LESSON:12

PAGE:302/307

TITLE:EVOLUTION OF A NERVOUS SYSTEM

DISCOVERY OF HORMONES

EVOLUTION OF NERVOUS SYSTEMS

For an animal body to function as an integrated whole,its cells must communicate with one
another.intercellular communication involveds three steps.FIRST,a signaling molecule released by one
cell reversibly binds to a receptor on or in another cell.SECOND,the signal is transduced, meaning it is
converted into a form that has an effect in the signal-receiving cell.THIRD,the signal-receiving cell
changes in some way in response to the signal.

THERE ARE THE TWO ORGAN SYSTEM

1)THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 2) ENDOCRINE SYSTEM-

-The endocrine system coordinate activities by way of molecules called hormones that travel in the
blood .

-The nervous system make up the communication lines of nervous system.

NERVE NET

-Animal with radial symmetry have a mesh og interconnected neurons called a nerve net.

-A nerve is a bundle of neurons fibers (cytoplasmic extension) wrapped in connective tissue.

GETTING A HEAD

Most animals have bilateral symmetry,with paired organs arranged on either side of the main body
axis.Evolutiom of bilateral body plans was accompanied by (cephalization) an evolutionary process in
which neurons that detect and process information about the external environment became
concentrated at the body’s anterior,or head end.

-A simple nervous system a pair of ganglin in the head serves as an integrating center each
ganglion(plural,ganglia)is a cluster of neurons cell bodies.(A cell body is the part of the neuron that holds
the cell’s nucleus and most and most other organelles.)

A nerve cord consist of nerve fibers of many neurons,and it runs the length of a body.Nerves branch
from the nerve cord and cross the body.

-A brain is a central control organ of nervous systems.It receives Ang integrates sensory
information,regulates internal process,and sends out signals that bring about movements.

THE VERTEBRATE NERVOUS SYSTEM

A dorsal nerve cord (a nerve cord that runs along the back)is one defining feature of chordate
embryos.In a brain and spinal cord,which together constitute the animal’s central nervous system.Nerves
that extend from the central nervous system through the rest of the body are the peripheral nervous
system.

-The human peripheral nervous system consists of 12 cranial nerves that connect to the brain and 31
spinal nerves that connect to the spinal cord .

HORMONES IN THE BALANCE.----We live in a world awash in synthetic chemicals.We drinks from plastic
bottles,west clothing made of synthetic, fabrics, slather ourselves with synthetic skin care products,and
eat food treated with synthetic pesticide.

-We have learned by sad experience that some synthetic chemicals threaten animal and human
health..for example,year after we started using them,we realized that DDT(pesticide) and PCBs

SOME OF THE MAIN NERVES OF THE HUMANS NERVOUS

SYSTEMS

Endocrine disruptors are molecules that intefere with the function of the endocrine system.DDT was
banned in 1972 and PCBs in 1979.

--this chemical has been widely used for more than forty years.In the United States,76 million pounds of
aftrazine are sprayed each year, mostly to kill weeds in cornfields.

-Living in atrazine-contominated water can descrup endocrine function in aquatic animals and diminish
their reproductive capacity.Esposting genetically male frog tadpoles to atrazine alters their sexual
development.

Atrazine- is usually applied to fields in spring,so peak atrazine runoff occurs when fish and frogs are
mating and when their young are developing.

-In 2013,Syngenta, the company that makes atrazine,began paying out a $105 million settlement to
community water supplies across the United States.
THE VERTEBRATE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Mechanism of Intercellular Signaling

-cells of an animals body constantly signal one another.Gao junctions allow signaling substance to move
directly between the cytoplasm of adjacent cells.Other cell-cell communication involves signaling
molecules that are secreted into interstitial fluid(the between cells.)

-These molecules exert effect only when they blind to a receptors on inside another cell.

-A postsynaptic cell.Many types of cells produce and secrete local signaling molecules.

Animal Hormones -are long-range communication molecules that travel in blood.Hormones are secreted
by gland cells.

Discovery of Hormones

-hormones were first discovered in the early 1900s by physiologist.William Hayliss and Ernest Starling..

-To find out how the scientific did an experiment.They surgically altered a laboratory animals,cutting all
nerves that carry signals to and from its small intestine.

