4B. Operational Amplifiers 2024

Operational Amplifiers
Operation and application
C Kawerawera
2/28/2024 ANALOGUE DESIGN 1

Operational Amplifier

Applications
Some of the elements used in signal conditioning are:

1. Amplifiers
Inverting amplifiers
Non-inverting amplifiers
Summing amplifiers
Differential amplifiers(Voltage subtracting)
Integrating amplifiers
Differentiating amplifiers
Instrumentation Op-Amp
2. Comparators
3. Pulse Width Modulation(PWM)
4. Filters
Low pass filter
High pass filter
Band pass filter
Band reject filter (Notch filter)
•

AMPLIFIERS
An amplifier is a device which increases the magnitude

of a signal presented at its input.
Electronic amplifiers must have the following desirable

characteristics:
1. The frequency response should be at least as good as

that of the transducer
2. The amplifier should have a high input impedance to
minimize the loading effect
3. The amplifier should have a low output impedance so
that the recording device does not load the amplifier
4. The amplifier should have high open loop voltage gain
•

The basis for many signal conditioning circuits
is an Operational Amplifier because it meets
the characteristics mentioned above.

•

Equivalent circuit, 741 op-amp

Op-Amp Introduction
• Op-amps (amplifiers/buffers in general) are drawn as a
triangle in a circuit schematic
• There are two inputs
– inverting and non-inverting
• And one output
• Dual power connections (note no explicit ground)
• An op – amp amplifies the difference of the inputs
divot on pin-1 end

V+
2  7
inverting input 6
output
non-inverting input +
3 4
V

Op Amp characteristics

Input currents:
Due to biasing requirements or leakage, a small amount of current

(typically ~10 nanoamperes for bipolar op-amps, tens of picoamperes (pA)
for JFET input stages, and only a few pA for MOSFET input stages) flows
into the inputs.
When large resistors or sources with high output impedances are used in
the circuit, these small currents can produce large unmodeled voltage
drops.
If the input currents are matched, and the impedance

looking out of both inputs are matched, then the voltages produced at each
input will be equal.
Because the operational amplifier operates on the difference between its

inputs, these matched voltages will have no effect. It is more common for
the input currents to be slightly mismatched. The difference is called
input offset current.
•

Input offset voltage
This is a voltage which is required across the op-amp's input terminals to

drive the output voltage to zero.
In the perfect amplifier, there would be no input offset voltage. However,

it exists in actual op-amps because of imperfections in the differential
amplifier that constitutes the input stage of the vast majority of these
devices.
Input offset voltage creates two problems:

1. Due to the amplifier's high voltage gain, it virtually assures that the
amplifier output will go into saturation if it is operated without negative
feedback, even when the input terminals are wired together.
2. In a closed loop, negative feedback configuration, the input offset

voltage is amplified along with the signal and this may pose a problem if
high precision DC amplification is required or if the input signal is very
small.
•

• Two main assumptions:
• The open loop gain is equal to  which means
that the two terminals are at the same potential
v2 = v1.
0
• The input resistance is equal to  , hence there

is no current going into the op-amp. The two
terminals draw zero current

MODE OF OPERATION
A. DIFFERENTIAL MODE
1. Single-ended differential mode.
Single-ended input operation results when the input signal is
connected to one input with the other input connected to ground.

B. COMMON MODE OPERATION
The same input signal is applied to both inputs
Since noise (any unwanted input signal) is generally common to both

inputs, the differential connection tends to provide attenuation of
this unwanted input while providing an amplified output of the
difference signal applied to the inputs.
•
Open-loop configuration
• AOL is the open-loop voltage gain of OPAMP
Its value is very high
So, even if input is in micro volts, output will
be in volts
• But output voltage cannot cross the value of
power supply VCC
• So, if input is in milli volts, output reaches
saturation value Vsat = VCC (or VEE)

