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TECHNIQUES
Module III
INTRODUCTION
Lei detection is still in the realm of chance. Perhaps, man himself will turn out to be the ultimate lie detector,
relying upon his ability and sensitivity to fine micro-expressions that underlie any theory of mind.
There are still many questions that must be answered before we successfully say that polygraph is the
ultimate solution to lies. No matter if you agree or disagree with the use of polygraphs, thousands of people undergo
these tests every year, and many people’s lives are changed before by their results.
Learning Objectives
At the end of this Module 3, the learner will be able to:
Familiarized the psychology of lying.
Know the Counter measures and the Accuracy of Polygraph
Apply the lie detection techniques.
Do instrumental test.
Conduct the chart marking and be able to Interpret them.
Directions/Module Organizer
1. The learners shall read the lessons one by one without skipping any of them. These module/lessons are
interrelated to the previous lessons. For some parts that need further explanation, you need to research for further
understanding.
1. You should take an assessment and evaluation techniques before and the end of each lesson through
quiz, reflections, critique paper, research, and sharing of ideas. Advance review to this subject is required.
3. You have to comply all the assigned activities, assignment, quizzes and periodical exam before you will
pass this subject.
LESSON I
EFFECTIVENESS, SCIENTIFIC VALIDITY, AND LIMITATIONS OF THE POLYGRAPH TEST
EFFECTIVENESS OF POLYGRAPHY
Recording the symptoms of deception is based on the well-established fact that an
individual’s conscious effort deceives or to lie causes involuntary physiological changes, which
are the body’s reaction to perceived imminent danger. Such changes are brought about by the
stimulating effect of well-prepared questions that, when answered truthfully, may lead to a
punishment. Thus, it is not the act of lying or the guilt involved, which alters a person’s
psychological response; rather, it is his fear of subsequent punishment when the subject’s lie is
exposed, that is, the greater the consequences of being detected, the greater the fear of
detection.
Furthermore, if the subject has a greater motivation to deceive, then there is a greater
likelihood that the deception is detected. In this case, the increased fear triggers the involuntary
physiological changes, some of which can be recorded and accurately diagnosed, including
respiration, blood pressure, and pulse beat. Other capabilities of the test include the fact that it
can rapidly and accurately verify, or discredit statements made by subjects and witnesses.
What is Validity?
The validity of polygraph testing refers to the accuracy of the test in detecting either
deception or truthfulness from any given subject.
The assessment of polygraph validity is particularly challenging because of two main
reasons:
1.Polygraph test come in many forms
2. the concept of “validity” has varied dimensions that need to be measured in several
ways.
The different forms of validity
1.Constructive Validity
In a general sense, the concept of “construct validity” refers to whether or not a test can
sufficiently and accurately measure the underlying trait, which it is supposed to evaluate or
assess. A polygraph test or lie detection test is basically designed to detect deception. Therefore,
it is imperative that the examiner clearly defines the “construct deception” and then distinguish it
from other “concepts”, such as fear, paranoia, or guilt, to name a few.
In order to measure construct validity, one must describe the construct (deception) and
demonstrate its relation to a conceptual framework or theory. In other words, construct validation
requires a type of polygraph test to be based on a conceptual model or theory.
LESSON II
IN 1984, Dr. Gordon H. Barland defined polygraph counter measures as “Those deliberate
techniques which a deceptive subject uses in an attempt to appear non-deceptive when his
physiological responses are being monitored during a polygraph examination.” Dr.Barland
excluded from this definition “all false positive errors” “all false negative errors occurring
naturally” and “attempts to explain away reactions after they have occurred”.
However, Lynn P. Marcy, a proponent of the clinical approach offered this working
definition: “any behaviour employed by the examinee deliberately during the testing protocol and
intended to assist continued concealment of verbal deception directed at some aspect of the
perceived issue under examination.
Regardless of which approach is used, the examiner should be on the alert for the
application of countermeasures during the first two phases of the polygraph examination until all
physiological data charts have been collected for analysis.
In addition to the structured pre-test interview to deter the guilty examinee from employing
countermeasures, the examiner can also employ other anti-countermeasures such as the routine
use of drug testing immediately after the completion of the examination. Notification to this
practice to all examinee prior to the use of motion or activity sensor attached to the examination
is a useful deterrent. Another anti-countermeasure is the use of a motion or activity sensor
attached to the examination chair which records on the polygraph chart at the exact moment, the
most minute examinee movement. In at least one book on the use of countermeasures, the
reader is advised to avoid all physical countermeasures when the examination chair contains a
motion or activity sensor.
