COAL SILOS

Coal silo is a reservoir for coal before it enters the combustion chamber. Coal silo can be
in the form of a box or tube with a cone at the bottom. Equipped with structure, form plate,
handrail and ladder (MekarJayaTechnic, n.d.)

Steel silos are now commonly used for coal storage units of all sizes due to issues with
coal getting stuck on the slopes and in the valleys of hoppers (Black and Veatch, 1996). A large
coal bunker was used across all of the units in older plants with many smaller units. Considerable
rectangular bins with many square hopper-type exits were used in the bunkers, which had a large
capacity. The steel silos are vertical cylinders, 24 to 30 ft. (7.3 to 9.1 m) in diameter. They
have conical outlets and sometimes use special equal percentage decrease shaped bottom hoppers
to promote mass flow. These hoppers are constructed in sections with varying slopes such that
the rate of charge in material flow area is nearly constant (Snell, 1982).

According to Woodruff et al. (1983), the specific gravity of the selected coal (sub –
bituminous) is 1.3 or 1300 kg/m3 in density. The capacity of in plant coal silo is usually 8-12 hrs
at maximum (Black and Veatch, 1996). The computation of the coal silo considers the maximum
capacity of 12 hrs. The computation below shows the computation for the volume of the coal
silo.

Mtons 1000 kg
4136.53 ( ¿(
days 1 Mton
Coal Consumption Capacity =
1 day
¿ (12 hrs)
24 hrs
= 2068 266.39 kg
The volume of the coal silo should be able match the coal consumption capacity with an
additional of 10% for the allowances [1]. Therefore, the volume of the coal silo is:

Coal Consumption Capacity

Volume of Coal Silo =
Density of Coal
2068 266.39 kg
=
1300 kg/m3
= 1590.97 m3 (1 + 0.1 [1])
Volume of Coal Silo = 1750.07 m3
 It is assumed that the volume of the coal silo is equal to the volume of coal plus the 10%
allowance that it can handle. Therefore, the volume of the silo is already obtained. Since there
are three (3) coal crushers, three (3) coal silos are also needed, with one (1) each per coal
crusher. The computation below shows the volume of each coal silo.

Volume of Coal Silo

Volume per Coal Silo =
Number of Coal Crusher
1750.07 m3
=
3
Volume per Coal Silo = 583.36 m3
Based on the computation above, a volume of 583.36 m 3 is needed for every coal silo. According
to Black and Veatch, steel silos have a diameter of 24 to 30 feet (7.3 to 9.1 meters) and are vertical
cylinders. To identify the height of the silo, the diameter of the silo is needed. The maximum diameter
of 9.1 meters will be used in the computation below.

Volume per Coal Silo

Height of Coal Silo =
Area of Silo
583.36 m3
= π
( 9.1 m )2
4
Height of Coal Silo = 8.97 m
From the computation above, the required height of the coal silo is 8.97 meters. As the
dimensions were already computed, the size of the coal silo is now obtained. The table below
shows the summary of the dimensions of the coal silo.

Parameters Value
Type of Coal Silo Vertical Cylinder
Total Volume 1750.07 m3
Volume per Coal Silo 583.36 m3
Diameter 9.1 m
 Height 8.97 m

To summarize, the total volume of coal silo is 1750.07 m3 with 583.36 m3 volume for
each silo. Figure 3.X below shows an actual photo of a coal silo to visualize how the how the
coal silo looks like in actual application

Source: Agico Cement, 2023 https://www.steel-silo.com/coal-steel-silo.html

Figure X. Actual Photo of the Coal Silo

Before entering the furnace, traditional coal technology demands that the fuel be finely
pulverized and dried. For the circulating fluidized bed, these processes are not necessary;
instead, the fuel is coarsely crushed and dropped into fuel chutes that lead to ports in the
lower part of the furnace (Sumitomo Heavy Industries, 2018). Figure 3.X below shows how
the coal from the coal silo is fed into the furnace.

Source: Babcock & Wilcox, 2023

https://www.babcock.com/assets/Images-on-Page/Standard-Circulating-Fluidized-Boiler-
Babcock-Wilcox.gif
COAL CONVEYOR

Conveyors are a common type of materials handling equipment that mainly move bulk
materials and some kinds of unit loads in large quantities. They belong to a group of conveyors
that have different classes based on their design and function (Ray, 2008). Conveyor capacity is
based on both mine output capacity and power plant consumption. Conveyor belts transport coal
directly to power plants or coal processing facilities, which can remove some impurities like
sulfur before the coal is burned. These conveyors enable the coal to be transported over difficult
terrain without needing to load and unload it multiple times, which reduces costs, saves time, and
minimizes environmental impact (Black and Veatch, 1996).

