PANDIT JAWAHARLAL NEHRU COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE

AND RESEARCH INSTITUTE, KARAIKAL - 609 603

PRACTICAL MANUAL CUM RECORD

AGR 301 PRACTICAL CROP PRODUCTION – I (0+1)

(Kharif crops)

Course Teachers : Dr. V. SRIDEVI

Assistant Professor (Agronomy)

: Dr. S. K. MEENA
Assistant Professor (Agronomy)
: Dr. C. NIVETHA
Assistant Professor (Agronomy)

DEPARTMENT OF AGRONOMY
2023
 PANDIT JAWAHARLAL NEHRU COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
AND RESEARCH INSTITUTE, KARAIKAL-609 603

DEPARTMENT OF AGRONOMY

PRACTICAL MANUAL CUM RECORD

AGR 301 PRACTICAL CROP PRODUCTION – I (Kharif crops) (0+1)

CERTIFICATE

Certified that this is a bona-fide record of work done by

Selvan/Selvi.…….………………………………………I.D. No. ………………………
of III B.Sc. (Hons.) Agriculture (2021-2022 batch) Student.

Place:
Date:

Course Teacher Examiner

 CONTENTS
Ex. Page Date of Sign. of
Date Name of the Exercise
No. No. submission teacher
1 Rice Ecosystems

2 Climatic and soil requirements of rice

3 Seasons and varieties of rice

4 Phenological stages of rice

Nursery preparation and management in

5
rice

6 Main field preparation for rice

7 Transplanting of rice

8 System of rice intensification

9 Fertilizer management in rice

10 Practicing growth analysis in rice

11 Weed management in rice

12 Water management in rice

13 Insect pest management in rice

14 Disease management in rice

Recording yield attributes and

15
estimation of yield in rice

Harvesting and post-harvest

16
technologies in rice

17 Economics of rice cultivation

Ex. No. 1 Date:
RICE ECOSYSTEMS
Introduction
Rice belongs to genus Oryza and family Poaceae. The genus includes 24 species,
of which 22 are wild (tetraploid 2n=48) and O. sativa and O. glaberrima are cultivated
(diploid 2n=24). All the varieties found in Asia, America and Europe belong to O. sativa
and varieties found in West Africa belong to O. glaberrima. O. sativa has three sub
species viz., indica, japonica and javanica.

Importance
1. It is the staple food crop for more than 60 per cent of the world people. In India
more than 65 per cent and in China more than 63 per cent of people use rice as
their staple food.
2. In other countries attractive ready to eat products, which have long shelf life eg.
popped and puffed rice, instant rice flakes, canned rice and fermented products are
produced.
3. Botanically the grain is “caryopsis” covered by pericarp. Below the pericarp,
aleurone layer is present. Bulk of kernel is constituted by endosperm, which has
mainly starch (80-81%). In case of milled grain, it contains 87 per cent of starch.
About 6-9% protein is present in aleurone layer and endosperm (average is 7.5%).
4. It is a good export earner. Rice straw is used as cattle feed, used for thatching roof and
in cottage industry for preparation of hats, mats, ropes, sound absorbing straw board and
used as litter material.
5. Rice husk is used as animal feed, poultry house litter and fuel source and for the
production of tar, abrasive, absorbent and papers.
6. Rice bran has the following uses:
a. Used in cattle and poultry feed
b. Defatted bran, which is rich in protein, can be used in the preparation of
biscuits and as cattle feed
c. Rice bran oil is used in soap industry
d. Refined oil can be used as a cooking medium like cotton seed oil/corn oil
RICE ECO-SYSTEMS
Rice is grown under varying Eco-systems on a variety of soils under varying
climatic and hydrological conditions ranging from waterlogged and poorly drained to well
drained situations. Rice is also grown under rain fed as well as irrigated conditions. These
different eco-systems are discussed below:

Rice Ecosystem

Coastal
Irrigated Rainfed Deep water
wetlands

Upland Lowland
Upland Lowland

Shallow water
(0-<50 cm)

Semi-deep water
(50-100 cm)

Deep water
(>100 cm)

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of rice ecosystems

I. Irrigated Rice
The total area under irrigated rice is about 22.00 million hectares, which accounts
about 49.5 per cent of the total area under rice crop in the country. Rice is grown under
irrigated conditions in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir,
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Sikkim, Karnataka, Himachal Pradesh, Puducherry and
Gujarat. In these states rice is grown under irrigated conditions more than 50-90 per cent.
II. Rainfed Rice
The rainfed eco-system may be broadly classified into two categories:
1. Upland
Upland rice areas lie in eastern zone comprising of Assam, Bihar, Eastern Madhya
Pradesh., Orissa, Eastern Uttar Pradesh., West Bengal and North-Eastern Hill region. In
the rain fed upland rice, there is no standing water in the field after few hours of cessation
of rain. The total areas under upland rain fed rice in the country are about 6.00 million
hectares, which accounts 13.5 per cent of the total area under rice crop in the country. The
productivity of upland rice is very poor. As against the present national average
productivity of about 1.9 t ha -1, the average yield of rice in upland areas in the country is
only 0.90 t ha-1.
2. Low land
Low land rice area is mostly located in the eastern region comprising of Assam,
West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Eastern Madhya Pradesh and Eastern Uttar Pradesh. Low land
rice area is about 14.4 million hectares, which accounts 32.4 per cent of the total area
under rice crop in the country. The average productivity of rice in low land areas ranges
from 1.0 to 1.2 t ha-1, as against the national average productivity of 1.9 t ha-1. The low land
rice may be further classified into three categories depending upon the standing depth of
water in the field as discussed below: -
a. Shallow-water
The standing depth of water in the field is generally below 50 cm. The shallow rice
area is located in the eastern states viz., Assam, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Uttar
Pradesh and West Bengal.
b. Semi-deepwater
The standing depth of water in the field varies between 50 cm and 100 cm. These
areas are lying in the eastern states viz., Assam, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Uttar
Pradesh and West Bengal.
c. Deep water
The standing depth of water is more than 100 cm in the field. Such deep-water rice
areas are mostly situated in the eastern states, viz., Assam, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa,
Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. These areas are subjected to flood occurrence and duration
of flooding varies from year to year.
III.Coastal Saline
The coastal area is always subjected with salinity problem and these areas are
situated in West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The total area
under coastal saline rice in the country is estimated about 1 million hectare which accounts
for 2.3 per cent each of total area under rice in the country. The yield in coastal saline soil
is very poor. Average yield in costal saline area is about 1 t ha -1 as against the average
National yield of 1.9 t ha-1. The coastal saline soils are often affected with deficiency of
ferrous and zinc which causes chlorosis and reduced tillering.
IV. Cold / Hill
Such rice areas lie in the hill regions comprising of Jammu and Kashmir,
Uttaranchal and North-Eastern hill states. The total area under rice in cold or hill region is
estimated about 1 million ha which accounts for 2.3 per cent of total area under rice in the
country. The productivity in cold or hill areas is very poor. The average yield is about 1.1 t
ha-1as against the average national yield of 1.9 t ha -1. The major problems of these areas are
cold injuries, blast, drought spell and very short span of cropping seasons. Because of the
rolling topography in these areas bench terracing is being followed which limits the use of
fertilizers and improved agronomical practices. In these areas the crop is sometimes
affected due to low temperature in the early stage and sometimes at the flowering times
which leads to sterility problems.
Based on land and water management practices, rice lands are classified as low
land (wet land) and upland (dry land).
I. Low land rice culture
In most rice growing countries, rice is grown as low land (wet land) crop. Under
this system, land is either prepared wet or dry but water is held in the field. About 30 per
cent of the world’s rice is grown as rainfed lowland and 45 per cent as irrigated lowland.
For lowland rice in the tropics, seedlings are grown at the time of adequate moisture
supply. In the case of irrigated rice, seedlings can be grown at any time of the year as
needed. For rainfed rice, the preparation of seed beds usually coincides with the onset of
monsoon rains.
a. Rainfed lowland rice
Rice is transplanted or direct seeded in puddled soil on level to slightly sloppy,
bunded or diked fields with variable depth and duration of flooding depending on rainfall.
Yields vary with rainfall, cultivation practices and use of fertilizers. Rainfed lowland rice
is grown on 40 m ha worldwide contributing 18 per cent of the global rice supply and it is
dominant in the humid and sub-humid tropics. Rainfed lowland rice can be classified
according to the stand establishment techniques followed as.
 Transplanted in puddled soil
  Direct seeded (with pre-germinated seeds) on puddled soil
 Direct seeded on dry soil
b. Irrigated lowland rice
Rice is transplanted or direct seeded in puddled soil of leveled bunded fields with
water control in both dry and wet seasons in the lowlands. The crop is heavily fertilized
and yield can reach 5 t ha -1 in wet season and 8 t ha -1 in the dry season. The other systems
of planting are
 Direct seeding into a puddled soil
 Drill seeding into dryland soil
 Broadcast seeding into water
II. Upland rice culture
Upland rice (dryland rice) refers to rice grown on both level and sloping fields that
are not bunded, that are prepared and seeded under dry conditions and depend on rainfall
for moisture. Crops suffer from lack of moisture and inadequate nutrition and yields are
very low.
Study Question
1. Write the distinct characteristics of the sub species of rice (indica, japonica and javanica).
2. Draw the schematic diagram of the rice plant
3. Draw the schematic diagram of the rice grain
 Ex. No. 2 Date:

CLIMATIC AND SOIL REQUIREMENTS OF RICE

Rice is indigenous to the humid area of tropics, sub-tropics and temperate regions.
It has a wide physiological adaptability and is grown successfully from below the sea level
to 2000 meters above the sea level. Rice can be grown in different locations under a
variety of climates. The indica are widely grown in tropical regions. Japonica, which are
adapted to cooler areas, are largely grown in temperate regions. Both indica and japonica
rice sub species are grown in subtropical regions. However, their crosses are grown
throughout the world. Rice needs hot and humid climate. It is best suited to regions that
have high humidity, prolonged sunshine and an assured supply of water.
Rainfall, temperature and solar radiation influence rice yield by directly affecting
the physiological processes involved in grain production and indirectly through diseases
and pests. The individual effects of different climatic parameters are presented below.
1. Rainfall
Among the various weather elements, rainfall is the most single important factor,
which determines the extent, growth and production of rice crop. Under rainfed rice culture
rainfall is the most limiting factor in rice cultivation. When irrigation is provided the
growth and yield is determined by temperature and solar radiation. Water stress at any
growth stage may reduce the yield. Rice plant is most sensitive to water deficit from the
reduction division stage to heading. Water stress before heading reduces yield significantly
by causing a high percentage of sterility.
Effect of water stress on growth and yield
The rice plant is most sensitive to water deficit from the reduction division stage to
heading. Three days of drought at 11 days and at 3 days before heading reduces yield
significantly by causing a high percentage of sterility. On the other hand water deficits
during the vegetative stage may reduce plant height, tiller number and leaf area but yield,
will not be affected by the retarded growth if water is supplied in sufficient time to permit
the plant’s recovery before flowering.
2. Temperature
The critical low and high temperatures for rice vary from one growth stage to
another. The critical temperatures for different growth stages of rice are tabulated below.
Table 1. Cardinal temperatures of rice at different phenophases
Temperature (C)
Growth stage
Low Optimum High
Germination 10 20-35 45
Seedling emergence 12-13 20-30 35
Rooting 16 25-28 35
Leaf elongation 7-12 31 35
Tillering 9-16 25-31 33
Panicle initiation 15 25 33
Anthesis 22 30-33 35
Ripening 12-18 20-25 30
Effects of temperature on the growth and yield of Rice
 High temperature at vegetative stage increases, tillering due to increased nutrient
uptake. However, for tall rice varieties, increased tillering may lead to mutual
shading, lodging and malnutrition in the later vegetative stage.
 High temperature at flowering and ripening stages causes spikelet sterility due to
unfavourable balance between respiration and photosynthesis.
 Lower night temperature during flowering is favourable and promotes higher grain yield.
 The booting stage (7-14 days before heading) is considered as most sensitive stage
to low temperatures and the second most sensitive stage is heading or flowering.
 In general japonica varieties are more tolerant to low temperatures while indica
varieties are more tolerant to high temperature.
 Mean daily temperature higher than 30°C may decrease rice yields.
 Day and night temperatures exert opposite effects on net photosynthesis. High night
temperature increases respiration loss, thereby reducing net photosynthesis. High
temperature during the day (coupled with high solar radiation) increases net
photosynthesis.
Solar radiation
The solar radiation required by the rice crop differs with the growth stages. Shading
during vegetative stage slightly affects yield components and yield. Shading during
reproductive stage however has a pronounced effect on spikelet number. During ripening,
it reduces grain yield considerably because of a decrease, in the percentage of filled
spikelets. Solar radiation at the reproductive stage has the greatest effect on grain yield.
The critical period for solar radiation is from panicle initiation to 10 days prior to maturity.
The minimum requirement of solar radiation is 300 cal cm-2day-1.
Day length
Rice is a short-day plant. Long day prevents or delays flowering. e.g. GEB 24 is a
photosensitive and season bound variety. However, the latest varieties released are photo
insensitive.
Wind
Moderate wind is beneficial for crop growth. Wind velocity of 0.75 to 2.25 m/sec
is not conducive for photosynthesis. High wind at maturity may cause lodging of the crop.
Climate change and rice
Irrigated rice production at ambient growth temperature (25°C) will benefit from
increased atmospheric CO2. Increased rates of CO2 assimilation and decreased rates of
maintenance (dark) respiration at elevated CO 2 result in increased plant biomass
accumulation. Grain yield also increases with rising atmospheric CO 2 concentration.
Concomitant temperature increases, however, could entail substantial losses in future yield
because rice yields are extremely sensitive to temperature increases during the grain-filling
stage, which can lead to abundant spikelet sterility. The coupling of crop models to future
climate scenarios for the main rice-growing areas has given diverging results, from an11%
increase to a 12% decrease, depending on the model and scenario. The most significant
contribution by rice fields to global change stems from the emission of the greenhouse gas
methane. Methane formation in wetland rice fields is an important component of carbon
cycling in the predominantly anaerobic soils. The quantity of methane emitted to the
atmosphere is regulated by inherent soil and climate properties as well as agricultural
practices. The shift from organic manure to mineral fertilizers substantially reduces
methane emission. Likewise, the flux is reduced by intermittent drying of soils. New, high-
yielding cultivars also reduce methane emission compared with traditional varieties.
Soil
Rice is a semi aquatic plant and grows best under low land condition. In India it
grows in almost all type of soils; alluvial, red, lateritic, black, saline and alkali, peaty and
marshy soils and in acid soils. In Kerala, rice is grown in acid sulphate soil (Kuttanadu
soil) having a pH of 3.0-4.0. But the soil that is having good retention capacity with good
amount of clay and organic matter is ideal for rice cultivation. Clay and clay loam soils are
most suited. Such soils are capable of holding water for more time and sustain the crop.
It tolerates a wide range of soil reaction from 4.5 to 8.0. It grows well in soils
having pH range of 5.5 to 6.5. It can be grown on alkali soils after treating them with
gypsum or pyrites.
Study Question
1. Narrate the soil characteristics of your field.
2. Draw the weather graph using the weather parameters prevailed during the cropping
period
Ex. No. 3 Date:
SEASONS AND VARIETIES OF RICE
Season
Season is a period in which the crop can be efficiently raised for its fullest
productivity. We should know whether the variety is suited for the particular period or not.
Rice seasons
Season Month of sowing Duration (days)
Navarai Dec-Jan < 120
Sornavari April-May < 120
Kar May-June < 120
Kuruvai Jun-July < 120
Samba Aug 130 – 135 & >150
Late Samba (or) Thaladi Sep-Oct 130-135
(or) Pishanam
Late Thaladi Oct - Nov 115 -120