• If v1 = v2, then ideally output should be zero
• But in practical Op-Amp, output is
 v1  v 2 
v o  Acm  
 2 
Where, ACM is the common-mode gain of Op-
Amp
• So, final gain equation is:
 v1  v 2 
v o  Ad v1  v 2   Acm  
 2 
v o  Adv id  Acmv icm
• Common-mode rejection ratio
– It is a measure of the ability of Op-Amp to
reject the signals common to both input
terminals (noise)
– Defined as
Ad
CMRR 
Acm
 Ad 
CMRR dB  20 log10  
 Acm 
1. Calculate the gain of the amplifier (a)
2. Calculate the output voltage VO of the operational amplifier circuit as
shown in figure(b)
Gain = - (R2 / R1) = -(150/12) = -12.5

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21/02/2024

Design an inverting amplifier with a specified voltage gain.
.
Assume the op-
Design the circuit such that the voltage gain is 𝐴𝑉 = −5
amp is driven by an ideal sinusoidal source, 𝑣𝑆 = 0.1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑉 , that
can supply a maximum current of 5 μA. Assume that frequency ω is
low so that any frequency effects can be neglected
𝒗𝑺 𝟎. 𝟏
𝒊𝟏 = 𝑹𝟏 = = 𝟐𝟎 𝒌Ω
𝑹𝟏 𝟓𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟔
𝑹𝟐
𝑨𝒗 = − = −𝟓
𝑹𝟏
𝑹𝟐 = 𝟓𝑹𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒌Ω

If the signal source has a finite output resistance 𝑹𝑺 = 𝟏 𝒌Ω and the
desired output voltage is 𝑣𝑂 = −0.5 sin 𝜔𝑡, with a load resistor
𝑹𝑳 = 𝑹𝟒 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒌Ω and a dual power supply of 1de5 V resign the circuit.
𝟎. 𝟏
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝑺 = = 𝟐𝟎 𝒌Ω
𝟓𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟔
𝑹𝟏 = 𝟏𝟗 𝒌Ω
𝑹𝟐 = 𝟓 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝑺 = 𝟓𝒙𝟐𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒌Ω

Non- inverting amplifier
𝑹𝟏
𝒗𝒊 = 𝒗+ = 𝒗− = 𝒗
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑶
𝒗𝑶 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟐
𝑨𝑽 = = =𝟏+
𝑽𝒊 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟏

Non-inverting Amplifier
Find V0 for the following op amp configuration.

2 k Vx 6𝑘
+ 𝑉𝑋 = 4𝑉 =3𝑉

8𝑘
_
+
10 k 10𝑘
+_ 4 V 6 k a 𝑉𝑂 = 1 + 3𝑉 = 9 𝑉
5𝑘
V0
5 k
_

Exercise
1. Design a noninverting amplifier such that the
closed-loop gain is Av = 10. The maximum
resistance is to be 180 k and the output
voltage is to be in the range −9 ≤ Vo ≤ +9 V.
2. Repeat part (1) for a closed-loop gain of Av =

5. The maximum current in any resistor is to be
limited to 100μA when the output voltage is in
the range −5 ≤ Vo ≤ +5V

Solutions
• .(1) R2 = 180 k, R1 = 20 k;
• (2) R2 = 40 k, R1 = 10 k

Multiple-Stage Gains

Isolation or Voltage Follower.
Applications arise in which we wish to connect one
circuit to another without the first circuit loading the
second. This requires that we connect to a “block” that
has infinite input impedance and zero output impedance.
An operational amplifier does a good job of
approximating this.
+ +
The
Circuit 1 Vin Vout Circuit 2
_
"Block" _

The B l ock
+ +
Ci rcui t 1 Vi n V0 Ci rcui t 2
_ _
It is easy to see that: V0 = Vin

Isolation with gain.
20 k
+
_
+
+ Vin 10 k
_
a V0
+
10 k
Vin _
_
Using voltage divider rule on the output gives;

V0  2Vin

Summing Amplifier
Similarly,
i1 + i2 + i3 – i4 – 0 = 0

Summing Op-Amp Circuit Design
• The summing op-amp can be designed

such that the output is;
• 𝒗𝒐 = −𝒂𝟏 𝒗𝑰𝟏 − 𝒂𝟐 𝒗𝑰𝟐 + 𝒂𝟑 𝒗𝑰𝟑 + 𝒂𝟒 𝒗𝑰𝟒
• where the coefficients 𝑎1 are all
positive.
• Resistor 𝑅𝐶 provides more versatility
in the design.