Thermal power plants rely on conveyor transfer systems to transport coal and in some
cases ash from the unloading point to the designated storage site. Depending on the site of the
power plant and load capacity, employ one or multiple transfer systems (Brakefield, 2017).

Minemouth power plant operations, especially those that are serviced by huge
underground mines nearby, are generally connected with conveyor systems. Directly to the
power plant, or more typically to a coal beneficiation plant where diluent and pyritic sulfur can
be removed, the conveyors are used to transport the coal. Where the terrain between the mine
and the central coal processing facility or power plant is particularly rugged, conveyors have
been employed for substantial distances, up to 15 miles (24 km) (Black & Veatch, 1996).

TYPES OF COAL CONVEYORS

Coal conveying systems are a great way to transport a large amount of coal over very
long distances. Different types of coal conveyors are available in the market and their selection
depends on the design and its uses in the proposed power plant.

Belt Conveyor

Belt conveyors help in the transportation of large volumes of coal over long distances.
They come with an endless rubber, balata or canvas belt running over pulleys or a pair of end
drums, with rollers (idlers) at regular intervals for support. The return idlers that help in the
support of the empty belt are plain and fall widely apart. Belt conveyors offer a low power
consumption carrying system, with a low initial installation cost. Belt conveyors successfully
carry loads on an inclination of up to 20 degrees to the horizon and can carry between 50 to 100
tonnes per hour (Swanton Welding Company, 2024).

Belt conveyors offer a low power consumption and a highly economical transfer method
that requires minimum repair and maintenance. It also allows for easy protection of the load from
wind and rain with over-head covers. Depending on the needs, the conveyor belt speed can be
varied for a fast or slow transfer rate.

It consists of an endless belt moving over a pair of end drums (rollers). At some distance
a supporting roller is provided at the center. The belt is made, up of rubber or canvas. Belt
conveyor is suitable for the transfer of coal over long distances. It is used in medium and large
power plants. The initial cost of the system is not high and power consumption is also low. The
inclination at which coal can be successfully elevated by belt conveyor is about 20 (Raja et al,
2006).

Source: PK Machinery, 2024

Figure 3.X1 Actual Photo of Conveyor for Unloader to Stacking and Reclaiming

Model (Figure 3.X1) DTII (A）

Belt Width, mm 1400
Angle, o 20
Belt Speed, m/s 3.15
Capacity, Mtons/h 2602
Energy Consumption, kWh 0.05
Source: PK Machinery
Source: SKE Industries, 2024

Figure 3.X2 Actual Photo of Conveyor for Crushing and Screening

The Table below shows the specifications of the chosen belt conveyor for crushing.

Model (Figure 3.X2) SKE140

Belt Width, mm 1400
Angle, o 18
Belt Speed, m/s 3.15
Capacity, Mtons/h 1500
Energy Consumption, kWh 0.04
Source: SKE Industries, 2024

Source: SKE Industries, 2020

Figure 3.X3 Actual Photo of Conveyor for Coal Silo

The Table below shows the specifications of the chosen belt conveyor for coal silo.

Model (Figure 3.X3) Light Tripper Car

Belt Width, mm 700
Bulk Density, kg/m3 < 1600
 Belt Speed, m/s 1.25
Capacity, Mtons/h 70
Energy Consumption, kWh 0.08
Source: SKE Industries, 2020

Screw Conveyor

Screw conveyors come with a fitted endless helicoid screw and a driving mechanism
connected to one end of the shaft; the other end of the shaft is often enclosed with a ball bearing.
The system transfers coals from one end to the other when the screw rotates. Depending on the
transfer capacity, it can use screws with a diameter of 15cm to 50cm, and vary the speeds from
70 to 120 r.p.m.

Screw conveyors wear and tear fast, and consume more power per transfer while
compared to belt conveyors. The torsional strain of the shaft also limits the length of the feed; it
cannot exceed 30 meters (Swanton Welding Company, 2024).

It consists of an endless helicoid screw fitted to a shaft (Fig. 4.4). The screw while
rotating in a trough transfers the coal from feeding end to the discharge end. This system is
suitable, where coal is to be transferred over shorter distance and space limitations exist. The
initial cost of the system is low. It suffers from the drawbacks that the power consumption is
high and there is considerable wear of screw. Rotation of screw varies between 75-125 r.p.m
(Raja et al, 2006).

