The Influence of Parental Divorce on Becoming a Marriage and Family Therapist

Dissertation Manuscript

Submitted to Northcentral University

School of Social and Behavioral Sciences

in Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Degree of

DOCTORATE OF MARRIAGE AND FAMILY THERAPY

by

MICHAEL JAMES MILLER

San Diego, California

August 2022



       

Approval Page

The Influence of Parental Divorce on Becoming a Marriage and Family Therapist

By

MICHAEL JAMES MILLER

Approved by the Doctoral Committee:

DMFT 10/11/2022 | 11:02:55 MST

Krista Speicher
Dissertation Chair: INSERT NAME Degree Held Date

Ph.D. Psychology 10/11/2022 | 13:06:28 MST

Committee Member: Jennifer

INSERTWeniger
NAME Degree Held Date

10/11/2022 | 14:38:20 MST

PhD

INSERT
Committee Member: Mark WhiteNAME Degree Held Date
 Abstract

Approximately half of all marriages in the U.S. end in divorce. Divorce-related factors impact

families in multiple areas, directing much attention to the children’s experiences and challenges.

Such family of origin factors can play a significant role in one’s career choices. The motivating

factors for choosing psychotherapy as a career have been a subject of debate for decades,

speculating that these decisions are often centered around one’s family of origin experiences,

including parental divorce. A prominent theme that motivates individuals to become a

psychotherapist is that they have endured emotional pain and want to help others with their own

hurts. Prior to this study, there was no research addressing the influence of parental divorce on

the career choices of marriage and family therapists. The purpose of this interpretive

phenomenological analysis was to understand the experience of marriage and family therapists

who live through parental divorce before the age of 18, and the role that parental divorce may

have had on their decision to choose marriage and family therapy for their career. Bowen family

systems theory provided the theoretical lens for this study. Five participants completed semi-

structured interviews. All participants were licensed marriage and family therapists with

experience of parental divorce prior to age 18. Interviews were recorded, transcribed, then

analyzed utilizing interpretive phenomenological analysis. Nine themes emerged from this study

with emphasis given to differentiation of self and the concept of the wounded healer. This study

revealed that parental divorce served as a significant motivating factor in the career decision-

making processes of all participants via the process of differentiation of self. Future research

topics for this population include: (1) examining the potential of differentiation of self as a factor

in career choices, and (2) the influence of parental divorce on couple therapy.
For my parents, Don and Margie. How I wish that you could have celebrated this with me.
 Acknowledgements

Wow! This journey of earning my doctoral degree and completing my dissertation was probably
the most difficult thing I have done in my 58 trips around the Sun. It would be a huge omission if
I failed to acknowledge those who came alongside of me over the last few years. It was the
encouragement and guidance of these people that provided me with much needed, and timely
support that propelled me forward to complete this otherwise impossible task. To begin with, I
have to acknowledge the daily support that I received from my beautiful wife, Yvonne. For the
past five years we have worked side-by-side on our journeys earning our doctorates. We have
both experienced many similar and dissimilar challenges along our ways. I am convinced that I
would not be where I am this day if not for your encouragement, support, and empathy. I look
forward our future, to the adventures we will take in next chapters of our life together. I am
eternally grateful for the direction and support I received from my Chair, Dr. Krista Speicher. If
not for her encouragement, support, listening ear, and investment in my research I do not know if
I would have reached the finish line. I want to thank Dr. Jennifer Weniger for her constructive
feedback that helped to strengthen the final dissertation manuscript. I must also thank Dr. Mark
White, for the expert feedback I received on my work, but more importantly for hearing me
when I was discouraged. Finally, I must acknowledge the support I received from my former
professor, former boss, and colleague, Dr. Thomas Frederick. I thank you for your support
through the dozens of calls and hundreds of texts we have had over the past two years. Without
your patient support and your knowledge of the research, the writing process, Bowen, Holland,
and Capps, I do not believe I could yet have completed my dissertation. I also want to thank my
family for the patience and support they gave me all along the way. For my children: Jennifer,
Dillon, and Alyssa, it’s official! I promise, Dad is done with school. Forever. For my
grandchildren, be assured that Gramps will have more time to spend with you. I look forward to
creating many lasting memories with you. Finally, I want to thank the numerous other NCU
professors who have supported and encouraged me along the way. I could not have
accomplished this on my own.
 Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1

Statement of the Problem .......................................................................................................... 6

Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................................. 8
Theoretical Framework ........................................................................................................... 10
Nature of the Study ................................................................................................................. 11
Research Questions ................................................................................................................. 12
Significance of the Study ........................................................................................................ 13
Definitions of Key Terms ....................................................................................................... 14
Summary ................................................................................................................................. 15

Chapter 2: Literature Review ........................................................................................................ 16

Conceptual Framework ........................................................................................................... 17

Systems Theory ..................................................................................................................... 18
Bowen Family Systems Theory ............................................................................................ 19
Eight Concepts of Bowen Theory ......................................................................................... 22
Critiques of Bowen Theory ................................................................................................... 29
Divorce .................................................................................................................................... 34
Divorce’s Impact on Children ............................................................................................... 35
Divorce’s Impact on Young Adults ...................................................................................... 38
Identity .................................................................................................................................... 40
Identity and Career Choice ..................................................................................................... 45
Holland’s Typology .............................................................................................................. 45
Family and Career Choice..................................................................................................... 47
Family Influence on Children’s Career Choice .................................................................... 48
MFT/Psychotherapist Career Choice ...................................................................................... 57
Summary ................................................................................................................................. 62

Chapter 3: Research Method ......................................................................................................... 65

Research Methodology and Design ........................................................................................ 66

Population and Sample ........................................................................................................... 69
Materials ................................................................................................................................. 71
Study Procedures .................................................................................................................... 72
Data Analysis .......................................................................................................................... 73
Assumptions............................................................................................................................ 75
Limitations .............................................................................................................................. 76
Delimitations ........................................................................................................................... 77
Ethical Assurances .................................................................................................................. 78
Summary ................................................................................................................................. 80

Chapter 4: Findings ....................................................................................................................... 82

Trustworthiness of the Data .................................................................................................... 82

 Results ..................................................................................................................................... 84
Participant Demographics ....................................................................................................... 85
Data Analysis .......................................................................................................................... 85
Participant Sample Characteristics ......................................................................................... 87
Research Question 1 ............................................................................................................... 89
Research Question 2 ............................................................................................................... 95
Research Question 3 ............................................................................................................... 96
Evaluation of the Findings .................................................................................................... 101
Summary ............................................................................................................................... 107

Chapter 5: Implications, Recommendations, and Conclusions .................................................. 109

Implications........................................................................................................................... 111
Research Question 1 ........................................................................................................... 111
Research Question 2 ........................................................................................................... 113
Research Question 3 ........................................................................................................... 113
Recommendations for Practice ............................................................................................. 116
Recommendations for Future Research ................................................................................ 118
Conclusions ........................................................................................................................... 120

References ................................................................................................................................... 122

Appendix A: Interview Questions .............................................................................................. 150

Appendix B: Recruitment Letter ................................................................................................. 152

Appendix C: Participant Eligibility Criteria ............................................................................... 153

Appendix D: Thank You Letter to Interested Volunteers ........................................................... 154

Appendix E: Informed Consent .................................................................................................. 155

Appendix F: Mental Health Resources ....................................................................................... 158

 1

Chapter 1: Introduction

The notion that half of all marriages end in divorce has been well-accepted in the U.S.

for the last three decades. Many people believe that this number is accurate citing recent divorce

rates in the United States to be near 50% for first marriages, 67% for second marriages, and 74%

for third marriages (Reynolds, 2017). These numbers have the potential to be even higher as

several states, including California, Hawaii, Indiana, Minnesota and New Mexico do not keep

records of divorce rates (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2019).

Divorce-related factors impact families in multiple areas, including financial, physical,

and emotional well-being, directing much attention to the children’s experiences and challenges

(Amato, 2001; Schramm, 2006; Seijo et al., 2016). Research on the impact of divorce has

highlighted that individuals from divorced families tend to have decreased educational and

financial achievements when compared to the general public (Schramm, 2006). Children from

families of divorced parents, compared to children from families with parents’ marriages intact,

are at higher risk, often disadvantaged with higher drop-out rates in high school, poorer

emotional well-being, and inferior social abilities (Kim, 2011). Children with divorced parents

are more than twice as likely to reach adulthood with a significant psychological, social or

emotional problem, and lower academic achievement than children from parents whose

marriages are continuous (Amato, 2001; Amato, 2003; Auersperg et al., 2019; Morrison et al.,

2017; Roper et al., 2020).

Parental divorce has the potential for adverse outcomes among family members including

disruption in parent-child relationships, frequency of depression, poorer educational outcomes,

increased risk for divorce, and disruption in young adult romantic relationships (Amato, 2001;

Auersperg et al., 2019; Roper et al., 2020; Whitton et al., 2008). The wide-ranging implications
 2

of divorce, including significant fiscal impacts to taxpayers, hold a nation-wide prevalence and

have long been an interest in both to public policy and within the private community (Schramm,

2006; Schramm et al., 2013). These concerns underscore the significance for the potential of

negative impacts of divorce, including lower standards of living for women and their custodial

children (Clarke-Stewart & Brentano, 2008).

Furthermore, considerable attention from prominent scholars has been devoted to the

relationship between parental divorce and offspring divorce for more than three decades (cf.

Amato, 2001, 2003; Amato & Cheadle, 2005; Barber & Eccles, 1992; Booth & Amato, 2001;

Dronkers & Harkonen, 2008; Kim, 2011; Pantelis et al., 2015; Wallerstein et al., 2001;

Wolfinger, 2000, 2011). It is well-established that parental divorce has the potential for negative

ramifications for children of divorce in areas of finances, social standing, education,

relationships with parents, and adult romantic relationships (Amato, 2010; Pantelis et al., 2015;

Roper, 2020; Wallerstein et al., 2001). Curiously, one area that has not been given much

attention is how the experience of parental divorce shapes one’s career choice.

The motivating factors for choosing psychotherapy as a career have been a subject of

debate for decades (Fussell & Bonney, 1990; Goldklank, 1986; Murphy & Halgin, 1995; Racusin

et al., 1981), with speculation that such decisions are often centered around one’s family of

origin (FOO) experiences. Groesbeck (1975) first postulated the idea that one’s difficult

childhood experience provides the impetus to help others with their struggles, embodying the

role of the wounded healer (Groesbeck, 1975). Goldklank (1986) further suggested that

therapists’ roles in their family-of-origin served as an early training for their future careers, and

that therapists may be pulled toward an identity that fits in with what they believe a therapist’s

identity should be (Goldklank, 1986).

 3

A study examining therapists’ unconscious motivation for their choice in a career found

two prominent themes in their decisions to follow this career path (Barnett, 2007). First was the

experience of an early loss. For example, some participants were cognizant of their earlier

experiences and acknowledged the pain that they had endured through the absence of their

fathers followed by their mothers becoming emotionally unavailable (Barnett, 2007). Second

was the fulfillment of the therapists’ own needs. In some cases, attending to their clients through

self-sacrificing care seemed to compensate for negative personal impacts resulting from the

divorce of parents (Barnett, 2007). Barnett suggests that a common thread in all of these

accounts was that the therapists were able to fully comprehend the true motivations that led them

to become therapists or counselors years into their careers after allowing time for reflection

(Barnett, 2007).

Participants in a 1990 study comparing childhood experiences of psychotherapists and

physicists found that psychotherapists reported a higher incidence of childhood trauma and

emotional deprivation compared to their counterparts (Fussell & Bonney, 1990). The

psychotherapists demonstrated an awareness of their trauma, which may have contributed to

their choice of profession, supporting the notion that in hindsight, therapists have a solid

understanding of their choices in their profession (Fussell & Bonney, 1990). Conversely, Barnett

discovered that applicants for education and training to become therapists often express a

yearning to help and understand others, yet the applicants tended not have much awareness

about what motivated them to make their career choices (Barnett, 2007).

Earlier research examining career choices of psychotherapists found that common

influences include: (1) Experiences of psychological distress, (2) desire to resolve personal

problems, and (3) professional and vocational opportunities (Murphy & Halgin, 1995). More
 4

recent research has focused on public service motivation, a focus on motives and actions that

attempt to do good for others, and promote improved well-being of society, as a potential

motivation for a career choice in the helping fields (Evans & Evans, 2019). If one could find a

common theme that motivates individuals to become a psychotherapist, it would be that they

have endured some sort of emotional pain and want to help others to navigate through their own

(Barnett, 2007; Murphy & Halgin, 1995).

