.
The maximum and minimum values of f are called the extreme values of f.
The following figure shows the graph of a function with

absolute maximum at and absolute minimum at . Note that
(d, f(d)) is the highest point on the graph and (a, f(a)) is the
lowest point.
If we consider only values of near [for instance, if we
restrict our attention to the interval ( )], then ( ) is the
largest of those values of ( ) and is called a local maximum
value of f. Likewise, ( ) is called a local minimum value of f
because ( ) ( ) for x near c
[in the interval ( ), for instance]. The function f also has a local
minimum at
In general we have the following definition.
A function f has a local maximum (or relative maximum) at c if

there is an open interval I containing c such that f(c) f(x) for all x
in I.
Similarly, f has a local minimum at c if there is an open interval I
containing c such that f(c) f(x) for all x in I.
Example
The function ( ) takes on its (local and absolute)
maximum value of 1 infinitely many times, since for any integer n and
for all x.
Likewise, ( ) is its minimum value, where n is any integer.
Example
If ( ) then ( ) ( ) because Therefore ( ) is the absolute
(and local) minimum value of It is the fact that the origin is the lowest point on the Parabola
(see in the following figure). However, there is no highest point on the parabola and so
this function has no maximum value.
Example
DMU Page 90 Minimum value 0, no maximum
No minimum, no maximum
From the graph of the function ( ) , (shown in following figure), we see that this function
has neither an absolute maximum value nor an absolute minimum value. In fact, it has no local
extreme values either.
6.2 The Extreme Value Theorem
If f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b], then f attains an absolute maximum value f(c)
and an absolute minimum value f(d) at some numbers c and d in [a, b].
This can be seen in the following figure.
Example
The function
( )2
Is defined on the closed interval [0, 2] but has no maximum value.
Note that the range of f is the interval [0, 1). The function takes on
values arbitrarily close to 1 but never actually attains the value 1.
This does not contradict the Extreme Value Theorem because f is
not continuous on [0, 2]. In fact, it has a discontinuity at
Fermat’s Theorem
If has a local extremum (that is, maximum or minimum) at and if ( ) exists, then
( )
Critical number
A critical number of a function f is a number c in the domain of f such that either

( ) ( ) does not exist.
Example
⁄
Find the critical numbers of ( ) ( )
Solution
By using the product rule, we have
DMU Page 91
⁄ ⁄
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
⁄ ⁄
Therefore, ( ) and ( ) doesn’t exist when .

Thus the critical numbers are and 0.
Use the following steps to find absolute maximum and minimum values
To find the absolute maximum and minimum values of a continuous function f on a closed
interval [a, b]:
1. Find the values of f at the critical numbers of f in (a, b).
2. Find the values of f (a) and f (b).
3. The largest of the values from steps 1 and 2 is the absolute maximum value; the
smallest of these values is the absolute minimum value.
Example
Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of the function
( )
Solution
Since f is continuous on [ -, we can use the
above procedure to find absolute maximum and
minimum values
( )
( ) ( )
Since ( ) exsts for all , the only critical numbers of f occur
when ( )
Note that each of these critical numbers lies in the interval [ -.

The values of f at these critical numbers are
( ) ( )
The values of f at the endpoints of the interval are
. / ( )
By comparing these four numbers, we see that the absolute maximum value is ( ) and
the absolute minimum values is ( ) .
Note that in this example the absolute maximum occurs at an endpoint, whereas the absolute
minimum occurs at a critical number. We can see the graph of f in
the above figure.
6.3 The Mean Value Theorem and its Application
Many of the results of this chapter depend on one central fact,
which is called the Mean Value Theorem. But to arrive at the Mean
Value Theorem we first need the following result:
DMU Page 92
Rolle’s Theorem
Let be a function that satisfies the following three hypotheses:

1. is continuous on the closed interval , -
2. is differentiable on the open interval ( )
3. ( ) ( )
Then there is a number in ( ) such that ( )
Proof
The following graph shows some functions that satisfy the above three hypotheses. In each
case it appears that there is at least one point ( ( )) on the graph where the tangent is
horizontal and therefore ( ) Thus Rolle’s Theorem is plausible.
There are three cases:

Case 1: ( )
Then ( ) so the number can be taken to be any number in ( )
Case 2: ( ) ( ) for some in ( ) [as in Figure 1(b) or 1 (c)]
By the extreme Value Theorem (which we can apply by hypothesis 1) has a maximum value
somewhere in , -. Since ( ) ( ), it must attain this maximum value at a number in
the open interval ( ). Then has a local maximum at and, by hypothesis 2, is
differentiable at . Therefore ( ) , by Fermat’s Theorem.
Case 3: ( ) ( ) for some in ( ) [as in Figure 1(c) or (d)]
By the Extreme Value Theorem, has a minimum value in , - and, since ( ) ( ), it
attains this minimum value at a number in ( ). Again ( ) by Fermat’s Theorem
Example
Verify Rolle’s Theorem for the function ( ) in , -
Solution
Let ( )
Since ( ) is a polynomial in hence is continuous in , -
( )
It is obvious that ( ) exists in ( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
Therefore, ( ) satisfies all the conditions of Rolle’s Theorem
Let ( )
DMU Page 93
Therefore, ( )
Thus Rolle’s Theorem is verified.
The Mean Value Theorem
Let be a function that satisfies the following hypotheses:

1. is continuous on the closed interval , -
2. is differentiable on the open interval ( )
Then there is a number in ( ) such that
( ) ( )
( )
equivalently,
( ) ( ) ( )( )
Proof
Define a function ( ) as ( ) ( ) ----------------- (1)
Where A is a constant to be determined such that
( ) ( ) ----------------- (2)
From ( ) ( ), we have
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Therefore ---------------------- (3)
Since ( ) is continuous in , - and A is constant.
Therefore, from (1), ( ) is continuous in , -
Since ( ) is differentiable in ( ) is derivable and A is a constant
Therefore, from (1), ( ) is derivable in ( )
Also from (2), we have ( ) ( )
Therefore, ( ) satisfies all the conditions of Rolle’s Theorem.
there exists ( )
( )
( )
( ) ------------------------ (4)
By substituting (3) in (4), we get
( ) ( )
( )
Example
Verify Mean Value Theorem for the function ( ) in , -
Solution
( )
Since ( ) is a polynomial in it is continuous in , -
Also ( )
DMU Page 94
( ) exists in ( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
Hence Mean Value Theorem is verified.
6.3 Monotonic Functions
In sketching the graph of a function it is very useful to know where it rises and where it falls.
The graph shown in following figure rises from to , falls from to , and rises again from
to . The function is said to be increasing on the interval [ ], decreasing on [ ], and
increasing again on [ ]. Note that if and are any two numbers between and with
, then ( ) ( ). We use this as the defining property of an increasing function.
Definition
A function is called increasing on an interval if
( ) ( ) whenever in
It is called decreasing on if
( ) ( ) whenever in
A function that is increasing or decreasing on is called monotonic on .
Test for Monotonic Functions
Suppose is continuous on , - and differentiable on ( ).

(a) If ( ) for all in ( ), then is increasing on [ ].
(b) If ( ) for all in ( ), then is decreasing on [ ].
DMU Page 95
Example
Find where the function ( ) is increasing and where it is decreasing.
Solution
( ) ( )( )
To use the Test for Monotonic Functions we have to know
( ) and where ( )
This depends on the signs of the three factors of ( )
We divide the real line into intervals whose endpoints are

the critical numbers -1, 0, and 2 and arrange our work in a
chart. A plus sign indicates that the given expression is
positive, and a minus sign indicates that it is negative.
The last column of the chart gives the conclusion based on the Test for Monotonic Functions.
From this information and the values of at the critical numbers, the graph is sketched in
above figure.
Interval ( )
decreasing on ( -
increasing on , -
decreasing on , -
increasing on , )
DMU Page 96
6.4 First and Second Derivative Tests

The First Derivative Test
Suppose that is a critical number of a continuous function

(a) If changes from positive to negative at then has a local (relative) maximum
at
(b) If changes from negative to positive at , then has a local (relative) minimum
at
(c) If does not change sign at (that is, is positive on both sides of or negative on
both sides), then has no local extremum at
Example
⁄
Find the local (relative) extrema of ( ) ( ) and sketch its graph.
Solution
First we find the critical numbers of
( ) ( ) ⁄ ( ) ⁄ ( )
( )
( ) ⁄ ( ) ⁄
The derivative ( ) when that is,
Also ( ) does not exist when .
So the critical numbers are and 1.
Next we set up a chart, dividing the real line into intervals with the critical numbers as end
points.
⁄ ( )
Interval ( )
increasing on
( -
decreasing on
, -
increasing on
, )
The Second Derivative Test
Suppose is continuous on an open interval that contains

(a) If ( ) and ( ) then has a relative (local) minimum at
(b) If ( ) and ( ) then has a relative (local) maximum at
(c) If ( ) and ( ) then there will be no conclusion about the extreme
value of at
DMU Page 97
Example
Let ( ) using the second derivative test,
find the relative extreme values of
Solution
( )
( )
( )
√
⁄
( )
( )
. / . /
( )
We have only two extreme values of
( ) has relative maximum value at
( )
. / has relative minimum value at ⁄
. / . / . / . / ̅̅̅̅̅
Note that ( ) . /
6.5 Concavity and Inflection points
Concavity
If the graph of lies above all of its

tangents on an interval , then it is called
concave upward on . If the graph of
lies below all of its tangents on , it is
called concave
downward on .
DMU Page 98
In the above figure tangents are drawn at several points. In ( ) the curve lies above the
tangents and is called on , -. In ( ) the curve lies below the tangents
and is called on , -
The test for Concavity
Suppose is twice differentiable on an interval .

(a) If ( ) for all in , then the graph of is
concave upward on .
(b) If ( ) for all in , then the graph of is
concave downward on .
Point of Inflection
A point on a curve is called a point of inflection if the curve