SUMMING OP AMP CIRCUIT DESIGN
To determine the output voltage of our circuit, we use superposition
𝑹𝑭
𝒗𝑶 𝒗𝑰𝟏 = − 𝒗
𝑹𝟏 𝑰𝟏
𝑹𝑭
𝒗𝑶 𝒗𝑰𝟐 =− 𝒗
𝑹𝟐 𝑰𝟐

We then determine the output due to 𝒗𝑰𝟑 , with all other inputs set equal
to zero
𝑹𝑩 ‖𝑹𝑪
𝒗𝟐 𝒗𝑰𝟑 = 𝒗 = 𝒗𝟏 𝒗𝑰𝟑
𝑹𝑨 + 𝑹𝑩 ‖𝑹𝑪 𝑰𝟑
Notice that Since 𝒗𝑰𝟏 = 𝒗𝑰𝟐 = 𝟎, the voltage 𝒗𝟐 𝒗𝑰𝟑 is the input to a
noninverting op-amp with R1 and R2 in parallel. Therefore,
𝑹𝑭 𝑹𝑭 𝑹𝑩 ‖𝑹𝑪
𝒗𝑶 𝒗𝑰𝟑 = 𝟏 + 𝒗𝟏 𝒗𝑰𝟑 = 𝟏 + 𝒗
𝑹𝟏 ‖𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟏 ‖𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝑨 + 𝑹𝑩 ‖𝑹𝑪 𝑰𝟑
𝑹𝑭 𝑹𝑷
𝒗𝑶 𝒗𝑰𝟑 = 𝟏 + 𝒗
𝑹𝑵 𝑹𝑨 𝑰𝟑
𝑹𝑵 = 𝑹𝟏 ‖𝑹𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑹𝑷 = 𝑹𝑨 ‖𝑹𝑩 ‖𝑹𝑪
𝑹𝑭 𝑹𝑷
𝒗𝑶 𝒗𝑰𝟒 = 𝟏 + 𝒗
𝑹𝑵 𝑹𝑩 𝑰𝟒
𝑹𝑭 𝑹𝑭 𝑹𝑭 𝑹 𝑷 𝑹𝑷
𝒗𝑶 = − 𝒗 − 𝒗 + 𝟏+ 𝒗 + 𝒗
𝑹𝟏 𝑰𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝑵 𝑹𝑨 𝑰𝟑 𝑹𝑩 𝑰𝟒 •

•

•

• Design a summing op-amp to produce the output
• 𝒗𝑶 = −𝟏𝟎𝒗𝑰𝟏 − 𝟒𝒗𝑰𝟐 + 𝟓𝒗𝑰𝟑 + 𝟐𝒗𝑰𝟒
• The smallest resistor value allowable is 𝟐𝟎 𝒌𝜴, choose 𝑹𝑨 =

𝟖𝟎 𝒌Ω.
• Solution:
– 𝑹𝟏 = 𝟐𝟎 𝒌Ω 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑹𝑭 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒌Ω
– 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟓𝟎 𝒌Ω 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑹𝑪 = 𝟓𝟎 𝒌Ω.
– 𝑹𝑩 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒌Ω 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑹𝑷 = 𝟐𝟔. 𝟔𝟕 𝒌Ω

•

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23/02/2024

1. Voltage subtracting amplifier.
2. Integrator and Differentiator
3. Current to voltage and voltage to current converters

Voltage Subtracting Amplifiers.
These are in instrumentation amplifiers, voltage

comparators, PWM, etc

Voltage Subtraction
Using superposition

R2 i1
i1 R1 v
v1 -
v vo
v2 +
R1
R2
𝑹𝟐
𝒗𝑶 = 𝒗𝟐 − 𝒗𝟏
𝑹𝟏

Integrator
The process of integration involves the accumulation of signal over
time and therefore, sudden changes in the signal are suppressed,
thus it can be viewed as a low pass filter.
They may be used in analogue to digital conversion
Integrator circuit

Integrator with more inputs

Differentiator
The process of differentiation involves the identification of sudden
changes in the input signal or detecting high frequency components in the
input signal.
Constant and slowly changing signals are suppressed, therefore a

differentiator can be viewed as high pass filter.