The divorce-related themes of loss and disruption in parent-child relationships take on

additional significance in the lives and work of therapists, including marriage and family

therapists (MFT), as these types of issues are likely to impact the therapist’s view of the self and

ultimately their work with clients (Titelman, 2004). Another way to conceptualize how parental

divorce may impact future MFTs is the concept of the self of the therapist. The self of the

therapist refers to the therapist’s unique thoughts, experiences, biases, reactions to clients, and

family of origin issues and how they impact therapy (Sude & Baima, 2020; Watts-Jones, 2010).

The self of the therapist is a considerable factor, commonly found to be instrumental in effective

treatment regardless of the therapist’s approach to therapy (Frediani & Rober, 2016). Since

adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), including parental divorce, have shown to impact

children in numerous manners (Amato, 2001, 2003; Auersperg et al., 2019; Morrison et al.,

2017; Roper et al., 2020), it is reasonable to hypothesize experiencing divorce as a child could

impress upon the self of the therapist, ultimately influencing the therapist’s work with clients in

both positive and negative ways. Furthermore, impacts of parental divorce could surface in the

therapist’s work through countertransference (Corey, 2017), impacting how the therapist

approaches and provides service to individuals, couples and families.

 5

A review of the literature shines considerable light on the positive and negative impacts

for children in the wake of parental divorce (Amato, 2001, 2010; Barber & Eccles, 1992;

Morrison et al., 2017; Roper, 2020). Research indicates that children of divorce are more

resilient (Shanholtz et al., 2019) and learn how to become more independent (Cartwright, 2006;

Jackson & Fife, 2018) compared to their peers from non-divorced parents. For example, Riggio

sampled 566 young adults, ages 18 to 32 years (M = 21.4) from divorced and intact families,

finding that those from divorced families tend to become more independent and self-reliant than

their counterparts (Riggio, 2004). Additionally, a 2007 study of adult children of divorce

(ACOD) found that 50% of participants reported that they experienced more positive outcomes

from their parent’s divorce, while less than 25% of the participants believed that negative

outcomes exceeded the positive (Sever et al., 2007). Although the impacts of parental divorce

upon children are complex, marital disruption is not uniformly detrimental to children, with most

children developing into well-adjusted adults (Amato & Cheadle, 2005). It is important to note

that individuals respond and adapt to parental divorce differently based on numerous variables

such as age, sex, parental custodial arrangements, and severity of parental conflict prior to

divorce (Amato et al., 2011; Barber & Eccles, 1992).

Not surprisingly, the impact of divorce on parents and children’s emotional well-being

has been the subject of significant effort in the research literature since the 1990s (Amato, 2003;

Amato & Cheadle, 2005; Barber & Eccles, 1992; Booth & Amato, 2001; Kim, 2011; Morrison et

al., 2017; Roper et al., 2020; Wauterickx et al., 2006). Although there is some support indicating

that parental divorce can lead to positive outcomes, there exists a much larger body of literature

addressing the negative outcomes (Amato, 2010; Roper et al., 2020). Children who experience

divorce or separation of their parents find themselves at an increased risk for a multitude of
 6

adverse outcomes, including developing emotional, psychological, social, and behavioral

consequences when compared to children from continuously married families (Amato, 2001;

Amato & Afifi, 2006; Morrison et al., 2017; Wallerstein et al., 2001). Children of divorce may

experience numerous positive and negative implications from parental divorce throughout

childhood, adolescence, and into adulthood (Auersperg et al., 2019; Cartwright, 2006; Morrison

et al., 2017; Roper et al., 2020).

Decades of research has also provided a window into the factors that motivate people to

choose psychotherapy as a career including experiences of one’s FOO, and traumatic childhood

experiences (Barnett, 2007; Murphy & Halgin, 1995). While there is a body of research

addressing what may motivate one to become a psychotherapist (Barnett, 2007; Fussell &

Bonney, 1990; Murphy & Halgin, 1995; Racusin et al., 1981), considering the acknowledged

importance of the self of the therapist (Sude & Baima, 2020; Watts-Jones, 2010) and potential

implications that may influence one’s work with clients (Titelman, 2004), it seems reasonable

that more need to be understood about the potential impact of parental divorce influencing one’s

choice to become a MFT. This underscores the need to understand if, and to what degree, the

experience of parental divorce has made on the career choices of adult children of divorce

(ACOD) who choose marriage and family therapy as a career.

Statement of the Problem

The problem addressed by this study was to understand how the experience of parental

divorce, and the phenomenon of intergenerational transmission, may influence one’s choice to

become a marriage and family therapist. The implications of this study provide insight into how

parental divorce, and the role of intergenerational transmission, might shape career choice, and

the therapist’s view of the self, which may impact the treatment provided to clients.
 7

Intergenerational transmission, the process whereby one’s experiences from their family of

origin influences individuals’ worldviews, and the way in which they interact with and perceive

others, plays a significant role in the developmental path for members of families (Costa-

Ramalho et al., 2017; Kerr & Bowen, 1998). It is conceivable that FOO factors could impact

one’s career choices, and influence how MFTs view their clients and their problems, resulting in

therapist biases (Bowes et al., 2020; Corey, 2017). Therapist biases occur when the therapist is

unaware of personal perceptions, thoughts and ideas that influence the therapeutic work in a

detrimental manner, potentially harming the client (Bowes et al., 2020; Corey, 2017). Another

potential impact of FOO issues is how parental divorce might contribute to countertransference.

Countertransference occurs when therapists’ own emotional issues arise while working with

clients (Hayes, 2011). The resulting countertransference influences how therapists perceive and

react to clients, interferes with therapeutic change, and can be detrimental to clients’ experience

in therapy (Corey, 2017; Hayes, 2011). Understanding the role of the experience of parental

divorce, and potential influences of the intergenerational transmission process, can inform

therapists of potential biases and countertransference issues that they may unknowingly bring

into their work.

One way to conceptualize the impact of parental divorce on therapists is the notion of the

wounded healer (Groesbeck, 1975, as cited in Evans & Evans, 2019). This idea suggests that

those who have lived through adverse conditions are more inclined to serve in the helping field,

and better equipped because of their experience of coping with adverse childhood experiences

(ACEs; Evans & Evans, 2019). An initial study of adverse childhood events addressed the

impact of ACEs on 17,337 participants (Felitti et al., 1998, as cited in Evans & Evans, 2019).

The authors surveyed the participants concerning the significance of ten different types of ACEs,
 8

one of which was parental divorce (Felitti et al., 1998, as cited in Evans & Evans, 2019). More

recent research continues to underscore the significance of parental divorce or separation by

including it as one of the ACEs examined (Blosnich et al., 2019; Choi et al., 2017; Ho et al.,

2019; Meeker et al., 2021). Research examining unconscious motivation of those who choose the

field of psychotherapy found that negative childhood experiences, notably the concept of loss via

parental divorce, may serve as a catalyst for one entering into the helping fields (Barnett, 2007;

Howard et al., 2015). Therapists interviewed noted that parental divorce during their childhood

resulted in experiencing losses in two significant ways (Barnett, 2007). First, the therapists felt

significant loss of their fathers related to numerous divorce circumstances, which was followed

by an emotional absence from their mothers (Barnett, 2007). Although all participating therapists

in this study acknowledge the impact of their early losses, and are now able to look at their

experiences objectively and subjectively, they contend that their wounds would never entirely be

healed (Barnett, 2007).

Although the broad range of factors that influence the decision to become a MFT have

been studied (Heathcote, 2009; Murphy & Halgin, 1995; Norcross & Farber, 2005; Yusof &

Carpenter, 2015), the influence of parental divorce has not been investigated. It is conceivable

that attitudes, beliefs and values transmitted from parents to children will influence how ACOD

MFTs view their clients and their problems. Ultimately, the influences of parental divorce may

inadvertently impact how therapists provide therapy to their clients, significantly impacting the

well-being of those clients and their families.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this interpretive phenomenological analysis (IPA) was to understand the

experience of MFTs who live through parental divorce before the age of 18, and the role that
 9

parental divorce may have had on their decision to choose marriage and family therapy for their

career. Interpretive phenomenological analysis was chosen for this project to facilitate the

exploration of the subjective meaning and lived experiences of ACOD (Glesne, 2016; Hale et al.,

2008; Knabb et al., 2009; Smith & Osborn, 2007). This research provides the field of marriage

and family therapy a window into the lived experiences of ACOD MFTs by informing the MFT

discipline of whether and to what extent the experience of parental divorce had on ACODs

choice to become MFTs. This study sampled ACOD who have become licensed MFTs, and

whose parents divorced prior to the subjects’ eighteenth birthday. Subjects participated in semi-

structured interviews that were recorded on a secure laptop computer, transcribed, then analyzed

based on IPA as described in Smith and Osborn (2007).

Interpretive phenomenological analysis was utilized to explore the individual accounts of

ACOD MFTs in order to gain insight into the phenomenon (Glesne, 2016; Knabb et al., 2009;

Smith & Osborn, 2007). Participants were recruited and interviewed throughout the United

States. All interviews were conducted via the Internet on a secure web conference platform. Data

were collected with the use of phenomenological semi-structured interviews of ACOD MFTs

(See Appendix A).

A sample of licensed MFTs who report a history of parental divorce was studied in order

to gain a rich understanding of the experience of each participant (Glesne, 2016; Hale et al.,

2008; Nelson et al., 2013). Research employing IPA generally involves a smaller sample size

than other models of qualitative research (Hale et al., 2008; Smith & Osborn, 2007). This study

included five participants as suggested in Smith and Osborn (2007). Currently, there is no

research literature to inform the field of MFT addressing the potential influence of parental

divorce on the career choices for MFTs.

 10

Theoretical Framework

Bowen family systems theory (Bowen, 2004; Kerr & Bowen, 1988) provided the

theoretical basis for this study. Bowen family systems theory (BFST) was incorporated as it is

foundational to the multigenerational transmission process, or what is more recently known as

intergenerational transmission of many family dysfunctions and patterns. The cornerstone of

BFST is the assumption that humans and the human family are driven and guided by processes

that are written in nature (Kerr & Bowen, 1988), and are founded in evolutionary theory

(Titelman, 1998). This concept, therefore, posits the human family as a natural system. It is a

unique natural system called an emotional system (Kerr & Bowen, 1988). Further, this

framework has been adopted or modified in many of the intergenerational approaches indicating

it is an important metaframework (Roberto, 1992).

BFST suggests that families subconsciously create distinctive, interrelated emotional

fields and rules that govern behavior (Bowen, 2004). Bowen theorized eight concepts that work

together to support his theory: (1) Differentiation of self, (2) emotional triangles, (3) nuclear

family emotional process, (4) family projection process, (5) emotional cutoff, (6)

multigenerational (intergenerational) transmission process, (7) sibling position, and (8) societal

emotional process (Bowen, 2004). Although Bowen posits eight concepts within his theory, for

the purposes of this study there will be a focus on one central theme - the intergenerational

transmission process. The concept of intergenerational transmission is foundational for

understanding the nature of the relational self and how the family of origin effects all areas of

life, even career choice.

The intergenerational transmission of many family dysfunctions and patterns describes

broad patterns of family behaviors between members of the same family that are passed down
 11

from one generation to another (Amato, 1996; Bowen, 2004; Hall, 1984; Kerr & Bowen, 1988).

Intergenerational transmission describes how levels of differentiation can be inherited from one

generation to another (Kerr & Bowen, 1988). Differentiation of self is an individual's ability to

emotionally disconnect from one's family members while simultaneously operating within that

system (Frederick et al., 2016; Papero, 2014b), and is considered the personality variable that is

most critical to development of maturity and achieving psychological health (Skowron &

Friedlander, 1998). BFST suggests that one needed to differentiate between one’s thoughts and

feelings, and that one could experience fusion between their thought and feeling processes

(Gibson & Donigian, 1993). Also, those with greater levels of differentiation are able to

distinguish their own thoughts and feelings from their family members (Hall, 1983). Bowen

posits that children’s level of differentiation is determined by the emotional connections and

demands placed on them by their parents (Kerr & Bowen, 1988). Furthermore, the research

literature supports Bowen’s position that parents’ values and beliefs are predictive of their

children’s (Miller et al., 2004). Therefore, it is conceivable that a child of divorce, with a low

level of differentiation of self, might unknowingly adopt their parents’ attitudes, thoughts, and

biases about divorce. These undetected factors could impact one’s choice in career and how that

career is practiced.

