BJT MULTI-STAGED AMPLIFIER SYSTEM

EXPERIMENT NO. 1

CASCADED SYSTEM
- series of amplifier stages where the output of one stage is the input to the next stage, provided that both stages have the same amplifier configuration but not necessarily identical

CASCADED SYSTEM

BJT CASCADED AMPLIFIER SYSTEM

AMPLIFIER FREQUENCY RESPONSE

EXPERIMENT NO. 2

 The amplifiers frequency response varies due to the effect of frequency on the capacitive reactances in the circuit. BODE PLOT
shows the relative output magnitude, typically measured in decibels, and the phase variation as the frequency changes

FREQUENCY RESPONSE

FREQUENCY RESPONSE

Cut-off Frequency

It is defined at which the ratio of the output over the input has a magnitude of 0.707 or -3 dB, when converted in decibels. At this point, the amount of attenuation due to the filtering components begins to change rapidly.

FREQUENCY RESPONSE

LOW FREQUENCY RESPONSE

LOW FREQUENCY RESPONSE

LOW FREQUENCY RESPONSE

To determine the lower cut-off frequency:

If the two cut-off frequencies are more than a decade apart (f2 > 10f1 ), the half-power point of the amplifier is the higher of the two. If the two frequencies are closer than one decade, then the actual cut-off frequency of the amplifier is somewhat larger than either of the two calculated frequencies.

LOW FREQUENCY RESPONSE

To determine the lower cut-off frequency:

If the amplifier has a bypass capacitor, then it can also influence the cut-off frequency. NOTE:
-

Typically, emitter bypass capacitors are chosen to be large enough so that their effects are negligible.

HIGH FREQUENCY RESPONSE

The high frequency response of a discrete transistor amplifier is determined by the internal capacitances of the transistor itself.

HIGH FREQUENCY RESPONSE

DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
EXPERIMENT NO. 3

DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
A differential amplifier is a BJT amplifier that produces outputs that are a function of the difference between two input voltages. It has two possible inputs and two possible outputs, but it is not necessary to use both inputs and both outputs.

DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER

MODES OF SIGNAL OPERATION

SINGLE-ENDED INPUT
When a differential amplifier is operated in this mode, one input is grounded and the signal voltage is applied only to the other input.

MODES OF SIGNAL OPERATION

SINGLE-ENDED INPUT

MODES OF SIGNAL OPERATION

SINGLE-ENDED INPUT
When the signal

voltage is applied to input 1, an inverted amplified signal voltage appears at output 1. signal voltage appears in phase at the emitter of Q1.

Also, a

MODES OF SIGNAL OPERATION

SINGLE-ENDED INPUT
Since the emitters

of Q1 and Q2 are common, the emitter signal becomes an input to Q2, which functions as a common base amplifier. The signal is amplified by Q2 and appears, noninverted, at output 2.

MODES OF SIGNAL OPERATION

SINGLE-ENDED INPUT

MODES OF SIGNAL OPERATION

SINGLE-ENDED INPUT

MODES OF SIGNAL OPERATION

DIFFERENTIAL INPUT OR DOUBLE-ENDED

MODE
In this mode,

two opposite-polarity (out-ofphase) signals are applied to the inputs. This causes the differential signal to be as twice as large as any either input alone.

MODES OF SIGNAL OPERATION

DIFFERENTIAL INPUT OR DOUBLE-ENDED

MODE

MODES OF SIGNAL OPERATION

DIFFERENTIAL INPUT OR DOUBLE-ENDED

MODE
When the input

signals are 180 degrees out of phase, the amplitude of the combined output signal is equal to the amplitude of one input signal multiplied by two times the gain of the amplifier.

MODES OF SIGNAL OPERATION

DIFFERENTIAL INPUT OR DOUBLE-ENDED

MODE

MODES OF SIGNAL OPERATION

COMMON MODE INPUT
Two signal voltages

of the same phase, frequency, and amplitude are applied to the two inputs. When the two input signals are applied to both inputs, the outputs are superimposed, and they cancel, resulting in a zero voltage. This is known as common-mode rejection.