Based on the duration, rice varieties are classified as

1. Short duration varieties - less than 120 days
2. Medium duration varieties - 120 – 140 days
3. Long duration varieties - more than 150 days
Short duration varieties (SDV)
Varieties of 100 days duration - MDU 5, ADT (R) 48
Varieties of 110 days duration - ADT 36, ADT 37, ADT 43, ASD 18, ADT 45,
Varieties of 115 days duration - ADT 41, 42, 45, 47, ASD 7, 16, 20, IR 36
Medium duration varieties (MDV)
Varieties of 130-135 days duration - IR 20, ASD 19, ADT 38, TPS 2
Varieties of 135 days duration - CO 43, MDU 4, TKM 10
Varieties of 135-140 days duration - CO 45, TRY 2, TPS 3, White Ponni
Long duration varieties (LDV)
Varieties of 145-150 days duration - ADT 40, ADT 44, PY 4
Varieties of 160 days duration - CR 1009 (Savithri, Ponmani)
Seasons followed in Karaikal
Duration Yield
Season Period Suitable varieties
(days) (t/ha)
Kuruvai Jun-Sep SDV 4-6 ADT 36, 37, 43, 45, 47, 48,
110-115 IR 50, ASD 16, PY 1, 2, 3
Samba, Aug/ LDV 5-5.3 CR 1009, PY 1, 5,
Early Samba Sep-Jan 150-160
Samba Sep-Jan LDV 4-6 CR 1009, PY 1, 5, CO 43, IR 20,
150-160 White Ponni
MDV 4.5-6.2 CR 1009, PY 1, 5, CO 43, IR 20,
130-135 White Ponni
Late Samba Oct-Jan MDV 5 CO 43, CR 1009, IR 20, White
130-135 ponni, ADT 39
Navarai Dec- SDV 4-6 ADT 36, 38,45, IR 50, ASD 16,
Feb 110-115 32, TKM 9
Summer Feb/ SDV 4-6 ADT 36, IR 50, ASD 16, TKM 9
Mar- 110-115
May
Seasons followed in Puducherry
Duration Yield
Season Period Suitable varieties
(days) (t/ha)
Sornavari or Apr/May- SDV 4-6 ASD 16, 18, IR 64, PY 2, 3, 5
Kharif Jul/Aug 110-115
Samba Aug/ LDV 5-5.2 CO 43, 44, 45, PY 4, ADT 38,
Sep-Jan 150-160 CR 1009
Late Samba Oct-Jan MDV 5 PY 1
130-135
Navarai Dec/Jan- SDV 4-6 IR 50, ASD 16, 18, TKM 9
Feb/May 110-115
Varieties resistant (or) tolerant to major diseases and pests
Sl. No. Biotic/Abiotic stress Varieties
1 Drought tolerant N 22, Bala, JET 1444 (Rasi), Bhavani
2 Blast Resistant CO 14, Rasi, Jaya, Vani, K 133
3 Resistant to Tungro virus PTB 2, Katavibnog
4 Resistant to Green leaf hopper Vani, PTB 2, 7, RB 5-12, P 18
5 Resistant to BLB JET 4141, TKM 6, BJ 1
6 Tolerant to Stem borer TKM 6, W 1263, IET 2812
7 Resistant to BPH PTB 21, 33, IET 5118, 5119

Study Question
Mention the name and characters of the rice variety, which you have grown.
Ex. No. 4 Date:
PHENOLOGICAL STAGES OF RICE

Rice plant is an annual grass with round hollow and jointed culms, flat leaves and
terminal inflorescence called panicle. Paddy is the only crop, which has different types of
duration. Variation is mainly in the vegetative phase and it is due to the genetic makeup of
the variety. Other phases will be equal, for all the varieties. Percentage of variation
depends on the climatic condition and season. Rice varieties of the tropics complete their
life cycle within a general range from 110-120 days. Growth stages of rice are divided into
three important phases.
1. Germination phase
a) Pre-germination stage
b) Germination stage
2. Vegetative phase
a) Seedling stage
b) Transplanting and recovering stage
c) Tillering stage
d) Maximum tillering stage
e) Vegetative lag stage
3. Reproductive phase
a) Panicle primordial development
b) Elongation and booting stage
c) Heading stage
d) Flowering stage
4. Maturity phase
a) Milky stage
b) Dough stage
c) Maturation stage
1. Germination phase
a. Pre emergence stage
It involves the pre germination soaking and is done to enhance quick germination
b. Germination stage
It is the stage in which the white coleoptile of the seed is put forth or emerges out
2. Vegetative phase
It is the most variable component and it is markedly affected in certain genotypes
by the prevailing day length and temperature
a. Seedling stage
It is from emergence of the coleoptile to the appearance of the fifth leaf in seedbed.
Seedling stage is up to just splitting of nodes
b. Transplanting and recovering stage
It is from uprooting of seedling from seed bed planting in the mainfield and upto
full recovery following transplanting
c. Tillering stage
It is from the appearance of the first tiller to panicle initiation. This occurs in the
mainfield 15 days after planting
d. Maximum tillering stage
It is the active vegetative phase (6-19 days period). The plant stem splits into
multiple number of tillers during this stage. After this stage some of the pseudo tillers die.
The tillers then turn to productive tillers. During this stage, tiller number, height and straw
weight increases. Duration of this phase is primarily a function of the amount of nitrogen
available to maintain the nitrogen content in the plant above the critical level. Tillering is
closely related to nitrogen content in the plant especially soluble nitrogen in the culm. The
critical nitrogen content of culm is 1.7%.
e. Vegetative lag period (4-17 days)
It is the phase which occurs between the vegetative and reproductive phases. Death of
tillers occurs and tillers number is reduced by 1 or 2. Panicle primordia development does
not occur and crop expects low temperature for flowering. This stage occurs according to
crop duration and this is due to the genetic makeup. A rapid elongation of internodes
occurs. If the total growth duration is short the vegetative and the reproductive phase
overlap. Hence short duration varieties for samba and long and medium duration varieties
for kuruvai should not be grown.
3. Reproductive phase
This phase is from panicle initiation stage to flowering stage. The panicle primordia
develop, height and straw weight decreases rapidly in this phase.
a. Panicle primordial development
It is the stage in which full development of panicle primordia takes place inside the
boot leaf. This occurs immediately after maximum tillering and it is the stage just before
putting forth of panicle.
b. Elongation and booting stage
It is from panicle initiation to full development of panicle inside flag leaf sheath
c. Heading stage
It is from the first appearance of the panicle tip out of the flag leaf sheath to more
than 90% panicle emergence
d. Flowering stage
It is from first flowering to completion of flowering in a panicle. Lemma and palea
opens and pollination take place. It starts immediately after heading. Pollination occurs for 8-
10 days and does not vary to a greater extent. If there is adverse climatic condition, it may
result in chaffiness or ill filled grain. This stage goes up to full flower setting condition.
4. Maturity phase
a. Milky stage
The watery part of spikelet is converted into milky part. This is the important phase
during which there will be earhead bug attack. It pierces the grain and produces a black mark
and thus the quality of the grain is affected.
b. Dough stage
The milky material of caryopsis is converted into hard material due to the further
biochemical processes.
c. Maturation stage
It is the stage from ripening of terminal spikelets to more than 80% full ripening of
the grains. The photosynthates move from source to sink. The leaves start showing yellow
colour. It is the indication for harvesting.
Study Question
Draw neatly the different growth stages of rice crop.
Ex. No. 5 Date:
NURSERY PREPARATION AND MANAGEMENT IN RICE
Rice nursery
Different types of nurseries are practiced depending upon water supply and labour
availability. They are:
1. Dry nursery
2. Wet nursery
3. Dapog nursery
4. Modified mat nursery
1. Dry nursery
This type is practiced in areas of non-assured water supply where wet nursery
cannot be taken up.
 The field should be made to fine tilth by repeated ploughing
 Raised nursery bed of about 1-1.5m width and 8-10 m length with a height of 8-10 cm is
prepared with 30-50 cm space in between 2 beds for drainage purpose
 Seeds are sown under dry condition in shallow depth of 1-5 cm in about 7-8 cm apart
 The seeds are covered with thin layer of sand and periodically watered with rose can
 Thinning is done, if necessary, within 10-12 days
 Apply nitrogen fertilizer @ 10-15 kg ha-1 of nursery on 15th day after sowing
 Seed beds are irrigated 2-3 days prior to uprooting
2. Wet nursery
Area: 1/8th or 1/10th of main field area
Blanket seed rate:
Short duration varieties - 60 kg ha-1
Medium duration varieties - 40 kg ha-1
Long duration varieties - 30 kg ha-1
(i) Pretreatment of seed with fungicides
There are two different methods
1. Dry seed treatment
Mix any one of fungicides viz., Captan or Carbendazim @ 2g/kg of seed and leave
it for at least 24 hours.
2. Wet seed treatment
The seeds are soaked in solution of either Carbendazim/Thiram @ 2g/kg of seed
and leave it for at least 24 hours
(ii) Pretreatment of seeds with nutrients
Seed treatment with 1% KCl solution is recommended to induce the crop to tolerate
the short and prolonged drought.
(iii) Selection of nursery
The area should be close to the irrigation source and should be an upland
(iv) Preparation of nursery
One-two days before ploughing the area should be irrigated. Then ploughed and
puddled.
(v) Forming seed beds
Raised beds are formed by making plots of 2.5 m width with channels of 30 cm
wide in between.
(vi) Seed treatment with Azospirillum
Seeds are treated with 3 packets (600 g) of Azospirillum in jaggery medium or rice
gruel medium
(vii) Sowing
Sowing is done by broadcasting the seeds in the field by maintaining a thin film of
water in the nursery.
(viii) Application of DAP
Before last puddling about 2 kg/cent of DAP is applied. This reduces the requirement of
phosphorus in the main field. In clayey soil where root snapping occurs, DAP @ 1 kg/cent is
applied at 10 days before pulling of seedlings. In problematic areas such as green algal problem,
DAP should be applied in two splits, one at 7 DAS and other at 10 days before pulling out of
seedlings.
(ix) Water management in nursery
Seeds are sown in field with film of water and immediately drained on next day.
For 3-5 days allow enough water to saturate the soil. From 5 th day onwards, increase the
depth of water based on the height of the seedling. Allow 2.5 cm of water in the nursery
after 10-15 days.
(x) Weed management in nursery
Apply any one of the following pre-emergence herbicides at 8th DAS
Butachlor-160 ml/ 20 cents
Thiobencarb-160 ml/ 20 cents
Pendimethalin-200ml/ 20 cents
After herbicide application, water should not be drained for a minimum of three days
(xi) Top dressing
If seedlings show symptoms of nitrogen deficiency, urea @ 500 gm/cent applied 7-
10 days prior to pulling
(xii) Pest management
The common pests that attack rice are caseworm, green leaf hopper, thrips, etc.
1. Army worm:
Spray chlorpyriphos @ 80 ml/20 cents nursery
2. Thrips: (ETL- 60 numbers/ 12 sweeps)
Spray any one of the following
1. Monochrotophos-40 ml/ 20 cents
2. Endosulphon-20 ml/ 20 cents
3. Fenthion-40 ml/ 20 cents
3. Green leaf hopper :
Spray any one of the following
1. Endosulphon-80 ml/ 20 cents
2. Monocrotophos-40 ml/ 20 cents
(xiii) Pulling out of seedlings
In general, the nursery age for rice seedling is one week per month of the duration
of the crop
3. Dapog nursery
It is a portable paddy nursery in which seedlings are raised in polythene sheets.
Preparation of bed for sowing:
 Raised beds of 2 x 1 m size and with a height of 6 cm.
 10 cm bund is left around the bed.
 Cover the bed with 200-gauge polythene sheet in a tight manner
  Apply FYM and sand mixture in the ratio 1:1 over the polythene sheet for 2.5 cm
thickness
 Apply 17:17:17 complex fertilizer @ 800 gm/20 m2
 1.2 kg of seeds m2 is sown and slightly covered with thin layer of FYM. Irrigate the
bed with rose can.
 Mix DAP @ 500 gm in 20 litre of water and apply on 7th day after sowing
Advantages
 The method is suited for water scarcity area
 More plant protection measures are not needed for this method
Disadvantages
 Moisture level should be maintained properly