Source: Henan Pingyuan, 2024

Figure 3.X4 Actual Photo of Screw Conveyor for Stacking and Crushing
The Table below shows the specifications of the chosen screw conveyor for stacking and
crushing.

Model (Figure 3.X4) GX600

Length, m 10
Rotating Speed, rpm 45
Capacity, Mtons/h 134.2
Energy Consumption, kWh 0.92
Source: Henan Pingyuan, 2024

Source: Henan Pingyuan, 2024

Figure 3.X5 Actual Photo of Screw Conveyor for Coal Silos

The Table below shows the specifications of the chosen screw conveyor for coal silos.

Model (Figure 3.X5) GX500

Length, m 20
Rotating Speed, rpm 60
Capacity, Mtons/h 87.5
Energy Consumption, kWh 0.31
Source: Henan Pingyuan, 2024
Flight Conveyor

It consists of one or two strands of chain to which steel scraper or flights are attached’.
which scrap the coal through a trough having identical shape. This coal is discharged in the
bottom of trough. It is low in first cost but has large energy consumption. There is considerable
wear. Skip hoist and bucket elevators lift the coal vertically while Belts and flight conveyors
move the coal horizontally or on inclines (Raja et al, 2006).

The flight conveyors work best with coal transfers that need the fitting of several storage
bins located under the conveyors. It contains one or two chain strands where the steel scrappers
are attached. The scrapers scrap the coal through a trough that discharges the coal at the bottom.
Flight conveyors require small headroom and allow to regulate the speed of the conveyor with
ease for transfer requirements. The scrapping action causes wear and tear, reducing the
service life of flight conveyors. Although there are several repair and maintenance options
available, they become costly and uneconomical with time. The dragging action also increases
power consumption per coal or ash transfer, increasing operation costs significantly (Swanton
Welding Company, 2024). For the reason stated above, the designers included this for
discussion and will not be considering this type of conveyor.
Bucket Conveyor

The bucket conveyor contains buckets attached to a chain that moves over two wheels,
making it extremely useful in vertical lifts. The buckets carry the coal at the bottom and
discharge it at the top. The bucket conveyor elevator limits transfers to 30 –meters vertically,
with a maximum horizontal inclination of up to 60 degrees (Swanton Welding Company, 2024).

Bucket conveyors convey bulk loads in bucket shaped vessels which are attached to a
system of moving chains or belt. These are generally classified as Gravity discharge bucket
conveyor, pivoted bucket conveyor and bucket elevator. Bucket elevators are used for conveying
bulk materials from a lower level to a higher level, and as such has been also categorized under
Elevators (Ray, 2008). Bucket conveyors move products (typically aggregate or bulk) vertically
via reciprocating buckets.

They perform best when moving dry, light, or powder material and are typically not used
to move wet or sludge-like substances, as any buildup in the buckets will cause discharging
issues. They perform best when moving dry, light, or powder material and are typically not used
to move wet or sludge-like substances, as any buildup in the buckets will cause discharging
issues (Thomasnet.com, n.d.).
Source: EXCTMach, 2024

Figure 3.X6 Actual Photo of Screw Conveyor for Stacking and Crushing

The Table below shows the specifications of the chosen screw conveyor for stacking and
crushing.

Model (Figure 3.X6) TDG1250

Bucket Volume, L 161
Bucket Pitch, mm 720
Belt and Bucket Weight, kg 155.5
Capacity, Mtons/h 1220
Speed 1.86
Energy Consumption, kWh 0.35
Source: EXCTMach, 2024

Source: EXCTMach, 2024

Figure 3.X7 Actual Photo of Screw Conveyor for Coal Silos

The Table below shows the specifications of the chosen screw conveyor for coal silos.

Model (Figure 3.X7) NE200

Bucket Volume, L 84.6
Bucket Pitch, mm 500
Bucket Width, mm 600
Belt and Bucket Weight, kg 134
Capacity, Mtons/h 180
Speed 0.5
Energy Consumption, kWh 0.1
Source: EXCTMach, 2024
Chain Conveyor or En-masse Chain Conveyors

The en masse chain conveyor consists of a totally enclosed continuous chain with flight
bars to move the coal en masse along the bottom of the casing, as shown in Fig. 5-43. At the
center of each silo, a discharge gate is located in the bottom of the conveyor casing. Plant silos
are loaded by the en masse chain conveyor by the correct positioning (open or closed) of the
discharge gates at each silo. The silo fill operation proceeds from silo to silo. If one silo is not to
be filled, the discharge gate over that silo remains closed to bypass the coal to the next silo
without any disruption in the coal flow from the plant surge hopper or plant supply conveyors.