changes from concave upward to concave downward or from
concave downward to concave upward at .
Example
Determine where the curve is concave
upward and where it is concave downward. Find the inflection points and sketch the curve.
Solution
If ( ) then
( ) ( )
Since ( ) when ,
The critical numbers are ±1. Also
( ) ⇔ ⇔ ⇔| |
( ) ⇔ ⇔ or
Therefore f is increasing on the intervals ( - and [1, ) and is decreasing on [ -.
By the First Derivative Test, ( ) is a local maximum value and ( ) is a local
minimum value.
To determine the concavity we compute the second derivative:
( )
Thus ( ) when and ( ) when .
The Test for Concavity then tells us that the curve is concave downward on ( ) and
concave upward on ( ).
Since the curve changes from concave downward to concave upward when
the point ( ) is a point of inflection.
We used this information to sketch the curve in above Figure.
Example
Discuss the curve with respect to concavity, points of inflection, and local
extrema. Use this information to sketch the curve.
Solution
DMU Page 99
If ( ) , then
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
To find the critical numbers we set ( ) and
obtain and .
To use the Second Derivative Test we evaluate at
these critical numbers:
( ) ( )
Since ( ) and ( ) ( ) is a
local minimum.
Since ( ) the Second Derivative Test gives
no information about the critical number . But
since ( ) for and also for
the First Derivative Test tells us that does not
have a local extremum at .
Since ( ) when or , we divide the
real line into intervals with these numbers as
endpoints and complete the following chart.
Interval ( ) ( ) Concavity
( ) upward
( ) downward
( ) upward
The point ( ) is an inflection point since the curve changes from concave upward to concave
downward there.
Also ( ) is an inflection point since the curve changes from concave downward to concave
upward there.
Using the local minimum, the intervals of concavity, and the inflection points, we sketch the
curve in the above Figure.
6.6 Curve Sketching
Apply the following procedure for Sketching a Curve ( )
A. Domain: The first step is to determine the domain of , that is, the set of values of
for which ( ) is defined.
B. Intercepts: The - intercept is ( ) and tells us where the curve intersects the -axis. To
find the -intercepts, we set and solve for .
C. Symmetry: (i) If ( ) ( ) for all in , that is, the equation of the curve is
unchanged when is replaced by– , then is an even function and the curve is
symmetric about the -axis. This means that our work is cut in half. If we know what the
curve looks like for , then we need only reflect about the -axis to obtain the
complete curve (see in the Figure (a)). Here are some examples:
| | and .
DMU Page 100

(ii) If ( ) ( ) for all in , then is an odd function and the curve is

symmetric about the origin. Again we can obtain the complete curve if we know what it
looks like for [see in the figure(b)]. Some simple examples of odd functions are
and .
(iii) If ( ) ( ) for all in , where is a positive constant, then is called a
periodic function and the smallest such number is called the period. For instance,
has period and has period . If we know what the graph looks
like in an interval of length , then we can use translation to sketch the entire graph
(see in the following Figure).
D. Asymptotes:
(i) Horizontal Asymptotes. if either ( ) or ( ) then the line
is a horizontal asymptote of the curve ( )
If it turns out that ( ) (or ), then we do not have an asymptote to the
right, but that is still useful information for sketching the curve.
(ii) Vertical Asymptotes. The line is a vertical asymptote if at least one of the
following statements is true:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
(For rational functions you can locate the vertical asymptotes by equating the denominator to
0 after canceling any common factors. But for other functions this method does not apply.)
Furthermore, in sketching the curve it is very useful to know exactly which of the above
statements is true. If ( ) is not defined but is an endpoint
of the domain of , then you should compute ( )
or ( ), whether or not this limit is infinite.
E. Intervals of Increase or Decrease: Use the Test for
Monotonic Functions. Compute ( ) and find the
intervals on which ( ) is positive ( is increasing)
and the intervals on which ( ) is negative ( is
decreasing).
F. Local Maximum and Minimum Values: Find the
critical numbers of [the numbers where ( ) or ( ) does not exist]. Then use
the First Derivative Test. If changes from positive to negative at a critical number ,
then ( ) is a local maximum. If changes from negative to positive at , then ( ) is a
local minimum. Although it is usually preferable to use the First Derivative Test, you can
use the Second Derivative Test if is a critical number such that ( ) Then
( ) implies that ( ) is a local minimum, whereas ( ) implies that ( ) is
a local maximum.
G. Concavity and Points of Inflection Compute ( ) and use the Test for Concavity. The
curve is concave upward where ( ) and concave downward where ( )
Inflection points occur where the direction of concavity changes.
H. Sketch the Curve Using the information in items A to G, draw the graph. Draw in the
asymptotes as broken lines. Plot the intercepts, maximum and minimum points, and
inflection points. Then make the curve pass through these points, rising and falling
according
DMU Page 101

to E, with concavity according to G, and approaching the asymptotes. If additional

accuracy is desired near any point, you can compute the value of the derivative there.
The tangent indicates the direction in which the curve proceeds.
Example
Discuss the curve under the headings A to H.
Solution
A. The domain is
{ | + * | + ( ) ( ) ( )
B. The - and - intercepts are both 0.
C. Since ( ) ( ) is even. The curve is symmetric about the -axis.
⁄
Therefore, the line is a horizontal asymptote.
Since the denominator is when ,
we compute the following limits:
Therefore, the lines and are

vertical asymptotes.
( )
E. ( )
( ) ( )
( ) when ( ) and ( ) when ( ) is increasing on
( ) and ( - and decreasing on , ) and ( )
The only critical number is Since changes from positive to negative at ( )
is a local maximum by the First Derivative Test.
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
Since for all , we have
( ) ⇔ ⇔| |
And ( ) ⇔| | Thus the curve is concave
upward on the intervals ( ) and ( ) and
concave downward on ( ). It has no point of
inflection since and are not in the domain of .
Using the information in A to G, we sketch the curve in above Figure.
6.7 Tangent Line Approximations
( ) ( )
By the definition of ( ) approaches to a, then approaches ( ) Hence for
values of x close enough to a, ( ) ( ) is close to ( )( ).
( ) ( ) ( )( ) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (1)
That means for very close to
DMU Page 102