MODES OF SIGNAL OPERATION

COMMON MODE INPUT
Common-Mode

Rejection

Its importance lies in the situation where an unwanted signal appears commonly on both differential amplifier inputs. Common-mode rejection means that this unwanted signal will not appear on the outputs and distort the desired signal.

MODES OF SIGNAL OPERATION

COMMON MODE INPUT
Common-Mode

Rejection

Common-mode signals (noise) generally are the result of the pick-up of radiated energy on the input lines from adjacent lines, the 60 Hz power line, or other sources.

MODES OF SIGNAL OPERATION

COMMON MODE INPUT

MODES OF SIGNAL OPERATION

COMMON MODE INPUT
Common-Mode

Rejection Ratio (CMRR)

It is a parameter or a measure of an amplifiers ability to reject common-mode signals. It is computed as the ratio of the single-ended or double-ended gain and the common-mode gain.

MODES OF SIGNAL OPERATION

COMMON MODE INPUT
Common-Mode

Rejection Ratio (CMRR)

AVs CMRR = AVc

PARAMETERS
Single-Ended or Double-Ended Gain

RC ICQ AVs = AVd = 52 mV

Common-Mode Gain

AVc =

RC 26 mV + 2 ( +1) RE

ICQ

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
EXPERIMENT NO. 4

Prepared By: Seigfred V. Prado

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER (OP-AMP)

Op-amps are used primarily to perform mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, integration and differentiation thus the term operational.

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER (OP-AMP)

It is a special type of differential amplifier.

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER (OP-AMP)

Op-amps are usually high-gain amplifiers with the amount of gain determined by the feedback network. Three most important characteristics:

High gain High input impedance Low output impedance

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER (OP-AMP)

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER (OP-AMP)

Differential Amplifier (Input Stage)

It provides amplification of the difference in the two input signals. Special techniques are used to provide the high input impedance necessary for the operational amplifier.

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER (OP-AMP)

High-Gain Voltage Amplifier (Second Stage)

It is usually made up of cascaded Class A amplifier circuits. This stage may be made from several transistors to provide high gain. A typical operational amplifier could have a voltage gain of up to 200,000. Most of this gain comes from this stage.

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER (OP-AMP)

Output Amplifier (Final Stage)

It is usually a Push-Pull Class B amplifier. This stage provides low output impedance. It could be an emitter follower circuit (commoncollector).

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER (OP-AMP)

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER (OP-AMP)

Op-amps are very versatile. The same op-amp can be used in different applications by just changing the external components connected to it.

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
Negative feedback is one of the most useful concepts in electronics, particularly in opamp applications. It is the process whereby a portion of the output voltage of an amplifier is returned to the input with a phase angle that opposes the input signal.

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
An op-amp can be connected using negative feedback to stabilize the gain and increase frequency response. Gain-Bandwidth Product

An increase in closed-loop gain causes a decrease in the bandwidth and vice versa, such that the product of the gain and bandwidth is a constant. GBP is always equal to the frequency at which the opamps open-loop gain is unity (unity-gain bandwidth, fT)

Effect of Negative Feedback on Bandwidth

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER (OP-AMP)

INVERTING AMPLIFIER

Rf AV = Ri

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER (OP-AMP)

NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER

Rf AV = 1 + Ri

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER (OP-AMP)

SUMMING AMPLIFIER (SUMMER)

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER (OP-AMP)

SCALING ADDER

A different weight can be assigned to each input of a summing amplifier by simply adjusting the values of the input resistors.

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER (OP-AMP)

AVERAGING AMPLIFIER
A summing amplifier can be made to produce the mathematical average of the input voltages. This is done by setting the ratio Rf/R equal to the reciprocal of the inputs (n).

LM741/UA741
Industry standard General-purpose

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER COMPARATOR

EXPERIMENT NO. 5

Prepared By: Seigfred V. Prado

COMPARATOR
A comparator is a specialized op-amp circuit that compares two input voltages and produces an output that is always at either one of two states, indicating the greater or less than relationship between the inputs.

COMPARATOR
Because the output is always in one of two

states, comparators are often used to interface between an analog and digital circuit.
An op-amp comparator may be used as a

sine-to-square wave converter.

