HNC Maths - First 4 Months - Mike Lopez

BTEC Higher Nationals Unit Workbook Analytical Methods for Engineers
Mike Lopez Page 2

Intended Readership
This text has been specifically written for students who are undertaking studies at BTEC HNC or
HND level in the following disciplines...
✔ Aerospace Engineering
✔ Electrical and Electronic Engineering
✔ Manufacturing Engineering
✔ Marine Engineering
✔ Mechanical Engineering
✔ Operations Engineering
✔ Vehicle Operations Management
How to use this Workbook

The Workbook has been designed to offer 32 sessions throughout the academic year, covering the
whole of the syllabus for Analytical Methods for Engineers. Your lecturer will guide you through
each of the sessions and assist you in absorbing and understanding the content.
It is not intended that you use this text in isolation. There are exercises in each of the sessions where
the answers are not given. These answers are issued to your lecturer separately.
For each session you should...
 casually survey the upcoming session's material

 attend your scheduled session
 follow your teachers delivery
 work through the examples
 attempt the knowledge checks
 complete the exercises
 attempt the further problems, as directed by your lecturer (possibly for homework)
 review the material studied
 attempt the mock assignment questions, as directed
About the Author

Michael Lopez BEng(Hons) MSc PGCert CertEd MIET MifL
From grammar school Michael attended Liverpool John Moores University and gained an honours
degree in Electrical and Electronic Engineering. He then studied further at that institution to gain a
Post Graduate Certificate in Education, followed by a Master of Science degree in Microelectronic
Systems Design.
Michael has extensive commercial experience in the design of cutting-edge digital and analogue
electronic systems. He has published many works in regard to engineering mathematics and is a
curriculum leader and senior internal verifier in the FE sector.
Mike Lopez Page 3

Mike Lopez Page 4

Session 1 – Algebraic Fractions
Objectives
You will learn to convert polynomial fractions having a numerator of higher degree than the
denominator (top heavy) into a polynomial factor and a fractional remainder (bottom heavy). You
will also be able to describe the Factor Theorem and the Remainder Theorem.
Terminology
Polynomial A finite length expression of variables (with positive integer powers) and constants.
For example 5 x 3−8 x 23 x−12
Factor An integer or polynomial which when multiplied by another factor(s) results in a

given integer or polynomial. For example 8=24 where 2 and 4 are both
factors of 8. Also, 3 x 3=3 x x 2 where 3 x and x 2 are both factors of 3 x 2 .
Quotient The result of a mathematical division. For example 2 is the quotient of 8/4.
Discussion
If you were to see an expression such as 4 x 2 / x you would naturally realise that this could be
expressed more succinctly as 4 x .The polynomial fraction which you converted was top heavy,
meaning that the power in the numerator x term was of higher degree (2) than the power in the
denominator x term (1 – note that x means x 1 ). Your analysis would have been
4x
x 4 x2
4 x2
where you divided the x into the 4 x 2 to give 4 x (written as a factor at the top). You then multiplied
that 4 x by each term in the denominator (ie x ) to give 4 x 2 , which is written below a minus sign.
You then performed the subtraction to give 0, meaning that there was no remainder here. So the
answer is just 4 x .
How do we then go about division of more complex top heavy polynomial fractions? Well, we need
to apply exactly the same method and repeat until the remainder is either zero or has a denominator
of lower degree than the numerator. An example will provide some insight into this...
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Example 1.1
Convert 4 x 2−6 x / x2 into a quotient and remainder.
Solution:
4 x−14
x2 4 x 2− 6 x
4 x 2 8 x
−14 x
−14 x−28
28
 4 x 2−6 x  28
So, we can say that = 4 x−14
 x2  x2
Let's take a look at one which is a bit more involved ...
Example 1.2
Convert 3x 4−6x 34x2 −5x8/ x 23x2 into a quotient and remainder.
Solution:
3 x 2−15 x43
x 23 x2 3 x 4 − 6 x 3  4 x 2 − 5 x  8
−3 x 4  9 x 3  6 x 2
−15 x 3 − 2 x 2 − 5 x  8
−15 x 3−45 x 2− 30 x
43 x 2  25 x  8
43 x 2 129 x  86
−104 x − 78
3 x 4−6 x 34 x 2 −5 x8 104 x78

