SCIENCE REVIEWER
Mitosis- the type of cell division that occurs in
non-reproductive cells.
-Produces exact copies of the parent
cell
Meiosis- cell division that occurs in
reproductive cells; gametes.
-Produces egg and sperm cells with half
the genetic material of the parent cells.
-23 chromosomes are contained in
gametes; this is so that when egg and
sperm meet, they produce offspring with
46 chromosomes.
INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY ANG
PHYSIOLOGY “REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM”
Puberty- typically begins anywhere from
age 8 – 16 – usually a little earlier for
female bodies than male bodies – and
continues all the way until a person
reaches their full adult height, sometime
in the later teens for female bodies and up to
the early twenties for male bodies.
-starts because a person’s body starts to
produce a very large quantity of
hormones that they were only producing
in small amounts before. Male bodies
start to produce a lot more testosterone
and a little bit of estrogen and female
bodies start to produce a lot more
estrogen and a little bit of testosterone.
All of these changes happen because of
the new surge of these hormones.
reproductive systems- both the male and
female consist of primary and secondary sex
organs and sex glands.
Testes- Primary organs
-Develop in the abdominal pelvic cavity
of fetus
-Descend into scrotal sac shortly before
or after birth
-Produce the male sex cells (sperm)
-Produce the male hormone
testosterone
Scrotum – sac that holds the testes
-Seminiferous tubules
-On top of testes
-Filled with spermatogenic cells
that produce sperm cells
Spermatogenesis- The production or
development of nature spermatozoa.
Spermatogonia- 46 chromosomes
Mitosis- makes primary spermatocytes
Undergo Miosis- two secondary
spermatocytes
PARTS OF SPERM CELLS
-Head- Nucleus with 23 chromosomes
-Acrosome – enzyme filled sac
-Helps sperm penetrate ovum
-Midpiece- Mitochondria that generate cell’s
energy
-Tail- Flagellum that propels sperm forward
Internal Accessory Organs
-Epididymis- Sits on top of each testis
-Receives spermatids from
seminiferous tubules
-Spermatids become sperm cells
-Vas deferens- Tube connected to
epididymis
-Carries sperm cells to urethra
-Seminal vesicle- Secrete Fluid rich in sugar
used to make energy
-Prostaglandins – stimulate
muscular contractions in female
to propel sperm forward
-Seminal fluid- Released into vas deferens
just before ejaculation
-60% of semen (seemuhn)
volume
Prostate gland- Surrounds urethra
-Produces and secretes a milky, alkaline
fluid into urethra just before ejaculation
-Fluid protects sperm in the acidic
environment of the vagina
-40% of semen
Bulbourethral (Cowper’s) glands- Produce a
mucus-like fluid
-Secreted just before ejaculation
-Lubricates end of penis
-Semen- Alkaline mixture
-Nutrients
-Prostoglandins
-1.5 to 5.0 ml per ejaculate
-Sperm count of 40 to 250 million / ml
-Scrotum- Holds testes away from
body
-Temperature 1° below body
temperature
-Lined with serous membrane that
secrets fluid
-Testes move freely
-Penis
-Shaft- Erectile tissues surround urethra
-Glans penis- Cone-shaped structure
on end of penis

Erection- Parasympathetic nervous system
stimulates erectile tissue
-Become engorged with blood
Orgasm- Sperm cells propelled out of testes
into urethra
-Secretions from accessory organs also
released into urethra
Ejaculation- Semen is forced out of urethra
-Sympathetic nerves then stimulate
erectile tissue to release blood
-Penis returns to flaccid state
Hormones
Hypothalamus
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)-
Stimulates anterior pituitary to release
-Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)-
initiates spermatogenesis
-Luteinizing hormone (LH)- stimulates
interstitial cells in the testes to produce
testosterone
Testosterone- Secondary sex characteristics
-Maturation of male reproductive
organs
-Regulated by negative feedback
Haploid- refers to any cell that has 23
chromosomes (half of the total 46).
Gametes- are specifically sex cells that have
23 chromosomes.
Diploid- refers to any cell that has all 46
chromosomes.
Zygote- is the result of two gamete (haploid)
cells fusing, and becoming a diploid cell.