Nature of the Study

Qualitative phenomenological methodology was chosen for this project to facilitate the

exploration of the subjective meaning and lived experiences of ACOD (Glesne, 2016; Knabb et

al., 2009). This study aims expand on the current research literature by identifying how ACOD

factors and their effects are incorporated into a meaning-making framework contributed to their

choice to become MFTs. Phenomenological study allows for the researcher to understand, in
 12

detail, the lived experiences of ACOD MFTs, making sense of the participant’s understanding of

their world and perceptions of their experiences (Smith & Osborn, 2007). The inclusion criteria

for this study will require that participants be licensed MFTs who report a history of parental

divorce prior to turning eighteen years old. The data obtained will contribute to the body of

literature with the use of semi-structured interviews of ACOD MFTS, which will lead to new

insight into the role of intergenerational transmission of divorce on career choice by

understanding (1) the lived experience of ACOD for MFTs, and (2) the effects of ACOD on a

specific career choice – licensed marriage and family therapists. This information could provide

a useful resource in career counseling future MFTs as well as aiding in the management of

negative countertransference due to the ACOD experience.

In order to identify potential participants, the researcher advertised by posting notices in

social media and MFT community bulletin boards, and advertising with local MFT groups.

Individuals who matched recruitment criteria participated in semi-structured interviews. These

interviews were conducted face to face while video recorded on a secure, password protected,

laptop computer, then transcribed verbatim. Once the data were transcribed, phenomenological

analysis was utilized based on qualitative coding of the data.

Research Questions

RQ1: How might the experience of divorce during childhood or adolescence contribute to the

motivation to become a marriage and family therapist?

RQ2: How do ACOD MFTs perceive the positive influence of parental divorce on their choice

to become MFTs?
 13

RQ3: How do ACOD MFTs perceive the negative influence of parental divorce on their

choice to become MFTs?

Significance of the Study

This study provides the field of marriage and family therapy with a view into the

potential contribution of parental divorce in the career choice of participating ACOD MFTs.

Although considerable effort has been given to understand the factors that influence one’s choice

of MFT as a career (Heathcote, 2009; Murphy & Halgin, 1995; Norcross & Farber, 2005; Yusof

& Carpenter, 2015), not much is known about the role that parental divorce may play in these

career choices, and consequently the therapy that the MFTs provide to their clients. Family of

origin dynamics spawn generations of influential factors that direct the life courses of family

members (Costa-Ramalho et al., 2017). These generational influences are found in both the

individual and the family (Costa-Ramalho et al., 2017; Sabatelli & Bartle-Harding, 2003).

Adverse family of origin experiences, such as parental divorce, are found to have long-lasting

consequences for interpersonal functioning in young adults and adolescents (Morrison et al.,

2017; Roper et al., 2020; Segrin et al., 2005; Story et al., 2004).

This study will also have a practical significance. Negative family of origin experiences,

such as parental divorce, may result in undetected biases in the clinical work of MFTs. Such

undetected biases in the therapeutic setting may serve as a barrier to effective couple therapy.

This research could also identify a possible source of therapist burnout and longevity in the

profession. Understanding the role of experiencing parental divorce in the lives of ACOD MFTs

can inform couple therapists of potential biases that they may unknowingly bring into their work.

Furthermore, this information could provide a useful resource in career counseling future MFTs

and aiding in the management of negative countertransference due to the ACOD experience.
 14

Definitions of Key Terms

Adverse childhood experiences, or ACEs. Adverse childhood experiences are

potentially traumatic events that occur in childhood (ages 0-17) such as violence, abuse or

neglect. Adverse childhood experiences can have long-lasting negative effects on health,

opportunity and well-being (Felitti et al., 1988).

Countertransference. The phenomenon whereby a therapist projects their own issues

onto the client and/or the client’s experiences. Countertransference occurs when the therapist is

emotionally triggered, responds defensively, or loses the ability to stay present in the therapy

session as their own personal issues become intertwined with the client’s (Corey, 2017).

Family of origin. The family in which one is born into, or adopted into, and grow up in.

This is the setting that individuals learn to become who they eventually will be. Common

practices include adoption of values, ability to process emotions, and development of core beliefs

about himself or herself (Bowen, 2004; Kerr & Bowen, 1988).

Marriage and family therapist, or MFT. Mental health professionals trained in

psychotherapy with an emphasis on systems thinking. MFTs treat individuals with a wide variety

of problems within the context of the family system (AAMFT, 2020).

Therapist biases. The phenomenon where the therapist’s emotions, beliefs, thoughts,

perceptions or attitudes limit the therapist’s ability to relate to the client as a whole. Such

influences create a tendency to interfere with the establishment or maintaining of a successful

therapeutic relationship and treatment (Bowes, et al., 2020; Corey, 2017).

Wounded healer. The notion that one’s difficult childhood experience provides the

impetus to want to help others with their struggles, often leading to choosing a career in the

helping fields (Evans & Evans, 2019; Groesbeck, 1975).

 15

Summary

This qualitative research study aimed to understand if, and to what degree, the experience

of having lived through parental divorce as a child or adolescent has influenced one’s choice to

become a marriage and family therapist. This study is grounded in Bowen’s theoretical construct

of multigenerational transmission process in family systems as it relates to parental divorce, and

how divorce may impact their children’s later career choices in adulthood. After a careful review

of several qualitative methods, interpretive phenomenological analysis was utilized for this

project, as it will allow each ACOD MFT the opportunity to share their unique lived experience

of parental divorce and their decision-making process to become therapists (Smith & Osborn,

2007). This study provides a depth of insight and understanding by examining each individual’s

story, examining events, perceptions and meaning-making that contribute to their career choices.

Phenomenology allows the researcher to break free from precognitions and provides the

opportunity to become immersed in the lived experience of the research participants. The

population studied were licensed MFTs who experienced parental divorce prior to their

eighteenth birthdays. Participants were recruited through social media and local therapist

associations. Participants were required to meet the inclusion criteria for this study.
 16

Chapter 2: Literature Review

The purpose of this literature review is to understand the current findings and gaps in the

literature concerning the lived experience of ACOD MFTs, and the role that parental divorce

may have played in their career choices. Bowen family systems theory (BFST) will provide the

theoretical lens for this study and will be discussed as it relates to understanding this

phenomenon. A review of the literature concerning BFST will proceed as follows: First, there

will be a brief review of systems theory. Second, the literature addressing BFST and Bowen's

understanding of the family as a unit will be reviewed. Third, attention is given to the eight

interrelated concepts that make up BFST. Furthermore, a review of the literature addresses the

critiques of BFST.

Following the review of BFST, attention will be given to the literature addressing divorce

and its impact on children of divorced parents. The literature concerning divorce will be

examined under three headings: divorce-which will contain a brief look at general information

about divorce, including demographics; divorce's impact on children-examining the complex

manners in which parental divorce impacts children; divorce's impact on young adults-

addressing young adult's responses to their experience of parental divorce. The following section

will comprise a review of the literature concerning identity. Initially, a review of the literature

discusses the process whereby individuals create their identities. Next will be an examination of

the literature concerning narrative identity, the process of one's telling of their story, ultimately

contributing to how one makes meaning of events in their lives. The subsequent section will

review identity and career choice, giving attention to Holland's Typology theory.

The subsequent sections of this literature review will address the topic of family and

career choice. Subsections will initially include a review of the research addressing the family's
 17

influence on children's career choices, focusing on the concept of career and career development.

Ensuing will examine the family's influence on young adults' career choices, including matters

related to choosing a college major and how parental influence can be helpful or harmful to

career development. Lastly, this literature review will conclude an evaluation of the literature

concerning MFT career choice, with attention paid to conscious and unconscious influences and

the concept of the wounded healer.

Searches were conducted using the Northcentral University (NCU) online library.

Databases included: EBSCOhost; Science Direct; ProQuest; APA PsychBooks; APA PsychInfo;

APA PsychArticles: SAGE Journals: Taylor and Francis Online; Wiley Online Library: and

Google Scholar. Keywords and phrases searched were divorce; parental divorce;

intergenerational transmission of divorce; family of origin; career choice; MFT career choice. A

majority of the literature reviewed is from scholarly, peer-reviewed literature. As a result of the

dearth of research addressing this topic, keywords and search phrases were expanded to include

therapist; psychotherapist; counselor. Additionally, publication dates were expanded to provide

sufficient data for this literature review.

Conceptual Framework

Bowen family systems theory (BFST) has played a crucial role in developing the field of

marriage and family therapy (Horne & Hicks, 2002; Miller et al., 2004). As one of the field's

founders, Murray Bowen has been recognized as a leader in the field of marriage and family

therapy and may have played a more significant role than any other in forming the identity of

MFT as a unique discipline (Horne & Hicks, 2002). BFST is highlighted by a system of eight

interrelated concepts simultaneously at work within the family system (Bowen, 2004; Hall, 1983;
 18

Kerr & Bowen, 1988; Titelman, 1988). Therefore, to comprehend BFST, it is helpful first to

understand systems theory and its role in the development of Bowen’s theory.

Systems Theory

Systems theory or general systems theory arose out of the work of Ludwig von

Bertalanffy during the 1940s (von Bertalanffy, 1950/2008). Von Bertalanffy initially posited

general systems theory as a framework for conducting research that may overlap into at least two

disciplines of study, with the ability to point out similarities in the theoretical constructs, which

would govern the study (Boulding, 1956). During the 1950s Bateson, Jackson, Haley, and

Weakland began their research to discover the causes of schizophrenia, incorporating general

systems theory into their work (Metcalf, 2019). During their study, Bateson, Jackson, Haley, and

Weakland found that their patients' family members significantly impacted the course of the

schizophrenia. The researchers found that when their patients were treated separately from their

families, the clients’ symptoms would return upon reunification with their families in order to

maintain homeostasis (Metcalf, 2019). Bateson, Jackson, Haley, and Weakland found that

systems theory applied to the family in multiple areas, including communication and

homeostasis (Bateson, 2015; Metcalf, 2019).

One of the main theoretical developments coming from this theorizing is homeostasis,

which is defined as a concept of self-regulation that works to maintain a system's sense of

stability (von Bertalanffy, 1950/2008). However, families become increasingly complicated

when considering how they toil to maintain homeostasis, resulting in continued dysfunction as

they resist changes, including positive change (von Bertalanffy, 2008). Later, Ackerman (1971)

posited that homeostasis is a process where a family system experiences incremental adjustments
 19

as a means to engage in bringing about change cautiously. Therefore, homeostasis in families is

not essentially static, but dynamic (Ackerman, 1971; Holland, 1981).

Prior to the 1950s, it was uncommon for psychotherapists to see the family as part of

treatment (Metcalf, 2019). However, around this time, the professional use of family therapy

began to gain popularity (Hall, 1983). Consequently, many family therapists began to move

away from an individualistic style of therapy to a therapeutic style that placed a greater focus on

emotional systems (Hall, 1983). With the advent of family systems theory, psychotherapists,

including Bowen, began to understand that the family made up a unit, or system, of its own,

predicated on the numerous interrelated members and unique patterns of interaction within a

given family (Amato et al., 2011). The following section includes a review of BFST, organized

into three parts, following the outline of Miller et al. (2004): (a) an overview of the theoretical

constructs of BFST, (b) a description of the eight concepts of BFST, and (c) an examination of

critiques of BFST.

Bowen Family Systems Theory

Bowen's theory of family systems was not based solely on concepts in general system

theory (Kerr & Bowen, 1988). Instead, Bowen developed BSFT by integrating concepts from

biology, evolution, family research, and systems theory to conceptualize the epistemology of

human behavior and functioning (Bowen, 2004; Kerr & Bowen, 1988). Bowen sought to ensure

that his study was as scientifically based as possible (Hall, 1983). BFST focuses on

intergenerational processes and accompanying kinship and societal structures (Carlson &

Dermer, 2017). Bowen trained in Freud's psychoanalytical approach to psychology, and later

became concerned that Freud's emphasis on the individual was an incomplete method of

understanding psychopathology (Kerr, 2019). Freud's model did not allow the therapist the
 20

opportunity to conceptualize the development of the presenting problem, nor did it consider

potential biological factors that may influence the patient's condition (Titelman, 2004). In

contrast to Freud, who emerged in an atmosphere that assumed an organic etiology to mental

illness, Bowen entered into the field when it was assumed the origin of mental illness was rooted

in the psychology of the individual (Kerr & Bowen, 1988).

