TOPIC 3 - Definition of Planning: Its Historical
To
Overview and Influences
PLANNING
Planning in architecture is the preparation of the
elements that will result in building. This involves
drawings, and an understanding of the environment
where the building will be placed.
A process in which we attempt to shape the
future. forward looking. Seeks to determine future action.
According to the Association of Collegiate
Schools of Planning (ACSP), the field has focus on:
- Improved of settlements
- Community Interconnections
- Plan-making for future
- Social & economic equity
- Citizen participation in process
Who are the Planners?
Where From:
- A variety of backgrounds
- Formal training in planning
For Who:
- Government, all levels (local, state, federal,
intergovernmental organizations)
- Private Non-profits
- Private sector (consultants, companies)
Expertise:
- Specialists & Generalists
- Transportation planner, neighborhood planner,
economic development planner
Role of Planners
• Represent the public
• Assist decision-makers
• Moderators/Mediators
• Deal with wicked problems
- A lack of consensus regarding their causes
- Lack obvious solutions
- Have numerous links to other problems
• Location, political cultures, economic cycles, local
power configuration - all impact planners and
planning
• Need: Political smarts, excellent communication skills
ARCHITECTURAL PLANNING
The site involves the varying behavior of the
natural environment that must be adjusted to the
unvarying physical needs of human beings. The type is
the generalized form established by society that must be
adjusted to the special use for which the building is
required.
The cost implies the economics of land, labor,
and materials that must be adjusted to suit a particular
sum.
Planning is the process of particularizing and,
ultimately, of harmonizing the demands of environment,
use, and economy.
Planning the environment
The natural environment is at once a
hindrance and a help, and the architect seeks
both to invite its aid and to repel its attacks.
make buildings habitable and comfortable, the
architect must control the effects
Example: heat, cold, light, air, moisture,
and dryness and foresee destructive
potentialities such as fire, earthquake, flood, and
disease. The methods of controlling the
environment considered here are only the
practical aspects of planning.
Orientation
The arrangement of the axes of
buildings and their parts for controlling the
effects of sun, wind, and rainfall.
The sun is regular in its course, it favors
the southern and neglects the northern
exposures of buildings in the Northern
Hemisphere, so that it may be captured for heat
orevaded for coolness by turning the axis of a
plan toward or away from it. Orientation may
control air for circulation and reduce the
disadvantages of wind, rain, andsnow, since in
most climates the prevailing currents can be
foreseen.
The characteristics of the immediate
environment also influence orientation. example:
trees, land formations, and other buildings
create shade and reduce or intensify wind, while
bodies of water produce moisture and reflect the
sun.
ARCHITECTURAL FORMS
Planning may control the environment by the
design of architectural forms that may modify the effects
of natural forces.
For example, overhanging eaves, moldings,
projections, courts, and porches give shade and
protection from rain.
Roofs are designed to shed snow and to drain or
preserve water.
Walls control the amount of heat lost to the
exterior or retained in the interior by their thickness and
by the structural and insulating materials used in making
them.
Windows are the principal means of controlling
natural light; its amount, distribution, intensity, direction.
Colour
Colour has a practical planning function
as well as an expressive quality because of the
range of its reflection and its absorption of solar
rays. Since light colours reflect heat and dark
colours absorb it, the choice of materials and
pigments is an effective tool of environmental
control.
Materials and techniques
The choice of materials is conditioned
by their own ability to withstand the environment
as well as by properties that make them useful
to human beings.
Example: to balance the physical and
economic advantages of wood against the
possibility of fire, termites, and mold