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Reproduction is the process by which
organisms make more organisms like
themselves. But even though the reproductive
system is essential to keeping a species alive,
unlike other body systems, it's not essential to
keeping an individual alive.
zygote goes through a process of
becoming an embryo and developing into a
fetus.
The female reproductive system is
designed to carry out several functions.
✓ It produces the female egg cells necessary
for reproduction, called the ova or oocytes.
✓ The system is designed to transport the ova
to the site of fertilization.
✓ Conception, the fertilization of an egg by a
sperm, normally occurs in the fallopian tubes.
The next step for the fertilized egg is to implant
into the walls of the uterus, beginning the initial
stages of pregnancy.
✓ If fertilization and/or implantation does not
take place, the system is designed to
menstruate (the monthly shedding of the
uterine lining).
✓ In addition, the female reproductive system
produces female sex hormones that maintain
the reproductive cycle.
❑Estrogen- triggers the development of
secondary female characteristics such as the
widening of the hips and the enlargement of
the breasts.
❑Stimulates egg development
❑Menarche- when the onset mature egg cell
production among females starts around the
age of 11 to 14 years, during the first discharge
of blood from the vagina.
❑Gestation or pregnancy- the female
reproductive system, begin its role in
nourishing and protecting the fertilized egg
during 9 months of development.
 Hairlike structure (cilia) sweep the ovum into
either fallopian tubes or oviducts.
-Ovaries (female gonads)- the primary female
RS and Ovum Formation
-Primary sex organs produce
Sex cells called ova (multiple eggs);
ovum one egg
Hormones estrogen and progesterone
Fallopian tube – oviduct
-Passageway which ovum moves
from ovary to uterus
 Uterus- Hollow, muscular organ
-Receives embryo and sustains its
development
 Cervix – narrow, lower section extending
into vagina (cervical orifice)
-lower part of the uterus that connects to
the vagina. It allows the passage of
sperm into the uterus and serves as the
birth canal during childbirth.
Vagina- Tubular, muscular organ
-connects the cervix to the external
genitals. It is the site of sexual
intercourse and serves as the birth
canal during delivery.
❑ The vulva is the outer part of the female
genitals.
 Menstrual cycle- Regular changes in
uterine lining, resulting in monthly bleeding
 Menarche refers to the first menstrual period
 Menopause – termination of cycle due to
normal aging of ovaries
Menstrual cycle describes the cyclic changes
in a woman’s body going through menstruation,
the follicular phase, ovulation, the luteal phase
and back to menstruation again to begin the
cycle.
FOLLICULAR
-Begins when estrogen levels are low
-Anterior pituitary secretes FSH and LH,
stimulation follicle to develop
-Cells around egg enlarge, releasing estrogen
This causes this uterine lining to thicken
OVULATION
-LH and FSH still being released, for another 3-
4 days
-Follicle ruptures, releasing ova into the
Fallopian tubes
LUTEAL
-Now empty follicle changes to a yellow colour,
becomes corpus luteum
-Continues to secrete estrogen, but now beings
to release progesterone
-Progesterone further develops uterine lining
-If pregnant, embryo will release hormones to
preserve corpus luteum
MENSTRUATION
-If no embryo, the corpus luteum begins to
disintegrate
-Progesterone levels drop, uterine lining
detaches, menstruation can begin
-Tissue, blood, unfertilized egg all discharged
Can take from 3-7 days
Lesson 10.1 Human Body Regulation
Hormones- Chemical messengers that carry
instructions to cells to change their activities.
- Slow acting and longer lived chemical
messengers.
- Can last for hours, days, weeks, or
even years.
- Produced by the glands of endocrine
system.
Gland- organ whose cells secrete chemical
signals that are delivered to the different
regions of the body.
- Ducts- tubelike structures
Endocrine Glands- Ductless glands that
secrete hormones directly into their
bloodstream or the fluid around cells.
- Contain cells or tissues that
secrete hormones.
Exocrine Glands- such as sweat glands,
mucus glands, and salivary glands, deliver
substances through ducts.
Pancreas
-Endocrine Function- to secrete two
hormones into the bloodstream to regulate the
glucose considerations in the blood.
-Exocrine Function- produce digestive
enzymes and deliver them to the small
intestine via the pancreatic duct.