Bowen chose not to apply general systems concepts to the family; instead, he assumed

that the family was a naturally occurring system (Kerr & Bowen, 1988). The cornerstone of

Bowen’s theory is the assumption that humans and the human family are driven and guided by

processes that are written in nature (Kerr & Bowen, 1988) and founded in evolutionary theory

(Titelman, 1998). This concept, therefore, posits the human family as a natural system.

Moreover, it is a unique natural system called an emotional system (Kerr & Bowen, 1988).

Bowen’s research began while he was at the Menninger Clinic in the late 1940s. He had

considerable contact with his patients' families and began to study them via observation (Kerr &

Bowen, 1988). This was groundbreaking at the time since clinical wisdom held that the family

should not be incorporated into treatment (Kerr & Bowen, 1988). These families became the

focus of his research. Interactions with patients and mothers intrigued Bowen, noting the

emotional ties' considerable impact on one another. Bowen then saw the family as an emotional

unit (Kerr & Bowen, 1988). He noted two particularly significant observations: 1) The emotional

intensity of the relationship between the mother and the (schizophrenic) patient was much

stronger than previously recognized. 2) Perhaps even more critical, the robust mother-patient

process was not much different from the emotional intensity of the relationships found

throughout the entire nuclear family (Bowen, 2004). Bowen saw that the process involved the

whole family (Bowen, 2004; Kerr & Bowen, 1988). Bowen found that the father and the patient's
 21

siblings all had a role in fostering and perpetuating a problem previously believed to exist solely

between the patient and the mother. Bowen and his group concluded that the family was more

accurately conceptualized as an emotional unit and that family members functioned in reciprocal

relationships with one another (Bowen, 2004; Kerr & Bowen, 1988). Therefore, one individual's

functioning could not be accurately understood outside the context of the functioning of the

family or people closest to them.

Bowen described another phenomenon supporting the concept of the family unit– the

existence of cycles of distance and closeness (Bowen, 2004; Kerr & Bowen, 1988). Bowen

identified the family as an entity in and of itself, a unit with particular relationship processes

found in all families (Kerr & Bowen, 1988). As a result, Bowen theorized that people have less

autonomy in their emotional functioning than what was commonly believed. Bowen asserted

what mattered was the relationship process, rather than what was going on inside the heads of

each family member (Kerr & Bowen, 1988). Bowen posited a scientific basis behind his

conceptualization of the family as a single unit. Bowen and his research team discovered that the

same foundational relationship processes could be consistently noted in every family (Kerr &

Bowen, 1988). Although they had divergent attitudes, values, and personalities, families still

maintained similar fundamental patterns within their relationships. In other words, Bowen

supported that he identified a universal human family process. Bowen maintained that the family

is a unit because it operates as a system (Bowen, 2004; Kerr & Bowen, 1988). One member

responds to another, who then responds to another member, who would respond to the first

member, who has already responded to others' responses to him, and so forth (Bowen, 2004;

Kerr & Bowen, 1988). Bowen was particularly interested in the interrelatedness of family

members and its impact on the individuals' emotional functioning (Carlson & Dermer, 2017;
 22

Titelman, 2014), which he conceptualized through what has become known as the eight concepts

of Bowen’s theory.

Eight Concepts of Bowen Theory

Bowen suggested that a series of eight interrelated concepts occurred concurrently and

consecutively (Bowen, 2004; Hall, 1983; Kerr & Bowen, 1988; Titelman, 1988). Bowen

suggested that these concepts described normative families' function, growth, and emotional

development and were not particular to families with emotional problems (Bowen, 2004; Hall,

1983). The eight interrelated concepts associated with Bowen family systems theory are

differentiation of self, triangles, nuclear family emotional system, family projection process,

emotional cutoff, multigenerational transmission process, sibling position, and societal emotional

process (Bowen, 2004; Kerr & Bowen, 1988). It is worth noting that although BFST has

contributed significantly to the development of MFT theory and practice, there is no empirical

research supporting the effectiveness of BFST in clinical practice (Miller et al., 2004).

Conversely, it is essential to consider that there is significant empirical support for many of the

ideas found in the eight concepts of BFST (Charles, 2001; Miller et al., 2004).

Differentiation of Self. The concept of differentiation of self is the most robust of

Bowen’s eight theoretical concepts (Frederick et al., 2016; Miller et al., 2004; Titelman, 1998,

2014) and is considered the cornerstone of Bowen’s theory (Bowen, 2004). The central construct

of this concept is that each member of the family has the ability to develop their own autonomy,

independence, and intimacy while remaining interconnected to their own family (Bowen, 2004;

Charles, 2001). Noting that the family was in a constant struggle to maintain homeostasis,

Bowen held that the goal for the individual was to achieve independence within the system,

which he termed differentiation of self (van Ecke et al., 2006). Differentiation of self describes
 23

an individual's ability to emotionally disconnect from one's family members while

simultaneously operating within that system (Frederick et al., 2016; Papero, 2014b) and is

considered the personality variable that is most critical to the development of maturity and

achieving psychological health (Skowron & Friedlander, 1998). In other words, Bowen family

systems theory suggests that differentiation describes the balance between two basic human

needs: togetherness and individuality (Frederick et al., 2016).

Another aspect to differentiation of self is found in one's ability to separate their emotion

from their intellect (Bowen, 2004; Frederick et al., 2016; Hall, 1983; Kerr & Bowen, 1988). A

more differentiated person can experience their emotions yet is not compelled to respond to them

(Bowen, 2004). Therefore, a more differentiated person can utilize their intellect when

experiencing difficult emotions or an emotional experience and respond with less emotional

reactivity than an individual with less differentiation of self (Bowen, 2004; Frederick et al.,

2016). That is to say, according to BFST, more differentiated individuals can better distinguish

their feelings from facts (Bowen, 2004; Hall, 1983).

In contrast to differentiation of self is the concept of fusion (Bowen, 2004: Kerr &

Bowen, 1988). According to Bowen, when two or more family members experience a blurring of

boundaries, this family subset becomes fused. Fusion encompasses the blurring between

individuals and families' thinking, feeling, and emotional systems (Bowen, 2004; Kerr & Bowen,

1988). The greater the fusion, the weaker the boundaries between people, and the lesser

differentiation for each person (Dermer, 2017). Well-defined boundaries between family

members characterize a proper balance of togetherness and individuality, resulting in

differentiation (Bowen, 1988).

 24

Triangles. The concept of triangles describes structural characteristics and emotional

characteristics found within relationship systems (Bowen, 2004; Kerr & Bowen, 1988). Whereas

a two-person system is called a dyad, a three-person system is called a triad or triangle. Often,

when a dyadic relationship is unstable, one of the dyad members will bring a third person into

the system in an effort to stabilize the system (Haefner, 2014). The triangle is the foundational

molecule of an emotional system, the smallest stable relationship unit, whether found in family

systems or any other group (Bowen, 2004; Kerr & Bowen, 1988). In periods of peace, the

triangle consists of two comfortable, close members and one less comfortable outsider (Bowen,

2004). During periods of stress, the person on the outside is the most comfortable of the three

(Hall, 1983; Kerr & Bowen, 1988). Triangles fluctuate in activity and commensurate with

increasing and decreasing anxiety levels (Kerr & Bowen, 1988).

According to Bowen, when anxiety was present in a system, adding more people into the

system would diffuse the anxiety among the three members of the triangle (Bowen, 2004;

Charles, 2001). Bowen maintained that the most common triangle in families was the father-

mother-child triangle (Haefner, 2014). For example, should a husband and wife's relationship

become strained, the mother may reach out to a child for support, moving the husband to the

sideline. This might produce a short-term benefit of reduced tension, resulting in increased

stability and flexibility (Haefner, 2014). Furthermore, should the triangulated individuals become

overwhelmed, the inclusion of others would cause anxiety to spread throughout a series of

interlocking triangles (Kerr & Bowen, 1988). The impact of triangles on a system occurs in four

ways: (1) a stable dyad can be destabilized by the addition of a third person, (2) a stable dyad can

be destabilized by the removal of a third person, (3) an unstable dyad can be stabilized by the
 25

addition of a third person, (4) an unstable dyad can be stabilized by the removal of a third person

(Kerr & Bowen, 1988).

Nuclear Family Emotional System. The nuclear family emotional system describes how

a family will deal with life's problems over a single generation, rather than across multiple

generations (Bowen, 2004; Kerr & Bowen, 1988). When faced with prolonged periods of

tension, families tend to address the tension in the following manners: Couple conflict,

dysfunction in one partner, impairment of one or more children, and emotional distancing

(Bowen, 2004; Hall, 1983; Kerr & Bowen, 1988). When one member of the nuclear family

group experiences emotional instability, it can lead to dysfunction in the nuclear family

emotional system in any of the ways mentioned above (Bowen, 2004; Kerr & Bowen, 1988).

Bowen held that nuclear family emotional processes are found within every family, regardless of

composition or structure (Bowen, 2004).

Couple conflict presents when neither partner gives in to the other partner's attempts to

control the relationship while simultaneously trying to control the relationship themselves

(Bowen, 2004). Dysfunction in one partner occurs when the less dominant partner submits to the

dominant partner, resulting in the less dominant partner exhibiting psychological, medical, or

social dysfunction (Bowen, 2004; Kerr & Bowen, 1988). Impairment of one or more children

results from parents focusing their anxiety onto one or more of their children, resulting in the

child(ren) manifesting problems (Bowen, 2004; Kerr & Bowen, 1988). Emotional distancing

from one's partner is the most common way spouses deal with anxiety and is present in all

marriages (Bowen, 2004).

Family Projection Process

 26

The family projection process is closely related to the concept of the nuclear family

emotional process. Family projection describes the phenomena when parents project their

emotional problems onto their children (Bowen, 2004; Kerr & Bowen, 1988). The process

presents when one parent lacks differentiation, resulting in the impairment of one or more

children with the mother-father-child triangle (Bowen, 2004; Hall, 1983). The process is

universal and is present to some degree in every family system (Bowen, 2004).

The process of projection of emotional issues often occurs in three distinctive steps: First,

one (or both) of the parents creates a close bond with the child, which includes the over-

functioning of the parent and under-functioning of the child, resulting in parental anxiety about

the child’s underdevelopment (Bowen, 2004; Hall, 1983). Second, the parent (or parents) will

focus intently on the child’s behavior, confirming the parent(s) anxiety about underperforming or

abnormal issues (Bowen, 2004; Hall, 1983). Third, now that the parents have identified the child

as "the problem," they begin to treat the child as if the problem exists (Bowen, 2004).

Emotional Cutoff. Emotional cutoff occurs as a result of poor management of an

undifferentiated self (Kerr & Bowen, 1988). How an individual "cuts off" from the family

system is primarily determined by how people handle their unresolved issues with other family

members (Bowen, 2004). Emotional cutoff can take the form of not engaging in uncomfortable

issues with family members, reducing the amount of time spent with family members, or

physically distancing oneself from the nuclear family system (Bowen, 2004; Kerr & Bowen,

1988).

Emotional cutoff from family members may create a temporary reduction in anxiety, yet

it does not resolve the core issues that cause the anxiety, which remain unchanged (Bowen,

2004; Kerr & Bowen, 1988). Each member of the family system who participates in an
 27

emotional cutoff contributes to the estrangement of family members (Bowen, 2004; Hall, 1983).

A family with many cutoffs in their emotional system indicates a high level of anxiety, increased

illness, and premature deaths (Bowen, 2004; Hall, 1983). Conversely, lower instances of

emotional cutoff within a family system indicates lower anxiety and associated symptoms

(Bowen, 2004; Hall, 1983).