 Seedlings are very slender, thin and short with a height of 8-10 cm.
1. Modified dapog nursery
 Level the site thoroughly
 Mark 2 x 1 m bed with a provision of 10 cm high bunds all around leaving 30 cm
walking space between 2 beds
 Spread the polythene sheet of 200-gauge thickness
 Apply 3: 1 of sand and FYM in a 75 m2
 Good quality seeds are selected @ 60 kg ha-1. Soak it in water for 10 hours and
drain the excess water
 Allow the seeds to sprout
 Sow the sprouted seeds @ 800 g m-2 uniformly
 Cover the seeds with thin layer of paddy straw
 Sprinkle water with rose can without any stagnation of water
 Irrigate the beds profusely one day prior to use and roll as a mat. Then take to the
field where seedlings are to be planted
Advantages
 Area required is only 75 m2 ha-1 as against 800 m2 ha-1 in the conventional method
 Production of super seedlings is possible
 Seedlings are ready for planting from 12th day onwards
 Healthy and robust seedlings are produced
  Recommended for mechanical transplanter
Study Question
Narrate the merits and demerits of transplanting of rice as compared to direct sown rice.
 Ex. No. 6 Date:

MAIN FIELD PREPARATION FOR RICE

Land preparation under different systems of rice culture

Tillage of rice as wetland or dryland depends on the stand establishment techniques
to be followed, moisture supply and power resources available to the farmer. The most
critical factors for the growth and yield of rice are timeless and quality of land preparation.
Wetland tillage
In most tropical Asian countries wetland tillage is common. Puddling has been
widely adopted because it provides ease of transplanting
Puddling
Puddling is defined as “ploughing the land under completely saturated and water-
logged conditions with the primary objective of destroying soil structure and creating an
impervious layer. Puddling is the method of land preparation for the cultivation of paddy.
Puddling helps in reducing the percolation loss of water and providing a very favorable
condition for transplanting or sowing paddy.
Advantages:
 Reduces the percolation loss
 Incorporation of green manure is possible
 The soil is made soft for easy transplanting
 Helps in better control of weeds.
 Increases the nutrient availability.
Digging corners and maintenance of bunds
1. Dig the corners of field, which are not covered by ploughing
2. Cut off 2.5 cm of soil from the top and sides of the bunds to remove the weeds along
with their seeds and to destroy the eggs of insect pests by using spade
3. If the bunds are very broad, trim them to a width of 15 cm and height of 15 cm so that
rats do not harbour in the bunds.
4. If rat burrows are noticed, insert pellets of 0.5 g or 0.6 g Aluminium phosphide and
plug the exit holes.
5. Apply mud paste to the sides and top of the bund to a thickness of 2.5 cm with a spade
and plaster it using the flat surface of the spade. Plastering the bunds helps in checking
weed growth and prevents harbouring of insect pests.
Field preparation
Wet rice requires a well-puddled soil. Plough the land during summer to economise
the water requirement for initial preparation of field. Flood the field one or two days before
ploughing and allow the water to soak in. Keep the surface of the field covered with water.
Dig the corners, which are not covered by ploughing. Trim and plaster the bunds. For
saline and sodic soils, apply gypsum uniformly, impound water, and provide drainage for
leaching and soluble salts. Two ploughings with mould board plough or 5 ploughings with
country plough are essential. Level the field by using leveling board.
Special recommendation practices
a. Compaction technology for fluffy paddy soils:
Compact the fluffy paddy soils by passing 400 kg stone roller or oil drum with
stones inside, eight times at proper moisture level (Moisture level at friable condition of
soil which is approximately 13 to 18%) once in three years, to prevent the sinking of
draught animals and labourers during puddling.
b. Sodic soils:
(i) For sodic soils with pH values of more than 8.5, plough at optimum moisture
regime, apply gypsum at 50% gypsum requirement uniformly, impound water, provide
drainage for leaching out soluble salts and apply green leaf manure at 5 t ha -1, 10 to 15
days before transplantation.
(ii) Mix 37.5 kg of Zinc sulphate per ha with sand to make a total quantity of 75 kg
and spread the mixture uniformly on the level field. Do not incorporate the mixture in the
soil. Rice under sodic soil responds well to these practices.
c. Saline soils:
For saline soils with EC values of more than 4 dSm -1, provide lateral and main
drainage channels (60 cm deep and 45 cm wide), apply green leaf manure at 5 t ha -1 at 10
to 15 days before transplanting and 25% extra dose of nitrogen in addition to
recommended P and K and Zinc sulphate at 25 kg/ha at planting.
Study Question
Perfect leveling is necessary for rice cultivation. Justify
 Ex. No. 7 Date:
TRANSPLANTING OF RICE
Generally, rice is established through direct seeding or by transplanting of seedling.
Transplanting
This is a method of establishing crops wherein the seedlings raised in small beds
called nurseries are pulled out and planted in the main field. For achieving good results
from transplanting, the seedlings are transplanted at optimum age and at proper depth. The
thumb rule for the optimum age of seedlings is one week for every month of total duration
of the crop. The depth of planting should be as shallow as possible for getting more
number of tillers.
Advantage
 Management of crops (in nurseries) during early stage is better.
 Better establishment of crops.
 Reduced duration of the crops in the main field.
 Inter cultivation is possible in both directions.
 Spacing can be maintained.
Pulling out of seedlings
 Pull out the seedlings at the appropriate time carefully so that the roots will be
intact with the seedlings.
 If too much soil is found sticking to the roots, clean by shaking the roots in water.
 Do not strike the seedlings with any rod or stick that may cause injury to the seedlings.
 Tie the seedlings into convenient bundles of 5 to 8 cm diameter and keep the root
portion submerged in water.
 Do not allow seedlings to dry under the sun.
Planting of seedling is done in two ways: a) Random planting b) Line or Straight row
planting.
a) Random planting:
In this type, seedlings are planted at random in the field. The distance from plant
to plant is not uniform and no definite pattern is followed. In this type it is difficult to
operate a rotary weeder and other machinery for intercultural operations.
b) Line planting:
Here proper plant spacing makes uniform growth of the plants. The intercultural
operations like weeding, spraying, top dressing etc.; are more efficiently done. The
disadvantage here is that the labour cost for planting is high. The following table gives the
details regarding number of seedlings, depth of planting, spacing and number of hills per
square metre for different duration of rice varieties.