The weather resistance of glass and
light metals against their high thermal
conductivity, and many similar conflicts.
The more violent natural manifestations,
such as heavy snow loads, earthquakes,
highwinds, and tornadoes, are controlled by
special technical devices in regions where they
are prevalent.
Interior control
The control of the environment through
the design of the plan and the outer shell of the
building cannot be complete, since extremes of
heat and cold, light, and sounds penetrate into
the interior, where they can be further modified
by the planning of spaces.
Temperature, light and sound are all
subject to control by the size and shape of
interior spaces, the way in which the spaces are
connected, and the materials employed for
floors, walls, ceilings, and furnishings.
Hot air may be retained or released by
the adjustment of ceiling heights and sources of
ventilation.
Light reflects in relation to the colour
and texture of surfaces and may be
reducedbydark, rough walls and increased by
light, smooth ones.
Sounds are transmitted by some
materials and absorbed by others and may be
controlled by the form of interiors and by the use
of structural or applied materials that by their
density, thickness, and texture amplify or restrict
sound waves.
PLANNING FOR USE
Environmental planning produces comfort for the
senses (sight, feeling, hearing), planning for use or
function is concerned with convenience of movement
and rest. These solutions are found by differentiating
spaces for distinct functions, by providing circulation
among these spaces, and by designing them to facilitate
the actions of the human body.
Circulation
Communication among differentiated
spaces and between the exterior and
theinteriormay be achieved by openings alone in
the simplest plans, but most buildings require
distinctspaces allotted to horizontal and vertical
circulation (corridors, lobbies, stairs, ramps,
elevators, etc.).
Differentiation
The number of functions requiring
distinct kinds of space within a building depends
not only upon the type of building but also upon
the requirements of the culture and the habits
and activities of the individual patrons. example:
Some houses have a single room with a hearth
area, and others have separate areas for
cooking, eating, sleeping, washing, storage, and
recreation.
The planning of differentiated spaces
involves as a guide to their design (placement,
size, shape, environmental conditions,
sequence, etc.)
Analysis of use (number of uses and
character, duration, time of day, frequency,
variability, etc., of each)
Users (number, behavior, age, sex,
physical condition, etc.), and furniture or
equipment required. example: A meetinghouse
with a single hall is sufficient for Quaker religious
services, while aRomanCatholic cathedral may
require a nave, aisles, choir, apse, chapels,
crypt, sacristy, and ambulatory.
Facilitation
The convenience of movement, like the
comfort of the environment, can be increased by
planning.
Planning methods are based on analysis
of the body measurements, movements, and
muscular power of human beings of different
ages and sexes, which results in the
establishment of standards for the
measurements of ceilings, doorways, windows,
storage shelves, working surfaces, steps, and
the like and for the weight of architectural
elements that must be moved, such as doors,
gates, and windows.
These standards also include
allowances for the movement of whatever
furnishings, equipment, or machinery are
required for the use of any building.
ECONOMIC PLANNING
Major expenses in building are for land,
materials, and labor. In each case they are high when
the commodity is scarce and low when it is abundant,
and they influence planning more directly when they
become restrictive.
The effect of high land values is to limit the
amount of space occupied by any building as well as the
amount of expenditure that can be reserved for
construction. All phases of architectural design are
affected, since the planning procedure, the technique,
and the form of buildings are dependent on materials.
Planning involves not only the control of cost in
each area but also the proportioning expenditures
among land, materials, and labor in order to produce the
most effective solution to an architectural problem.
Techniques
The techniques of architecture in the
sense that they will be considered here are
simply the methods by which structures are
formed from particular materials. The evolution
of techniques is conditioned by two forces.
One is economic—the search for a
maximum of stability and durability in building
with a minimum of materials and labor.
The other is expressive—the desire to
produce meaningful form. Techniques evolve
rapidly when economic requirements suggest
 new expressive forms or when the conception of
new forms demands new procedures.
The ultimate purpose of building
techniques is to create a stable structure. In
mechanical terms, structures are stable when all
their parts are in a state of equilibrium, or rest.
Walls and roofs can buckle, crack, or collapse if
they are not properly designed.
Materials
1. Stone - In most areas where stone is
available, it has been favored over other
materials for the construction of monumental
architecture. Its advantages are durability,
adaptability to sculptural treatment, and the fact
that it can be used in modest structures in its
natural state. But it is difficult to quarry,
transport, and cut, and its weakness in tension
limits its use for beams, lintels, and floor
supports.
2. Bricks - Brick is a structural material for its
fire- and weather resistant qualities and for the
ease of production, transportation, and laying.
The size of bricks is limited by the need for
efficient drying, firing, and handling, but shapes,
along with the techniques of bricklaying, have
varied widely throughout history.
3. Wood - Wood is easier to acquire, transport,
and work than other natural materials. All parts
of a building can be efficiently constructed of
wood except foundations; its disadvantage is
susceptibility to fire, mold, and termites. Wood
is used in building both solid and skeletal
structures.
4. Concrete - Concrete is a manufactured
mixture of cement and water, with aggregates of
sand and stones,
5. Iron and Steel - The development of
construction methods in iron and steel was the
most important innovation in architecture since
ancient times. These methods provide far
stronger and taller structures with less
expenditure of material than stone, brick, or
wood and can produce greater unsupported
spans over openings and interior or exterior
spaces. The evolution of steel frame
construction in the 20th century entirely changed
the concept of the wall and the support
HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF PLANNING
Cities are mankind’s most universal contribution
on earth. Throughout human history, it is within cities
that mankind has explored all counterpoints of himself in
relation to his physical world: man within architecture,
man within nature, man as individual and communal
being, man and machine, mankind within temple and
shelter.
From the ancient urbs of Rome to the modernity
of downtown America, the historical aim of urban
planning has been to impose physical order on things
that by nature are chaotic. For two millennia, cities have
been formed by the seemingly omniscient hand of urban
planning or, less fortunately, by the lack thereof. Therein
lies the virtually impossible meaning of urban planning.
Urban Planning
Urban planning is both art and social science. It
encompasses the contemporary city, the historical site,
architecture, the environment, economics, and social
interaction. It constructs the city of today while creating
the model of the city that will exist in the next decades.
Unlike Architecture, urban planning is a public profession
dedicated not to individual clients but to the common
good, which is a weighty responsibility.
Urban planning must also deal with the larger
issues of city formand the distribution of urban land
resources through: zoning, land use controls, density,
and neighborhood considerations.
In the urban environment, open space,