Multigenerational Transmission Process. The multigenerational transmission process,

or what is more recently known as intergenerational transmission of many family dysfunctions

and patterns, describes broad patterns of family behaviors between members of the same family,

which are passed down from one generation to another (Amato, 1996; Bowen, 2004; Hall, 1983;

Kerr & Bowen, 1988). Intergenerational transmission occurs when one's experiences from their

FOO influences how they interact with and perceive their environment, and plays a significant

role in the developmental path of family members (Bowen, 2004; Costa-Ramalho et al., 2017;

Kerr & Bowen, 1988). This notion is in stark contrast to the assumption that of genetic

transmission, a random and unpredictable process accounts for such processes (Kerr & Bowen,

1988; Miller et al., 2004). Family systems theory posits that multigenerational patterns in

functioning result from a consistent relationship process that links generations across the decades

(Kerr & Bowen, 1988). Multigenerational transmission process has widespread influence, with a

greater application and degree of implication than many other of the eight concepts of Bowen

systems theory (Hall, 1983).

Multigenerational transmission is founded in the emotional system and includes

numerous elements, including emotions, feelings, values, beliefs, and subjective attitudes

transmitted from one generation to the next (Kerr & Bowen, 1998; Miller et al., 2004).

Multigenerational transmission process is a living laboratory for observing qualities of change

 28

through multiple generations in the same family (Hall, 1983). Multigenerational transmission

process is a critical function in the family system's all-important ability to change its level of

differentiation of self (Kerr & Bowen, 1988). Although multigenerational transmission

demonstrates its influence in a widespread fashion, the transmission process may present itself

differently between individuals within the family systems (Amato, 1996). It is worth noting that

there is an abundance of literature providing overwhelming support for the existence of this

phenomenon (Amato & DeBoer, 2001; Wolfinger, 2000, 2011), which also confirms that the

intergenerational transmission process is reported across generations in North America, Europe,

and Australia (Amato & Patterson, 2017; Diekmann & Schmidheiny, 2013; D’Ofrino et al.,

2007; Dronkers & Harkonen, 2008; Kiernan & Cherlin, 1999).

Sibling Position. Bowen’s concept of sibling position was an adaptation of Toman’s

(1961) research that people born into particular sibling positions will exhibit specific behavior

patterns and characteristics (Bowen, 2004). Bowen eventually arrived at similar conclusions and

observations to Toman, but in a less structured way than Toman and through the lens of a

systems perspective (Miller et al., 2004). Much of the focus of the concept of sibling position

focused on predictable characteristics and functioning found in one’s position as a sibling (Kerr

& Bowen, 1988). In addition to describing correlations between types of behavior and their

accompanying sibling position, Bowen asserted that levels of differentiation and functioning are

influenced by sibling position (Hall, 1983; Kerr & Bowen, 1988). One’s functioning sibling

position in their family of origin is considered as a significant defining factor on one’s

differentiation of self and on their susceptibility to family projection and multigenerational

transmission (Hall, 1983; Kerr & Bowen, 1988). This aspect of Bowen's model has the least

empirical support (Miller et al., 2004).

 29

Societal Emotional Process. Societal emotional process represents a broader context of

the tensions between individuation and togetherness that Bowen has previously defined in the

family system (Bowen, 2004). The family system represents the basic unit of a system in contrast

with larger systems such as communities and societies (Hall, 1983). The emotional process in

society plays an active, although largely undetected, role to influence families' emotional

processes (Kerr & Bowen, 1988). Families with lower differentiation of self will have their

emotional process influenced by society's emotional process (Kerr & Bowen, 1988). For

example, when togetherness forces in society are strong (fusion), corresponding differentiation

processes become increasingly difficult for individuals to make within their families (Hall,

1983).

Critiques of Bowen Theory

Arguably, no other individual has shaped the identity of MFT as its distinctive discipline

than Murray Bowen. Bowen is widely recognized as one of the pillars of the field of MFT,

whose ideas have continued to guide the field long beyond his death (Miller et al., 2004; Horne

& Hicks, 2002). Bowen's model of therapy (BFST) is perhaps most distinguished for its

theoretical considerations regarding how an individual should be evaluated and treated. Bowen

took evaluation beyond previous standards that relied merely on symptomology while also

emphasizing emotional processes and the family system, which have become hallmarks of MFT

(Brown, 1999; Miller et al., 2004).

Although Bowen's positions have been central to the development and practice of MFT,

it is significant to address several controversies related to them. Initially, Bowen's critics were

found from the psychoanalytic community, then later from the feminist critique of family therapy

(Horne & Hicks, 2002; Luepnitz, 1988). The latter critique of BFST originates from feminist
 30

authors, including Luepnitz (1988). They were critical of BFST regarding Bowen’s adoption of

traditional gender roles and his emphasis on intellectualism over feeling.

An initial complaint of BFST was directed at what some saw as a proclivity for mother-

blaming the problems of family members (Brown, 1999). Bowen, along with other male MFT

contributors, are criticized for spending too much time and attention focusing on the mother's

role in the symptom development of her children (Brown, 2004; Luepnitz, 1988), while

appointing credit for the healthier attributes of a child to the father (Horne & Hicks, 2004). This

notion finds support in Kerr and Bowen (1988), where mothers are categorized in relation to

schizophrenic patients, roles in triangles, and levels of differentiation in a child, but fathers are

not (Brown, 1999). What Bowen perceived as an over-involved mother was labeled as a sign of

low differentiation. Bowen's interpretative approach esteeming cognition over feeling is reflected

in his over-focus on the mother's role in psychopathology. That is, the mother's emotional

reactivity causes dysfunction more than the father’s emotional distance and “calm rationality.”

According to the feminist critique, BFST almost always promotes patriarchal values (Leupnitz,

1988) as it reinforces traditional gender roles in terms of its views of illness and health.

Unfortunately, Bowen failed to add proper context to the aforementioned "maternal

behavior" while failing to note patriarchal conventions about gender roles, often resulting in

women's socially prescribed roles being pathologized (Brown, 1999). This led to the labeling of

women being "over-concerned" and labeled as fused or undifferentiated because of their

relational nature. If a woman placed another's needs ahead of her own, she could easily be

deemed undifferentiated (Luepnitz, 1988). Bowen's model was seen as one that appeased men

when they distanced, while simultaneously compelling women to "back off" (Brown, 1999).

Carter (1988, as cited in Brown, 1999) emphasized that this could be seen both as biased against
 31

women and disrespectful toward men due to the assumption that men's roles in relationships

were more limited than women's.

Although there were many legitimate critiques of BFST during this “first wave” of

criticism, there are instances of common ground between feminism and Bowen (Leupnitz, 1988).

An initial observation finding commonalities between BFST and feminism is that Bowen

believed in the value of knowing one’s family history. By examining a genogram, a woman

could reduce the chance for isolation concerning her “pathology” and substitute that with an

empathic understanding of the broader spectrum of her struggles (Luepnitz, 1988, p. 37). A

second theme from BFST embraced by feminism was his urging of patients to continue to

dialogue with their family of origin while amid discord. Bowen's (2004) focus to reduce cutoff

was in stark contrast to the psychoanalytic approach, which often encouraged cutoff in one form

or another (Luepnitz, 1988). Another area where BFST and feminism could find common ground

was that, although not initially, Bowen (2004) found that both men and women could function in

either the strong or weak position without threatening either partner (Luepnitz, 1988). A fourth

point where Bowen (2004) theory and feminism can meet is the notion that an ideal situation

would comprise of a husband to function as a male and a wife as a woman (Leupnitz, 1988).

Not long after the first feminist criticism of BFST (Luepnitz, 1988), Knudson-Martin

(1994) called for a re-conceptualization of BFST in order for it to reconcile with current research

on female development (Horne & Hicks, 2002). In contrast to other feminist critiques of BFST,

who sought to bring to light many concerns (Brown 1999; Luepnitz, 1988), Knudson-Martin

(1994) went to much more extraordinary lengths by suggesting a significant revision of BFST

(Horne & Hicks, 2002). Knudson-Martin (1994) argued that BFST is based upon two
 32

"competing life forces" (p. 38) of individuality and togetherness, suggesting the notion that one's

need for others in a relationship limits one's power to think and respond autonomously.

Furthermore, Knudson-Martin (1994) suggested that Bowen’s concept of a well-

differentiated person ascribes to traits that men are socially conditioned. That is, a common

reading of higher levels of differentiation of self views it as hyper-rational and unemotional.

These two characteristics are viewed as a man's traditional gender script, which posits that men

are healthier in this perspective (Knudson-Martin, 1994; Leupnitz, 1988). To address these

irregularities, Knudson-Martin (1994) suggested three ways that BFST should be modified to

include the female experience fully. First, conceptualize the feeling and intellectual system as

equals to accommodate women's tendencies toward relationships (Knudson-Martin, 1994).

Second, consider togetherness and individuality as reciprocal processes, that these two forces are

not competitors. Third, advance the notion that anxiety is rooted in the tension between the two

needs of togetherness and individuation.

Horne and Hicks (2002) responded to Knudson-Martin’s (1994) critique by contending

many of the suppositions made by Knudson-Martin were not congruent with the concepts and

language found in BFST (Kerr & Bowen, 1988). Horne and Hicks (2002) point out that the core

of Knudson-Martin's (1994) portrayal of BFST centers on the thought that BFST is based on

"two competing life forces-individuality and togetherness" (p. 38). Horne and Hicks (2002)

respond by noting that they believe that Knudson-Martin's description does not accurately

represent Bowen's thoughts as they cannot find the word "competing" in reference to the

interplay of individuality and togetherness. Instead, Horne and Hicks (2002) suggest

"counterbalancing" (or homeostasis) to describe the relationship between individuality and

togetherness (p. 105). Horne and Hicks (2002) proposed what Knudson-Martin suggests, that
 33

individuality and togetherness be reconceptualized as reciprocal, is already implied by Bowen.

Horne and Hicks (2002) replied to Knudson-Martin's (1994) claim that BFST places emphasis on

thinking versus feeling.

Furthermore, Horne and Hicks (2002) indicated Knudson-Martin assumes that BFST

suggests that one develops one’s thinking system at the expense of one’s feelings. Horne and

Hicks noted they believe that Knudson Martin misunderstands a crucial tenet of BFST. They

point out that the overarching intent of BFST was to undertake the task of developing a science

of human behavior and functioning (Horne & Hicks, 2002). Bowen and Kerr (1988) were in the

conceptualizing stage of Bowen's theory, working to develop the language of their ideas, not yet

able to articulate them (Horne & Hicks, 2002) accurately.

Horne and Hicks (2002) conclude their response to Knudson-Martin's (1994) critique by

stating that Knudson-Martin's understanding of BFST is not the same as their understanding.

Horne and Hicks (2002) further assert that Knudson-Martin misrepresents fundamental tenets of

BFST concerning the theory's purpose and context. Horne and Hicks note that BFST is not free

from understanding bias or various forms of oppression but desires to understand the forces at

play in human nature. Horne and Hicks (2002) commend Knudson-Martin's critique of BFST but

state that it may be informed by her observations of others than the theory itself.

Although the critics of BFST (Knudson-Martin, 1994; Luepnitz, 1988) suggest concerns

about the clinical and practical applications of BFST, these concerns do not disqualify the use of

Bowen for the purposes of this study. During the 1940s, when Bowen began to conceptualize

what would become BFST, the concept of society and societal roles were significantly different

from what they would become over the following 50 years (Gilbert, 2006). BFST was

conceptualized within the culture of that time, influencing the language Bowen used to describe
 34

how he saw families function. Bowen's ideas about the schizophrenic mother were very similar

to other theorists of his day. Further, Bowen's model, as used today with the eight concepts as the

lens through which families are viewed, is gender-neutral (Horne & Hicks, 2002). Considering

the purposes of this study, which is to understand if and to what degree parental divorce

influenced one's choice of marriage and family for a career, BFST remains an appropriate

conceptual framework. In other words, Bowen provides a robust theory of the intergenerational

transmission of relationship patterns. Therefore, to understand more about the intergenerational

transmission process and how it may have influenced MFTs to choose their careers, more needs

to be known about divorce and its resulting impact upon children of divorce.

Divorce

Historically, marriage is recognized as one of the most common traditions in the United

States and elsewhere around the world. In most cultures, marriage is the celebration of when two

people come together to form a new union as dictated by legal, religious, and cultural traditions

and standards (Encyclopedia Brittanica, n.d.). However, a significant percentage of marriages

dissolve for any number of reasons (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2017).

For some, divorce is a time for relief as it marks the end of an unhealthy, toxic, or abusive

relationship. For others, divorce is a source of great pain and discomfort. In addition to the

impact that divorce makes on the former marital partners, divorce affects those closest to them.