The idea of countermeasures is to cause (or curtail) a certain reaction that will skew the
test’s result. A subject may attempt to have the same reaction to every question so that the
examiner cannot pick out the deceptive responses. For example, some people will place a tack in
their shoe and press their foot down on the tack after each question is asked. The idea is that the
physiological response to the tack may overpower the physiological response to the question,
causing the response to each question to seem identical.
MENTAL
HYPNOSIS
The question has often been raised regarding the possibility of an examinee defeating a
polygraph examination while under hypnotically induced amnesia. Hypnotically induced amnesia
refers to functional amnesia induced in the examinee by posthypnotic suggestion, and a
posthypnotic suggestion refers to a suggestion concerning a phenomenon taking place
subsequent to the “waking” of the examinee from the hypnotic trance. The question is answered
in the review of the literature n the subject, which revealed that, in 1945, E.M. Bitterman and F.L.
Marcuse demonstrated by means of a Keeler polygraph that subject showing complete symbolic
posthypnotic amnesia for specific previously learned words retained the ability to recognize the
words at the “unconscious” level. The subjects produced deceptive responses on their polygrams
when they denied recognition of the previously learned words.
DISSOCIATION
EitanElaad and Gershon-Shakkar (1991) conducted an analog study on the effects of
specific dissociation from the relevant stimulus and continuous dissociation throughout the entire
Guilty Knowledge test in mock crime paradigms. A control no-countermeasure condition was also
used in the study. Two experiments were conducted one in a field setup using a Lafayette
Pentograph filed model polygraph instrument (which recorded thoracic and abdominal breathing
patterns, electro dermal response (GSR), and cardiovascular activity recorded by a pneumatic
blood pressure cuff inflated to a pressure between 40 and 50 mmHg); the other experiment
employed only a constant voltage system to measure skin conductance.
However, in experiment one, the results based only on the GSR inasmuch as it proved to
be the most effective parameter. Both experiments revealed that the item-specific
countermeasures tended to decrease detection efficiencies. The result support the notion that
manipulations designed to enhance the attention to the relevant information, and which make the
relevant stimuli more difficult to ignore are associated with greater differential economic
responsibility and with better psychophysiological differentiation.
PHYSICAL
Other physical countermeasures include movements, which may cause distortion of the
physiological tracing, or pain, which can cause a physiological reaction and/or distortion. Again,
anti-countermeasures can be most effective in the prevention and identification of such attempts
to defeat the polygraph examination. One such anti-countermeasure and countermeasures is the
motion or movement detection chair.
PHARMACEUTICAL
Attempted to determine the effect that alcohol would have on the detection rate subjects
who had committed a mock crime while sober but were administered a polygraph examination
while under the influence of alcohol. Polygraph technique, and the emotional psychodynamics
found in a real-life situation, the use of alcohol as a countermeasure failed. But the study also
showed that alcohol intoxication during the crime reduced detect ability with detection scores
derived from the measurement of skin responses on the control question test and the guilty
knowledge test.
ACCURACY OF POLYGRAPH
A great deal of research has been done on the validity and reliability of the polygraph.
Criminal case examination has yielded more impressive results than laboratory experiments. The
more that is at risk for the person who is lying, the greater emotion he will exhibit when being
deceptive and the easier it is for the polygraph examiner to detect that deception. In the
laboratory it is difficult to duplicate the degree of emotion an actual criminal suspect encounters
when lying about a crime.
There are two components is assessing the value of an examination reliability and validity.
First, the measurements recorded by the instrument do not directly indicate lying. The second
factor is the ability of the polygraph examiner to interpret the test results. Since there is no unique
physiological pattern associated with lying and individuals differ widely in their physiological
responsively, no one can identify a given response as lie without comparing it to the same
individual’s physiological response to other questions. In other words, the key to a valid test
procedure is the control questions used for comparison with crucial questions.
According to the latest research polygraph accuracy is suggested to be in the 95% to 98%
accuracy range. Recent studies also conclude that a well-designed examination administered by
a skilled polygraph Examiner is highly valid and close to 100% accuracy on the computerized
systems. To date, twenty-four (24) states have enacted laws requiring the licensing of polygraph
examiner. These licensing requirements help ensure that persons conducting polygraph
examinations have the necessary training to give reliable and valid test.
If the examiner is well qualified and trained, the possibility that the results of a polygraph
test will be admitted as evidence in a disciplinary enquiry or by the appropriate dispute resolution
body, will be greatly increased.