Therefore 2
= 3 x 2−15 x43− 2
 x 3 x2  x 3 x2
Let's take a look at something called the Factor Theorem. This states that a polynomial p  x  has a
factor  x−k  if and only if p k =0 . Let's see how this works...
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Example 1.3
Find the factors of x 3−3 x 2 −7 x6 .
Solution:
Firstly, we need to employ trial and error to establish the first factor...
Try:
3 2
 x−1=0 ∴ x=1 ∴ p1=1 −31 −7 16 = −3 ≠ 0 ∴ not a factor
 x1=0 ∴ x=−1 ∴ p −1=−13−3−12−7−16 = 15 ≠ 0 ∴ not a factor
 x−2=0 ∴ x=2 ∴ p 2= 23−322−7 26 = −12 ≠ 0 ∴ not a factor
 x2=0 ∴ x=−2 ∴ p −2=−23−3−22−7−26 = −3 = 0 ∴ IS a factor
Now we have established that  x2 is a factor we need to use polynomial division to find the
remaining factor(s).
 x 3−3 x 2−7 x6

When we evaluate using polynomial division we get x 2−5 x3 .
 x2
Therefore, we can say that...
x 3−3 x 2 −7 x6 =  x2 x 2−5 x3
i.e.  x2 is a factor and  x 2−5 x3 is another factor.
Another theorem we you need to be aware of is the Remainder Theorem. This states that if a
polynomial is divided by a linear divisor  x−k  then f k  will be the remainder. Let's see how this
works...
Example 1.4
If we revisit example 1.1 we will see the Remainder Theorem in action...
 4 x 2−6 x  28
We saw that = 4 x−14
 x2  x2
If we now multiply each term by  x2 we get

2
4 x −6 x =  4 x−14 x 228
The remainder here, of course, is 28. The Remainder Theorem says that f k  gives 28 as a
remainder, where k is -2 [remember that  x−k  =  x−−2 ].
Let's put x=−2 into the equation to see if it yields 28...
4 −22−6−2 = 1612 = 28
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Exercises 1
Evaluate the following quotients and remainders...
1. 8 x/ x1
2. 8 x1/ x1
3. 4 x 22 x5/ x−2
3 2 2
4. 3 x −4 x 2 x−6/ x −4
5. 2 x 4 −4 x 3 x−2/ x 2−2 x6
1. 8 x/ x1
2. 8 x1/ x1
3. 4 x 2 2 x5/ x −2
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4. 3 x 3−4 x 2 2 x−6/ x 2−4
5. 2 x 4 −4 x 3 x−2/ x 2 −2 x6
Further Problems 1
Find the factors of the following expressions...
1.  x 24 x4
2.  x 2−4
3.  x 3−2 x 2
4. 2 x 3 x 2−16 x12
5. 4 x 4 7 x 3x 2 6 x8
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Mike Lopez Page 10

Session 2 – Partial Fractions
Objectives
You will learn about the rules of order for partial fractions and be able to convert algebraic
fractions into partial fractions.
Terminology
0
x =1 : Any number to the power zero is one, except zero itself, which is
indeterminate.
Equate coefficients Form an equation composed of the multipliers in question.
Discussion
When you learn about integral calculus later in the unit you will occasionally need to break down
large polynomial fractions into a set of smaller fractions which can be easily integrated. The rules of
order for partial fractions are as follows...
A
Linear Factor axb yields a partial fraction of the form
axb
A B
Repeated Factors axb2 yields a partial fraction of the form axb 
axb2
A B C
axb 3 yields a partial fraction of the form ax b  
axb  axb3
2
 Ax B
Quadratic Factors ax 2bxc yields a partial fraction of the form
ax 2 bxc 
To be able to formulate partial fractions it is important that you start with an expression which has
a numerator of lower degree than the denominator. If this is not the case then you must divide out
by long division, as covered in the previous session.You must also ensure that the denominator of
the expression is factorised into its prime factors.
Let's take a look at an example for each of the three types of factor mentioned above.
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Example 2.1
15x4 
Start with . Clearly the degree of the numerator is not lower than that of the denominator,
3x3
11
so we need to use long division to ensure that this is the case. This gives 5− , where the
3 x x3
A
last part looks like .
axb
Example 2.2
2 x3 A B
2
= 
3 x4 3 x4 3 x42
Multiply each term by 3 x42 …
2 x 3 = A3 x4B
To find the value of A we need to equate the coefficients of x (written as [ x ]: ). To find the value of
B we need to equate the constant terms, which is the same as equating the coefficients of x 0 (written
as [ x 0 ]: ).
[ x ]: 2 = 3A ∴ A=2/3
[ x 0 ]: 3 = 4A B ∴ B = 3−4A ∴ B = 3− 4 × 2/3 = 3−8 /3 = 1/3
2 x3 2 1 1 1
∴ = .  .
3 x4 2
3 3 x4 3 3 x42
Example 2.3
6 x 23 x7 A BxC
2
=  2
 x−1 x 3  x−1  x 3
multiply both sides by  x−1 x 23 …
6 x 23 x7 = A x 23 B xC  x−1
Let x=1 : 637 = 4A ∴ 16 = 4A ∴ A=4
[ x 2 ]: 6 = AB ∴ B = 6−A = 6−4 = 2 ∴ B=2
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[ x 0 ]: 7 = 3A−C ∴ C = 3A −7 = 3 4−7=5 ∴ C=5
6 x 23 x7 4 2x5