LESSON 10.2 How Hormones Work
Target Cells- They bind to and are enacted by
specific cells
LESSON 10.3 Hormone Regulation
Feedback Mechanisms- Detect and adjust the
number of hormones circulating in the blood or
the amount of other chemicals produced by an
initial hormone action.
Positive feedback- The regulation if an
increased hormone secretion is enhanced to
produce even more hormones.
- Increases the deviation of the
hormone level from the normal as
needed by the body in a certain
situation.
Negative Feedback- decreases the deviation
of the hormone level from the normal value.
LESSON 10.4 Body Control and Response
Brain- Intercepts the information as a threat
and quickly sends electrical signals through
selected nerves.
Electrical Nerve Impulses- sending an urgent
message to your muscles to move,
commanding them to “contract quickly”.
Nerves- also control the endocrine glands in
your body that produce the needed hormones.
Hormones- trigger a sudden rush of emotions,
causing your heartbeat to increase and to your
lungs to work harder.
Nervous System- enables the body to gather
information from the outside environment and it
responds quickly.
- Controls and interprets all the
activities that happen in the body.
- Enables you to move, think,
laugh, feel pain, or savor the
food.
- Makes the body respond quickly
to changes in the environment by
accomplishing four basic
functions.
Endocrine System- Produces long lasting
effects due to the hormones.
-Keeps all parts of the body move
harmoniously.
Stimuli- Constant changes that take place
around it.
LESSON 10.5 Neuron: The Message-
Carrying Unit of the Nervous System
Nervous System- Constantly active, Buzzes
with messages running to and from every part
of the body.
Neurons- basic functional unis of structure of
the nervous system.
- They do not reproduce, once
damaged, neurons cannot be replaced.
Nerve Impulses- Form of the information
through the nervous system.
Parts of a Neuron
Cell Body- contains the nucleus which controls
all the activities of the cell.
Dendrites- Tiny, branching, threadlike
structures
- Receive and carry information toward
the cell body.
Axon- Taillike fiber that extends from the cell
body
- messages away from the cell body.
Myelin Sheath- Covers the axon
- Speeds up the trave of the
nerve impulses.
Axon Terminals- pass on messages to the
dendrites of other neurons.
- Usually found some distance
away from the cell body.
Types of Neurons
Sensory/Afferent Neurons- their function is to
receive initial stimuli from receptors
Interneurons- Also called
connector/association neurons
- They read and interpret the
impulses sent by sensory
neurons.
- Found in the spinal cord and in
the brain
Motor Neurons- Also called efferent neurons
- Transmit impulses from the
brain and spinal cord to the
effector cell/organ.
- When it receives a signal from
the interneuron, they stimulate as
an effector to generate the
reaction of stimulus.
TYPES OF NEURONS AND THEIR
FUNCTIONS
Sensory neuron- Transmits information from
the cells and organs, and gather information
about conditions in the internal and external
environments.
- Conducts nerve impulses
toward the central nervous
system.
Interneuron- Conducts impulses within the
central nervous system
- Connects sensory neurons, motor
neurons and other interneurons.
- Carries out functions of the central
nervous system; processing and
coordinating the incoming and outgoing
impulses of the peripheral nervous
system.
Motor Neuron- Conducts impulses away the
central nervous system.
- Transmits nerve impulses that cause
muscles, organs, and glands, to
respond.
Lesson 10.6 Responding to a Stimulus
Nerve Impulses- A wave of chemical and
electrical signals that are conducted along the
neuron.
- It travels from sensory neurons
into interneurons to motor
neurons.
- Enters the neuron through the
dendrites and travels along the
length of the axon.
Synapse- between two adjacent neurons and
between neurons and effectors.
Neurotransmitters- Stored in small sacs
sending information across the synapse in the
form of chemical messengers
Reflex- automatic response to a change in the
environment.
Glucagon- Secreted in response to blood
sugar level.
Nerve Impulse- Sends messages in the form
of electrical and chemical signals.
Your body produces more than 40 kinds of
hormones.
LESSON 11.1-11.4
Gregor Mendel- -established the basic
principles of heredity.
-gave rise to more questions that led to
several significant researches.
-today it is known that the genetic
material is found in chromosomes.
DNA- is in every cell of every living thing. It is
found within the chromosomes of the cell.