Current-to-Voltage Converter
• The output of a device or circuit is a current In some

situations. Eg the output of a photodiode or
photodetector.
• Hence, it will be needed to convert this output

current to an output voltage.

•

• Where the input resistance Ri at
the virtual ground node is;
𝒗𝒊
• 𝑹𝒊 = ≅𝟎
𝒊𝟏
• We can assume that 𝑅𝑆 ≫ 𝑅𝑖 ;
therefore, current 𝑖1 is essentially
equal to the signal current 𝑖𝑆 .
Then,
• 𝑣𝑂 = −𝑖2 𝑅𝐹 = −𝑖𝑆 𝑅𝐹
• What conclusion do we draw from
this?

• The output voltage is directly
proportional to the signal current, and
• The feedback resistance RF is the

magnitude of the ratio of the output
voltage to the signal current.

Voltage to current converter

VOLTAGE TO CURRENT CONVERTER
Given that 𝑹𝑳 = 𝑹 show that 𝑽𝒊𝒏 = 𝑰𝑳 𝑹 and determine the gain
𝑹
𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑽 𝑽𝑶 = 𝟐𝑽𝟏 = 𝟐𝑽𝟐
𝟐𝑹 𝑶
𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 = 𝑰𝑳
𝑽𝒊𝒏 − 𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝑶 − 𝑽𝟏
+ = 𝑰𝑳
𝑹 𝑹
𝟏
𝑽 − 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝑶 − 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑰𝑳
𝑹 𝒊𝒏
𝑽𝒊𝒏 − 𝟐𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝑶 = 𝑰𝑳 𝑹
𝑽𝒊𝒏 = 𝑰𝑳 𝑹
𝑹
𝑨=𝟏+ =𝟐
𝑹

Voltage-to-Current Converter
• we may want to drive
a coil in a magnetic
circuit with a given
current, using a
voltage source.
• We could use the
inverting op-amp
shown.

. 𝒊𝟑 = 𝒊𝑳 + 𝒊𝟒
𝒗𝑶 − 𝒊𝑳 𝒁𝑳 𝒊 𝑳 𝒁𝑳
= 𝒊𝑳 +
𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟐
𝑹𝟑
𝒗𝑶 − 𝒊𝑳 𝒁𝑳 = 𝒊𝑳 𝑹𝟑 + 𝒊 𝒁
𝑹𝟐 𝑳 𝑳
𝑹𝑭 𝑹𝟑
𝒊𝑳 𝒁𝑳 − 𝒗𝑰 = 𝒊𝑳 𝑹𝟑 + 𝒊 𝒁
𝒗𝑰 − 𝒗𝟏 𝒗𝟏 − 𝒗𝑶 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑳 𝑳
𝒊𝟏 = = 𝒊𝟐 =
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝑭 𝑹𝑭 𝑹𝑭 𝒊 𝑳 𝒁𝑳
𝒊 𝑳 𝒁𝑳 − 𝒗𝟏 = 𝒊𝑳 +
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟐
𝒗𝟏 = 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒗𝑳 = 𝒊𝑳 𝒁𝑳
𝑹 𝑭 𝒁𝑳 𝒁𝑳 𝑹𝑭 𝒗𝑰
𝒗𝑰 − 𝒊𝑳 𝒁𝑳 𝒊𝑳 𝒁𝑳 − 𝒗𝑶 𝒊𝑳 −𝟏− =
= 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝑭
𝑰𝒏 𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒐 𝒎𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒊𝑳 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒁𝑳
𝒊𝑳 𝒁𝑳 − 𝑽𝑰 𝒗𝑶 − 𝒊𝑳 𝒁𝑳 𝑹𝑭 𝟏
= 𝒘𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒁𝑳 = 𝟎 𝒐𝒓 =
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝑭 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 𝑹 𝟐
𝑹𝑭 𝒗𝑰
𝑹𝑭 𝒊𝑳 = −𝒗𝑰 =−
𝒗𝑶 − 𝒊 𝑳 𝒁 𝑳 =
•
𝒊 𝒁 − 𝒗𝑰 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟐
𝑹𝟏 𝑳 𝑳
• In a voltage-to-current converter, Let 𝒁𝑳 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎, 𝑹𝟏 =
𝟏𝟎 𝒌Ω, 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟏 𝒌Ω, 𝑹𝟑 = 𝟏 𝒌Ω 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑹𝑭 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒌Ω.
• If 𝑣𝐼 = −5 𝑉 determine the load current 𝑖𝐿 and the
output voltage 𝑣𝑂
• Solutions
• 𝑖𝐿 = 5 𝑚𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑂 = 6 𝑉

Reference Voltage Source Design
• Recall the use of Zener diodes.
• We can combine a Zener diode with an op-amp to provide more
flexibility in the design of reference voltage sources.
• Lets consider a Simple op-amp voltage reference circuit shown
Voltage source Vs and resistor Rs bias the Zener
diode in the breakdown region. The op−amp is then
used as a noninverting amplifier.
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
𝑽𝒁 = 𝒗 𝒗𝑶 = 𝟏 + 𝑽
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑶 𝑹𝟏 𝒁
The output current to the load circuit is supplied by the op−amp.
A change in the load current will not produce a change in the Zener
diode current; consequently, voltage regulation is much improved
compared to the simple Zener diode voltage source.
Reference Voltage Source Design
The circuit shown below is less affected

by variations in 𝑽𝑺 , since 𝑉𝑆 is used only
to start up the circuit
The Zener diode begins to conduct when

𝑹𝟒
𝑽 > 𝑽𝒁 + 𝑽𝑫 ≅ 𝑽𝒁 + 𝟎. 𝟕
𝑹𝟑 + 𝑹𝟒 𝑺
𝑹𝟐
𝑽𝑶 = 𝟏 + 𝑽
𝑹𝟏 𝒁
The output voltage can be seen to be the same as that in the first case
and;
If 𝑽𝑺 decreases and diode D1 becomes reverse biased, the Zener diode

continues to conduct; the Zener diode current is then constant.
𝑽𝑶 −𝑽𝒁 𝑹𝟐 𝑽𝒁
𝑰𝑭 = =
𝑹𝑭 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝑭
However, if diode D1 is conducting, the circuit can be designed such that
variations in zener diode current will be small and negligible
•

DESIGN EXAMPLE
• Design a voltage reference source with an output of 10.0

V. Use a Zener diode with a breakdown voltage of 5.6 V.
• Assume the voltage regulation will be within specifications

if the Zener diode is biased between 1–1.2 mA.
• Given 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟑𝟎 𝒌Ω
• Solutions
– 𝑹𝑭 = 𝟒. 𝟒 𝒌Ω 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑹𝟏 = 𝟑𝟖. 𝟏𝟕 𝒌Ω
– 𝑹𝟑 = 𝟗. 𝟐𝟓 𝒌Ω 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑹𝟒 = 𝟑𝟏. 𝟓 𝒌Ω

BREAK
26/02/2024

1. Comparator
2. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
3. Instrumentation Amplifier

−

Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Amplifiers
A different approach often used to drive actuators is shown

schematically. It is called pulse width modulation (PWM) because
the amplitude of a given signal is translated into a pulse width.
The advantage of this method is that now one can control the
power supplied to a load by controlling how long the load is
connected to the power (pulse width) rather than by controlling the
amplitude. Therefore the amplifier in the previous circuits is
replaced with a simple (electronic) switch and the voltage across
the load is either zero or Vcc.
The output of the comparator is positive when the signal is higher

than the triangular wave and zero when it is lower. The result is a
pulse with a width proportional to the amplitude of the signal. Note
that if the sinusoidal signal swings negative (i.e., if its average is
zero), only the positive part of the signal will be represented
•