∴ 2
=  2
 x−1 x 3  x−1  x 3
Exercises 2
Find partial fractions for the following expressions...
8 x14
1.
 x3 x−2
15 x21
2.
2 x4 x−1
10 x26
3.
2 x−56 x2
x2
4.
 x1 x−12
x 2−24 x92
5.
 x2 x−42
8 x14
1.
 x3 x−2
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15 x21
2.
2 x4 x−1
10 x26
3.
2 x−56 x2
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x2
4.
 x1 x−12
x 2−24 x92
5.
 x2 x−42
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Further Problems 2
Find partial fractions for the following...
14 x10
1.
 x−1 x3
12 x 2−6x−6
2.
x  x1 x−2
3 x 212 x13
3.
 x33
−7 x 2−4 x8
4. 2
 x x12− x
9 x 3−6 x 22 x−1

5.
 x 2 x−1 x−12
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Session 3 – Exponential Functions
Objectives
You will learn about the existence of the universal constant 'e' and its applications. Also covered is
exponential growth and decay, along with manipulation of exponents.
Terminology
Exponent: A quantity representing the power that some other quantity is raised.
Discussion
In exponential functions the variable is in the power(index), rather than the base. For example …
f  x =x 3 : is a POWER FUNCTION, since the variable is in the base

f  x =4 x : is an EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION, since the variable is in the index.
It is important to note that most texts blur this distinction. For all intents and purposes you may say
that exponent, index and power are the same thing.
Below is a plot of the curves f  x =2 x and f  x =2−x . You will notice that they exhibit growth and
decay respectively.
Y
x
y=2
growth
y=2−x
decay
X
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Let's see how we may manipulate exponents when multiplied ...
4 x 4 x1=4 x x1=4 2x1
and divided...
62x4  2x4− x−3 x7

=6 =6
6 x3
Engineers very often meet the exponential function e x and its variants. The symbol 'e' was chosen
by an 18th century mathematician named Leonhard Euler, and is known as 'Euler's number'. The
number 'e' is related to many situations in the natural universe, including…
• initial growth/decay of biological organisms

• population growth/decay
• radioactive decay
• a charging/discharging capacitor
• an energised/de-energised inductor
• financial profit/loss
Regarding the last point on this list, consider that you have £1 to invest with a bank. The bank
allows you to accumulate interest as many times as you like throughout the course of your deposit.
Assume that the annual interest rate quoted to you was a generous 100%. You decide that you
would like to know which interest period will yield the most money. You can then use the
compound interest formula to calculate the value of your investment, in each case, after a full
year…
Interest period calculation account balance (£)

1
annual 1 2.000000
1 
1
4
quarterly 1 2.441406
1 
4
12
monthly 1 2.613035
1 
12
weekly 1 52 2.692597
1 
52
365
daily 1 2.714567
1 
365
262800
each minute 1 2.718277
1 
262800
15678000
each second 1 2.718282
1 
15678000
As you can see, it is more profitable to have interest calculated each second. You will also notice
that the amount is reaching a limit. This limit is in fact 'e', which, to 9 decimal places, is
2.718281828. Therefore, there will be no tangible profit from calculations every millisecond or
Mike Lopez Page 18

microsecond. Now you know why banks like to pay interest annually, rather than more frequently!
So then, what Euler actually discovered was a universal constant of growth and decay. This constant
can be applied to the analysis of any natural growth or decay scenario.
Humans mostly have 10 fingers (if you count thumbs as fingers). When you were at school you
learned about log 10 of numbers. The base of 10 was chosen as a human reference number. As an
engineer you will discard the base 10 and use the universal constant 'e' as the new base. You might
therefore use a calculator to determine...
log e 1=0 Think of this as e 0=1 (remembering that anything (except zero) to the power
zero is one.
A rule you will frequently use is...
log e  x n =nlog e  x  therefore, as an example, log e 34 =4log e 3=4.394
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Exercises 3
Plot the graphs of...
1. y=0.5 x [−3≤ x≤3]