This renders it to be favorable as evidence, provided that there is supporting evidence and
the test was performed by well qualified examiner.
Occasionally you will hear reports from those who fear the polygraph may not be accurate.
The American Polygraph Association (APA) answer them with this:
“One of the problems in discussing accuracy figures and the differences between the
statistics quoted by proponents of the polygraph techniques is the way that the figures are
calculated. At the risk oversimplification, critics, who often don’t understand polygraph testing,
classify inconclusive test result as errors. In the real life setting an inconclusive result simply
means that the examiner is unable to render a definite diagnosis. In such cases a second
examination is usually conducted later. Critics of the polygraph technique would calculate the
accuracy rate as 70%. Since those who use polygraph testing do not consider inconclusive test
results as negative, and do not hold them against the examinee, to consider them as errors is
clearly misleading and certainly skews the figures.
Voodoo or Valid
Detractors of the polygraph call lie detection a voodoo science, saying that polygraphs are
no more accurate at detecting lies than the flip of a coin.” Despite claims of “lie detector” does not
measure truth-telling; it measures changes in blood pressure, breath rate and perspiration rate,
but those physiological changes can be triggered by a wide range of emotions.” What has
happened over the years is that the media has dubbed this lie detection, and that’s what clicked,
but from a scientific perspective, not. There’s no such thing as lie detection. Polygraph Examiners
couldn’t tell what a lie looks like. Examiner’s assert that polygraphs can detect deceptive behavior
even though the stress brought on by the exam itself. If the examiner is properly trained and has
the experience. Though specific procedures that the examiner will employ. Anxiety will not
penetrate it.
LESSON III
Once the instrument has been properly calibrated and adjusted, the examiner can now
begin the first test by giving the subject the usual instruction, such as “the test is about to begin,
do not move any part of your body, just look straight ahead, and answer all the questions with
“yes” or ‘no’ only”. The next series of steps to follow are detailed below.
Next the examiner explains the purpose of the second test. Some of the reasons why a
second test is necessary are mentioned below.
a. If the subject is skeptical, the second test will allow him to familiarize himself with the
machine (and whether it is in good condition). This is because after the test, the examiner reveals
the number chosen by the subject.
b. The second test would allow a highly nervous but innocent subject the opportunity to
prove early on that he is innocent.
c. the second test will make a guilty subject think about the outcome of the test and that
what he is doing is not a joke. Usually, a guilty subject is very aggressive in taking the polygraph
test at the start of the investigation
d. once the subject has encircled a number. The examiner thoroughly explains its purpose
and procedure. In this test, the subject is instructed to answer “no” to all the questions the
examiner will ask, the irrelevant questions must also be answerable by “no” once the subject
confirm that he has clearly understood the instructions and says “yes” the commences. The
prepared questions should be given in sequence.
Next, the examiner repeats the test using the same set of questions, ending with a total of
14 questions in all. Here, there is only one relevant question on the subject’s mind: his chosen
number. Thus, there is no need to set 15-second intervals from one question to another unless
the examiner is really an expert who can easily spot the reaction on the half set, the time spent is
almost the same as the other regular test.
After successfully finishing the card test, the examiner now gives the final instruction for
the second test.
In this test, the examiner should have an idea on how to properly stimulate a subject, base
on the result of previously conducted number test. This also gives the examiner the opportunity
to ask the subject if the later really understand all questions given to him. Usually, the innocent
subjects would clarify his responses to question No. 6 (on test number 1). Once the queries have
been addressed then start now the 3rd test
There are four distinct advantages in using the mixed question test.
1.It allows the additional pin-pointed pairing of relevant and control question responses;
the relevant question No.5 is paired with control question Nos. 6 and 10.
2. A change in the sequence of questions on the fourth test will help reduce the possibility
of spot responses.
3. It reduces the likelihood of misleading eventuality, wherein a subject may anticipate
certain questions and prompts him to give “anticipatory” responses.
4. To discount the possibility of cuff discomfort, usually on the questions on the later part
of the test
The SAT is typically administered near the end of the test series in cases where the first
few tests do not clearly reveal the subject’s status, or the subject’s effort to answer the test
questions verbally distorts the tracings. However, the SAT can also be employed as the very first
test in the examination series.
It could be emotional hindrance for the subject if he is not allowed to answer questions.
Therefore, it is presumed that the subject would be at distinct disadvantage if told not to answer
questions, especially during polygraph test. The subject who is lying to the relevant questions
may exhibit suspicious behavior when told not to answer any of the questions; consequently, he
may think much more about the questions to which he can silently lie. A mental conflict thus
occurs, which produces an emotional reaction reflected on the polygraph record.