greenery, and parks are integral to urbanplanning, and
public art enlivens the city; the arts and nature are
fundamental to urban design.
The Development of Urban Planning: Early History
Early cities showed some aspects of urban
planning. Ancient city remains show organized street
systems that were straight or radial. Cities were divided
into specialized quarters for different functions. Important
buildings were located in central sites. Advanced
systems for barricade, water supply, and drainage were
present. However, many large cities grew rapidly before
governments could properly plan them.
During the Middle Ages, there was little new city
building in Europe. Towns developed around church or
feudal centers, or for trade. As populations grew, walls
constrained cities causing overcrowding, lack of air, light,
and poor sanitation. Different groups tended to live in
separate city quarters based on class, trade, or
nationality.
Medieval and Renaissance towns and cities
followed the pattern of villages, spreading along streets
in circular or irregular shapes. Most streets were narrow
footpaths and paving was not widely introduced until the
12th century. As towns grew, walls were expanded but
few cities exceeded one mile in length. New towns
emerged frequently about one day’s walk apart. Town
populations ranged from hundreds to 40,000 people.
Conscious city planning efforts reemerged during the
Renaissance partly to improve circulation, defense and
glorify rulers. From the 16th to 18th centuries, many
cities were laid out with monumental splendor but this
rarely contributed to citizens' health, comfort or
efficiency.
The New World absorbed some planning
concepts from European absolutism, though to a limited
degree. Pierre L’Enfant’s grand plan for Washington,
D.C. (1791) exemplified this, as did later City Beautiful
projects which aimed for grandeur in public buildings but
less concern for efficient residential, commercial, and
industrial development. More influential on U.S. city
layouts was Philadelphia's rigid grid plan designed by
William Penn (1682). This plan spread west with
pioneers as it was simplest for dividing surveyed land.
Though ignoring topography, it facilitated land markets
by establishing standard-sized, easily bought and sold
lots—even unseen.
In much of the world, city plans centered on
public spaces. Plans differed in residential development
prescriptions. The New England town grew around a
central commons, initially a pasture providing a focus of
community life and site for meetinghouse, tavern,
smithy, shops—later reproduced in city/town central
squares nationwide. Also from New England towns
came freestanding single-family houses becoming
metropolitan area norms.
European city plans also centered on plazas,
places or squares. In contrast to American residential
development, European domestic architecture was
dominated by attached houses, while elsewhere
marketplaces or bazaars rather than open spaces
centered cities. Courtyard-style homes characterized the
Mediterranean region, while African and Asian
settlements formed compounds of small houses fenced
off from streets.
EARLY HUMAN CIVILIZATION
Evidence of planning has been unearthed in the
ruins of cities in China, India, Egypt, Asia Minor, the
Mediterranean world, and South and Central America.
Early examples of efforts toward planned urban
development include orderly street systems that are
rectilinear and sometimes radial; division of a city into
specialized functional quarters; development of
commanding central sites for palaces, temples, and civic
buildings;and advanced systems of fortification, water
supply, and drainage.
Most of the evidence is in smaller cities that
were built in comparatively short periods as colonies.
Often the central cities of ancient states grew to
substantial size before they achieved governments
capable of imposing controls.
Indus River Valley Civilization
The Indus River Valley Civilization, 3300- 1300
BCE, also known as the Harappan Civilization, extended
from modern-day northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and
northwest India.
At its peak, the Indus Valley Civilization may
have had a population of over five million people. The
Indus cities are noted for their urban planning, a
technical and political process concerned with the use of
land and design of the urban environment.
Hippodamus of Miletus (498-408 BC)
Invented formal city planning. Made the
Hippodamian Plan or the grid city to maximize
winds in the summer and minimize them in
winter. This shows his geometric, arranged style
in design
PRE-CLASSICAL ERA (1800 B.C.E.–150 C.E.)
The pre-classical era witnessed several cities
being laid down according to strategic plans. Many of
these cities tended to develop organically over time.
Someofthe most prominent cities designed during the
period were Harappan, Minoan, andEgyptian civilization.
The streets of many cities known to humankind
were built and laid out in the forms of rigid right angles
and grid patterns. Some archaeological evidence also
suggests that many houses were designed to shield
from the noise and improve the standard of living.
Additionally, most of the homes have their very
own water well. This suggested the remains for sanitary
purposes. Furthermore, some archaeologists also
interpret that these cities had well-organized drainage
systems as well as agricultural land.
MEDIEVAL AGES
For several centuries during the Middle Ages,
there was little building of cities in Europe. Eventually
towns grew up as centers of church or feudal authority,
of marketing or trade. As the urban population grew, the
constriction caused by walls and fortifications led to
overcrowding, the blocking out of air and light, and very
poor sanitation.
The physical form of medieval and Renaissance
towns and cities followed the pattern of the village,
spreading along a street or a crossroads circular
patterns or in irregular shapes, though rectangular
patterns tended to characterize some of the newer
towns.
Most streets were little more than footpaths—
more a medium for communication than hanford
transportation—and even in major European cities
paving was not widely introduced before the 12th
century (1184 in Paris, 1235 in Florence, and 1300 in
Lübeck).
ROMAN SETTLEMENT OF LONDINIUM
The Roman settlement of Londinium, c.
AD 200, which developed into the modern
metropolis of London.
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION (1760 to 1840)
The late 19th century saw a boost in the
industrial sector. This was a result of the rapid
population growth, business enterprises, frequent profits,
and so forth. Giant cities developed during this era, and
a subtle exhibition of luxury as well as poverty was
observed.
The slums, congestion, disorder, ugliness, and
threat of disease provoked a reaction in which sanitation
improvement was the first demand. Significant
betterment of public health resulted from engineering
improvements in water supply and sewerage, which
were essential to the further growth of urban
populations. Later in the century the first housing reform
measures were enacted.
THE ERA OF INDUSTRIALIZATION
Between the mid-19th century and late 19th
century in both Europe and the United States, rapid
population growth accompanied surging industry and
unfettered business enterprise, resulting in great
speculative profits and public failures to manage
unwanted physical consequences of development.
Giant, sprawling cities developed during this era
between approximately 1850-1900, exhibiting both the
luxuries of wealth and the meanness of poverty in sharp
juxtaposition.
Eventually, the corruption and exploitation of the
era gave rise to the Progressive movement in the late
19th century, of which city planning formed a part. The
slums, congestion, disorder, ugliness, and threat of
disease provoked a reaction in which sanitation
improvement was the first demand. Significant
betterment of public health resulted from engineering
improvements to water supply and sewerage, which
were essential to the further growth of urban
populations. Later in the century the first housing reform
measures were enacted.