COMPARATOR
An op-amp running without negative

feedback (open-loop) is often used as a comparator.

Op-amps have very high open-loop gain,

which enables them to detect very tiny differences in the inputs.

ZERO-LEVEL DETECTION
One application of an op-amp used as a

comparator is to determine when an input voltage exceeds a certain level.

ZERO-LEVEL DETECTION
Notice that that the inverting input is grounded to

produce a zero level and that the input signal voltage is applied to the non-inverting input.
Because of the high open-loop voltage gain, a

very small difference voltage between the two inputs drives the amplifier into saturation, causing the output voltage to go to its limit.

NONZERO-LEVEL DETECTION
The zero-level detector can be modified to detect

positive and negative voltages by connecting a reference voltage source to one of the inputs.

NONZERO-LEVEL DETECTION
To compare Vi with Vref, the op-amp would have

an output of +Vcc when Vi is slightly greater than Vref, and an output of VEE when Vi is slightly less than Vref.
Comparators may be non-inverting or inverting. It

is non-inverting if Vi is fed at the non-inverting terminal and the output has the same polarity as the input.

NONZERO-LEVEL DETECTION

NONZERO-LEVEL DETECTION

NONZERO-LEVEL DETECTION

NONZERO-LEVEL DETECTION

WINDOW COMPARATOR
A window comparator is formed if both inverting

and non-inverting comparators are used in a single circuit, each with its own reference voltage.

WINDOW COMPARATOR
The Vref that approaches V+ is called the upper

threshold voltage, while the Vref that approaches V- is the lower threshold voltage.
Diodes D1 and D2 logically combine the outputs

of the two op-amps.

WINDOW COMPARATOR
Window comparator determines whether the

input voltage Vi is between the limits of the upper and lower threshold voltages.
The output voltage is zero if the input voltage is

between the range. If not, the output would be equivalent to the saturation voltage of the opamp.

WINDOW COMPARATOR

WINDOW COMPARATOR

DIFFERENTIATOR AND INTEGRATOR

EXPERIMENT NO. 6

Prepared By: Seigfred V. Prado

INTEGRATOR
o It is an op-amp circuit that simulates mathematical integration, which is basically a summing process that determines the total area under the curve of a function.

IDEAL INTEGRATOR
o In an ideal op-amp integrator, the feedback element is a capacitor that forms an RC circuit with the input resistor.

OPERATION

OPERATION

OPERATION

OPERATION
o To produce a straight-line voltage rather than exponential, the charging current must be constant. o The key thing about using an op-amp with an RC circuit to form an integrator is that the capacitors charging current is made constant.

OPERATION

OPERATION
o The constant IC charges the capacitor linearly and produces a linear voltage across C. o The voltage on the negative side of the capacitor (op-amp output) decreases linearly from zero as the capacitor charges (negative ramp).

OPERATION

Therefore:

OPERATION

PRACTICAL INTEGRATOR

PRACTICAL INTEGRATOR
o The ideal integrator uses a capacitor in the feedback path. o But take note that the capacitor is open to dc. o This implies that the gain at dc is the openloop gain of the op-amp.

PRACTICAL INTEGRATOR
o In a practical integrator, any dc error voltage due to offset error will cause the output to produce a ramp that moves toward either positive or negative saturation, even when no signal is present. o Practical integrators must have some means of overcoming the effects of offset and bias current.

PRACTICAL INTEGRATOR
o The feedback resistor, Rf, should be large compared to the input resistor Rin, in order to have a negligible effect on the output waveform. o A compensating resistor, Rc, may be added to the non-inverting input to balance the effects of bias current.

DIFFERENTIATOR
o It is an op-amp circuit that simulates mathematical differentiation, which is basically a process of determining the instantaneous rate of change of a function.

IDEAL DIFFERENTIATOR
o In an ideal op-amp integrator, the capacitor is now the input element, and the resistor is the feedback element. o A differentiator produces an output that is proportional to the rate of change of the input voltage.