In addition, when answering questions aloud, some subjects are defending themselves
against the examiner, and by talking, they are allowed to relieve themselves from tension created
by the questions. However, during the SAT, these subjects can no longer “defend” themselves
against the examiner and must now lie to themselves (in the case of guilty subject). As he lies
silently, he will try harder to conceal the deception, which can accentuate his polygraph
responses.
There are two (2) significant points to keep in mind to achieve the benefits of SAT.
1.The subject must understand that he will be asked the exact questions from the previous
test.
2. The subject must understand that although he cannot answer orally but be truthful to all
his answers.
1.Create a Polygraph file containing all essential information about the subject down to the
test result.
2. Enter the personal history information, including fingerprint scanning and verification,
signature scanning and verification, and photograph of the subject being examined
3. Select a question set; the examiner types the questions that will be asked on the actual
test
4. prepare the subject for the test; review the question that will be asked on the actual test
5. Enter the examination information into the computer
6. Record the chart
7. Review the chart
8. Score the chart using automatic and or manual scoring
9. Create a report
10. Print the report
Three-Question Format
The Utah-CQT begins as other testing procedures do, with the pre-test
interview, accomplished in a non-accusatory manner. The examiner should obtain
the necessary test release that includes a brief statement of allegations or issues to
be resolved, and if applicable, a statutory rights waiver and then collects general
biographical and medical information from the test subject. Rapport- building
discussion gives the examiner a chance to evaluate the test subject’s suitability for
the examination. Interaction with the test subject also gives the examiner the
chance to do a rough assessment of the
The following describes an example of question numbering and type of question
used in the three-question version of the Utah-CQT. For a single-issue
examination, there will be three relevant questions, each slightly reworded.
Example of a Utah PLT 3-question wording
Introductory 1: Do you understand I will only ask you the questions we discussed?
Sacrifice Relevant 2: Regarding whether or not you robbed that bank do you
intend to answer all of these questions truthfully?
Neutral 1: Are the lights turned on inside of this room right now?
Comparison 1: (Before turning X), Did you ever do anything that was dishonest
or illegal?
Neutral 2: Are you now physically located within the State of Texas?
Comparison 2: (Between the ages of X and Y), Did you ever take anything that
did not belong to you?
Relevant 2: Did you rob that bank located at in Austin last Thursday?
Comparison 3: Did you ever take anything from a place where you worked,
(before age X)?
The examples above are shown with the exclusionary clause of the
comparison question in brackets.
Introductory 1: Do you understand I will only ask you the questions we discussed?
Sacrifice Relevant 2: Regarding whether or not you robbed that bank do you intend
to answer all of the questions truthfully?
Neutral 1: Are the lights turned on inside of this room right now?
Comparison 1: Did you ever steal anything from someone who trusted you?
Neutral 2: Are you now physically located within the State of Texas?
Comparison 2: Did you ever steal anything from a friend or family member?
Relevant 2: Did you plan or arrange with anyone to rob that bank at?
Comparison 3: Did you ever steal anything from a place you worked?
Relevant 3: Did you participate in any way in the robbery of that bank?
Four-Question Format
In Test Operation
The test subject is instructed to sit still and answer each question
truthfully. However, the approach is to avoid doing this in a heavy-handed
manner. For example the following admonition would be typical for this
approach:
“I need you to sit still during the asking of the questions. Movement will create
distortion and artifacts in the recordings that will require me to repeat the
questions and that will make the test longer.”
The examiner rotates the neutral, comparison, and relevant (if desired)
questions during the next and subsequent presentations. The examiner may prefer
leaving the relevant questions always in the same position, and rotating only the
comparison and neutral questions, making it easier to score the charts by having a
fixed order of relevant questions. Moving the questions helps to prevent pattern
recognition and anticipation of a specific order of questions during the examination.
The following are examples of serial positioning in the question strings showing
one example of question rotation.
First Chart
I1,SR2,N1,C1,R1,N2,C2,R2,N3,C3,R3
Second Chart
I1,SR2,N2,C3,R2,N3,C1,R3,N1,C2,R1
Third Chart
I1,SR2,N3,C2,R3,N1,C3,R1,N2,C1,R2
Four Question Version
First Chart
I1,SR2,N1,C1,R1,R2,C2,N3
(N3 is optional),R3,R4,C3,N2
Third Chart
I1,SR2,N1,C3,R1,R2,C1,N3
(optional),R3,R4,C2,N2
Note how the examiner places equal emphasis on each group of questions
during the stimulation and review.