THE ERA OF INDUSTRIALIZATION: PROGRESSIVE
ERA
During the Progressive era, urban improvement
efforts focused on recreation, leading to the
development of parks and playgrounds for children and
adults. Supporters believed outdoor recreation would
improve the working class' living conditions, as they
were often consigned to overcrowded housing and
unhealthy workplaces. New York's Central Park,
designed by architects Calvert Vaux and Frederick Law
Olmsted in the 1850s, separated pedestrian and
vehicular traffic, created a romantic landscape, and
demonstrated the potential of parks to enhance real-
estate values.
The Era of Industrialization: Second Empire (1852-
70)
During the Second Empire (1852–70), Georges-
Eugène, Baron Haussmann, was a prominent planner in
Paris, advocating for straight arterial boulevards,
symmetric squares, and radiating roads. His urban form
was widely emulated throughout continental Europe.
Haussmann's efforts also modernized the city, breaking
down commerce barriers and modernizing the
transportation of goods and military troops. His designs
included the demolition of old tenement structures,
replacement of them with new apartment houses,
construction of transportation corridors, and
displacement of poor people. His methods influenced
urban redevelopment programs in Europe and the
United States until the end of the 20th century.
The Era of Industrialization: World’s Columbian
Exposition (1893)
The City Beautiful movement in the United
States, influenced by European vision, led to the World's
Columbian Exposition of 1893 in Chicago. The
exposition's architectural style, featuring grand malls and
Greco-Roman-style civic buildings, inspired many cities
to imitate this style. However, the model's diffusion in the
US was limited by state power and its weak potential to
boost business profitability, unlike European
counterparts. The archetype of the City Beautiful was a
protest against disorder and ugliness.
The Era of Industrialization: Garden City
Haussmann's approach was influential in
European and American civic centers, but Ebenezer
Howard's garden city concept shaped residential areas
in the United States and Great Britain. Howard's garden
city incorporated low-rise homes, winding streets, culs-
de-sac, separation of commerce from residences, and
greenery. He called for a cooperative commonwealth,
where property values would be shared, open land held
communally, and manufacturing and retail
establishments clustered near residences. Successors
abandoned Howard's socialist ideals but retained the
residential design form in two towns built during his
lifetime.
The Era of Industrialization: Contemporary City
Transportation technology significantly
influenced the physical form of contemporary cities,
allowing urban territorial expansion and enabling
workers to live far from their jobs. However, automobiles
and buses congested streets, requiring orderly
circulation systems. Transportation networks became
the focus of planning activities, particularly with subway
systems in New York, London, and Paris. Municipalities
invested heavily in widening and extending roads to
accommodate increased traffic.
The Era of Industrialization: 20th Century
During the first third of the 20th century, city
governments established planning departments, with
1909 being a significant milestone. This year saw the
passage of Britain's first town-planning act, the first
national conference on city planning in the United
States, Burnham's plan for Chicago, and the
appointment of Chicago's Plan Commission. European
countries like Germany and Sweden also developed
planning administration and law during this time.
The Era of Industrialization: European City
European city planning was introduced to
developing world cities by colonial powers, often
resulting in new cities with Western principles of beauty
and separation of uses. New Delhi, India, is an example
of this development, built by British planners Edwin
Lutyens and Herbert Baker. It grew alongside Old Delhi,
offering a sense of community and historical continuity.
This pattern was repeated in British-ruled territories,
where African capitals like Nairobi and Salisbury were
designed to accommodate white colonial rulers. French
planners also incorporated European-style housing and
broad boulevards in their colonial outposts, despite
varying aesthetic sensibilities.
HISTORY OF URBAN PLANNING IN THE
PHILIPPINES
Cities in the Philippines developed without
taking full advantage of their environmental assets.
Urban centers along the sea, bay, or any body of water
would have been terrific hubs for thePhilippine
archipelagic republic. On the contrary, the cities grew
without the benefit of proper urban and regional planning
1.PRE-COLONIAL AGE
1.1 Pre-Colonial Settlement Planning:
Scholars note that pre-colonial Filipinos
displayed settlement planning, with dwellings
exhibiting uniformity. Communities were often
situated near bodies of water or dispersed
around cultivated land, showcasing a connection
between settlement and resource utilization
1.2 Spanish Colonial Reconstruction:
After war-related destruction, Spanish
colonists inthePhilippines rebuilt cities using
local materials, technology, and skilled
craftsmen. Notable Figures Like Panday-Pira
and "El Almirante" played crucial roles. El
Almirante, a master builder, was commissioned
to construct the walled city of Intramuros.
1.3 Diverse Settlement Patterns:
Various groups across the archipelago
had distinctive settlement patterns. Mountain
dwellers in Cordillera institutionalized territories
through the autor ward system. Different native
groups, like the Tagalogs (taga-ilog or river
dwellers) and the Maranaws(lake dwellers),
displayed unique planning based on their
geographical surroundings. The barangay, also
known as balanghay, likely represented the
earliest seacoast communities.