IDEAL DIFFERENTIATOR

IDEAL DIFFERENTIATOR

IDEAL DIFFERENTIATOR

IDEAL DIFFERENTIATOR

PRACTICAL DIFFERENTIATOR

PRACTICAL DIFFERENTIATOR
o Because a capacitor has a very low impedance at high frequencies, the combination of Rf and C form a very high gain amplifier at high frequencies. o This means that a differentiator circuit tends to be noisy because electrical noise mainly consists of high frequencies. o The addition of Rin in series with the capacitor provides a low-pass filter and reduce the gain at high frequencies.

TONE CONTROL
EXPERIMENT NO. 8

Prepared By: Seigfred V. Prado

TONE CONTROL CIRCUIT

It is a circuit that can either amplify (boost) or attenuate (cut) a certain range of frequencies in the audio band. BASS
It refers to the range of low frequencies starting from 20 Hz.

TREBLE
It refers to the range of high frequencies, up to 20 KHz.

 TONE CONTROL CIRCUIT

 AT BASS FREQUENCIES

 AT BASS FREQUENCIES

 AT TREBLE FREQUENCIES

Class AB Push-Pull Amplifier

EXPERIMENT NO. 9

Prepared By: Seigfred V. Prado

AMPLIFIER CLASSES OF OPERATION

Amplifier classifications are based on the percentage of the input cycle for which the amplifier operates in its linear region. Each class has a unique circuit configuration because of the way it must be operated.

AMPLIFIER CLASSES OF OPERATION

CLASS A POWER AMPLIFIER
When an amplifier is biased such that it always operates in the linear region where the output signal is an amplified replica of the input signal (360o), it is a Class A amplifier.

When the Q-point is at the center of the ac load line, a maximum class A signal can be obtained.

AMPLIFIER CLASSES OF OPERATION

CLASS A POWER AMPLIFIER

AMPLIFIER CLASSES OF OPERATION

CLASS A POWER AMPLIFIER

AMPLIFIER CLASSES OF OPERATION

CLASS B POWER AMPLIFIER
When an amplifier is biased so that it operates in linear region for 180o of the input cycle and is in cutoff for 180o, it is a Class B Amplifier.

A primary advantage of a Class B amplifier over a Class A amplifier is that it is more efficient, hence, you can get more output power for a given amount of input power.

AMPLIFIER CLASSES OF OPERATION

CLASS B POWER AMPLIFIER
A disadvantage of Class B is that it is more difficult to implement the circuit in order to get a linear reproduction of the input waveform.

AMPLIFIER CLASSES OF OPERATION

CLASS C POWER AMPLIFIER
Class C Amplifiers are biased so that conduction occurs for much less than 180o. They are more efficient than Class A and Class B amplifiers. The output amplitude is a nonlinear function of the input, so class C amplifiers are not used for linear amplification.

AMPLIFIER CLASSES OF OPERATION

CLASS C POWER AMPLIFIER

AMPLIFIER CLASSES OF OPERATION

CLASS AB POWER AMPLIFIER
When an amplifier is biased so that it operates in linear region for less than 360o but greater than 180o and it cutoff for the rest of the cycle, it is a Class AB Amplifier. It is more efficient than Class A but less efficient than Class B.

AMPLIFIER CLASSES OF OPERATION

CLASS AB POWER AMPLIFIER

AMPLIFIER CLASSES OF OPERATION

PUSH-PULL AMPLIFIER
The term push-pull refers to a common type of class B or class AB amplifier circuit in which two transistors are used on alternating half-cycles to reproduce the input waveform at the output.

AMPLIFIER CLASSES OF OPERATION

CLASS B PUSH-PULL AMPLIFIER
It is an amplifier in which a second Class B amplifier that operates on the negative half cycle is added in order to amplify the entire cycle.

AMPLIFIER CLASSES OF OPERATION

CROSSOVER DISTORTION
When the dc base voltage is zero, both transistors are off and the input signal voltage must exceed VBE before a transistor conducts.

Because of this, there is a time interval between the positive and negative alternations of the input when neither transistor is conducting.

AMPLIFIER CLASSES OF OPERATION

CROSSOVER DISTORTION

AMPLIFIER CLASSES OF OPERATION

CLASS AB PUSH-PULL AMPLIFIER
To overcome crossover distortion, the biasing is adjusted to just overcome VBE of the transistor. This results in a modified operation called Class AB.