If we let then Hence (1) can be written in the an alternative form as

( ) ( ) ( ) --------------------- (2)
Which is a good approximation when is very close to zero. This approximation of ( ) given
in (1) or in (2) is called tangent line approximation (linear approximation) of near , and the
function ( ) ( ) ( )( ) is called the linearization of at
Example 1 Find the linearization (linear approximation) of the function ( ) √ at
and use it to approximate the number √
Solution The derivative of ( ) √ is ( )
√
and so we have ( ) and ( )
√
Putting these values into linearization, we get
( ) ( ) ( )( )
( ) ( )( ) ( ) .
The corresponding tangent line approximation is
( ) ( ) ( )( )
√
In particular, we have: √ √
The actual value of √ is about 1.99499.
Example 2 Find the linear approximation of the function ( ) √ at = 1 and use it
approximate the number √
Solution : The derivative of ( ) √ is ( )
√
and so we have ( ) and ( )
√
Putting these values into linearization, we get
( ) ( ) ( )( )
( ) ( )( ) ( ) .
The corresponding tangent line approximation is
( ) ( ) ( )( )
√
DMU Page 103

In particular, we have: √ √ = 2.05

The actual value of √ is about 2.04939.
Exercise: Approximate the number ( )⁄
6.5 Indeterminate forms and L’Hospital Rule
In general, if we have a limit of the form
( )
( )
Where both ( ) ( ) then this limit may or may not exist and is
called an Indeterminate form of type .
Similarly, if both ( ) ( ) and ( ) ( ), then the limit may or may not
exist and is called an indeterminate form of type ⁄
We introduce a systematic method, known as L’Hospital Rule, for the evaluation of
indeterminate forms.
L’Hospital Rule
Suppose and are differentiable and ( ) on an open interval I that contains
(except possibly at ). Suppose that
( ) and ( )
or that ( ) and ( )
(In other words, we have an indeterminate form of type ) Then
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
If the limit on the right side exists ( ).
Example 1
Find .
Solution
Since ,
we can apply L’Hospital Rule
( )
( )
Example 2
Calculate .
Solution
We have ,
so L’Hospital Rule gives
Since the limit on the right side is also indeterminate, but a

second application of L’Hospital Rule gives
DMU Page 104

Example 3
Evaluate .
Solution
The given limit is indeterminate because while . Writing
we have as
so L’Hospital Rule gives
( )
Indeterminate Differences
If ( ) and ( ) , then the limit
, ( ) ( )-
Example 4
Compute ( ) ( )
Solution
First notice that and as ( ) , so the limit is indeterminate.
Here we use a common denominator:
. /
( ) . /
( )
Note that the use of L’Hospital Rule is justified

because and as
Example 5
Calculate ( )
Solution
First notice that as . We have and
so the given limit is indeterminate.
Let ( )
Then ,( ) - ( )
So, L’Hospital Rule gives
( )
So far we have computed the limit of ,

but what we want the limit of y.
To find this we use the fact that :
( )
DMU Page 105

CHAPTER 7: THE INTEGRAL

7.1. Antiderivatives
A function is called an antiderivative of on an interval if ( ) ( ) for all in .
Theorem
If is an antiderivative of on an interval , then the most general antiderivative of on

is
( )
Where is an arbitrary constant
Example
Find the most general antiderivative of each of the following functions:
(a) ( ) (b) ( )
Solution
(a) If ( ) then ( ) so an antiderivative of sine is –cosine.
The most general antiderivative is ( )
( )
(b) . /
Thus the general antiderivative of ( ) is
( )
This is valid for since then ( ) is defined on the interval ( ).
Table of Anti-Differentiation Formulas

Function Particular antiderivative
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ⁄
| |
⁄√
⁄
Example
Find all functions such that ( ) √
Solution
We want to find an antiderivative of
( ) ( )
DMU Page 106

Using the formulas together with Theorem, we obtain

( ) ( )
Example
Find if ( ) √ ( ) and ( ) .
Solution
The general antiderivative of
( )
is ( )
To determine C we use the fact that ( )
( )
Thus we have C = 2, so the particular solution is
( )
Example
A particle moves in a straight line and has acceleration given by ( ) Its initial
velocity is ( ) and its initial displacement is ( ) Find its position
function ( )
Solution
Since ( ) ( ) antidifferentiation gives
( )
Note that ( )
But we are given that ( ) so and
( )
Since ( ) ( ) is the antiderivative of
( )
This gives ( )
We are given that ( ) so and the required position function is
( )
7.2 Partitions, lower sum, upper sum, Riemann sum

Partition
Let , - be a closed interval. If , then the finite set
* + is called a , -.
The points are called .
The sub-intervals , - , - , - are called the segments of the
partition P.
The subinterval , - is denoted by , its length is denoted by .
The maximum of the lengths of subintervals of a partition P i.e. max * + is
called the norm of the partition P and is denoted by ( )
Upper and Lower Riemann Sums
DMU Page 107

Let be defined on the interval , - and

and let * + be a partition of , - and let
* ( ) +
* ( ) +
be the supermum and infimum of in the subinterval , -
Then the upper and lower Riemann sum are defined by

( ) ∑
( ) read as Upper Riemann sum of corresponding to the partition P.
( ) ∑
( ) read as Lower Riemann sum of corresponding to the partition P.
Riemann sum
If is a function defined on a closed interval , - let P be a
partition of , - with partition points
where
Choose points in , - and let

Then ∑ ( ) is called a Riemann sum
Example
Let ( ) and consider the partition of the interval
, - by means of the set of partition points
* +
In this example
The lengths of the subintervals are

( )
( )
( )
( )
Thus the norm of the partition is

‖ ‖ * +
Suppose we choose
Then the corresponding Riemann sum is
∑ ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( )( )
Note
In this example, is not a positive function and so the Riemann sum does not represent a sum
of areas of rectangles. But it does represent the sum of the areas of the rectangles above the
minus the sum of the areas of the rectangles below the .
DMU Page 108