−x
2. y=0.5 [−3≤x≤3]
x
3. y=e [0≤x ≤3]
4. Draw a tangent to your graph of y=e x at the point where x=1 and thus determine the
slope of the graph at that point. What do you notice about the value you have deduced?
5. Determine log e e 2 
1. y=0.5 x [−3≤ x≤3]
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−x
2. y=0.5 [−3≤x≤3]
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x
3. y=e [0≤x ≤3]
4. Draw a tangent to your graph of y=e x at the point where x=1 and thus determine the
slope of the graph at that point. What do you notice about the value you have deduced?
(your answer here)
5. Determine log e e 2 
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Further Problems 3
Plot the following four graphs between [−2≤t≤2 ] and comment upon their shapes...
1. y=−2t
2. y=−2−t
3. y=−0.5t
4. y=−0.5−t
e 2x4 e 3x−1
5. Determine y= 5x2
e
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Session 4 – Trigonometric & Hyperbolic Functions
Objectives
You will learn about the properties of hyperbolic functions, their link with the universal constant 'e'
and how they may be equated to trigonometric functions.
Terminology
Unit Circle: A circle with a radius of 1 unit
Apex: The tip
Discussion
So far you have been used to thinking of trigonometry as the analysis of right-angled triangles. The
graph below uses a unit circle to define the sine and cosine functions. You will notice that the
triangle is contained within the circle.
1 sin(y)
y
cos(y)
If you imagined this circle to be an electrical generator, spinning clockwise, then measurement of
the height of the dot versus time would trace out a very familiar sine wave. The mains electricity
supply has a sinusoidal nature and this is produced by a circular generator. For this reason we can
say that trigonometric functions such as sin, cos and tan are CIRCULAR functions.
There are many facets of science, engineering and nature where simple trigonometry is an
inadequate tool for analysis. Let's move on to look at HYPERBOLIC functions. Hyperbolas arise in
many situations, such as...
• The path of a spacecraft in open orbit around a planet and exceeding the planet's escape
velocity
• The trace of a sundial shadow
• The shape of a hanging cable, chain or rope
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• The scattering trajectory of a subatomic particle acted upon by a repulsive force

• The current at any point along a transmission line exhibiting leakage
• The shape of an object produced by cutting a vertical section through a cone
A simple hyperbola is produced by plotting the graph of y=1/x...
The graphic below helps us to analyse the hyperbola. From this we may define the hyperbolic sine
and hyperbolic cosine functions (pronounced 'shine' and 'cosh' respectively). Notice that the apex of
the hyperbola is one unit away from the vertical axis (much akin to our unit circle).
cosh(x)
sinh(x)
x
1
Let's take a look at the combined graphs of sinh(x) and cosh(x)...
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The top graph is that of cosh(x). An apparently strange thing happens if we add these two graphs
together...
We in fact end up with a graph of ex. Let's write down mathematically what we have just noticed
graphically...
x
e =cosh  x sinh  x
Now, rather than add the cosh(x) and the sinh(x) we can subtract them. This will give us a graph of
e-x. Now we may also write...
e− x =cosh  x −sinh  x
If we add these last two results we get...
e x e−x
cosh  x =
2
and subtracting the second from the first gives...
e x −e− x
sinh x=
2
Going back to the circular world, it can be shown (using Series) that...
e j  =cos  jsin  and e− j  =cos − jsin 
If we add these last two results we get...
e j  e− j 
cos =
2
and subtracting the second from the first gives...
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e j  −e− j 
jsin =
2
From these results it is now possible for you to link together the circular and hyperbolic worlds with
the following two formulae...
cos =cosh  j 
sinh j = jsin
Looking at these last two formulae and substituting = jx yields...
cosh  x=cos  jx
sin  jx= jsinh x 
Let's collect together these four important results...
cos =cosh  j  sinh j = jsin