Block diagram of a basic PWM amplifier

A load is driven by a PWM circuit. The transistor serves as a switch
and power is controlled by the average of the PWM signal, the
frequency. The duty cycle.
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑥 𝐷𝑢𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒

•

Instrumentation amplifier
• An instrumentation (or instrumentational) amplifier
is a type of differential amplifier that has been
outfitted with input buffer amplifiers, which
eliminate the need for input impedance matching
and thus make the amplifier particularly suitable
for use in measurement and test equipment.
• It is optimized for high input impedance and high

CMRR. It is typically used in applications in which a
small differential voltage and a large common mode
voltage are the inputs.

Instrumentation Amplifier
vo 1
v1
I
v v v v
I I  1 1 2 2
R1R1 I
v2
vo 2

Instrumentation Amplifier
v1  v2 v  v2
vo1  vo 2  R2  v1  v2  1 R2
R1 R1
R R 
 v1  v2  2  1  2 
 R1 R1 
 2 R2 
 v1  v2 1  
 R1 

The Difference Amplifier

Instrumentation amplifier

•

Calculate the output voltage expression for the circuit
•
•
1. Frequency Response
2. Active Filters

Semi-log Graph
•

OP AMP FREQUENCY RESPONSE

Feedback vs bandwidth

•

•

•
Mixer op amp
A mixer is essentially a summing amplifier with variable resistors which can increase
or decrease the amount a particular input signal contributes to the overall output
signal. A very basic audio mixer built around an operation amplifier.
•

BREAK
27/02/2024

ACTIVE FILTERS
A filter circuit can be constructed using passive
components: resistors and capacitors. An active filter
additionally uses an amplifier to provide voltage
amplification and signal isolation or buffering.
Ideal filter response: (a) low-pass; (b) high-pass; (c) bandpass.

•

First Order Low Pass Filter


Example


Second Order Low Pass Filter

Second order Low pass filter

Determine fr and AV

First order and second order High Pass Filters

First order High Pass Filter
Determine fr and AV
1
𝑓𝑟 = = 2.95 𝑘𝐻𝑧
2𝜋𝑥0.003𝑥10−6 𝑥18𝑥103

First order High Pass Filter

Second order High Pass Filter

Bandpass Filter

Bandpass Filter Output

Bandpass Filter circuit
1 1
𝑓𝐿 = = 318.31 𝐻𝑧 𝑓𝐻 = = 398 𝐻𝑧
2𝜋𝑥0.05𝑥10−6 𝑥10𝑥103 2𝜋𝑥0.02𝑥10−6 𝑥20𝑥103

Active Band Pass Filter Circuit

Active Bandpass filter
𝑅2 15
𝐴𝑉 = − =− = −10
𝑅1 1.5
1 1
𝐹𝐿 = = 1.061𝑘𝐻𝑧 𝑓𝐻 = = 3.215 𝑘𝐻𝑧
2𝜋𝑥1.5𝑥103 𝑥100𝑥10−9 2𝜋𝑥15𝑥103 𝑥3.3𝑥10−9
•

Band Stop Filter Circuit

Refer to figure below and
1. identify the circuit and describe the operation of the circuit
2. Calculate the three important frequencies, and
3. the bandwidth and the quality factor

Design a basic wide-band, RC band stop filter with a
lower cut-off frequency of 200Hz and a higher cut-
off frequency of 800Hz. Find the geometric center
frequency, -3dB bandwidth and Q of the circuit. Let
C=0.1μF

Active band reject filter at resonant frequency

Voltage controlled voltage source (VCVS)
The source delivers the voltage as per the voltage of

the dependent element.
The Controlled Voltage Source block represents an ideal

voltage source that is powerful enough to maintain
the specified voltage at its output regardless of the
current flowing through the source. The output voltage
is V = Vs, where Vs is the numerical value presented at
the physical signal port.