2. SPANISH REGIME
2.1 Introduction of Laws of the Indies (16th
Century)
In the 16th century, King Philip II
introduced the Laws of the Indies, shaping
Spanish colonial town planning in the Americas,
emphasizing high-ground locations, gridiron
patterns, and centralized plazas.
2.2 Jesuit Reducciones Policy (Late 16th
Century)
The Jesuits implemented the
reducciones policy in the late 16th century,
creating"plaza complexes" with ilustrados at the
center and lower classes at the periphery,
fostering a structured social order in colonial
towns.
2.3 Construction of Intramuros
in Manila (Late 16th Century) Despite
initial plans for a stone city, threats from Chinese
pirates and foreign invaders in the late 16th
century led to the construction of Intramuros, a
fortified self-contained city within Manila.
2.4 Economic Growth in Mid-19th Century
Manila
In the mid-19th century, Manila saw
economic growth with thriving industries in
cotton, silk, dairy, and cigar production, marking
the Philippines' entry into world trade and
contributing to urban expansion.
2.5 Urbanization and Technological
Advancements (Turn of the 20th Century)
By the turn of the 20th century, Manila's
population reached 300,000, with technological
advancements introduced to enhance urban
living, including waterworks, telephone systems,
railroads, and streetcar railways.
2.6 Impact of Spanish Urban Design and
Social Issues
Spanish urban design, emphasizing
stone buildings, left a lasting impact on the
Philippine Cityscape, but efforts to address
economic and social issues for natives were
inadequate, and the encomienda system
resembled medieval serfdom.
2.7 Maura Law and Shift Towards Local
Governance (1893)
In 1893, the Maura Law extended
autonomy to provinces, establishing municipal
tribunal for councils, reflecting a shift towards
regional planning and local governance in the
Philippines Under Spanish rule.
3. AMERICAN ERA
3.1 American Influence in the Early 20th
Century
The American influence in the
Philippines during the early 20th century
emphasized social values such as sanitation,
housing, and aesthetic improvements, with roots
in European responses to industrialization.
3.2 Daniel H. Burnham's Commission and the
City Beautiful Movement
Daniel H. Burnham, an American
architect and planner, was commissioned in
1904 to create a physical development plan for
Manila and Baguio, drawing inspiration from the
City Beautiful Movement and envisioning wide
boulevards, public edifices, and landscaped
parks.
3.3 Burnham's Plan for Manila
Burnham's plan for Manila included a
grid pattern with circumferential and diagonal
arteries, extending the Bay areas through
reclamation, constructing a new port, and
developing parks, playfields, and fountains
throughout the city for public leisure.
3.4 Urban Development Allocations
Burnham allocated spaces for national
and municipal buildings, hospitals, colleges, a
world-class hotel, city and country clubs, a
casino, boat clubs, public baths, and a new
residence for theGovernor General, aiming to
accommodate the city's population growth and
industrial expansion.
3.5 Binondo as the Business Center
The plan designated Binondo as the
center of business and merchandising,
proposing improvements in the area's wharf,
warehouse, and port facilities, with extensions
alongthePasigRiver linked to railroads for north
and south provinces, encouraging private sector
involvement for expedited development.
3.6 Implementation by William E. Parsons
In 1905, after Daniel Burnham's visit to
the Philippines, he sent preliminary plans for
Manila, but another architect, William E. Parsons
was appointed to implement Burnham's plan as
the Consulting Architect to the Insular
Government.
3.7 Institutionalization of City Planning
City planning began to institutionalize
during Parsons' time, with his role as
ConsultingArchitect considered the nucleus of
the Division of Architecture in the Insular Bureau
Of PublicWorks, although the position of City
Architect was established only in 1920, after
Parsons left in1914, possibly due to political
reasons.
3.8 Successors and City Planning Neglect
Parsons' departure led to successors
like Doane and Arellano, with the latter being a
contemporary of Tomas Mapua, and before
leaving, Parsons ensured the preparation of
general plans for cities such as Cebu and
Zamboanga and master plans for cities like
Iloilo. Parsons' reasons for leaving were unclear,
with some suggesting political factors, and city
planning issues, including sanitation and mass
housing, were neglected by architects and
 engineers, prompting the introduction of
"sanitary barrios" by Insular Health workers in
1908, reflecting new standards, while labor
groups established their own barrio obrero
independently.
4.0 POST-WAR PERIOD
In 1936, the Interior Department initiated local
planning commissions to enhance town planning, but a
shortage of trained city planners in both commissions
and the Bureau Of Public Works hindered the
establishment of planning as a discipline.
INFLUENCE IN THE FIELD OF URBAN PLANNING
Planning Influence in the 20th Century
In the first half of the 20th century, planning's
influence expanded in Europe through national and local
statutes guiding new development. European
governments engaged directly in working-class housing
provision, influencing urban growth through housing
construction decisions. In the United States, local
planning began with the 1916 New York City zoning law,
but federal intervention in housing and land use occurred
during the Great Depression. WorldWar II necessitated
extensive planning frameworks in the U.S. and Britain,
setting a precedent for post-war national economic and
demographic planning, more extensive in Britain than in