The en masse chain conveyor is better suited for a plant arrangement with a single long
row of silos per unit (four or more). The capacity of this system is limited by chain tension and at
present is in the maximum range of 500 tons (455 tonnes) per hour. Large plants with silo fill
rates of up to 1,000 tons (910 tonnes) per hour would require dual conveyor systems over each
silo row.

Dust control for the en masse chain conveyor consists of a bag filter unit dust collector.
The collector has pick-up points at several locations on the conveyor casing and at each silo
(Black & Veatch, 1996).
Source: GSI Group, 2014

Figure 3.X8 Actual Photo of Screw Conveyor for Stacking, Crushing, and Coal Silos.

The Table below shows the specifications of the chosen screw conveyor for stacking, crushing,
and coal silos.

Model (Figure 3.X8) En Masse Series 12 (9x12)

Inclination, o 15
Speed, fpm (m/s) 200 (1.016)
Capacity, Mtons/h 123.9
Energy Consumption, kWh 0.05
Source: GSI Group, 2014
 Screw Bucket Chain
Specification Belt Conveyor Rank Rank Rank Rank Remarks
Conveyor Conveyor Conveyor
En Masse
Model DTII (A) - GX600 - TDG1250 - Series 12 - -
(9x12)
The capacity must be
able to contain both the
Capacity,
2602 1 134.2 3 1220 2 123.9 4 capacities of the chosen
Mtons/h
unloader and stacker-
reclaimer.
The lower energy
Energy
consumption is a better
Consumption 0.15 2 0.92 4 0.35 3 0.05 1
choice for economic
, kWh
reasons.
Lowest point in the
Total Points Lowest 3 Highest 7 - 5 - 5
ranking system is chosen.
Conveyor from Unloader to Stacker-Reclaimer (Ranking System)
 Screw Bucket Chain
Specification Belt Conveyor Rank Rank Rank Rank Remarks
Conveyor Conveyor Conveyor
En Masse
Model SKE140 - GX600 - TDG1250 - Series 12 - -
(9x12)
The capacity must be
able to contain both the
Capacity,
1500 1 134.2 3 1220 2 123.9 4 capacities of the chosen
Mtons/h
stacker-reclaimer and
crusher.
The lower energy
Energy
consumption is a better
Consumption 0.04 1 0.92 4 0.35 3 0.05 2
choice for economic
, kWh
reasons.
Lowest point in the
Total Points Lowest 2 Highest 7 - 5 - 6
ranking system is chosen.
Conveyor from Stacker-Reclaimer to Crusher (Ranking System)
 Screw Bucket Chain
Specification Belt Conveyor Rank Rank Rank Rank Remarks
Conveyor Conveyor Conveyor
En Masse
Light Tripper
Model - GX500 - NE200 - Series 12 - -
Car
(9x12)
The capacity must be
Capacity, able to contain both the
70 2 87.5 1 180 4 123.9 4
Mtons/h capacities of the chosen
crusher and silo.
The lower energy
Energy
consumption is a better
Consumption 0.08 2 0.92 4 0.1 3 0.05 1
choice for economic
, kWh
reasons.
Lowest point in the
Total Points Lowest 4 Highest 5 - 7 - 5
ranking system is chosen.
Conveyor from Crusher to Silo (Ranking System)
LIMESTONE HANDLING

Limestone handling is an essential aspect of a CFB powerplant's air pollution control

strategy. By carefully selecting, crushing, and transporting limestone, these plants can effectively
reduce SO2 emissions and contribute to cleaner air.

A complete limestone supply system shall be provided to enable control of sulfur oxides
from the combustion of coal. The limestone addition shall reduce the emission of sulfur oxides
(SOx) to comply with the emission regulations when firing any fuel within the Design Coal
Envelope. The design shall include a 25% margin on the maximum calculated limestone
throughput (EPRMP, 2021).