What is meant by a voltage source
A voltage source is a two-terminal device which can maintain a fixed

voltage. An ideal voltage source can maintain the fixed voltage independent
of the load resistance or the output current. However, a real-world voltage
source cannot supply unlimited current. A voltage source is the dual of a
current source.

The op amp as a voltage control voltage source
The perfect op amp has a current of zero input. This is

due to infinite resistance of the input. ... Since there
is no current through the input resistance, therefore,
there will be no voltage drop across the input terminals.

Types of Voltage Source
Independent Voltage Source: They are of two types – Direct Voltage

Source and Alternating Voltage Source.
Dependent Voltage Source: They are of two types – Voltage Controlled
Voltage Source and Current Controlled Voltage Source.

This circuit allows a smaller control voltage to linearly
control a larger output voltage Vo. The Resistors R2 and R3
scale the feedback to an appropriate range for the op-amp.
𝑅3 𝑉
= 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑅2 +𝑅3 𝑉𝑂
𝑉𝑆 > 𝑉𝑂𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑉𝐺𝑆
The disadvantage of the circuit above is that the supply of the op-amp is
tied to the HV supply. Most op-amps are limited to around 30V on the
supply, so the circuit wont work for higher output voltages. The circuit
below avoids this problem by inserting a n-channel MOSFET, which can be
fully controlled within the range of the op-amps power supply.
•

Voltage Controlled Voltage Source with N-Chan MOSFET Schematic
The output voltage is directly proportional to the control voltage. R1 and

R4 should be chosen such that Vgs(max) of Q2 is never exceeded.
𝑹𝟔
𝑽𝑪 = 𝑽
𝑹𝟓 + 𝑹𝟔 𝑶
𝑹𝟓 + 𝑹𝟔
𝑽𝑶 = 𝑽𝑪
𝑹𝟔
𝑉𝐺𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 20 𝑉
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑀𝑂𝑆𝐹𝐸𝑇𝑠. 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦:
𝑹𝟒
𝑽𝑯𝑽 < 𝑽𝑮𝑺𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟒
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛:
𝑹𝟔 𝑽𝑪𝒎𝒂𝒙
=
𝑹𝟓 + 𝑹𝟔 𝑽𝑶
•

Wheatstone Bridge

Wheatstone Bridge
2/28/2024 SIGNAL CONDITIONING 116

Analysis
• Identify the currents

Consider the bridge at “balance”, ig=0
• 𝒊𝟏 = 𝒊𝟑
𝒊𝟐 = 𝒊𝒙
𝒊𝟑 𝑹𝟑 = 𝒊𝒙 𝑹𝒙
𝒊𝟏 𝑹𝟏 = 𝒊𝟐 𝑹𝟐
𝒊𝟏 𝑹𝟑 = 𝒊𝟐 𝑹𝒙
𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝒙
=
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

Wheatstone Bridge
The Wheatstone Bridge can be used to convert a resistance
change to a voltage change

Wheatstone bridge with Instrumentation amplifier
The resistive transducer bridge is a network of resistors whose resistance varies due
to changes in some physical condition. For example, Thermistors change their
resistance with temperature and Light Dependent Resistors change their resistance
to change in light intensity.
By making such a bridge as a part of the circuit, it is possible to produce an electrical

signal proportional to the change in the physical quantity being measured.
•
𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒃𝒂𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏:
𝑹𝑨 𝑹𝑩
𝑽𝒂 − 𝑽𝒃 = − 𝑽
𝑹𝑨 + 𝑹𝑻 𝑹𝑩 + 𝑹𝑪 𝒅𝒄
𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒓𝒊𝒅𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒔 𝒃𝒂𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝑽𝑨 = 𝑽𝑩