the United States.
Postwar approaches
In the postwar era, European governments
initiated extensive housing and rebuilding programs
guided by modernist planning principles from CIAM.
Influenced by figures likeLeCorbusier, these programs
favored high-rise structures with green spaces and
reflected a desire for large-scale, cost-effective projects
using new materials and technologies. Government
involvement in housing allowed for direct control over
urban growth. In Britain, Abercrombie'sGreater London
Plan proposed a greenbelt around the metropolitan area,
newtons beyond it, and circumferential highways. Similar
ideas spread to Scandinavia, Germany, and the
Netherlands. In the U.S., suburban development,
encouraged by federal incentives, lacked metropolitan-
wide planning, leading to unplanned growth and sprawl.
Urban renewal efforts focused on clearing land for public
facilities, relying on private investors for new
construction.
Planning and government
The role of city planning within urban
government structures varies worldwide. In Many
Countries, developers need governmental approval to
build, while in the United States, they proceed "as of
right" if their plans align with zoning codes. European
countries often centralized planning within an executive
department, with substantial authority. In the UK, local
councils serve as planning authorities, with an advisory
planning department. Denied developers can appeal to
the central government. In the U.S An appointed
planning commission handles routine planning functions,
especially related to private development proposals.
Urban renewal authorities, once powerful, have often
integrated with economic development agencies,
reporting independent boards with business community
representation. National governments in some countries,
notably in northern Europe, incorporate city planning into
broader growth and social welfare strategies. Even in the
U.S., federal involvement increased through housing and
urban renewal legislation, overseen by the Department
of Housing and Urban Development since1965.
Developing countries, gaining independence in the mid-
20th century, typically centralized planning structures
within new national governments.
Competing models
In the 20th century, various urban planning
theories emerged, influencing the urban landscape
based on popularity and longevity. Mid-century city
planning aimed for comprehensiveness, recognizing the
interdependence of land use, transport, and housing.
The Rational model, emphasizing expert evaluation for
optimal solutions, briefly dominated but faced criticism
for neglecting human consequences.
The modernist model, involving large-scale
demolition and reconstruction, was challenged by
urbanologist Jane Jacobs, who advocated for diverse,
lively urban environments over ordered, inhuman
cityscapes. By the late 20th century, planning in the U.S.
and Europe incorporated Jacobs's ideas, focusing on
rehabilitation, historical preservation, adaptive reuse,
mixed-use development, and the "24-hour city." Major
projects increasingly avoided demolishing occupied
structures. However, modernist concepts persisted in
developing countries, with China's displacement for the
2008 Beijing Olympics illustrating continued reliance on
large-scale, functionalist planning.
Contemporary planning
At the beginning of the 21st century, urban
planning lacked a singular model for both process and
outcome. In Europe and the United States, some cities
embraced participatory planning involving residents
likely to be affected by changes, while others did not.
The concept of participatory planning spread globally but
remained limited in adoption, often reflecting the degree
of democracy in each location. In more participatory
frameworks, planners shifted from being experts to
mediators among different stakeholders. This change
aligns with the concept of"communicative rationality," but
critics argue it may stifle innovation or serve powerful
interests, potentially conflicting with the public interest.
Concerns about "not in my backyard"
(NIMBYism)potentially hindering affordable housing and
necessary public facilities also emerged. Despite The
Lack of consensus on processes and goals,
contemporary urban planning exhibits diversity, with
some places still adhering to strict segregation of uses
while others trend toward mixed-use development,
especially in urban centers.
New pluralism
In contemporary urban planning, there has been
a shift toward new pluralism, marked by the breakdown
of universal principles favoring a "one plan fits all"
approach. Intellectual arguments against standardized
development and in favor of local sensitivity and
democratic input have gained prominence. The rigid
modernist consensus, emphasizing separation of uses
and standardized construction, has given way to a more
nuanced understanding of local differences.
FACTORS AFFECTING URBAN DEVELOPMENT
Urban planning, which is also known as urban
development, incorporates planning for transportation
systems and land use to improve the structure of a town
or city. Urban development includes urban renewal,
which addresses issues like decay and lack of
investment in specific regions. Factors like land use,
aesthetics, safety, unkempt buildings and transportation
all affect how cities are planned.
Use of Land
City planners try to manage the growth of a city
by making zoning laws to manage howland in a city is
used, but this also affects the growth of a city. Planners
try to regulate aspects of the building, such as the size of
newly constructed buildings, the uses of the building and
what features it will have. Although some planners try to
provide substantial freedom to the architect, they also