Medium and low fertility High fertility

Particulars Duration
Short Medium Long Short Medium Long
No. of seedlings per hill 2-3 2 2 2-3 2 2
Depth of planting (cm) 3 3 3 3 3 3
Spacing (cm) 15 x 10 20 x 10 20 x 15 20 x 10 20 x 15 20 x 20
-2
No. of hills m 66 50 33 50 33 25

Give closer spacing (80 hills m -2) in case of light soils. Use transplanting rod to
ensure adequate population. Fill up the gaps twice between 7 and 15 days after planting.
Precautions to be followed during transplanting
 Adopt timely transplanting
 If rice root nematode is a problem, dip the seedlings in Phosphamidon 0.02%
solution for 20 minutes prior to planting. Transplant only the healthy seedlings.
 Transplant not more than 3 cm deep. Transplant 2 – 3 seedlings per hill.
 Follow close planting of 80 hills per m 2 with greater number of seedlings under
adverse conditions like
1. Planting in saline and alkaline conditions
2. Late planting
3. Low tillering varieties
 Proper plant spacing is the most important factor that decides higher yield in rice.
 In wet season, spacing should be wider than in dry season because there is a tendency
for the leaves to get wide and long that would aggravate mutual shading.
  Wider spacing will be advantageous for high tillering, tall, leafy and lodging
varieties.
Very close spacing in rice may lead to
1. Brown Plant Hopper (BPH) incidence
2. Difficulty in spraying operations
Avoid the following
 Use of over aged seedlings
 Deep transplanting
 Unevenness of the field
 Poor incorporation of basal fertilizers
Gap filling
To ensure optimum plant population, gap filling of seedlings is very essential. It
can be done using excess seedlings that are kept for the purpose. Gap filling may be carried
out on 7th to 10th day after transplanting (DAT) under adequate moisture conditions.
Study Question
Narrate your experience of transplanting.
 Ex. No. 8 Date:
SYSTEM OF RICE INTENSIFICATION (SRI)
System of Rice Intensification Method (SRI)
The system of rice intensification (SRI) was developed through the work of
Fr. Henri de Laulanie, S.J., a social worker who lived in Madagascar. He developed this
technique by working closely with farmers and from observing rice plants very closely.
The System of Rice Intensification (SRI) is a synergistic management strategy with set of
principles, which proposes suitable alternatives to the existing practices in rice farming. It
modifies the conventional plant-soil-water-nutrient management strategies for increasing
rice production. The following are the four vital components of SRI.
Planting
Planting Time
Younger seedlings usually 8-12 days old and not more than 15 days old raised in
dapog nursery are transplanted under SRI. This preserves potential for tillering and rooting
that is reduced if transplanted 15 days after emergence.
Planting density
Seedlings are transplanted singly and carefully to cause minimum trauma to the
young plants. Roots are laid in the soil gently and horizontally rather than being plunged
downwards into the soil, which inverts the roots tips.
Plant Spacing
Transplant the seedlings in a square pattern with wider spacing of at least 25x25 cm
and even wider up to 50x50 cm if soil and other conditions are supportive. This gives room
for both root and canopy growth. It facilitates mechanical weeding and aeration of the soil.
The main field preparation is not done differently from regular irrigated rice
cultivation, though leveling should be done carefully so that water can be applied very easily.
Irrigation
The soil is kept moist and not inundated during vegetative growth phase, so that the
soil is aerated. This exposes the field to sun during the day, and opens to the air for both
oxygen and nitrogen. Once roots are well established, irrigation can be skipped for 3-6 days at
a time to stress the plant and encourage downward root growth. Fields are dried to the point of
surface cracking, though not causing deep desiccation. In the reproductive phase, 1-3cm of
water is kept continuously on the field so that water is continuously available to the plant.
Fields are drained 25 days before harvest.
Weeding
Weeding is effected from 10 days after transplanting using a conoweeder to and fro
motion that churns up the surface soil to incorporate weeds and provides additional
aeration. At least 2 weeding are necessary, but 3, 4 or even 5 are recommended until the
canopy closes so that weeding is no longer necessary.
Merits of SRI Techniques
 Early and shallow transplanting of seedlings results in less trauma to the plant and
quick recovery from the shock of transplanting.
 Reduced intra plant competition as seedlings are transplanted singly.
 Wider spacing adopted results in reduced seed rate, minimal inter plant competition
and enhanced root development resultantly in better nutrient uptake.
 Square pattern of planting facilities mechanical weeding.
 Water management in SRI contributes the aeration in the root zone, reduced
degeneration of roots and water saving.
 Conoweeding results in aeration to the root zone, replenishment of nutrients to the
soil and in labour saving.
 Nutrient management of SRI promotes soil sustainability in the long run.
Demerits of SRI Technique
 Younger seedlings are unable to withstand heavy downpour at transplanting while
conventional seedlings can.
 Train the labourers for shallow and square planting is a cumbersome process.
 Limited irrigation results in reduced yields in the dry season.
Study Question
Collect an article regarding SRI and write the results.
 Ex. No. 9 Date:
FERTILIZER MANAGEMENT IN RICE
The management of fertilizer is one of the important factors in achieving the maximum
yield of rice. The following are the important steps to attain sustained yield in rice.
 Apply 12.5 tonnes of FYM or 6.25 tonnes green manure per hectare and spread the
manure uniformly over the dry field before letting in the water for puddling.
 Try to apply the fertilizer as per the Soil Test Laboratory recommendation
 If STL recommendation is not possible, then blanket recommendation can be adopted
as follows
Sl. Duration Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium
No. (kg ha-1) (kg ha-1) (kg ha-1)
1 Short Duration Varieties 150 50 50
2 Medium and Long Duration Varieties 150 50 50
3 Hybrids 175 60 60
 Nitrogen losses in the soil occur mainly through denitrification, ammonia
volatilization, ammonia fixation, leaching and immobilization. To reduce these losses
split application is preferable. Potassium shall also be applied in splits to ensure better
utility by the crop especially at the time of flowering stage.