Chromosomes work to build proteins and
assist in duplication or division of the cells.
-deoxyribonucleic acid. It is a long
molecule made up of monomers called
nucleotides.
Double Helix- twisted ladder shape
DNA Double Helix- Consists of two nucleotide
chains.
-Each nucleotide consists of a sugar
molecule, a phosphate group, and a
nitrogen-containing base
AVERY’S DNA EXPERIMENT
1944-Canadian biologist Oswald Avery and his
colleagues at the Rockefeller Institute sought
to replicate Frederick Griffith's experiment to
identify the molecule responsible for genetic
information transfer during transformation.
-They extracted a mixture from heat-
killed bacteria, treated it with enzymes to
eliminate carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and
RNA
CHARGAFF RULES
In the late 1940s- Erwin Chargaff, an Austrian
biochemist, conducted analyses on the
nitrogenous bases in DNA from various
species.
-He observed that each species had a
unique percentage of nucleotides, with
humans, for instance, having 31% adenine,
31% thymine, 19% guanine, and 19% cytosine.
With these data, he established the Chargaff
Rules for the pairing of nitrogenous bases:
1.DNA contains A, T, G, and C in proportions
that vary from species to species.
2.Within the species, the amount of base pairs
are equal-that is, A=T and G=C.
The Hershey-Chase Blender Experiment
1952-two American biologists, Alfred Hershey
and Martha Chase, performed a series of
experiments using an ordinary kitchen blender
to identify DNA as the genetic material.
-Their experiment involved the use of a
T2 virus that infected the bacterium
Escherichia coli.
-T2 is a bacteriophage (also called
phage), a virus that infects only bacteria. It
injects its host with a component of its body to
reprogram the host to produce more viruses.
-Hershey and Chase devised an
experiment using radioactive isotopes to find
out.
-they used two experimental setups: one
contained bacteriophages whose DNA was
stained with radioactive phosphorus, and the
other contained phages whose protein coating
was stained with radioactive sulfur.
-Hershey and Chase observed that the
radioactive phosphorus transferred to the
cytoplasm of the bacteria.
-Conclusion: DNA-not protein- was
genetic material that carried the instructions to
the host cell to produce more viruses.
The Watson-Crick DNA Model: A Double
Helix
-April 25, 1953-an article in the scientific
journal Nature titled "Molecular Structure of
Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose
Nucleic Acid" was published.
-the two-page article was authored by
American biologist James Watson and English
physicist Francis Crick; first published article
that described the DNA structure as a double
helix.
-Considered a “pearl" of science- it contained
the answers to how the genetic information
inside the nucleus of cells is stored and passed
on from one generation to the next.
-The structure of DNA proposed by Watson
and Crick was the amalgamation of numerous
findings from various scientists.
-1952- the model was based on the X-ray
diffraction image taken by Rosalind Franklin
and Raymond Gosling.
-The pairing of the DNA bases, where adenine
pairs with thymine and cytosine pairs with
guanine.
-1953- The presence of in vivo (inside the living
body) double-helix DNA structure was reported
by Maurice Wilkins.
Nucleic Acids- are responsible for carrying
specific instructions from the genes.
- are organic compounds that store genetic
information, transmitted from one generation to
the next.
- also function in protein synthesis as they
carry code needed in the formation of specific
proteins.
Two Types of Nucleic Acid
-Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
-Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
Both made up of basic building blocks called
nucleotides.
made up of 5 carbon sugar. Phosphate group,
and nitrogenous base.
James Watson and Francis Crick
-In the double-stranded DNA, one of the
strands will start at the end with the phosphate
end (5’ end), and the other will start at the
sugar end (3’ end).
-Gene- refers to specific sequence of
nitrogenous bases that codes for a specific
protein.
-DNA is compared to a blueprint of guideline
that the body must follow to exist and function
properly.
The Central Dogma of Molecular Genetics
Central dogma-is a theory stating that genetic
information flows only in one direction, from
DNA, to RNA, to protein, or RNA directly to
protein.
Genetic code- gives instructions on what
protein will be produced.
Genotype- material found inside the nucleus,
which makes up an organism’s complete set of
genes.