Often, this includes children, who can experience short and long-term effects of their parents’

divorce (Amato, 2001; Amato & Booth, 1991; Auersperg et al., 2019; Cartwright, 2006; Jackson

& Fife, 2018).

According to the United States Centers for Disease Control, almost half of all U.S.

marriages end in divorce (CDC, 2017). For example, in 2014, the divorce rate for married
 35

individuals was 6.4 per 1000 population, totaling over 813,000 in 45 states plus Washington DC

(CDC, 2017). More recent data estimates that the divorce rate for women in the U.S. for the year

2018 to be 6.6 per 1000 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020). The current, nearly 50%, divorce rate is in

stark contrast to the estimated 5% divorce rate for first marriages in the mid-19th century (Amato,

2000).

With such a high number of marriages ending in divorce every year, one may question

how far and wide its impact is felt by children, extended family, and close friends. Not

surprisingly, the impact of divorce on parents and children’s emotional well-being has been the

subject of significant effort in the research literature since the 1990s (Amato, 2003; Amato &

Cheadle, 2005; Barber & Eccles, 1992; Booth & Amato, 2001; Kim, 2011; Wauterickx et al.,

2006). Although it is abundantly clear that parental divorce has the potential to result in negative

impacts for young ACOD, it is worth noting that there exists a body of research suggesting that it

is conceivable for children of divorce to experience positive outcomes post-parental divorce

(Bernstein et al., 2012).

Divorce’s Impact on Children

Without question, parental divorce is one of the most significant adverse events a child

can experience (Du Plooy & Van Rensburg, 2015). The consequences of parental divorce impact

children in almost all aspects of their lives (Amato, 2000; Amato & Booth, 1991; Du Plooy &

Rensburg, 2015; Wallerstein et al., 2001). Therefore, it is not surprising that the impact of

parental divorce has drawn considerable attention from the scholarly community for the past

three decades. What may be surprising is that researchers conclude children may experience both

positive effects in the aftermath of their parents' divorce (Amato & Booth, 1991: Riggio, 2004)

and adverse outcomes (e.g., Amato, 2001, 2010; Amato & Cheadle, 2005; Auersperg et al.,
 36

2019; Cartwright, 2008; Cherlin et al., 1998; Wallerstein et al., 2001). For example, Amato and

Booth (2000) identified potential positive factors for children of divorce, noting that long-term

consequences of parental divorce are relatively moderate. Further research suggests that young

adults from divorced families tend to become more independent and self-reliant than their

counterparts (Riggio, 2004). Children from divorced families tend to have more household and

familial responsibilities than their counterparts from in-tact families, facilitating greater

independence and decision-making abilities at a younger age (Arditti, 1999; Riggio, 2004). Since

marital dissolution is a process that typically unfolds over time, beginning when couples are still

married and ending years post-divorce, children can be disposed to abundant necessary

adjustments, which may result in greater ability to adapt to difficult situations (Amato, 2000;

Amato, 2010). Additionally, children from divorced parents tend to fare better in a number of

measures if parents in high-conflict marriages divorce than if the parents remained married

(Amato, 2000).

Although there is some support indicating that parental divorce can lead to positive

outcomes (Amato, 2010), there exists a much larger body of literature addressing the adverse

outcomes (Amato, 2001, 2010; Barber & Eccles, 1992; Morrison et al., 2017; Roper, 2020;

Wallerstein et al., 2001). Children who experience divorce or separation of their parents are at an

increased risk for developing numerous emotional, psychological, social, and behavioral

consequences when compared to children from continuously married families (Amato, 2001;

Amato & Afifi, 2006; Morrison et al., 2017; Wallerstein et al., 2001). Expressly, multiple meta-

analyses have demonstrated that children of divorced parents are more likely to demonstrate

internalizing and externalizing symptoms, difficulties with self-esteem, academic troubles, and

social challenges than their counterparts (Amato, 2001; Amato & Keith, 1991; Auersperg et al.,
 37

2019; Johnson et al., 2001). While there are data demonstrating that the behavioral (external)

consequences from parental divorce seem to diminish throughout the child's life course, the

negative impact of the emotional (internal) consequences continues into adulthood (Amato &

Keith, 1991). For example, ACOD report a greater frequency of problems with self-esteem and

the development of trusting relationships (Cartwright, 2006) and emotional development

(Pantelis et al., 2015). Notwithstanding, it is worth noting that there are instances where parental

divorce is beneficial to children. For example, children from high-conflict parents, who do not

divorce, tend to fare worse than children from parents who divorce (Amato & Afifi, 2006).

There are numerous circumstances when divorce seems to be no less than sensible, such

as when one needs to leave an abusive relationship, or when infidelity or addictions are

predominant (Roper et al., 2020). Such circumstances may benefit children as they are removed

from a disturbing environment (Amato & Booth, 1991). Additionally, parents and children may

feel a sense of relief when high-conflict marriages are terminated (Roper et al., 2020). Some

ACOD retrospectively report positive impacts of the divorce via economic improvement,

increased independence, increased maturity, and growth in personal confidence (Amato &

Booth; Cartwright, 2008; Jackson & Fife, 2018). When considering the potential for positive

outcomes some children of divorce experience, parental divorce may not be best viewed as

universally negative (Roper et al., 2020). Although there are many aspects of parental divorce

that have the potential to result in negative impacts, it is plausible that results such as greater

independence and maturity may influence the career choice process of ACOD.

It is abundantly clear that divorce can result in significant and life-altering impacts on

children and adolescents' well-being and later development. Parental divorce impacts nearly

every aspect of a child's life, including emotions, behavior, coping ability, psychological
 38

development, educational achievement, and relationships with their parents (Morrison et al.,

2017; Roper et al., 2020). Furthermore, children from divorced families tend to have lower life

satisfaction, lower levels of intimacy in peer and parental relationships, lower concepts of self,

and increased risk for psychopathology (Richardson & McCabe, 2001). In sum, decades of

empirical research support that children of divorce tend to develop and exhibit a more significant

number of problems than children from intact families (Amato, 2001).

Divorce’s Impact on Young Adults

Irrespective of positive or negative repercussions, parental divorce serves as a time for

significant adjustment for all involved, including couples, children, and extended family

members (Roper et al., 2020). Although there is an extensive body of literature concerning the

impact of parental divorce on children and adolescents (Amato, 2000, 2001; Booth & Amato,

2001; Pantelis et al., 2015; Richardson & McCabe, 2001; Wallerstein, 2001), including both

long-term and short-term negative effects (Amato & Booth, 1991; Amato & Keith, 1991), the

prolonged impact and perceptions of adult children of divorce have not been abundantly

represented in the research literature (Morrison et al. 2017). The scarcity of research in this area

is somewhat surprising, as the need for literature addressing whether or not parental divorce

creates long-term negative consequences has been noted for the last three decades (Amato &

Booth, 1991; Barber & Eccles, 1992, Kozuch & Cooney, 1995; Wallerstein, 2001). One such

area of importance is the perceptions of young adults concerning how the divorce of their parents

has influenced them. Young adulthood is a stage of life where individuals make important

decisions concerning issues such as romantic relationships, education, and career choice

(Jackson & Fife, 2018). This developmental stage is noteworthy as this is when the prefrontal
 39

cortex reaches maturation (King, 2018). Individuals at this stage of life face increasingly

significant decisions that have the potential for long-term significance (Roper et al., 2020).

While the research concerning children of divorce that supports the notion that children

of divorce tend to be more resilient than those who come from intact families (Amato, 2010;

Morrison et al., 2017; Riggio, 2004, Wallerstein, 1991), ACOD tend to report more subclinical

emotional stressors than do their counterparts from families with intact marriages (Shanholtz et

al., 2019). These stressors can lead to numerous difficulties for young adults across multiple

domains (Morrison et al., 2017; Shanholtz, 2019). For example, a New Zealand study of 40

ACOD, aged 19 to 29 years, reported that 87% of the participants felt that their parents' divorce

resulted in negative impacts (Cartwright, 2006). These young adults reported difficulty with

many issues related to their parents' divorce, including self-esteem, communication and trust

with others, and emotional issues such as anger and jealousy (Cartwright, 2006). Young ACOD

also reported that their parents' divorces negatively impacted the development of emotions and

identity, leading to a long process of adjustment that required multiple individuals serving as

resources to assist the individuals in coping with their challenges (Pantelis et al., 2015).

Young ACOD face additional challenges as a result of their parents’ divorce. ACOD

report that their divorced parents may tend to rely on them for emotional support in place of their

former spouses (Swartzman-Schatman & Schinke, 1993). A study of 30 young adults found that

the pain of their parents’ divorce continues to linger more than a decade later, noting that the

separation continues to serve as a source of instability in their lives (Scabini & Cigoli, 2004).

ACOD face challenges in their adult romantic relationships with matters associated with adverse

outcomes related to their parents' divorce (Amato & Booth, 1991; Amato & Patterson, 2017;

Bernstein, 2012). For example, parental divorce is associated with lower relationship
 40

commitment in women (Whitton et al., 2008). Additionally, in a 25-year study of children of

divorce, respondents report that as young ACOD, they struggled to both love and be loved in

adult romantic relationships (Wallerstein & Lewis, 2004). Furthermore, ACOD are twice as

likely to divorce their spouses at some point in their marriages (Amato & DeBoer, 2001;

Wolfinger, 2000).

The transitional years of young adulthood are critically important in the life-course

development of many individuals. During the highly transitional college years, many emerging

adults, including children of divorce, will choose to move out of the family home. Many will

embark into the world of employment for the first time (Richardson & McCabe, 2001). This

period is particularly significant as individuals transition from teenagers dependent upon their

parents into young adulthood, complete with demands of newfound responsibilities that come at

this stage of life (Arnett, 2000). Further underscoring the importance of early adulthood, it is

noteworthy to mention that at this phase of one’s life, individuals continue in the process of

developing their unique identities (McAdams & McLean, 2013), which is foundational in the

process of choosing one’s career (Frederick & Dunbar, 2022). Therefore, to better understand

how parental divorce may have influenced the career choices of ACOD MFTs, a review of the

literature concerning identity and career choice will follow.

Identity

It is feasible that identity is one of the most significant psychological processes whereby

individuals define themselves (Frederick & Dunbar, 2022). One's identity serves as an

"interpersonal positional designation" through which individuals make meanings that define

them as unique individuals, role participants, or group members (Carter, 2013, p. 204). Identity

can be viewed as the manner in which one explicates (1) their membership within a specific
 41

social group and (2) their fulfillment of a specific societal role (Stets & Burke, 2000). In

layperson's terms, identity is fashioned by individuals in how they perceive their membership

within a social group and the particular roles the person embodies (Frederick & Dunbar, 2022;

Oyserman et al., 2012). Consequently, identity is a function of one's self-categorization or

identification, which is learned in early social contexts and social roles occupied (Stets & Burke,

2000). When one categorizes the self into a specific role, the meanings and expectations that

come with that role form a set of standards that guide behaviors (Carter, 2013; Frederick &

Dunbar, 2022). Furthermore, as identity is viewed by how individuals develop their unique

selves centered on membership in specific groups or social roles (Oyserman et al., 2012), it

allows one to find personal meaning based upon their self-categorization and membership within

a specific group (Frederick & Dunbar, 2022). Identity is activated in social situations when an

individual perceives that the meaning of a given situation corresponds with the meaning of his or

her identity (Carter, 2013).

Not surprisingly, research demonstrates that individuals behave consistently with their

identity found within meaning-making contexts once an identity has been activated (Carter,

2013; Stets & Burke, 2000). In other words, once an individual discerns that a specific aspect of

identity is salient in a specific social situation, this identity motivates behavior consistent with

that identity in that specific social context. Values associated or characteristics associated with an

individual's identified membership or role instills one with an understanding of the morals and

values associated within the given context (Frederick & Dunbar, 2022). Such values catalyze the

expression of one's identity once it is activated. In this respect, identity can be viewed as a status

that bridges social and psychological facets of human existence. As one expresses his or her

identity, one's values are expressed based upon the self's constructs associated with group
 42

membership and social role or function resulting from human action (Carter, 2013; Frederick &

Dunbar, 2022).