Phenological stages of rice (days after sowing)

Stages Short (105) Medium (135) Long (150)

Active Tillering (AT) 35-40 50-55 55-60

Panicle Initiation (PI) 45-50 70-75 85-90

Heading(H) 70-75 100-105 115-120

Split application of N and K

Apply N and K in four equal splits viz., basal, tillering, panicle initiation and heading
stages. As tillering and panicle initiation stages are crucial, the recommended quantity
of fertilizers should not be reduced.
N management through LCC may be adopted wherever chart is available as given
below
N management through LCC
Time of application is decided by LCC score
Take observations from 14 DAT in transplanted or 21 DAS in direct seeded rice
Repeat the observations at weekly intervals up to heading
Observe the leaf colour in the fully opened third leaf from the top as index-leaf.
Match the leaf color with the colours in chart during morning hours (8-10am).
Take observation in 10 places
LCC critical value is 3.0 in low N response cultures like white ponni and 4.0 in
other cultivars and hybrids
When 6/10 observations show less than the critical colour value. N can be applied
@ 35kg N/ha in dry season and 30kg N/ha in wet season per application per ha.
Application of P fertilizer
P may be applied as basal and incorporated.
When the green manure is applied, rock phosphate can be used as a cheap source of
P fertilizer. If rock phosphate is applied, the succeeding rice crop need not be supplied with
P. Application of rock phosphate + single super phosphate or DAP mixed in different
proportions (75.25 or 50.50) is equally effective as SSP or DAP alone.
Application of zinc sulphate
Apply 25 kg of zinc sulphate mixed with 50 kg dry sand just before transplanting.
It is enough to apply zinc sulphate @ 12.5 kg ha -1, if green manure (6.25 t ha-1) or
enriched FYM, is applied.
If deficiency symptom appears, foliar application of 0.5% Zinc sulphate + 1.0%
urea can be given at 15 days interval until the Zn deficiency symptoms disappear.
Application of gypsum
Apply 500 kg ha-1 of gypsum (as source of Ca and S nutrients) at last ploughing.
Foliar nutrition
Foliar spray of 1% urea + 2% DAP + 1% KCl at panicle initiation and 10 days later
for all varieties.
Study Questions
1. What is slow-release N fertilizer and discuss the advantages with examples?
2. What are the nutrient deficiency symptoms in rice?
 Ex. No. 10 Date:
PRACTICING GROWTH ANALYSIS IN RICE
Growth is a characteristic of life. It is the fore most symbolization of life in action.
Growth continues till the end of an organism. The capacity to change in size, mass, form
and number is an essential feature of life and the term growth refers to an irreversible
change in any or all of the above forms which occur due to cell division and differentiation
ultimately result in increase in total dry matter. The term growth analysis is used to account
for the factors that have functional or structural significance. The type of growth analysis
requires measurement of plant biomass and assimilatory area and methods of computing
parameters that describe growth.
The major growth parameters are
1. Plant height
2. Number of tillers
3. Leaf area index
4. Dry matter production
Plant height
It is measured in the primary tillers from the base of the plant to the tip of the
largest leaves stretched. The height may be taken at 20, 40, 60 DAT and at harvest. It is
expressed in cm.
Number of tillers
Tillers are produced after transplanting the seedlings in the main field. The no. of
tillers can be increased by applying N fertilizer. In each plot 4 quadrants each of 0.25-m2
area are placed at random on 20, 40, 60 days after transplanting and at harvest and the total
tillers are counted and expressed as no. m-2.
Leaf area index
It can be calculated by using the following formula.
Leaf area =LxWxK
Where,
L-Length of 3rd leaf from top of the primary tillers
W-Maximum width of the same leaf
K-Constant factor (0.75)
Total leaf area per hill=Leaf area per leaf x No. of leaves/tiller x No. of tillers/hill

Total leaf area (cm) X K

Leaf area index =
Spacing (cm)

Dry matter production

In each plot outside the quadrant plot within the sampling row, 5 hills are selected
at random. Cut the tiller close to the ground level and chop it and dry it in a hot air oven at
80ºC for 72 hours. Dry weight of samples are recorded at 20, 40, 60 DAT and at harvest
and is expressed as Kg ha-1.
Study Question
Record the growth attributes of your rice crop at different stages.
 Ex. No. 11 Date:
WEED MANAGEMENT IN RICE

In rice, most of the labourers are engaged in weed control compared to other
operations. In addition, the yield loss due to weeds is also high. Hence efficient weed
management is essential to get higher yield. The common weed flora prevailed in different
rice ecosystems are:
Common weeds of upland rice
i. Grasses
Echinochloa colonum
Paspalum sp.
Panicum sp.
ii. Sedges
Cyperus rotundus
iii. Broad leaved weeds
Eclipta alba
Amaranthus viridis
Trianthema portulacastrum
Euphorbia prostrata
Common weeds of Lowland rice
i. Grasses
Echinochloa crus-galli
Echinochloa colonum
Panicum sp.
Brachiaria sp.
ii. Sedges
Cyperus difformis
Cyperus iria
Fimbristylis miliaceae
Scirpus sp.
iii. Broad leaved weeds
Eclipta alba
Amaranthus viridis
Ammania baccifera
Centella asiatica
Hygrographis auriculata
Ipomeoa aquatica
Ludwigia perennis
Marsilea quadrifoliata
Monochoria vaginalis
Phyla nodiflora (Syn: Lippia nodiflora)
Yield loss in various rice eco systems due to weeds
Direct seeded upland rice 50-60%
 Direct seeded puddled rice 30-35%
Transplanted lowland rice 15-20%
Critical periods of crop weed competition
Direct seeded upland rice 15-60 DAS
Direct seeded lowland rice 15-50 DAS
Direct seeded puddled rice 15-35 DAS
Transplanted lowland rice 15-35 DAT
Weed management in rice nursery
Hand weeding may be sufficient. If required, apply any one of the herbicides like
Butachlor 2 lit ha-1, Thiobencarb lit ha-1, pendimethalin 2.5 lit ha-1, anilophos 1.25 lit ha-1 on
8th DAS to control the weeds. Keep a thin film of water and allow it to disappear. Don’t
drain the water.
Pre emergence weed management for Transplanted rice
Use Butachlor 2.5 lit ha-1 or Thiobencarb 2.5 lit ha-1 or Fluchloralin 2 lit ha-1 or
Pendimethalin 3 lit ha-1 or Anilophos 1.25 lit ha-1 as pre-emergence application.
Alternately, pre-emergence application of herbicide mixture viz., Thiobencarb 1.2 lit ha-1 +
2,4 DEE 1.5 lit ha-1 or Butachlor 1.2 lit ha-1 + 2,4 DEE 1.5 lit ha-1 or Anilophos + 2,4 DEE
ready mix at 1.25 lit ha-1 followed by one hand weeding on 30-35 days after transplanting
will have a broad spectrum weed control in transplanted rice.
Any herbicide has to be mixed with 50 kg of sand on the day of application (3-4 days
after transplanting) and applied uniformly to the field in 2.5 cm depth of water. Water should
not be drained for 2 days from the field (or) fresh irrigation should not be given.
Post emergence weed management
If herbicides are not used as pre-emergence, hand weed on 15 th day after
transplanting and apply 1250 g 2,4 D sodium salt (Fernoxone 80% WP) dissolved in 625
lit ha-1 of water with a high-volume sprayer at three weeks after transplanting or when the
weeds are in 3-4 leaf stage.
Application of pre-emergence herbicide followed by one hand weeding on 35 – 40
DAT will control the weeds effectively.
Integrated Weed Management (IWM)
Integration of all the methods of weed management like cultural, biological and
chemical methods to achieve economical and efficient weed management for higher grain
yield is the latest approach of weed management in rice. The following are the several
methods adopted in IWM at right time
 Summer ploughing
 Optimum puddling
 Better leveling
 Use of clean and pure seeds
 Cleaning of bunds
 Use of well decomposed FYM
 Optimum time of sowing
 Maintaining optimum plant population
 Better water management practices
 Hand weeding
 Use of conoweeder wherever possible
 Use of suitable herbicides at right time, method and dose
Study Questions
1. Observe and record the weed species found in your plot.
2. What is the method of weed control you have followed and narrate the merits and
demerits of the same?
Ex. No. 12 Date:

WATER MANAGEMENT IN RICE

Water is the most important input in rice production. It is very critical in the
regions like Karaikal, located in the tail end of Cauvery delta zone, which depends on the
Cauvery water.
Water requirement for rice crop
Water requirement is defined as regardless of source, the quantity of water needed
to grow a crop, under field conditions. It seems that water requirement of rice crop varies
widely depending upon the soil, climate, season, varieties and management practices. A
rice crop of 100 days cultivated under lowland condition requires the following quantity of
water.
Nursery : 40 mm (3%)
Main field preparation : 200 mm (16%)
Main field requirement : 1000 mm (81%)
Total : 1240 mm (100%)
The principle involved in irrigation requirement is to meet the losses of water
through evapotranspiration, seepage, and percolation and surface drainage.
Components of water loss in rice cultivation
Evaporation loss : 180-380 mm
Transpiration loss : 200-500 mm
Percolation loss : 200-700 mm
The evaporation from the soil is higher at transplanting and this decrease when the
crop grows and covers the land area. The Evapotranspiration (ET) demand of rice crop is
very little and increases at maximum tillering stage and reaches a peak at heading stage
and then it declines. On an average, ET loss from rice crop is 6 to 11 mm per day.
Land preparation
The water requirement for land preparation varies from 200 to 400 mm depending
upon soil type. In order to soften the soil, water is applied before land preparation. After
ploughing, further irrigation is given to puddle the soil. Summer ploughing helps to
conserve the rainwater and reduce the water requirement for land preparation.
Measures to reduce percolation loss of water in the rice field
 Growing of rice in large blocks instead of isolated small holdings
 Proper land leveling
 Better land puddling
 Compaction of soil
 Embedding a polythene sheet at 30 cm depth
 Application of bitumen, asphalt etc.
 Addition of heavy clay from soils at lower end of the slope
 Addition of 1-2% bentonite with small quantities of calcium chloride and sodium
carbonate
Water management in nursery
 Seeds are sown in field with thin film of water
 Drain the water on the next day or 18-24 hours after sowing
 Germination will be affected if there is water stagnation
 Keep the beds moist, but not flooded for few days
 For 3-5 days, allow water to saturate the soil
 From 5th day onwards, increase the depth of water to 1.5cm depth
 After 10-15 days, allow 2.5 cm of water in the nursery
 Avoid algal problem by maintaining minimum water until the seedlings are well
established
Water management in the main field
At the time of transplanting, a shallow depth of 2 cm of water is adequate since
high depth of water will lead to deep transplanting resulting in reduction in tiller
production. Up to seven days of transplanting maintain 2 cm of water. During this period,
establishment of seedlings takes place. After the establishment stage, cyclic submergence
(as in table) of water is the best practice for rice crop. This cyclic 5 cm submergence has
to be continued throughout the period.
Moisture stress due to inadequate water at rooting and tillering stage causes poor
root growth leading to reduction in tillering and ultimately lower grain yield. Excess water
due to rainfall to more than 5 cm depth at booting stage will lead to delay in heading and
reduction in the growth of panicles. Under such situation, provide adequate drainage
facilities to drain excess water. Stop irrigation 10-15 days ahead of harvest.
Critical stages of water requirement
Critical stages of water requirement in rice are a) primordial initiation, b) booting,
c) heading and d) flowering. During these stages, the irrigation interval should not exceed
the stipulated time.
Contingent plan/ drought management in rice
 Summer ploughing – reduce the water requirement to 50 % in land preparation
 Semi dry rice/ direct sown rice – in command areas, anticipating the release of
water from the river through canals, rice crop can be raised under semi dry
condition up to 45 DAS. After the receipt of canal water, the crop can be converted
to wet condition. This saves about 30-40 per cent of water.
 Community nursery – wherever possible, some farmers may jointly prepare the rice
nursery in the water available area, this also saves water to some extent.
 Selection of short duration varieties and drought tolerant varieties
 Seed hardening with 1% Potassium chloride (KCl).
 Proper puddling and land leveling
 Adoption of SRI technique can save water up to 20-40 per cent
 Alternate wetting and drying
 Foliar application of 1% KCl or 3% Kaolin to overcome moisture stress
 Foliar application of 1000 ppm Cycocel under water stress condition
Precautions during irrigation
 The field can be of 30-50 cents depending upon the source of irrigation
 Field to field irrigation should be avoided.
 Small bund may be formed parallel to the field at a distance of 30-45 cm within the
field to avoid leakage of water through main bund crevices
 To minimize percolation loss, the water depth should be 5 cm or less
 In canal command area, conjunctive use of surface and ground water may be
resorted to for judicious use of canal water and to guard against water logging.
Study Question
Adoption of SRI technique can save water up to 20-40%. Justify.
Ex. No. 13 Date:
INSECT PEST MANAGEMENT IN RICE
The major insect pests affecting rice and their management approaches are
hereunder
S. No Name of the Management approaches
Pest

1 Stem borer and Release of Trichogramma japonicum on 30 and 37 DAT

leaf folder (twice) and T. chilonis on 37, 44 and 51 DAT (thrice) followed
by three sprays of Monocrotophos 36 WSC 1000 ml/ha on 58,
65 and 72 DAT reduces the damage. The sprayings are based
on ETL. Release of Trichogramma japonicum against stem
borer is effective at 5 ml/ha/release at weekly intervals.
If 2% white ears at initial flowering are noticed apply any one
of the insecticides suggested for stem borer (dead heart)
control.
2 Gall midge Release of Platygaster oryzae parasitised galls @ 1 per 10 m 2
of the main field at 10 days after transplanting gives effective
control
3 Brown Plant Avoid excessive use of nitrogen. Control irrigation by
Hopper (BPH) intermittent draining. Drain the water before use of
insecticides and direct the spray towards the base of the plants.
Apply any one of the following insecticides if BPH is present
at the rate of 1 hopper/tiller in the absence of wolf spider and 2
hoppers per tiller when wolf spider at 1/hill. Phosphomidon
85 WSC @ 500 ml; Monocrotophos 36 EC @ 1250 ml;
Phosalone 35 EC @ 1500 ml; Carbaryl 10% dust 25 kg/ha;
Methyl dematon 25 EC @ 1000 ml/ha; Acephate 75 SP @ 625
g/ha; Chloripyriphos 1250 ml/ha; Carbofuran 3G 17.5 kg/ha;
Neem oil 3% @15 lit; Illuppai oil 6% @30 lit.
4 Leaf folder When 10% leaves are damaged in the vegetative phase and 5%
of flag leaf damage is noticed at flowering, spray any one of
the following: Phosphomidan 85 WSC 300 ml;
Monocrotophos 36 EC 1000 ml; Phosalone 35 EC 1500 ml;
Carbaryl 50 WP 1.0 kg/ha; Chloripyriphos 20 EC 1250 ml/ha;
Fenitrothion 50 EC 1000 ml; Quinalphos 25 EC 1000 ml/ha;
Fenthion 100 EC 500 ml/ha; Dichlorvos 76 WSC 250 ml/ha;
Neem seed kernal extract 5% 25 kg/ha.
5 Mealy bug Spray any one of the following in the initial stage of
infestation Phosphamidon 85 WSC 3000 ml; Fenitrothion 50
EC 1000 ml; Phosalone 35 EC 1500 ml; Dimethoate 30 EC
500 ml
 6 Ear head bug When present at the rate of 5 bugs/ 100 earheads at flowering
and 16 bugs/100 earheads at milky stage to grain maturity,
dust any one of the following at 25 kg/ha twice, the first during
flowering and second a week later:
Quinalphos 1.5 D; Carbaryl 10 D; Fentrothion 2 D;
Malathion 5 D or Spray any one of the following twice as
above Monocrotophos 36 WSC 500 ml/ha; Fenthion 100 EC
500 ml/ha; Fenitrothion 50 EC 1000 ml/ha; Malathion 50 EC
500 ml/ha.
Botanical powder formulations viz., NSK, Notchi leaf powder
extract, Ipomoea leaf powder and Prosophis leaf powder are
effective in reducing the earhead bug population
7 Rat Use poison bait at 1 part Zinc phosphide with 49 parts of
popped corn/rice/dry fish or Warfarin 0.5% 1 part with 19
parts of popped corn/rice/dry fish or Bromodiolone 0.25 w/w
(1:49) at 0.005%. Use bait at one part of Bromodiolone + 49
parts of bait and keep inside the field. Setting up of owl
perches effectively reduces the rat damage.