𝑹𝑨 𝑹𝑩
𝑽𝒅𝒄 = 𝑽
𝑹𝑨 + 𝑹𝑻 𝑹𝑩 + 𝑹𝑪 𝒅𝒄
𝑹𝑨 𝑹𝑩 + 𝑹𝑨 𝑹𝑪 = 𝑹𝑨 𝑹𝑩 + 𝑹𝑻 𝑹𝑩
𝑹𝑨 𝑹𝑪 = 𝑹𝑻 𝑹𝑩 𝑹𝑨 𝑹𝑻
=
𝑹𝑩 𝑹𝑪
•
RECALL
𝒅𝑹 = ∆𝑹 = 𝒈𝜺𝑹
2/28/2024 Measurements and Instrumentation 123

•

𝑹𝒇
− = −𝟖. 𝟒𝟒𝟖𝟖
𝑹𝒊
𝑨𝟐

𝑹𝟒 𝟏𝟐 𝑹𝟒 𝟏𝟐
𝑽𝒓𝒆𝒇 = = = 𝟔. 𝟖𝟓 𝑽
𝑹𝟑 + 𝑹𝟒 𝟏𝟎 + 𝑹𝟒

THE END
NEXT
ADDITIONAL NOTES ACTIVE FILTERS

THE END

4B. Operational Amplifiers 2024

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4B. Operational Amplifiers 2024

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Operational Amplifiers

Operation and application

2/28/2024 ANALOGUE DESIGN 1

2/28/2024 ANALOGUE DESIGN 2

Some of the elements used in signal conditioning are:

2/28/2024 ANALOGUE DESIGN 3

An amplifier is a device which increases the magnitude

Electronic amplifiers must have the following desirable

1. The frequency response should be at least as good as

2/28/2024 ANALOGUE DESIGN 4

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divot on pin-1 end

2/28/2024 ANALOGUE DESIGN 8

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Due to biasing requirements or leakage, a small amount of current

If the input currents are matched, and the impedance

Because the operational amplifier operates on the difference between its

2/28/2024 ANALOGUE DESIGN 10

This is a voltage which is required across the op-amp's input terminals to

In the perfect amplifier, there would be no input offset voltage. However,

Input offset voltage creates two problems:

2. In a closed loop, negative feedback configuration, the input offset

2/28/2024 ANALOGUE DESIGN 11

• The input resistance is equal to  , hence there

2/28/2024 ANALOGUE DESIGN 12

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Since noise (any unwanted input signal) is generally common to both

2/28/2024 ANALOGUE DESIGN 15

Gain = - (R2 / R1) = -(150/12) = -12.5

2/28/2024 ANALOGUE DESIGN 19

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Find V0 for the following op amp configuration.

2/28/2024 ANALOGUE DESIGN 24

2. Repeat part (1) for a closed-loop gain of Av =

2/28/2024 ANALOGUE DESIGN 25

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2/28/2024 ANALOGUE DESIGN 30

It is easy to see that: V0 = Vin

2/28/2024 ANALOGUE DESIGN 31

Using voltage divider rule on the output gives;

2/28/2024 ANALOGUE DESIGN 32

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• The summing op-amp can be designed

2/28/2024 ANALOGUE DESIGN 34

2/28/2024 ANALOGUE DESIGN 35

𝑹𝑵 = 𝑹𝟏 ‖𝑹𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑹𝑷 = 𝑹𝑨 ‖𝑹𝑩 ‖𝑹𝑪

2/28/2024 ANALOGUE DESIGN 36

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2/28/2024 ANALOGUE DESIGN 38

• 𝒗𝑶 = −𝟏𝟎𝒗𝑰𝟏 − 𝟒𝒗𝑰𝟐 + 𝟓𝒗𝑰𝟑 + 𝟐𝒗𝑰𝟒

• The smallest resistor value allowable is 𝟐𝟎 𝒌𝜴, choose 𝑹𝑨 =

2/28/2024 ANALOGUE DESIGN 39

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These are in instrumentation amplifiers, voltage

2/28/2024 ANALOGUE DESIGN 43

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