7.3 Definite Integrals
If is a function defined on a closed interval [ ], let be a

partition of [ ] with partition points where
Choose points in [ ] and let and

* }.
Then the definite integral of from to is
∫ ( ) ∑ ( )
If this limit exists.
If the limit does exist, then is called integrable on the
interval [ ].
If then ∫ ( ) ∫ ( )
If then ∫ ( )
Theorem
If is either continuous or monotonic on , - then f is integrable on , - that is

the definite integral ∫ ( ) exist.
Theorem
If f is integrable on [a, b], then

∫ ( ) ∑ ( )
Example
Evaluate ∫ ( )
Solution
Here we have ( ) ( )
Since f is continuous, we know it is integrable.
∫ ( ) ∑ . /
∑ ,. / ( )-
, ∑ ∑ -
DMU Page 109

( ) ( )
* , - +
, ( ) ( )-
This integral cannot be interpreted as an area because takes on

both positive and negative values. But it can be interpreted as the
difference of areas , where are shown in the
above figure.
Midpoint Rule
∫ ( ) ∑ (̅) , (̅̅̅) (̅̅̅)-

Where
and ̅ ( ) midpoint of [ ]
Example
Use the Midpoint Rule with to approximate ∫
Solution
The partition points are
So the midpoints of the five intervals are
The width of the interval is ( )⁄
So the Midpoint Rule gives
∫ , ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )-
( )
Since ( ) ⁄ the integral represents

an area and the approximation given by the Midpoint Rule is the sum of the areas of the
rectangles shown in the above figure.
7.4 Basic properties of definite integral
Suppose that all of the following integrals exist. Then

1. ∫ ( ) Where is any constant.
2. ∫ , ( ) ( )- ∫ ( ) ∫ ( )
3. ∫ ( ) ∫ ( ) , where is any constant.
4. ∫ , ( ) ( )- ∫ ( ) ∫ ( )
5. ∫ ( ) ∫ ( ) ∫ ( )
DMU Page 110

Example
⁄
Use the properties of integrals and evaluate ∫ ( )
Solution
Using the properties 2 and 3 of integrals, we get
⁄ ⁄ ⁄
∫ ( ) ∫ ∫
Example
Use the properties of integrals and evaluate ∫ | |
Solution
Since | | {
We use the property 5 to split the integral at 0:
∫ | | ∫ | | ∫ | |
∫ ( ) ∫ ∫ ( ) ∫
, ( ) - , -
7.5. Techniques of integration
∫ ( ) ∫ | |
∫ ∫
∫ ∫
∫ ∫
∫ ∫
∫ ∫
∫ | | ∫ | |
∫ . / ∫√ . /
7.5.1 Integration by Parts
∫ ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ∫ ( ) ( )
This is called the formula for integration by parts. It is perhaps easier to remember in the
following notation.
Let ( ) and ( ) Then ( ) and ( ) so, by substitution rule,
the formula for integration by parts becomes
∫ ∫
DMU Page 111

Example
Find ∫ .
Solution
Suppose we choose ( ) ( )
Then ( ) ( )
Thus, using above Formula, we have
∫ ( ) ( ) ∫ ( ) ( )
( ) ∫( )
∫
Example
Evaluate ∫
Solution
Here we do not have much choice for and . Let
Then
Integrating by parts, we get
∫ ∫
∫
Example Find ∫ .
Solution
Let
Then
Integration by parts gives
∫ ∫ -------------------- (1)
We use integration by parts a second time to find ∫
This time with and .
Then , and
∫ ∫
Putting this in (1), we get
∫ ∫
( )
Example Calculate ∫
Solution
Let
Then
By using the Formula, we get
∫ - ∫
∫
DMU Page 112

∫
To evaluate this integral we use the substitution
Then When when so
∫ ∫ | |-
( )
Therefore ∫ ∫
7.5.2 Trigonometric Substitution
Expression Substitution Identity
√
√
√
Example
√
Evaluate ∫ .
Solution
Let where .
Then and √ √ √
| |
Note that because
Thus the Inverse Substitution Rule gives
√
∫ ∫
∫ ∫
∫( )
----------------- (1)
by using trigonometric identities,
√
since
( ) since
Putting above values in (1), we get
√ √
∫ . /
Example
Find ∫ √ .
Solution
It would be possible to use the trigonometric substitution .
But the direct substitution is simpler, because then and
∫√ ∫ √ √ .
√
Example
DMU Page 113

Evaluate ∫ √ .
Solution
We can transform the integrand into a function for which trigonometric substitution is
appropriate by first completing the square under the root sign:
( ) ( )
( )
This suggests that we make the substitution
Then and , so
∫√ ∫√
We now substitute giving and √ so
∫√ ∫
∫( )
√ . /
√ . /
7.5.3 Integration of Rational functions by Partial Fractions
Let us consider a rational function
( )
( )
( )
Where P and Q are polynomials. It is possible to express f as a sum of simpler fractions provided
that the degree of P is less than the degree of Q.
Such a rational function is called proper.
If ( )
Where then the degree of P is and we write ( )
If is improper, that is, ( ) ( ) then we divide Q into P until a remainder ( ) is
obtained such that ( ) ( ) the division statement is
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Where S and R are also polynomials.
Example
Find ∫ .
Solution
Since the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator,
we first perform the long division. This enables us to write
∫ ∫( )
| |
Example
Evaluate ∫ .
Solution
Since the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator,
DMU Page 114

we do not need to divide. We factor the denominator as

( ) ( )( )
Since the denominator has three distinct linear factors, the partial fraction decomposition of
the integrand (2) has the form
( )(
----------------- (1)
)
To determine the values of A, B, and C, we multiply both sides of this equation by
( )( ) obtaining
( )( ) ( ) ( ) ------------ (2)
Expanding the right side of Equation 4 and writing it in the standard form for polynomials, we
get
( ) ( ) ------------- (3)
The polynomials in Equation (3) are identical, so their coefficients must be equal.
Solving, we get , and so