Identity also bears a critical relationship to an individual's self-esteem. People with high

levels of self-esteem are often the product of self-worth, self-efficacy, and self-authenticity (Stets

& Burke, 2014). Identities are the means as to how individuals evaluate and engage in their

social worlds, and find either approval or disapproval of themselves (Salema-Aro & Nurmi,

2007). When people participate in their social environments, identities become engaged that

provide valuable psychological meaning (Frederick & Dunbar, 2022). Identities primarily focus

on one's subjective sense of worth and importance while providing a sense of value or capability

to influence their social contexts (Singer, 2004; Stets & Burke, 2014). Further, identity nurtures

the individual's self-esteem through personal authenticity (Frederick & Dunbar, 2022).

Ultimately, identity provides the individual a meaning-making mechanism related to one's self-

appraisal or personal satisfaction.

Identity may also be viewed as a means to answer existential questions concerning one's

purpose and characteristics (Eakin, 2008). Identity works to help the self to create a meaningful,

articulate story integrating the individual's group membership, social roles, and personal values

(Frederick & Dunbar, 2022; Singer, 2004). Therefore, identity encompasses one's aspirations,

motivations, significant characteristics, and individual markers that work together to inform

others about attaining that identity (Eakin, 2008). Identity is one's way of articulating their

unique selves to others by using a personal narrative to answer the age-old question, "Who am

I?"

Narrative Identity
 43

Developing an identity involves telling one's own story, whereby the individual

emphasizes some experiences while minimizing others (Frederick & Dunbar, 2022; Singer,

2004). This narrative identity development occurs when a person tells their evolving life story

while incorporating certain parts of their past and their envisioned futures to provide their story

with a cohesive purpose (McAdams & McLean, 2013). The development of one's narrative

identity is shaped by multiple factors, including gender, race, class, and other sociocultural

factors. Identity narratives organize the individual's core values and beliefs and incorporate

selected events across the lifespan, providing a historical uniformity with their identity (Singer,

2004). The autobiographical telling of one's stories helps individuals to make sense of their life

experiences and the world in general (Singer, 2004).

One of the principal pathways values, beliefs, and sequences are assembled into an

identity result from an individual's imagoes (McAdams, 1997). People construct their identities

from their personal stories (or myths), which are comprised of imagoes. Personal myths are the

stories that individuals tell of themselves throughout their lifetime, denoted by challenges in both

personal and social spheres (Singer, 2004). This autobiographical telling of one's story tends to

take shape as one enters adolescence when life-narrative stories begin to form into a more

reasoned account (McAdams & McLean, 2013). These personal myths are continually edited and

redacted to reflect the storyteller's experience within the storytelling context (McAdams, 1997)

while relying on imagery, storylines, and archetypal characters relevant to cultural themes

(Singer & Bluck, 2001). After one filters their life through this narrative lens, the individual can

then employ their unique narrative to inform life decisions and gain insight into their nature

(Singer, 2004). In short, another way of saying this is that identity or personal myths form the

foundation of one's identity (Frederick & Dunbar, 2022).

 44

One’s narrative framework of their identity spotlights on meaning-making aspects of that

identity, as the creation of such narratives impact the meaning one may take from a specific life

experience (McAdams, 1997; Singer, 2004). Individuals work to craft their imagoes in order to

supply different emphases as the narrator engages in autobiography (Gubrium & Holstein, 2008).

Engaging in autobiographical narrative provides the storyteller opportunity to satisfy the context

of the event and allows the narrator the chance to reflect on their current autobiography while

incorporating imagoes appropriate to the circumstances (Frederick & Dunbar, 2022). This

process involves, at times, making narrative sense of painful experiences one endures throughout

their lives (McAdams & McLean, 2013). Individuals find meaning from their sufferings through

processing life's negative experiences, then committing themselves to create a favorable

resolution of the event (McAdams & McLean, 2013). The amassing of information that arises

from engaging with one's narrative memories generates a coherent life story within the

individual, resulting in a clear sense of identity (Bluck & Habermas, 2001).

To summarize, identities are shaped by one's life experiences (both pleasant and

unpleasant) and by the individual's worldviews. Identity involves a narrative form and fulfills a

psychological function. Identity affords the individual a means to a cohesive life story and a

sense of stability by integrating a life's worth of lived experiences (Carter, 2013; McAdams,

1997). Identities focus on meaningful aspects of one's self-categorization into social groups in

addition to adopting social roles (Singer, 2004; Stets & Burke, 2000). When narratives make

meaning of life's joys and sufferings, individuals tend to enjoy higher levels of psychological

well-being than those who do not construct meaning from the narratives of their experiences

(McAdams & McLean, 2013).

 45

Identity and Career Choice

Individuals form their identities based upon the meanings or interpretations of their selves

as they engage in social contexts, known as identity control theory (Burke, 1991). These

meanings and interpretations are primarily social and comprise of four dimensions: a standard

which references one’s meanings associated with the identity; an input from the social

environment that requires an identity-based response; a process of comparison that compares the

input with the standard; and an output from the individual to the social environment (Burke,

1991). One association with identity control theory is when individuals evaluate their identity-

based responses as (1) effectively engaging with their social environment, (2) keeping within

their identities (authentic), and (3) appropriately representing their group membership will

experience increased self-esteem and a sense of psychological well-being (Burke, 1991,

Marcussen, 2006).

Consequently, the derived personal meanings associated with identity can be evaluated,

leading to determining one's ideal fit within his or her environment (Singer, 2004; Stets & Burke,

2000). For that reason, it is reasonable to consider that an individual's identity significantly

influences one's sense of a calling or career. Taking this a step further, it is worth noting that

when individuals act on their career choices, they find an increase in their self-esteem and overall

life satisfaction, including the ability to adapt well to career-related issues (Marcionetti &

Rossier, 2019).

Holland’s Typology

For decades, identity has been one of the most influential factors used in one's choice of a

career (Swanson & Fouad, 2020). One of the most common ways career counselors assist

individuals in career counseling is to conduct a personality assessment accompanied by an

 46

aptitude and interest inventory (Tang, 2018). Holland's theory of person-environment fit, also

known as Holland's Vocational Choice or Holland's Typology theory (Holland, 1996), has been

perhaps the most influential approaches to career counseling for the last six decades (Creager &

Deacon, 2019; Swanson & Frouad, 2020; Tang, 2018).

Using Holland's Typology theory, the individual's personality is assessed, and the results

are compared with others in specific vocational fields (Creager & Deacon, 2019; Swanson &

Frouad, 2020; Tang, 2018). The results then suggest a "best fit" based upon identity. Holland's

understanding of human behavior and career choice posits that individual and occupational

environments work together and influence one's decisions on career choice (Tang, 2018). The

belief is that one will enter into, and stay with, a career that is congruent with their personality

type (Creager & Deacon, 2019). These identity and accompanying career categories are

categorized into six types: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional

(Creager & Deacon, 2019; Holland, 1996; Swanson & Frouad, 2020; Tang, 2018).

Further, Holland posited four constructs to describe the relationships between types

within people and environments and between people and environments: congruence, consistency,

differentiation, and identity (Creager & Deacon, 2019; Swanson & Frouad, 2020). In Holland's

theory, identity is essential as it provides the individual with a stable and clear understanding of

one's goals, interests, and talents (Creager & Deacon, 2019; Frederick & Dunbar, 2022; Tang,

2018). Holland asserted "a person with a clear sense of identity is more likely to accept or find

work that is congruent with his or her unique characteristics and to persist in his or her search for

a congruent work environment" (Holland, 1996, p. 403). Vocational identity, in other words,

provides the basis upon which individuals make career decisions, from initiating a career choice

to persisting in that career. In operational terms, vocational identity is more developed in

 47

individuals with greater consistency, differentiation, and congruence (Frederich & Dunbar,

2022). Therefore, recognizing one's understanding of his or her identity is fundamental in

determining a career (Tang, 2018). Taking this a step further, considering that identity motivates

behavior (Carter, 2013), it seems worthwhile to consider that one's identity as a child of divorce

might play a role in their choice of career, including the decision to become a MFT.

Family and Career Choice

Similar to how an individual's identity is formed by one's personal experiences and makes

meaning of those events, an individual's career development is influenced by personal and

cultural factors (Tang, 2018). An individual's path toward their career is often shaped by

numerous factors, including biological, sociocultural, economic, and educational influences

(Swanson & Frouad, 2020; Tang, 2018). Personal factors comprise either instinctive

characteristics founded in biology or are developed through life experiences, including those

with their family of origin (Workman, 2015; Whitson & Keller, 2004). Biological factors include

one's physique, appearance, and motor skills that can impact potential career choices (Tang,

2018). An individual's career direction can also be impacted by psychological characteristics,

including family issues, personal desires, identity, and expectations for their life (Frederick &

Dunbar, 2022; Tang, 2018; Swanson & Frouad, 2020). Furthermore, personal resources,

including one's socioeconomic status, play an essential role in one's career path through

opportunities in education and other learning enrichment chances (Tang, 2018). Additionally,

sociocultural factors play a vital role in the choices one makes in a career. Issues such as the

current economy, the unemployment rate, and the individual's lived experiences influence career

choice and trajectories (Swanson & Frouad, 2020; Tang, 2018).

 48

Considering the influence that both intrinsic and contextual factors have on a career, it

may be prudent to view one's career development from a relational perspective, considering the

individual as one who is in a development process within an ever-changing environment

(Whiston & Keller, 2004). Changes within an individual's life context produce substantial

variations in one's life-course development, including one's career path (Swanson & Frouad,

2020; Whiston & Keller, 2004). Consequently, career development may be best viewed as a

reciprocal process whereby the individual influences and is influenced by the environment's

social, cultural, and physical features. Further, when considering the innate or contextual

influences on career development, it is critical to understand the impact of family on one's career

choice (Chope, 2005; Storlie et al., 2019; Whiston & Keller, 2004).

The notion that one's family of origin influences an individual's career choices has been a

theme of scholarly inquiry for over six decades. For example, Roe (1956) considered the

influences of the family of origin on one's career development (Roe, 1956, as cited in Whitson &

Keller, 2004). In the 1980s, Bratcher (1982) utilized family systems theory as a framework to

demonstrate how family factors influence career decisions, positing that differential roles,

beliefs, boundaries, traditions, and values can impact career choices. Later, Whiston and Keller

(2004) provided a comprehensive review of the most current research summarizing the findings

from 77 studies from 1980 through 2004, addressing how the family of origin influences career

development. The following sections will focus on the family's influence on the career paths of

children and young adults.

Family Influence on Children’s Career Choice

Somewhat surprisingly, there has been little research examining the age-related aspects of

children and the family's possible influence on offspring career development (Howard & Walsh,
 49

2010; Liu et al., 2015b: Watson & McMahon, 2005). This seems peculiar since children begin to

interact with their contextual surroundings, most notably their families, from the day of birth.

With this in mind, it makes sense that career development and one's family of origin's role in

career development would begin early on in life (Dedmond & Landis-Santos, 2019; Whiston &

Keller, 2004). Children ages 6 through 12 are capable of understanding the basic ideas

concerning work and career, and by this time have begun to develop their unique understanding

of these concepts (Liu et al., 2015a). During preadolescence, children begin to consider potential

careers, goals, and aspirations that can foster successful transitions from school to the world of

employment (Nota et al., 2016). The significance of the role of parents can be underscored as

parental and caregiver influence is the single most crucial component in the development of

children’s thoughts about their futures (Dedmond & Landis-Santos, 2019).

Childhood is a crucial stage in developing one's concept of career (Liu et al., 2015a),

where family influences serve as one of several factors contributing to choosing a career (Chope,

2005). Career development can begin at a young age, typically in the family home, with the help

of parents and caregivers as they observe children at play and interact with their children's

interests (Dedmond & Landis-Santos, 2019). Children as young as four years old are beginning

to form thoughts about which types of careers might be most suitable for them (Howard &

Walsh, 2010). Sometimes, a little later in childhood, around six to twelve years old, children

begin to experience a shift in their ideas about possible careers from fantasy to reality (Howard

& Walsh, 2010). Parents serve as influential factors in career and college decisions, beginning

long before students set foot on campus (Dedmond & Landis-Santos, 2019; Workman, 2015).

Emphasizing the importance of parents' role in children's career development, Chope

(2000) suggested that individuals who are not provided with adequate emotional support as
 50

children tend to be more indecisive with their career choices (Chope, 2000, as cited in Chope,

2005). This is supported by the notion that parental involvement helps children develop skills

and talents toward developing ideas about their future careers (Dedmond & Landis-Santos,

2019). Parental involvement helps children determine their likes, increase their ability to focus,

become aware of social and cultural factors, and explore new things with curiosity (Dedmond &

Landis-Santos, 2019). Furthermore, parents' beliefs tend to shape how children view themselves,

influencing children's thoughts on what determines "success" and ultimately shaping career

aspirations (Lazarides & Watt, 2017). Although there is not a substantial body of research

concerning the influence of parents on children's career development, the research that does exist

demonstrates that parents can, and often do, shape the minds of children toward their ultimate

career choices.