-They exposed small intestinal cells to acid,then made an extract of those cells.Injecting this extract into
the bloodstream of another animal caused it’s pancreas to secrete bicarbonate.

-Endocrine glands and other structures that secrete hormones are referred to collectively as the
vertebrate endocrine system.-The blood,but also secrete digestive enzymes into the small intestine.

-The discovery of Hormones and subsequent studies of endocrine function have had important medical
implications
NEUROENDOCRINE INTERACTION

-Both neurons and endocrine cells develop from an embryo’s ectodermallayer.Portion of the endocrine
system and nervous system are so closely linked that scientist sometimes refer to them collectively as
the neuroendocrine system.

-Hormones influence brain development,both before and after birth.Hormones can also affect nervous
process such as sleep-wake cycles, emotion,mood,memory.Conversely,the nervous system regulates
hormones secretion.For example,in a stressful situation, sympathetic nervous stimulation triggers an
increase in the secretion of some hormones,and decrease in the secretion of other hormones.

INTEGRATED RESPONSE THREAT

-You continually cross paths with a tremendous array of viruses, bacteria,fungi, parasitic worms,and
other agents of disease,but you need not lose sleep over this.Humans coevolved with these pathogens
them.

-Mutations in the genes for membrane proteins introduce new molecules patterns that were unique in
cells og given type.A multicellularity evolved so did mechanism of identifying the patterns as self or
belonging to one’s own body.
-Cells of all modern multicelled eukaryotes bear a set of receptors that collectively can recognize around
1,000 different nonself cues,which are called pathogen-assiociated molecular patterns (PAMPs).

-A PAMP is an example of antigen.

-Binding of a cell’s receptors to antigen triggers a set of immediate,general defense response.In

mammals,for example the binding activates complement

-Pattern receptors the response they triggers are part of innate immunity.

--This adaptive immunity tailors immune defense to specific pathogens potentially billions og them,that
an individuals encounters during it’s lifetime

THREE LINES OG DEFENSE

-The mechanism of adaptive immunity revolved within the context of innate immunity.The two systems
were once through to operate independently.

LESSON:13

PAGE:331/335

TITLE:LEAVES UP IS TO/VASCULAR BUNDLES

LEAVES

-Leaves are the main organs of photosynthesis in most flowering plants species.They also function in gas
exchange,and they are the major site of evaporation water loss.

-Typically leaves are thin,which a high surface-to-volume ratio.

Simples leaves are undivided, although the margins of many are lobed, secrete,or otherwise contributed
INTERNAL STUCTURE

-illustrates the internal structure of a typical eudicot leaf.The bulk of the leaf consist of mesophyll,which
is photosynthetic parenchyma with air space between cells

-The vascular bundles of leaves are called leaf veins.

NODES -stem typically have nodes

VASCULAR BUNDLES -inside stems,xylem and phloem are organize as long multitranded
-The main function of vascular bundles is to conduct water,oins,and nutrients between different parts of
the plants.

VARIATIONS OF A STEM—many plants have modified stem structures that function in storage and
reproduction

STOLONS- are stems that branch from the main stem of the plants and grow horizontally along the
surface of the ground of just under it.

NODES- the nodes develop into new plants.

Along the surface of the soil the strawberry plant (fragaria) in the photo above is reproducing sexually by
sending out runners.

BULBS -a bulbs is a short section of underground stem eccased by overlapping layers of the thickened ,
modified leaves called scales.
CORMS- is a short, thickened underground stem.

-a corms is like bulb in that it stories nutrients for time when condition in the environment.

RHIZOMES- Ginger,ireses and some grades have rhizomes,which are fleshly stem that typically grow
under the soil and parallel to its surface .
STEM TUBERS—are thick, fleshly storage structure that form on the stolons or rhizomes of some plants
spicies.

-The photo (left) shows to potatoes,which are stem tubers ,grow on stolons of solanum tuberosum

.plants.

CLADODES-many types of cacti And other succulent have cladodes.

- Which are flattened, photosynthetic stems that store water .

ROOTS-The main function roots is to take up water and mineral oins form soil.

-roots also achor a plants in soil and in many species they store nutrients.

-for example that root system of a single young ryeplants,if land out a sheet,would cover about 600
square meters,or about 6,500 square.

FIBROUS ROOT SYSTEM – are about equal in diameter there is no dominant central root.

- Roots in a fibrous system may or may not be branched.