cosh  x =cos  jx sin jx= jsinh  x 
Let's now see if we can use this new knowledge.
Example 4.1
Find an expansion for cos  x− jy
Firstly, we need to remember the standard trig expansion for cos  A− B . This is...
cos  A− B=cos  Acos  Bsin  Asin  B
we now need to replace A with x and B with jy …
cos  x− jy=cos  x cos  jysin x sin  jy
but we now know that cos  jy=cosh  y and sin  jy= jsinh y  , so we may write...
cos  x− jy=cos  x cosh  y jsin x sinh  y 
Exercises 4
Plot the following graphs between [−3≤ x≤3]
1. y=cosh  x
2. y=sinh  x 
3. y=tanh x 
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x
4. y=e
−x
5. y=e
1 y=cosh  x
2 y=sinh  x
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3 y=tanh x 
4 y=e x
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5 y=e −x
Further Problems 4
1. Explain why cosh0=1 and sinh 0=0
2. Explain why tanh  x  is limited to 1
3. Describe two further instances of a hyperbola, other than those given in these notes
4. Find an expansion for cos  x jy
5. Use series to prove that e j  =cos  jsin 
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Session 5 – Arithmetic & Geometric Series
Objectives
You will learn about the notation used for sequences, arithmetic and geometric progressions, the
limit of a sequence, sigma notation, the sum of a series, arithmetic and geometric series, Pascal’s
triangle and the binomial theorem.
Terminology
Progression: A sequence of numbers, separated by commas, following a definite pattern
Series: A sequence of numbers, separated by + or - signs, following a definite pattern
Convergent: A series which has a limited sum when an infinite number of terms are added
Divergent: A series which tends to infinity when an infinite number of terms are added
Discussion
You can think of a progression as a sequence of terms which are formed in a regular pattern.
1, 5, 9, 13, 17,... is a progression. In fact, this is an arithmetic progression, since each term is
formed by adding a common difference to the previous term.
2, 6, 18, 54, 162,... is a progression. In fact, this is a geometric progression, since each term is
formed by multiplying the previous term by a common factor.
3, 6, 7, 11, 19,... is NOT a progression, since there is no regular pattern to the numbers.
A progression may contain either an infinite or finite number of terms.
Let's take a closer look at arithmetic progressions. Consider the infinite progression 1, 3, 5, 7, 9,...
and decide what the sum of the first five numbers will be. No doubt you will very quickly say 25.
What if you were asked to find the sum of the first five thousand terms? You certainly would not
adopt the summing technique just employed. The formula which we need to use to calculate the
sum of n terms in an arithmetic progression is...
n
S n = 2an−1 d 
2
where Sn is the sum of n terms, a is the first term and d is the common difference
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5000
Using this formula then, gives us S 5000 =  215000−12 = 25,000,000
2
A very useful formula. We can use another formula associated with arithmetic progressions. This
one works out what the nth term actually is.
n th term=an−1 d
Let's use this to find out the 100th term in our current progression.
100th term=1100−12 = 199
Knowledge Check 5.1

For the infinite progression -4, -7, -10, -13, -16,... find the 102nd term and the sum of the first 100
terms.
Let us now turn to geometric progressions. The formulae involved here are...
a 1−r n 
n th term=ar n−1 and S n =
1−r
where r is the common ratio between terms.
Knowledge Check 5.2

For the infinite progression 3, 12, 48, 192,... find the 22nd term and the sum of the first 50 terms.
It is important to note that a progression (also called a sequence) has its data separated by
commas. A series has its data separated by + or – signs. Lots of maths books you might read tend to
blur this distinction.
Let us now turn to series, and the notation used with them.
A series is the sum of terms of a sequence. Let's have a look at a couple of series...
n
∑ an this is a finite series, having a finite number of terms n, with a finite sum
1
∑ an this is an infinite series, having a infinite number of terms, which may or may not
1
have an infinite sum
Let us now consider the limit of a series. What about...

n∞
∑ 1 12  14  18 ... Do you think that this series will be convergent or divergent?