∫ ∫0 1
| | | | | |
Example
Find ∫ .
Solution
The first step is to divide. The result of long division is
The second step is to factor the denominator ( )

Since ( ) we know that is a factor and we obtain
( )( ) ( )( )( )
( ) ( )
Since the linear factor occurs twice, the partial fraction decomposition is
( ) ( ) ( )
Multiplying by ( ) ( ) we get
( )( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
Now we equate coefficients:
Solving, we obtain and so

∫ ∫ -
( )
| | | |
DMU Page 115

| |
Example
Evaluate ∫ .
Solution
Since the degree of the numerator is not less than the degree of the denominator, we first
divide and obtain
Notice that the quadratic is irreducible because

its discriminant is This means it cannot be factored, so we do not need to
use the partial fraction technique.
To integrate the given function we complete the square in the denominator:
( )
let then and ( ) so
∫ ∫( )
( )
∫
∫
∫ ∫
( ) . /
√ √
( ) . /
√ √
Example
Evaluate ∫ ( )
Solution
The form of the partial fraction decomposition is
( ) ( )
Multiplying by ( ) we have
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
If we equate coefficients, we get the system
Which has the solution A and Thus

∫ ( )
∫. ( )
/
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫( )
∫( )
| | ( ) ∫(
( ) )
To evaluate the final integral we substitute Then we have and
DMU Page 116

so
∫( )
∫ ∫
∫( )
. √ √
/
. /
Thus
∫ ( )
| | ( )
( )
| |
√
where
( )
7.6. Fundamental theorem of calculus

The fundamental theorem of calculus, Part 1
If is continuous on , -, then the function defined by

( ) ∫ ( )
Is continuous on [ ] and differentiable on ( ), and ( ) ( )
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2
If is continuous on , -, then
∫ ( ) ( ) ( )
Where is any antiderivative of , that is .
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
Suppose is continuous on , -.
1. If ( ) ∫ ( ) then ( ) ( )
2. ∫ ( ) ( ) ( ) where is any antiderivative of , that is
DMU Page 117

Example
Find ∫ .
Solution
Here we have to be careful to use the Chain Rule in conjunction with Part 1 of the Fundamental
Theorem.
Let . Then
∫ ∫
,∫ -
( )
Example Evaluate the integral ∫ .
Solution
The function ( ) is continuous on [-2, 1] and
its antiderivative is ( ) ,
so Part 2 of the Fundamental Theorem gives
∫ ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
7.7. Indefinite integral and their properties
The notation ∫ ( ) is traditionally used for an antiderivative of f and is called an Indefinite
Integral. Thu
∫ ( ) ( ) means ( ) ( )
Table of Indefinite Integrals
∫ ( ) ∫ ( )
∫, ( ) ( )- ∫ ( ) ∫ ( )
∫ ( ) ∫ | |
∫ ∫
∫ ∫
∫ ∫
∫ ∫
∫ ∫√
Improper Integrals
Definite integrals when either the integrands or the interval of integrations are
unbounded are called improper integrals ,as opposed to integrals of continuous functions over
bounded intervals ,which are called proper integrals.
DMU Page 118

Integrals with unbounded integrands

We say that f is unbounded near c if f is unbounded either on every open interval of the form
(c,x) or on every open interval of the form (x,c).For example , and are unbounded near 0.
√
We now consider a function f that is continuous at every point in (a,b] and unbounded near a.
By assumption f is continuous on the interval [c,b] for any c in (a,b) ,so that ∫ ( ) is
defined for such c.If the one sided limit ∫ ( ) exists, then we define ∫ ( ) by
the formula ∫ ( ) = ∫ ( ) and say that the integral
∫ ( ) converges.Otherwise we say that ∫ ( ) diverges and do not assign any number
to the integral.
Example 1.Show that ∫ converges and compute its value.
√
Solution. is continuous at every point in (0,1] and is unbounded near 0.Thus
√
∫ √ = ∫ ( ) Provided that the limit
exists .Now for 0< c <1 we have y
∫ =2( √ )
√
And ( √ ) =2
1
Consequently ∫ converges ,and ∫ =2
√ √
x
1
This means that the shaded region has area 2.
Example 2. Show that ∫ diverges.
If f is continuous at every point of (a,b) and is unbounded near both a and b,we say that
∫ ( )
Converges if for some point d in (a,b) both the integrals ∫ ( ) and ∫ ( ) converge.
Otherwise ,we say that ∫ ( ) diverges.
Integrals over unbounded intervals
Integrals of the form ∫ ( ) and ∫ ( ) are also called improper integrals.If f is
continuous on [a, ),then ∫ ( ) is a proper integral for any b a.This fact allows us to say
that ∫ ( ) converges if ∫ ( ) exists. In that event ,
∫ ( ) = ∫ ( )
As before, the integral diverges otherwise. The improper integral ∫ ( ) is handled in an
analogous way.
Example. Show that ∫ diverges.
Solution. Let d=1 .We will show that ∫ ,and hence ∫ ,diverges.
To determine that ∫ diverges we compute ∫ for any c in (0,1).Since
∫ = -1
DMU Page 119