need to enforce safety and consider how to develop the
city intelligently by avoiding overcrowding and
considering issues like water consumption.
Aesthetics
In many cities, aesthetics or the nature of beauty
and its expression, is taken into consideration in urban
development. Cities often try to reduce the clutter or
have a mainstream architectural style. This is evident
especially in the historic parts of many towns. Cities
attempt to maintain control over new construction in
these areas and may regulate paint colors of the
exteriors of homes, as well as ornamentation outside of
the home. Successful urban development factors in the
culture or heritage of the region, as well as aspects like
natural hazards.
Safety
Urban planners must consider the safety of
residents and visitors when developing a town or city.
Extreme weather conditions, such as flooding or
hurricanes, necessitate planning for emergency routes
and safety features, such as retaining walls and shelters.
Unkempt Buildings
Many cities struggle with what to do regarding
abandoned, unkempt buildings, as well as lawn control
and debris. This deeply affects urban development
because avoiding neglect is believed central to
preventing the decay of the entire city, particularly in
areas of crime, drugs and other social issues. Urban
development must address how to address neglect,
slums and decay
Transportation
Transportation is a key problem in many urban
areas and presents a unique problem for an urban
planner. Urban development needs to address
increasing or decreasing traffic, trafficpatterns, parking
areas and alternative methods of transportation, such as
buses, trolleys or trains.
Reconstruction or Renewal
Another factor involved in urban development is
that of reconstruction and renewal, which is made
evident in areas that have been devastated by natural or
man-made disasters. Construction plan for a community
experiencing renewal needs to consider existing
resources, such as the culture and businesses, as well
as consider the long-term goals of the city when creating
the design.
FIGURES IN THE HISTORY OF URBAN & REGIONAL
PLANNING
Maxwell Fry (1899-1987)
British architect who, with his wife, Jane Drew,
pioneered in the field of modern tropical building and
town planning.
One of the earliest British adherents to the
modern movement, Fry was trained at the School of
Architecture, University of Liverpool. In 1924 he joined
the town-planning firm of Adams and Thompson in
London. Renouncing Classical architecture, he wrote
that he saw “no place for it in a technocratic world.” His
early work shows the strong influence of Ludwig Mies
van der Rohe, a leading proponent of the International
style in architecture.
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (1886-1969)
A pioneering architect whose works defined a
separate strain of modern architecture known as
International Style. He was a true modernist pioneer and
an iconic figure of 20th-century architecture and design.
Sustained by his famous trenchant statements like ‘less
is more’ and ‘God is in the details’, the textures of his
Barcelona Pavilion (1929/1986), the steel-and-glass
aesthetic of the Seagram Building (1956-1958) and his
paradigmatic examples of domestic architecture like the
Farnsworth House in Plano, Illinois (1945-1951), have
become some of the world’s most emblematic and
widely-recognized architectural elements and structures
built in the last century.
Le Corbusier (1887-1965)
Internationally influential Swiss architect and city
planner, whose designs combine the functionalism of the
modern movement with a bold sculptural expressionism.
He belonged to the first generation of the so-called
International school of architecture and was their most
able propagandist in his numerous writings. In his
architecture he joined the functionalist aspirations of his
generation with a strong sense of expressionism. He
was the first architect to make a studied use of rough-
cast concrete, a technique that satisfied his taste for
asceticism and for sculptural forms. In 2016, 17 of his
architectural works were named World Heritage sites by
UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization).
NOTABLE PROJECTS AROUND THE WORLD
COPENHAGEN CITY, DENMARK
Five Finger Plan (1947)
The urban plan of Copenhagen was conceived
as a ‘Five Finger Plan’ to build an integrated network of
urban infrastructure, transport, and green spaces. The
development is condensed along these lines to
encourage the use of public transit networks. The Five
Finger Plan, also known as the Finger Plan (Danish:
Fingerplanen), is an urban planning strategy for the
development of the Copenhagen metropolitan area in
Denmark.
According to the Finger Plan, Copenhagen is to
develop five "fingers" that extend from the dense urban
fabric, known as the "palm." These fingers are centered
around S-train commuter rail lines and serve as corridors
for development.
PUTRAJAYA, MALAYSIA
Intelligent Garden City (1995)
Putrajaya, Malaysia, is known as an "Intelligent
Garden City." It was designed to be the nation's pride,
combining well-planned urban development with
aesthetic appeal, environmental friendliness, and a
strong emphasis on green spaces. The city aims to
nurture a sense of Malaysian and Islamic heritage and
identity.
city. Parks, recreational areas, and community centres
foster social interactions and community bonding,
thereby enhancing social cohesion and inclusivity.
Also, efficient public transportation reduces
commuting time, increases productivity, and improves
access to job opportunities. It also reduces dependence
on private vehicles, thereby reducing traffic congestion
and pollution, which enhances the quality of life in the
city.