1
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We start by noting that this series is formed from a geometric progression (each term is produced by
multiplying the preceding term by ½ ). In light of this let's manipulate the formula which calculates
the sum of terms for a geometric progression...
1n
1 1− 
a1−r n 2 1n 1n 1
Sn= = = 2 1−  = 2 1− n  = 2 1− n 
1−r 1 2 2 2
1−
2
1
However, since n ∞ then n
0
2
So, S n =21−0=2 i.e. the series is limited to 2, and is convergent.
Let's now take a look at Pascal's Triangle and the Binomial Theorem.
The first six rows of Pascals triangle are shown above. You may construct the triangle by starting at
the top (row 0) and placing a 1 there. To complete the next row down you just move to that position
and add up the numbers you see at 10 o' clock and 2 o' clock. It's as simple as that.
Knowledge Check 5.3

Find rows 6 and 7 for Pascal's triangle.
What use is this triangle? - you might be thinking. Well, the rows featured in Pascal's triangle form
the coefficients in binomial expansions. Let us consider some binomial expansions...
2 2 2
 x y  =x 2xy y the coefficients here feature row 2 of Pascal's triangle
3 3 2 2 3
 x y  =x 3x y3xy  y the coefficients form row 3 of Pascal's triangle
 x y 4=x 4 4 x 3 y6 x 2 y 24x y 3 y 4 the coefficients form row 4 of Pascal's triangle
If we take n as a positive integer then the Binomial Theorem states...
n n−1 n −2 2 n n−1 n−2 n−3 3

abn =a nna n−1 b a b a b ...bn
2! 3!
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The theorem is sometimes simplified for the special case when a is 1 and b=x
n n−1 2 nn−1n−2 3
1x n=1nx x  x ... x n
2! 3!
We shall be making full use of the binomial series when we look at 'power series' in the next
session.
Exercises 5
1. For the infinite progression 2, 4, 6, 8, 10,... find the 22nd term and the sum of the first 1000
terms.
2. For the infinite progression -10, -20, -30, -40,... find the 31st term and the sum of the first 20
terms.
3. For the infinite progression 1, 2, 4, 8,... find the 1024th term and the sum of the first 256
terms.
4. For the infinite progression -3, -6, -12, -24,... find the 82nd term and the sum of the first 500
terms.
5. Build the top ten rows of Pascal's triangle
1 For the infinite progression 2, 4, 6, 8, 10,... find the 22nd term and the sum of the first 1000
terms.
2 For the infinite progression -10, -20, -30, -40,... find the 31st term and the sum of the first 20
terms.
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3 For the infinite progression 1, 2, 4, 8,... find the 1024th term and the sum of the first 256
terms.
4 For the infinite progression -3, -6, -12, -24,... find the 82nd term and the sum of the first 500
terms.
5 Build the top ten rows of Pascal's triangle
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Further Problems 5
Use the Binomial theorem to expand the following...
1. 1x 2
2. 1x 3
3. 12x 3
4. 1−3x4
5. −2−x 7
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Session 6 – Power Series
Objectives
To use Maclaurin's series to represent common engineering functions as a power series.
Discussion
Many of the common functions we use in engineering may be represented by Maclaurin's series.
Let's take a look at this series...
x2 x3
f  x = f 0 x.f ' 0 . f ' ' 0 . f ' ' '  0...
2! 3!
Some things to notice about this series:
• f x simply means 'a function of x'

• f 0 means 'a function of x when x is zero'
• 2! means 2 factorial i.e. 1 x 2. Also, 3! is 1 x 2 x 3
• f ' ' 0 means f  x  differentiated twice and x replaced with 0
Let's see how useful Maclaurin's series can be to us.
Example 6.1
Find the Maclaurin series for sin  x
Firstly, let's find all the differential coefficients we need...
f  x =sin  x ∴ f 0=0
f '  x=cos  x ∴ f ' 0=1
f ' '  x =−sin x∴ f ' ' 0=0
f ' ' '  x =−cos  x∴ f ' ' ' 0=−1
...and so on.
If we now substitute these results into Maclaurin's series we get...
x2 x3
sin  x=0 x.1 .0 .−1...
2! 3!
If we tidy this expression and project the series further we get...
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x3 x5 x7 x9
sin  x= x−  −  −...
3! 5! 7 ! 9 !
To check whether this series is valid put your calculator into RADS mode and determine...