And since = ,we know that ∫ diverges. This implies that ∫ diverges.
We say that ∫ ( ) converges if both ∫ ( ) and ∫ ( ) converge, for some
number d. In that case , ∫ ( ) =∫ ( ) +∫ ( ) .
Example.Determine whether ∫ converges.
Solution.The integrand is continuous on ( ).To show that the integral converges, we will
show that∫ and ∫ both converge.
CHAPTER 8: Application of integration

8.1 Area
The area of the region bounded by the curves ( ) ( ) and the lines and
where f and g are continuous and ( ) ( ) for all in , -, is
∫ , ( ) ( )-
Example
Find the area of the region bounded by the parabolas
and .
Solution
We first find the points of intersection of the
parabolas by
solving their equations simultaneously.
This gives or .
Thus ( ) so
The points of intersection are (0,0) and (1, 1) and the
region
is shown in above Figure.
When using the formula for area, it is important to ensure
that ( ) ( ) when In this case we can see from the diagram that
for
and so we choose ( ) ( ) Then
∫ ,( ) -
∫ ( ) , -
0 1
Definition
The area between the curves ( ) and ( ) and between is

∫ | ( ) ( )|
DMU Page 120

Example
Find the area of the region bounded by the curves and .
Solution
The points of intersection occur when that is, when (since )
The region is sketched in following figure. Observe that when but
when
Therefore the required area is
∫ | |
∫ ( ) ∫ (
)
, - ( -
. / ( )
√ √ √ √
√
8.2. Volume
Formula for a volume of revolution:
∫ , ( )-
It applies only when the axis of rotation is the x – axis.

Example
Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating about the
-axis the region under the curve √ from 0 to 1.
Solution
The region is shown in following Figure.
Taking and ( ) √ in Formula,
we find that the volume of the solid is
∫ (√ ) ∫ -
Definition
∫ , ( )-
The above formula applies only when the axis
of rotation is the y – axis .
Example
Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the
region bounded by around the
y-axis.
Solution
Since the axis of rotation is the -axis, we write
DMU Page 121

the curve in the form √ .

The region and the solid with a typical disk are
sketched in following Figure. Using Formula
with ( ) √ , we have
∫ (√ ) ∫
0 1
Volumes by Cylindrical Shells
The volume of the solid is

∫ ( ) where
Example
Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating about the -axis the region bounded by
( )
Solution
The region and solid are sketched in following figure.
By using formula, the volume of rotation as
∫ , ( ) -
∫ ( )
0 1
Example
Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating
about the -axis the region between
.
Solution
We use Formula to find the volume obtained by rotating
about the -axis the region under from 0 to 1 and
then we subtract the corresponding volume for the region under . Thus
∫ ∫
∫ ( ) 0 1
Work
It means that the total amount of effort required to perform a task.
If an object moves along a straight line with position function ( ), then the force on the
object (in the same direction) is defined by Newton’s Second Law of Motion as the product of
its mass and its acceleration:
-------------------- (1)
DMU Page 122

In the SI metric system, the mass is measured in kilograms (kg), the displacement in meters (m),
the time in seconds (s), and the force in newtons (N=kg-m/ ). Thus a force of 1 acting on a
mass of 1 kg produces an acceleration of 1 m/ .
In the British engineering system the fundamental unit is chosen to be the unit of force, which
is the pound.
In the case of constant acceleration, the force is also constant and
The work done is defined to be the product of the force and the distance that the object
moves:
( ) -------------- (2)
If is measured in newtons and in meters, then the unit for is a newton-meter, which is
called a joule (J).
If is measured in pounds and in feet, then the unit for is a foot-pound (ft-lb),
which is about 1.36 J.
Example
(a) How much work is done in lifting a 1.2-kg book off the floor to put it on a desk that is 0.7
m high? Use the fact that the acceleration due to gravity is .
(b) How much work is done in lifting a 20-lb weight 6 ft off the ground?
Solution
(a) The force exerted is equal and opposite to that exerted by gravity, so Equation (1) gives
( )( )
And then Equation 2 gives the work done as
( ( )
(b) Here the force is given as , so the work done is
Note
That in part (b), unlike part (a), we did not have to multiply by because we were given the
weight (which is a force) and not the mass of the object.
Work done in moving the object from
∑ ( ) ∫ ( )
Example
When a particle is at a distance feet from the origin, a force of pounds acts on it.
How much work is done in moving it from
Solution
∫ ( ) -
The work done is ft-lb.
Example
A force of 40 N is required to hold a spring that has been
stretched from its natural length of 10 cm to a length of 15
cm. How much work is done in stretching the spring from 15
cm to 18 cm?
Solution
DMU Page 123

According to Hooke’s Law, the force required to hold the spring stretched meters beyond its
natural length is ( ) When the spring is stretched from 10 cm to 15 cm, the amount
stretched is 5cm= 0.05 m. This means that
( ) so
Thus ( ) and the work done in stretching the

spring from 15 cm to 18 cm is
∫ -
,( ) ( ) -
8.3 Improper Integrals

Definite integrals when either the integrands or the interval of integrations are
unbounded are called improper integrals ,as opposed to integrals of continuous functions over
bounded intervals ,which are called proper integrals.
Integrals with unbounded integrands Hooke’s law
We say that f is unbounded near c if f is unbounded either on
every open interval of the form (c,x) or on every open interval of the form (x,c).For example ,
and are unbounded near 0.
√
We now consider a function f that is continuous at every point in (a,b] and unbounded near a.
By assumption f is continuous on the interval [c,b] for any c in (a,b) ,so that ∫ ( ) is
defined for such c.If the one sided limit ∫ ( ) exists, then we define ∫ ( ) by
the formula ∫ ( ) = ∫ ( ) and say that the integral
∫ ( ) converges.Otherwise we say that ∫ ( ) diverges and do not assign any number
to the integral.
Example 1.Show that ∫ converges and compute its value.
√
Solution. is continuous at every point in (0,1] and is unbounded near 0.Thus
√
∫ √ = ∫ ( ) .Provided that the limit exists
.Now for 0<c<1 we have
∫ =2( √ )
√
And ( √ ) =2
Consequently ∫ converges ,and ∫ =2
√ √
This means that the shaded region has area 2.
Example 2. Show that ∫ diverges.
If f is continuous at every point of (a,b) and is unbounded near
both a and b,we say that ∫ ( )
DMU Page 124

