CHAPTER 4

Research Design
Three Purposes of Research

• Exploration
To satisfy the researcher’s curiosity and desire for better understanding.
To test the feasibility of undertaking a more extensive study
To develop the methods to be employed in any subsequent study

• Description
An empirical assessment of the state of affairs
Answer questions of what, where, when, and how

• Explanatory
Address questions of why
Providing reasons for phenomena in terms of causal relationships
Idiographic versus Nomothetic Explanations

Goal of Idiographic Explanation

Seeks to find an exhaustive understanding of the causes producing events and situations in a single or
limited number of cases
A perfect explanation that accounts for the entire variation

Goal of Nomothetic Explanation

To find a few factors that can account for much of the variations in a given phenomenon
The Logic of Nomothetic Explanation

Criteria for Nomothetic Causality

1. Correlation: the variables must be correlated
Correlation – an empirical relationship between two variables such that changes in one are
associated with changes in the other, or particular attributes in one are associated with
particular attributes in the other
2. Time Order: the cause takes place before the effect
3. Nonspuriousness: the variables are nonspurious.
Spurious Relationship – relationships that are not genuine; a coincidental statistical
correlation between two variables shown to be caused by some third variable
The Logic of Nomothetic Explanation
Necessary and Sufficient Causes

Necessary Cause: represents a condition that must be present for the effect to follow
Sufficient Cause: represents a condition that, if it is present, guarantees the effect in question
Most satisfying outcome in research includes both necessary and sufficient causes
Necessary and Sufficient Causes

Necessary Cause: being female is a necessary cause of pregnancy; that is, you cannot get pregnant
unless you are female
Necessary and Sufficient Causes

Sufficient Cause: not taking the exam is a sufficient cause of failing it, even though there are other
ways of failing (such as answering randomly)
Units of Analysis

Units of Analysis – the what or whom being studied

In social science research, the most typical units of analysis are individual people

Individuals versus Aggregates

• Individuals
• Groups
• Organizations
• Social Interactions
• Social Artifacts
Any product of social beings or their behavior

The Ecological Fallacy – erroneously drawing conclusions about individuals solely from the
observations of groups
The Time Dimension

Cross-Sectional Study – a study based on observations representing a single point in time; a cross
section of a population or phenomenon

Longitudinal Study – a study design involving the collection of data at different points in time
Trend Study – a type of longitudinal study in which a given characteristic of some
population is monitored over time

Cohort Study – a study in which some specific subpopulation, or cohort, is studied over
time, although data may be collected from different members in each set of observations

Panel Study – type of longitudinal study in which data are collected from the same set of
people (the sample or panel) at several points in time
Panel mortality – The failure of some panel subjects to continue participating in the study
How to Design a Research Project

1. Define the purpose of your project – exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory?

2. Specify the meaning of the concepts you want to study – conceptualization
3. Select a research method
4. Determine how you will measure the variables – operationalization
5. Determine whom or what to study – population and sampling
6. Collect empirical data – observations
7. Process the data – data processing
8. Analyze the data – analysis
9. Report your findings – application
How to Design a Research Project