Study Questions
1. Mention the insect pests, which you have noticed in your plot?
2. Narrate the management strategies for the above pests.
Ex. No. 14 Date:
DISEASE MANAGEMENT IN RICE

S. No Name of the Disease Management approaches

1 Blast Seed treatment with Cerasan @ 2-2.5 g/kg (or)

2 Brown spot
3 Stem rot
4 Sheath blight
5 Bacterial leaf blight
6 Bacterial leaf streak
7 Tungro virus
8 Khaira disease
Dithane M 45 @ 2.5 kg/lit of water. Resistant
varieties: IR 8, Jaya
Seed treatment with Cerasan or Agrasan @ 2-
2.5 g/kg (or) 75% Thiram
Apply organo mercurial @ 4 kg/ha at the base
of the plants. Burn straw and stubble
Seed treatment with 75% Thiram, soil
application of 25 kg/ha PCNB. Reduce N and
effective spacing.
Seed treatment by soaking it for 12 hours in a
mixed solution of Streptocycline 0.015% Hot
water treatment at 52-54 C for 30 mins
A mixture of Streptocycline 10 g/ha and COC
290 g/ha (or) Agromycin 50 g/ha (or) Carboxin
0.15-0.3 % sprayed.
Spray Thimet to decrease the insect vector
population. Slurry treatment of seed with
Furadan 75 WP @ 1.3 g/100g seed
Soak seedlings over night in Zinc Sulphate
solution 0.4% (or) spray mixture of 5 kg Zinc
sulphate + 2.5 kg lime/ha.

Study Questions
1. Mention the diseases which you have noticed in your plot?
2. Narrate the management strategies for the above diseases.
 Ex. No. 15 Date:
RECORDING YIELD ATTRIBUTES AND ESTIMATION OF YIELD IN RICE

The major yield attributes of rice are

Number of productive tillers m-2
Number of grains panicle-1
1000-grain weight (g)

Number of productive tillers m-2

Four quadrats each of 0.25 m2 area are selected at random in each plot and the
panicle bearing tillers are counted and expressed in number m-2.

Number of grains per panicle

The number of filled grains in 10 panicles is counted and mean value is worked out
and expressed as number of grains per panicle

Thousand grain weight

From each plot, one thousand grains are counted, weighed and expressed in grams.

The yield of rice can be estimated by the following formula

Grain yield No. of panicles m-2 x No. of grains panicle-1 x 1000 grain wt (g) x 10,000
=
(t ha-1) 1000 x 1000

Study Question
Record the above yield attributes and estimate the theoretical yield of rice crop for your
plot area.
Ex. No. 16 Date:

HARVESTING AND POST HARVEST TECHNOLOGIES IN RICE

Harvesting is the process of reaping out the economical part from the plant. The
method of harvest varies from crop to crop depending upon the economical part. In case of
rice, harvesting is done by cutting the whole plant leaving 10 cm from the ground level.
The harvested produce is bundled, transported to the thrashing floor.
Ascertaining the time of harvest
The appropriate stage of harvest in paddy has a tremendous influence on the field
yield of paddy and the yield of raw rice. Rice is mostly preferred in the form of head rice
or whole kernel. The delayed harvest in paddy crop leads to the formation of cracked
kernels or sun checks. The preferred stage of harvest is when a few grains in the lower part
of the panicle are green and the approximate moisture content of grains is 20-22 per cent.
Harvesting should be done when the crop attains physiological maturity. Physiological
maturity denotes the expression of senescence by the crop. In this process the source looses
the photosynthates and shows yellowing. The sink (i.e) economical part collects all the
photosynthates and thereby completes the life cycle of the plant.
Threshing
Mechanical threshers are used for threshing in case of grain crop, while hand
threshing is preferable for seed crop. Two beatings per bundle are recommended for seed
crop. Later tractor threshing can be done to remove the left-over grains.
Winnowing
It is the process of separating the grains from stones, inert materials, dust etc. Mechanical
thresher compiles the whole process of threshing, winnowing, cleaning and grading. The
winnowed grains are sun dried for 2 or 3 days depending upon the moisture. The moisture
recommended for storage purpose with respect to seed crop is 12% and grain crop is 14%.
The storage of paddy is normally done for a period of six months to one year.
However, paddy stored for more than a year and up to three years is considered to be
valuable, especially in case of Basmati. If the moisture content of stored paddy is above 14
per cent or if the ambient humidity is more than 70 per cent, the grains get heated up,
germinate and become discoloured. They are also infected with microbes, leading to
caking up of grains and production of aflatoxin. When the grain is infested with insects,
even slight nibbling by the larvae weakens the rice kernel, resulting in more brokens.
Parboiling and milling of paddy
The paddy is soaked in water for hydration, steamed for thermal treatment to obtain
gelatinization and then dried. Thus, parboiling hardens the grain and the cracks or sun
checks in the kernel are fused due to which the milling quality is improved yielding 2 per
cent more of rice out turn. This is the major advantage in parboiled rice, apart from some
of the nutritional improvement. Hence, one fifth of the world paddy production and 50 per
cent in India is estimated to be parboiled.
Milling of paddy is the mechanical removal of husk to yield brown rice and in turn
polish the brown rice to remove some amount of bran and yield milled rice. This can be
done by hand pounding or using a huller with metal shaft or by rubber rolls followed by
friction or emery polishers. The extent of polish given to brown rice is generally 5-6 per
cent so that the rice is nutritious and safe for insect free storage, as brown rice is highly
susceptible to insects. However, in the commercial market, rice is polished even 8-10 per
cent to make it white and shiny in appearance which reduce the outturn and nutritional
quality. The polish should be in two or three passes with a bran removal of 2-3 per cent in
each pass. The initial polish can be given by an abrasive polisher and the final one with a
friction polisher. Silky rice can be produced by humidified polisher or water mist polisher.
Grading and removal of discolored rice can be done by using a colour sorter.
Study Question
Practice the harvesting of rice and describe the same.
 Ex. No.17 Date:

ECONOMICS OF RICE CULTIVATION

The following parameters are used in working out the economics of rice
cultivation.
1. Total cost of cultivation
2. Total income
3. Net income or net profit
4. Benefit-cost ratio (BCR)
5. Returns per rupee invested

Total cost of cultivation

All the cost involved for cultivation is added. It involves cost of all inputs (seed,
fertilizers, chemicals etc.), land preparation charges, transplanting, weeding, application of
fertilizers, plant protection chemicals etc. harvesting and other charges.

Total income
It includes the income from grain and straw.
Total income = (Grain yield (kg/ha) x Value of grain (Rs/kg)) +
(Straw yield (kg/ha) x (Value of straw (Rs/kg)

Net profit
It is calculated as follows
Net profit = Total income – Total cost of cultivation

Benefit cost ratio

B: C ratio = Total income / Total cost

Returns per rupee invested

Returns per rupee invested = Net profit / Total cost
 Table. Cost of cultivation of rice (Rs. /ha)
Labour
S. No. Name of the operation Machinery Inputs Amount
A B
I. Nursery
1. Nursery preparation
Ploughing
FYM
Fertilizer
2. Seeds and sowing
Cost of seed
Seed treatment
Sowing
3. Irrigation
4. Plant protection
II. Main field
1. Land preparation
Ploughing
Puddling
Trimming and plastering
Levelling
2. Manures and fertilizers
FYM
Urea
Single super phosphate
Muriate of potash
Bio fertilizer
Application cost
3. Transplanting
Pulling out of seedlings
Transplanting
4. Weed management
First hand weeding
Second hand weeding
Herbicides if any
5. Irrigation management
Number of irrigations
6. Plant protection
7. Harvesting and Post harvest
operations
Harvesting
Threshing and drying
Total
Study Question
Work out the cost of cultivation of rice in the given format.