Converges if for some point d in (a,b) both the integrals ∫ ( ) and ∫ ( ) converge.
Otherwise ,we say that ∫ ( ) diverges.
Integrals over unbounded intervals
Integrals of the form ∫ ( ) and ∫ ( ) are also called improper integrals.If f is
continuous on [a, ),then ∫ ( ) is a proper integral for any b a.This fact allows us to say
that ∫ ( ) converges if ∫ ( ) exists. In that event ,
∫ ( ) = ∫ ( )
As before, the integral diverges otherwise. The improper integral ∫ ( ) is handled in an
analogous way.
Example. Show that ∫ diverges.
Solution. Let d=1 .We will show that ∫ ,and hence ∫ ,diverges.
To determine that ∫ diverges we compute ∫ for any c in (0,1).Since
∫ = -1
And since = ,we know that ∫ diverges. This implies that ∫ diverges.
We say that ∫ ( ) converges if both ∫ ( ) and ∫ ( ) converge, for some
number d. In that case , ∫ ( ) =∫ ( ) +∫ ( ) .
Example.Determine whether ∫ converges.
Solution.The integrand is continuous on ( ).To show that the integral converges, we will
show that∫ and ∫ both converge.
DMU Page 125

Applied I Full-1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Applied I Full-1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Applied Mathematics I

CHAPTER 1: Revision of functions and their graphs

vii. Sketch the graph of ( ) √

Vertical line test

iii. ( ) then ( ) ( ). Therefore it is an even function (also constant function).

A function is said to be an onto function if and only if there is such that

Absolute value Functions

Example |3|=3, |-2.5|=2.5, |0|=0.

Proof: (ii) By triangle inequality,

CHAPTER 2: VECTORS AND VECTOR SPACES

for t > 0 Fig. a for t < 0 Fig. b

are difficult. Hence we focus on algebraic aspects of vectors.

Solution: we have u = v + w where u corresponds to the engine’s vector and w corresponds to

Activity: Proof the above properties.

and A . A  ( a 1 , a 2 ,..., a n ).( a 1 , a 2 ..., a n )  a 1  a 2  ...  a n

Thus, the norm of the vector A is the number:

Example: If A = (-1, 2, 3) then A  1 4  9  14

Note: 1. A unit vector is a vector having norm or length 1.

direction. Let A be a unit vector in the direction of A. Then

Note: Let A be any vector and x   , then A   A and xA  x A

Proof: Consider a triangle formed by A,B and A B

Activity: Which of the following pairs of vectors are perpendicular?

a. (1,-1,1), and (2,1,5)

2. Suppose A.B = A.C, what can you deduce about A, B and C?

Exercise: 1. Show that A B  A B if and only if A.B=0.

2. Let A1, A2, …, Ar be non-zero vectors such that Ai.Aj = o if i  j .

A .B  A B | cos  | Which implies A .B  A B (Why?)

By taking the square roots,

We now define the component of a vector in the direction of another vector.

Let A and B be two non-zero vectors.

Let  be the angle between them.

From the terminal point of B drop a perpendicular to the

direction of A or opposite to A, we can write

Given a non-zero vector u  (u 1 , u 2 , u 3 ) in  3 . The direction cosines of the vector u are:

Remark:   Cos   Cos  1

Example: Let u = (1, -2, 3). Find the direction cosines of u.

Solution: Since u  u .u  (1,  2 , 3 ).( 1,  2 , 3 )  1 4  9  14

Activity: Is Cos 2   Cos 2   Cos 2   1 ?

A x B = (a2 b3 – a3 b2, a3 b1 – a1 b3, a1 b2 – a2 b1)

 AxB  A B sin  (For 0    , sin is non- negative)

Application on area and volume

u  v = Area of the Parallelogram

2. The volume of the parallelepiped spanned by the three vectors is:

Definition: A line  is any set of the form { p : p  A  tB , t   } where B is assumed to be a non-zero

Now we find a formula for this distance. Clearly d  Pr oj

 N .QP  N .QP N .QP

2.2. Vector spaces

Example: Consider H = {(x, y): x, y   and x + 4y = 0} .

Hence {E1, E2, E3} is a basis of 3.

Proof: As B is a basis, m > n is impossible. Otherwise by theorem 3.4.1, W will be a linearly

Show that V is the direct sum of W and U.

The sum of U and W is: U + W = ( x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ), x 1 , x 2 , x 3     R  V

the direct sum of W and U.

the direct sum of W and U.

CHAPTER 3: Matrices and Determinants

is called an m  n (read “m by n”) matrix or a matrix of order m  n .

a. What is the order of A and B?

Example: Form a 4 by 5 matrix, B, such that bij = i + j.

In a square matrix   of order n, the entries

trace of A. That is, Trace of A =  a ii .

Activity: Find the trace of C in the above example.

Notation: A diagonal matrix A of order n with diagonal elements a 11 , a 22 , ..., a nn is denoted