Putrajaya is characterized by its sleek and
modern-looking government ministries, well-structured
roads, and clean streets. It is considered one of the
greenest cities in Asia, with over a third of its land
reserved as greenery. The city incorporates strategic
town planning and infrastructure development to create
a harmonious blend of nature and urban living.
BRASILIA, BRAZIL - Pilot Plan (1957)
Impacts of Planning on Environment & Society
Overall, the impacts of planning on the
environment and society depend on the effectiveness,
inclusivity, and sustainability of the planning processes
and decisions. Well-designed and thoughtful planning
has the potential to create harmonious and resilient
communities that benefit both people and the
environment.

The pilot plan for Brasilia, Brazil, refers to the

initial urban design and layout of the city. It was
developed through a public competition held in 1957,
which brought together 26 projects for the Federal
Capital. The winning project was led by architect Lúcio
Costa, with landscape designer Roberto Burle Marx and
architect Oscar Niemeyer contributing to the design.

The pilot plan aimed to create a modern and

functional city from scratch, serving as the new capital of
Brazil. The design incorporated elements of modernist
architecture and urban planning principles. The city was
organized into different sectors, with specific functions
assigned to each sector, such as residential,
commercial, and administrative areas.

WASHINGTON D.C, USA - L’Enfant Plan (1791)

The L'Enfant Plan refers to the urban design and

layout of Washington, D.C., the capital city of the United
States. It was named after Pierre Charles L'Enfant, a
French-born architect and engineer who was
commissioned by President George Washington to
create a plan for the new capital.

The L'Enfant Plan was developed in 1791 and

aimed to create a grand and symbolic capital city.
L'Enfant's vision was to design a city that showcased the
ideals of the new nation and provided a fitting setting for
the federal government. The plan incorporated wide
avenues, grand boulevards, and open spaces, creating a
sense of grandeur and monumentality.

IMPACTS OF PLANNING IN ENVIRONMENT &

SOCIETY

Impacts of Planning on Environment

Planning can mitigate the impacts of climate

change, reduce pollution, and conserve natural
resources. This not only makes the city more liveable but
also attracts environmentally conscious businesses and
residents, thereby contributing to economic and social
development.

Impacts of Planning on Society

Moreover, urban planning also impacts the

social development of a city. It determines the availability
and quality of housing, which directly affects the living
standards of the residents. Affordable and quality
housing can reduce poverty and improve the overall
well-being of the population. Additionally, urban planning
also shapes the public spaces in a