sin   =0.707 (rounded).
4

Now replace x in the Maclaurin series with …
4
 3  5  7

    
  4 4 4
sin  = −  − ...=0.707
4 4 3! 5! 7!
Exercises 6
Find the Maclaurin series for cos  x 
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Session 7 – Complex Numbers
Objectives
To be able to describe complex numbers in both rectangular and polar forms and to perform
arithmetic operations on these.
Discussion
Complex numbers were invented so that we may easily perform calculations on vector quantities
without having to resort to graphical means (which is time consuming and can be complicated).
When we say a vector quantity we mean something with a magnitude (length) and direction (angle).
You will encounter such quantities in circuits featuring capacitance and/or inductance. Vectors are
also present in three-phase systems.
A complex number consists of a real component and an imaginary component. The letter 'j' is
placed before the imaginary component. Both the real and imaginary components can be either
positive or negative. Note that in some textbooks you may see 'i' used instead of 'j'.
We can draw complex numbers on an Argand diagram. Here, the vertical axis contains the
imaginary component and the horizontal axis contains the real component. Let's draw the complex
number a=3 j4 on an Argand diagram ...
+j
Argand 4
a = 3 + j4
Diagram 3
1
Φ
0
-Real -2 -1
-1
1 2 3 +Real
-2
-j
Notice that the vector has a magnitude (length) and a direction (given by the positive angle Φ). This
magnitude and angle may be determined using Pythagoras' theorem and basic trigonometry, but, for
convenience, we shall use the calculator to perform conversions such as these.
Let's take a look at the complex number b=−1− j3
+j
4
1
1 2 3
0
-Real -2 -1
-1 +Real
Φ
-2
-3
b = − 1 − j3
-j
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Here we can see that the angle is in the southern region of the Argand diagram. In this case the
angle is denoted as negative, with a size given by the dotted line.
Each rectangular form a jb of a complex number has a corresponding polar form r ∢ and
vice-versa. On a calculator the rectangular form is marked 'Rec' and the polar form is marked 'Pol'.
Example 7.1
To convert a=3 j4 into Polar form we need to do the following on the calculator...
shift
+ [you will see 'Pol' above the '+' button]
3
shift
) [this accesses the comma above the ')' button]
4
)
=
The answer should be a magnitude of 5 and an angle of 53.13 degrees. Take a look at the Argand
diagram – does this look more or less correct?
The calculator will also convert from Polar form to Rectangular form (i.e. a + jb form). Let's
convert v=2∢45 to Rectangular form, using the calculator...
shift
- [you will see 'Rec' above the '-' button]
2
shift
) [this accesses the comma above the ')' button]
45
)
=
The answer should be a real component of 1.414 and an imaginary (j) component of 1.414.
Now lets define j mathematically...
j=−1
You may have come across quadratic equations in school where there was a negative number in the
root. This happens all the time in electrical engineering, so complex numbers are really fundamental
to us. We may further write...
j 2= −1× −1=−1

3
j = −1×−1=− j
j 4=−1×−1=1
j 5= j 1× j 4= j×1= j
We may also define real numbers as complex numbers with a zero imaginary component. For
electrical engineers this could be a pure resistance or a DC voltage. We could also have a pure
Mike Lopez Page 40

capacitor or inductor with zero real component but a non-zero imaginary component.
Examples:
100 j0=100∢0 This represents a pure resistor of 100 Ohms
12 j0V =12∢0 V This represents a DC voltage of 12V
0 j500 =500∢90 500 Ohms inductive reactance at a particular frequency
0− j200 =200∢−90 200 Ohms capacitive reactance at a particular frequency
100− j200 =223.6∢−63.4  100 Ohm resistor in series with a capacitive reactance
of 200 Ohms
Addition of Complex Numbers

To add complex numbers we simply 'add like for like components' i.e. add reals together and add
imaginaries together...
Given a=m jp and b=n jq then ab=mn j  pq 
Subtraction of complex numbers

To subtract complex numbers we simply 'subtract like for like components' ...
Given a=m jp and b=n jq then a−b=m−n j  p−q 
Multiplication of Complex Numbers

Here we are permitted to multiply 'reals by imaginaries' and also 'like by like'.
Example 7.2
Multiply together the complex numbers a=2 j3  and b=3 j4
ab=23 2 j4  j33 j3 j4
= 6 j8 j912j 2
= 6 j17 12−1
= −6 j17
Division of Complex Numbers

When complex numbers are divided it is necessary to multiply top and bottom of the resulting
fraction by the 'complex conjugate' of the denominator. An example will explain the process better...
Example 7.3
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Given a=2 j4  and b=1− j3 find a / b …
a 2 j4  2 j41 j3