Phenotype- observable characteristics
expressed.
the proteins (phenotype) are produced using
the language coded in DNA (genotype)
-The flow of genetic information is from DNA to
messenger RNA (mRNA) to protein.
-Protein synthesis- process of production of
proteins
-Involves process of Replication,
Transcription, and Translation.
Replication: How DNA Copies Itself
-happens before cell division because each
new cell is required to have an exact copy of
the parent cells DNA.
complementarity of the nitrogenous bases
makes it possible for the DNA to copy itself.
-During the G1, stage of interphase, every -Can result in changes in the quantity or quality
chromosome in a cell is composed of one of genes or chromosomes, and may o may not
chromatid. affect the phenotype of an organism.
-Only during the next phase of interphase, the -Can happen spontaneously or can be caused
S phase, is the sister chromatid synthesized, by mutagens or mutagenic agents.
resulting to chromosomes composed of two Chromosomal aberrations- Changes in the
chromatids or sister chromatids. number of structure of chromosomes.
-The S phase, or the synthesis stage, is when -May involve one or more genes, which
the process of replication occurs. may have varying effects on the phenotype of
Semiconservative replication - the two DNA an individual.
strands connected by hydrogen bonds
separate from each other each old strand of
the parent DNA is then used as a template for
building a new strand in the daughter DNA.
one of the complementing strands is conserved
in either daughter DNA.
Transcription: Making Working Copies of
the Genes
-Copying of genetic information from DNA to
RNA
-DNA has the genetic code for the protein that
needs to be made, but proteins are made by
the ribosomes—ribosomes are outside the
nucleus in the cytoplasm.
-DNA is too large to leave the nucleus (double
stranded), but RNA can leave the nucleus
(single stranded).
-Part of DNA temporarily unzips and is used as
a template to assemble complementary
nucleotides into messenger RNA (mRNA).
-mRNA then goes through the pores of the
nucleus with the DNA code and attaches to the
ribosome.
-mRNA then goes through the pores of the
nucleus with the DNA code and attaches to the
ribosome.
-Transcription takes the information in a gene
in DNA and transfers it to a complementary
molecule of RNA
Translation: Making the Protein
-Decoding of mRNA into a protein is called
Translation.
-Transfer RNA (tRNA) carries amino acids from
the cytoplasm to the ribosome.
-These amino acids come from the food we
eat. Proteins we eat are broken down into
individual amino acids and then simply
rearranged into new proteins according to the
needs and directions of our DNA.
-Codon- series of three adjacent bases in an
mRNA molecule codes for a specific amino
acid.
-Each tRNA has 3 nucleotides that are
complementary to the codon in mRNA.
-Each tRNA codes for a different amino acid.
mRNA carrying the DNA instructions and tRNA
carrying amino acids meet in the ribosomes.
MUTATIONS
-Any change in the structure of genes that
affects its inheritable nucleotide sequence.
 CHARLES DARWIN
-proposed the “Theory of Natural
Selection”
- Basically points the “survival of the
fittest”
- -Natural selection is a mechanism of
evolution. Organisms that are more
adapted to their environment are more
likely to survive and pass on the genes
that aided their success. This process
causes species He conduct scientific
exploration
- 5 year journey help him gather evidence
and formulate idea about evolution.
- He published his book “ On the Origin
of Species by Means of Natural
Selection”
- - the Origin of species fueled the
expansion of biological research and
knowledge that continues today.
- It unifies many fields in Biology.
to change and diverge over time

LESSON 12.2 BOOKSS

EVOLUTION: A change over time

 Evolution- Refers to the change in the
genetic composition of a population of
organisms over time.
 Species- Refers to a group of
organisms that share similar
characteristics and can interbreed to
produce fertile offspring.
 Natural Selection- Refers to the
survival and reproduction of organisms
that adapt best to their surroundings.
 Fossils- Are remains of once-living
things.
 They reveal much knowledge
about lifein the distant past.
 Fossil age is determined by
characterizing the rock layer
where the fossil is embedded or
by identifying the radioactive
decay of elements in the fossil.
 Scientists use fossils and
anatomical, embryological,
biochemical, and molecular
pieces of evidence to
demonstrate the evolution
occurred throughout Earth’s
history.
 Anatomy can determine
ancestry.
Structures may be Homologous,
Analogous, or Vestigial