Examiner: OK Roy, did you have any problems with any of those questions
on the test?
Roy: No.
Roy: No.
Examiner: How about those questions about the drug transaction? Is it clear
what I am asking you? Do you understand them?
Roy: Yep.
Examiner: How about those questions about lying? Any problem with any of
those?
Roy: Nope.
Note: The above three reaction criteria are those that are captured by the phenomenon known
as RLL.
Note the ratio of the above tracings on the recovery side of the tracing. This
is about 2.6:1 (26 mm vs. 10 mm in ratio would qualify for a score of +/-2
amplitude) with obviously longer duration based on the increased duration and
and complexity complexity.
Note the ratio of these tracings is normally required for a score of +/-1. This
about 1.8:1 (18 mm vs. 10 mm in amplitude) would qualify for a score of +/-1 based on the
with obviously longer duration and complexity ratio of at least 1.5:1 with greater duration
on the recovery side of the tracing. The and complexity.
amplitude ratio does not exceed the 2:1
amplitude reduction
LESSON IV
The second most critical part of any polygraph examination is the analysis and
interpretation of the physiological data recorded on the polygraph charts. The first is the
scientific formulation of relevant and control questions in a valid psychological test that
is properly administered, without which chart interpretation becomes useless.
Test questions are spaced at 20 seconds interval, from the answer to one
question to the beginning of the next question, to allow the sympathetic and
parasympathetic systems to activate and manifest themselves on the chart. The
subject is restricted to a simple yes or no answer on the test, since all test question
have been previously reviewed with the subject during the pre-test interview. At the
beginning of the test question, a short vertical line is placed at the bottom of the moving
chart line with the tip of the cardio pen, either manually with the felt tip pen or with the
Polygraphy
use of a stimulus marker. When the question is finished, another vertical line is marked
on the moving chart. When the subject answer yes or no, a plus or minus marking is
placed on the moving chart at the exact time the answer was given. Underneath the
markings, the question number is inserted.
Breathing analysis
To properly interpret the GS tracing, one must understand the causes and effect
of the particular tracing to be analyzed. The sweat glands are activated by sympathetic
nerves that use acetylcholine as their chemical mediator
Cardio analysis.
Polygraphy
TRACINGS
STAIRCASE SUPPRESSION
GALVANOGRAPH DECEPTION RESPONSES
Double Saddle Response
Rise from the Baseline
Vertical Rise Point
Long Duration
Plunging of the tracing
CARDIO TRACING NON-DECEPTION RESPONSES
Polygraphy
Chart Markings
Polygraphy
Single x ( X )
Indicates the beginning of test.
Inform the subject that the test begins.
X is placed on the chart below the tracing
Wait for 15-20 Seconds before asking the first question.
Double x (XX)
Indicates the end of the test.
XX mark is put below the tracing.
Inform the subject that the test is about to end.
/ //
/ Indicates the beginning of a question
// indicates the ending of a question
Numbering of Question - Numbering should be done between the stimulus marks either below
or right of stimulus marking.
T-----T - used when the subject is talking. The horizontal line between the letters shows how
long the talking made by the subject.
Polygraphy
Examples
1. What was your feelings when I asked you the first relevant question?
2. Why is that you were perspiring when I asked you the 2nd relevant question?
Question Formulation
General Rule is “Any change from normal requires an explanation.” The responsibilities
of the examiner are to determine:
b) Whether it results from direct, indirect, implied, associated, considered, sensitive, fearful
or distasteful sources.
c) Whether sources are immediately at hand or extraneous.
d) Whether the change from normal was a result of one or a combination of all these.
A smart examiner would want to be right in his interpretation of chart tracings. He must
be right; law objectivity goes out of the window and subjectivity reigns.
You are given ten (10) days upon receipt to accomplish this module. You can submit through my
joebigwacs@gmail.com or messenger for the online classes, while offline class submit it to Dean
Gilbert. You can get succeeding module upon completion. Please be guided accordingly. Thank very
much.
References.
Books
Ferguson, Robert Jr. The polygraph in private industry. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas publisher,
1966.
Reid, John E. and Fred E. Inabau. Truth and Deeption. Baltimore: The Williams and Wilkins Company,
1977
Polygraph examiner’s refresher and proficiency course, NHQ, Crime Lab. Camp Crame, Quezon City. Oct.
13, 2006.
Polygraphy