= = Notice that the complex conjugate of 1− j3 is 1 j3
b 1− j3 1− j31 j3
The reason why we use this complex conjugate is that the denominator will always reduce to just a
real number, resulting in a one-line answer...
2 j41 j3 2 j6  j4−12

=
1− j3 1 j3  1 j3− j39
−10 j10
=−1 j 
10
Exercises 7
On an Argand diagram draw..
1. a=−1 j3
2. b= 2− j4 
3. c= j3
4. 4∢135
Use your calculator to...
5. Convert 2− j3 into Polar form

6. Convert 5∢45 into Rectangular form
Given that a=5 j3 and b=−2− j4 determine...
7. ab
8. a /b
1. a=−1 j3 
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2. b= 2− j4 
3. c= j3
4. 4∢135
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5. Convert 2− j3 into Polar form
6. Convert 5∢45 into Rectangular form
7. ab
8. a /b
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Answers to Exercises and Further Problems – Not for Book Inclusion

Exercises 1 Further Problems 1
8 1.  x2 x2
1. 8−
 x1 2.  x2 x−2
7 3.  x−2 x 2 
2. 8−
 x1 4.  x−2 2 x 25 x−6
25 5.  x14 x 33 x 2 −2 x8
3. 4 x10
 x−2
14 x −22
4. 3 x−4
 x 2−4
2 23 x−70
5. 2 x −12− 2
 x −2 x6
Exercises 2
2 6 Further Problems 2
1.  6 8
 x3  x −2 1. 
3 6  x−1  x3
2.  3 4 5
2 x4  x −1 2.  
3 4 x  x1  x−2
3. − 3 6 4
2 x −5 6 x2 3.  x3 − 
 x3  x 33
2
0.25 0.75 0.5
4.  x1   x−1  3 x6 4
 x−12 4. −
 x x1 2− x
2
4 3 2
5.  x2 −  x−4  4 x−2 5 4
 x−42 5.  
2
 x x−1  x−1  x−1
2
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HNC Maths - First 4 Months - Mike Lopez

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BTEC Higher Nationals Unit Workbook Analytical Methods for Engineers

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How to use this Workbook

For each session you should...

 casually survey the upcoming session's material

About the Author

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Session 1 – Algebraic Fractions

Factor An integer or polynomial which when multiplied by another factor(s) results in a

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Let's take a look at one which is a bit more involved ...

3 x 4−6 x 34 x 2 −5 x8 104 x78

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 x 3−3 x 2−7 x6

Therefore, we can say that...

x 3−3 x 2 −7 x6 =  x2 x 2−5 x3

i.e.  x2 is a factor and  x 2−5 x3 is another factor.

If we now multiply each term by  x2 we get

Let's put x=−2 into the equation to see if it yields 28...

4 −22−6−2 = 1612 = 28

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4. 3 x 3−4 x 2 2 x−6/ x 2−4

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Session 2 – Partial Fractions

Equate coefficients Form an equation composed of the multipliers in question.

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Multiply each term by 3 x42 …

[ x 0 ]: 3 = 4A B ∴ B = 3−4A ∴ B = 3− 4 × 2/3 = 3−8 /3 = 1/3

multiply both sides by  x−1 x 23 …

6 x 23 x7 = A x 23 B xC  x−1

Let x=1 : 637 = 4A ∴ 16 = 4A ∴ A=4

[ x 2 ]: 6 = AB ∴ B = 6−A = 6−4 = 2 ∴ B=2

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[ x 0 ]: 7 = 3A−C ∴ C = 3A −7 = 3 4−7=5 ∴ C=5

6 x 23 x7 4 2x5

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9 x 3−6 x 22 x−1

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Session 3 – Exponential Functions

f  x =x 3 : is a POWER FUNCTION, since the variable is in the base

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Let's see how we may manipulate exponents when multiplied ...

4 x 4 x1=4 x x1=4 2x1

62x4  2x4− x−3 x7

• initial growth/decay of biological organisms

Interest period calculation account balance (£)

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A rule you will frequently use is...

log e  x n =nlog e  x  therefore, as an example, log e 34 =4log e 3=4.394

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1. y=0.5 x [−3≤ x≤3]

1. y=0.5 x [−3≤ x≤3]

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Session 4 – Trigonometric & Hyperbolic Functions

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• The scattering trajectory of a subatomic particle acted upon by a repulsive force