Reducing NOx, SO2, and other air pollutants continues to be a challenge for the power
generation industry. The technologies are well-understood, but the devil is always in the details,
especially when a complex treatment system is retrofitted to an existing plant. The most common
method for reducing SO2 from plant emissions is the conventional lime- and limestone-based
flue gas desulfurization (FGD) system. Material-handling systems for limestone and gypsum
present specific challenges and opportunities that differ from those of coal-handling systems
(Power, 2008).
Limestone Storage

Limestone is usually stored in one common pile with an active area near the reclaim
system. The capacity of the total pile varies from a 30-day supply to a 6-month supply,
depending on the transportation, shipment size, and plant usage rate. Both the active and reserve
areas have a noncompacted nominal density of 85 lb/ft 3 (1,360 kg/m3). Limestone does not
present the problem of spontaneous combustion, and the amount in reserve storage does not
justify compaction for reduced area (Black & Veatch, 1996).

The computation below shows the total limestone consumption of the proposed power
plant based on its coal consumption and limestone to coal ratio. The designers chose

Limestone Consumption = Coal Consumption for 30 days × Limestone Ratio

Mtons
= 124095.98 × 0.038
30 days
Mtons
Limestone Consumption = 4715.65
30 days
The limestone nominal density is needed for the computation of the limestone storage.
The limestone nominal density is 1360 kg/m3. The computation below shows how the volume
of limestone storage was obtained.

Limestone Consumption
Volume of Limestone Storage =
Nominal Density of Limestone
Mtons 1000 kg
(4715.65 )( ¿
= 30 days Mton
1360 kg/m3
Volume of Limestone Storage = 3467.39 m3
Based on the computation above, the limestone consumption per 30 days is 4715.65
metric tons while the total volume of limestone storage is 3467.39 cubic meter.

Limestone Preparation

Preparation of fuel and limestone is more complicated and more expensive for circulating
fluidized bed boilers. Fuel and limestone crushing particle sizes below 10mm and 0.5mm
respectively is required (Oka, 2003).
 Limestone is usually bought in the right size for the limestone preparation plant, which is
V/i in. (0.04 m) or a top size that is smaller. Except in colder climates to reduce frozen lumps to
the purchased size, limestone is not crushed in the reclaim area (Black & Veatch, 1996).

The standard procedure in the limestone processing facility is to have two-day bins for a
single unit plant site and one day bin for each unit of a multi-unit plant site plus one spare. As a
result, the plant site keeps one spare day bin and accompanying limestone processing equipment
on hand at all times. The capacity of the day bin is typically equal to the limestone required for
24 hours of maximum output from each unit (Black & Veatch, 1996).

The computation below shows the limestone requirement per day.

Limestone Consumption
Limestone Consumption per Day =
Nominal Density of Limestone
4715.65 Mtons
=
30 days
Limestone Consumption per Day = 157.19 Mtons/day
= 52.40 Mtons/day per boiler
Considering four (4) hours of crusher operating time:

Limestone Preparation per Day

Number of Crushers =
Crusher Capacity × Operating Time
Mtons
157.19
days
=
(100 Mtons
hr ) (4 hrs)
Number of Crushers = 0.39 ≈ 1 crusher
Based on the computation above, only one (1) crusher is needed for the limestone
handling system of the proposed power plant. Since the limestone consumption per day is
approximately 60 tons per day, the selected conveyor is light tripper car belt conveyor since it
has a high capacity and low energy consumption.

LIMESTONE SILO
 A limestone storage silo must be supplied with isolating valves and downspout piping to
rotary valves feeding into a surge bin and must have an active capacity of at least 7 days, based
on fire coal with the highest sulfur content. The limestone will be brought to the power plant site
via truck. The contractor will provide equipment for the direct unloading of limestone deliveries
from bulk trucks to their corresponding silos (Pneumatic Conveying System). The limestone will
be transported to the boiler from these silos. Unloading/storage connections/fittings for limestone
must be compatible with available bulk truck connections (MPC, 2021). The density of
limestone ranges from 1.55 to 2.75 g/cm 3. Since the given density is a range, the average density
of 2.15 g/cm3 or 2150 kg/m3 will be used (Hahn, et al., 2021).

The computation below shows the calculation for the volume of the limestone silo.

Limestone Consumption per Day

Volume of Limestone Silo =
Density of Limestone
1000 kg
(157.19 Mtons/day) ( ¿
= Mton
2150 kg/m3
Volume of Limestone Silo = 73.11 m3
Based on the computation above, the volume for the limestone is 73.11 m 3, which will
be transported to the boiler from this silo.
COAL HANDLING SUMMARY