Similar to childhood, adolescence is an important time in the development of one's career

considerations. The teenage years are when children engage in initial activities that will lead to

their choice of a career (Hirschi & Herrmann, 2013; Nota et al., 2016). During adolescence,

parents continue to act as influential stakeholders in their children's career development (Dietrich

& Kracke, 2009). Career choice may best be viewed as a series of developmental events rather

than a single event (Savickas, 2002). Adolescence serves as an essential phase of life in

conceptualizing one's career.

Choosing a career path is one of the most common tasks during adolescence (Deitrich &

Salmela-Aro, 2013) and is often a difficult path where youths navigate potential career

opportunities looking to match their interests and talents (Akosah-Twumasi et al., 2021). At this

time, planning for and exploring one's career-related possibilities can be one of the more critical

and taxing experiences for individuals (Dietrich et al., 2012). Although it is understood that as
 51

children move into adolescence, their parents continue to influence career development and

career choices (Dietrich & Kracke, 2009), it is worth noting that parental involvement in career

development occurs in numerous and complex manners (Liang et al., 2020; Whiston & Keller,

2004). For instance, parents who affect the social development of their offspring may

substantially influence the career development of adolescents through their expectations and

career-related attitudes (Yu et al., 2019). Furthermore, parental support toward adolescents’

career-related activities, including encouraging youth to take action to engage in their interest,

may serve as a catalyst to engage internal motivational factors resulting in individuals taking

proactive steps toward career-related activities (Liang et al., 2020).

One of the more complex manners whereby parents influence their children's career

choices is through the intergenerational transmission process (Kakiuchi & Weeks, 2009), as

described in Bowen (2004). Intergenerational transmission impacts numerous elements of family

functioning, including emotions, feelings, values, beliefs, and subjective attitudes transmitted

from one generation to the next (Kerr & Bowen, 1998; Miller et al., 2004). Career choice can be

added to the numerous manners where family plays an influential role in the trajectory path of

children's lives. Through the process of intergenerational transmission, career-related values,

expectations, and beliefs are often passed down from parents to children (Kakiuchi & Weeks,

2009: Liu et al., 2015a). Often, families create unique ideologies, rules, and regulations that

foster the family's particular beliefs, values, and traditions concerning a multitude of matters

(Bowen, 2004; Kerr & Bowen 1988), sometimes creating family scripts, or schemas, that

transcend generations (Nichols & Schwartz, 2004). This process is not immune to career choice

and career development of children and teenagers, as parents' beliefs about careers, and abilities

to be successful in a given career, are often transmitted to children, ultimately influencing their
 52

career aspirations (Kakiuchi & Weeks, 2009). Not surprisingly, the influence of parents and

family on career choice is not limited to younger children and adolescents. Parental influences

profoundly impact the career exploration and choices process of college students and young

adults (Storlie & Byrd, 2016; Whiston & Keller, 2004).

Family Influence on Young Adult’s Career Choice

For most young people in industrialized countries, the late teens through the twenties find

significant changes in numerous life domains. In this period, people receive the training and

education to lay the groundwork for their work and careers, lasting for most of their adult lives

(Arnett, 2000; Desjardins & Leadbeater, 2017). This period is sometimes referred to as emerging

adulthood, where individuals often find themselves no longer adolescents but not yet fully adults

(Lindell et al., 2017). This phase of life is often seen as a time for exploring one's life direction

and identity (Arnett, 2000), whereby individuals integrate new freedoms with adult

responsibilities preparing emerging/young adults for a lifetime of adulthood (Tanner, 2006).

Over the past 50 years, there has been a dramatic demographic shift for the development of

people in their late teens through their early-to-mid-twenties, moving from a time for entering

marriage and adulthood to one of settling into long-term adult roles (Arnett, 2004; Lindell et al.,

2017; Tanner, 2006).

Although there is little known about the role of parents in their children’s transition into

adult life (Lindell, 2017), given the importance of the influence that parents have on

development during childhood and adolescence (Tang, 2018; Whitson & Keller, 2004;

Workman, 2015), it is reasonable to consider that parents do have the opportunity to shape the

development of emerging/young adults as they transition into adulthood (Lindell et al., 2017). As

teenagers move into adult roles, their transitions are often marked by a growth in independence
 53

from their parents (Arnett, 2004) and a significant reduction in social support (Tanner, 2006).

Emerging adulthood is when individuals are removed from dependency on parents from

childhood and adolescence into a period of exploration of love, worldviews, and work (Arnett,

2004). Although emerging adulthood is a time where young adults grow in independence from

their parents, decisions on matters such as where to attend college or what career path to follow,

these young adults continue to be influenced by parents and family (Workman, 2015).

The career decision-making process of young adults plays a prominent role in the

experiences of families (Storlie & Byrd, 2016). Although it is commonplace for college students

and emerging adults to live apart from their families, many rely on their parents for finances and

communicate with them frequently (Lindell et al., 2017). As young adults experience a decrease

in social support (Tanner, 2006), in many instances, young adults may seek out-or parents may

offer greater emotional support as young men and women traverse this often-difficult transitional

period (Desjardins & Leadbeater, 2017). Positive parental involvement via emotional support is

associated with positive outcomes for their young adult children. One study found that emotional

support is linked to positive adjustment for young adults transitioning into adult roles (Fass &

Tubman, 2002). Parental social support is associated with positive career development,

vocational identity, and career-related abilities (Desjardins & Leadbeater, 2017; Whiston &

Keller, 2004). In a survey of 32 studies related to family influences on career development of

college students, positive parental support toward the career development trajectories of college-

age students is defined by parental support of autonomy, encouragement, and warmth (Whiston

& Keller, 2004).

It is essential to acknowledge that there are instances when parental involvement can be

detrimental to young adults and their career decisions (Desjardins & Leadbeater, 2017; Liang et
 54

al., 2020; Lindell et al., 2017). In some instances, parents engage in behaviors that are harmful to

the career development process of their young adult children, such as psychological control

(Barber & Harmon, 2002). Psychological control occurs when young adults' thoughts and

feelings are manipulated by their parents (Desjardins & Leadbeater, 2017), a phenomenon that

may contribute to college students choosing a major based on poor reasoning (Storlie et al.,

2019). Parents exert psychological control for young women and men to make career-related

decisions to alleviate parents' distress over their prospective careers (Desjardins & Leadbeater,

2017). Parental psychological control is associated with lower self-esteem, a restriction in

identity formation, and impaired emotional regulation in young adults (Manzeske & Straight,

2009). The over-reaching attempt of parental support via psychological control may be a barrier

to the emerging adult's career development.

Conscious actions such as parental emotional support (Desjardins & Leadbeater, 2017)

and psychological control (Barber & Harmon, 2002) are not the only circumstances whereby the

family plays a role in the career choices of young men and women. Several other family factors

are noted to serve as influential forces in young adults' career decision-making process, such as

relationships with parents and siblings, fusion, and triangulation (Larson & Wilson, 1998;

Whiston & Keller, 2004). More recently, attention has been directed toward other family factors

in young adult career development, including parental role modeling behaviors and career-

related child-rearing customs (Guan et al., 2016). Additionally, it is worth noting that Erikson's

psychosocial theory suggests that a primary developmental task for individuals entering

adulthood is to develop an integrated identity based on personal discovery and the values and

experiences infused by parents (Erikson, 1994). Therefore, it is abundantly clear that interactions
 55

and relationships with parents serve as a critical ingredient to forming one's identity (Lindell et

al., 2017).

Emerging adulthood, ages 18-25, is a period of growth, discovery, and identity as young

adults explore different pursuits to find how they best fit into their environment and meaning

from their lived experiences (Lindell et al., 2017; Marshall & Farrell, 2019). Part of the

experience during the emerging adult years is the work they do to develop their identity in

relation to their social contexts (Frederick & Dunbar, 2022; Marshall & Farrell, 2019; Stets &

Burke, 2000). Identity is how individuals develop their unique selves relative to their

membership in specific groups or social roles (Carter, 2013; Oyserman et al., 2012). Similar to

the concept of identity is that of vocational identity, the extent to which one has a sense of their

interest, goals, and values as they relate to their career aspirations (Whiston & Keller, 2004). One

develops his or her vocational identity through the exploration of one's self and the world of

work (Whiston & Keller, 2004). Young adults who have a clearer sense of vocational identity

tend to be those who have families who place emphasis on academic and vocational

achievements (Hargrove et al., 2002).

During young adulthood, young men and women derive meaning from their experiences

and input from family and friends (Miller & Rottinghaus, 2014; Marshall & Farrell, 2019; Wang,

2014). Frankl (2006) believed that one's unique sense of meaning was of primary importance;

that it was the source of one's purpose in life. By attaching meaning to their lived experiences,

young adults make sense of their lives and worlds (Miller & Rottinghaus, 2014). Through the

process of identity development, individuals also construct personal meaning based upon identity

with specific groups and social roles (Oyserman et al., 2012). Therefore, it seems reasonable to

consider that a young adult's career choice process may be significantly influenced by their
 56

family of origin via positive and negative experiences. This, in turn, may contribute to shaping

the individual's identity, ultimately influencing the young woman or young man's sense of what

is meaningful.

The findings from Larson and Wilson (1998) are of particular salience for this study. In

their research with 1006 young adults, they sought to discover how family factors such as

intimidation, fusion, and triangulation might influence anxiety, which may influence the career

decision-making process for young women and men (Larson & Wilson, 1998). Larson and

Wilson (1998) discovered that these factors contributed to young adults finding it difficult to

develop a strong sense of self and identity. Ultimately, a weakened sense of self and identity

correlated with the number of problems these individuals would have while making career-

related decisions, including the ability to think independently (Larson & Wilson, 1998).

This information seems to take on additional significance when considering the potential

impact of intergenerational transmission (Kerr & Bowen, 1998) on ACOD career decision-

making process, especially when considering the following two factors: First, that family of

origin factors can result in a weakened sense of self and identity, which contribute to difficulty in

making independent decisions about one's career (Larsen & Wilson, 1998). Second,

intergenerational transmission impacts multiple components of family functioning, including

values, beliefs, and subjective attitudes carried from one generation to another (Kerr & Bowen,

1998; Miller et al., 2004). Therefore, it is possible that divorced parents' beliefs, attitudes, and

career-related values might become an undetected, influential force in the career decisions of

their young adult children who ultimately choose MFT as a career. The following section will

include a review of the literature addressing the choice of MFT as a career.

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MFT/Psychotherapist Career Choice

This section will address many aspects of career choice for the broader field of mental

health professionals, including, but not limited to, psychologists, professional counselors, and

MFTs. My initial search for career choice-related scholarship for MFTs produced a dearth of

information, resulting in the need to expand the search parameters of the research to include the

broader range of practitioners who fall under the professional category of psychotherapist.

Robiner (2006) differentiates between the specific mental health professions:

x Psychologist: is the discipline with the greatest training in assessment, requiring a

doctoral degree, 1-year internship, dissertation or doctoral project, post-doctoral

supervised practicum, and passing the Examination for Professional Practice of

Psychology.

x Counselors: among the mental health professions, counseling may be best distinguished

by its approaches to problem-solving, with an emphasis on individual functioning to

assist people with a wide range of problems. Counselors pass the National Counselor

Examination, and have a minimum number of clinical experience hours as per state

requirements.

x Marriage and family therapists: tend to focus on marital, couples, or family issues but has

a broader purview, seeking to help clients improve relationships or address behavioral

and emotional issues from a family/systems perspective. Training for MFTs is at the

master's or doctoral level. MFTs must pass a national exam prior to licensure, and have a

minimum number of supervised clinical experience hours as per state requirements.

The terms therapist, psychotherapist, and MFT may be used interchangeably throughout this

section.
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The decision to become a therapist, although a curious decision, has not received a great

deal of attention from the scholarship community (DiCaccavo, 2002; McBeath, 2019). In

general, the bulk of research concerning psychotherapy has focused more on the therapy itself

than on those who provide the therapy (e.g., psychologists, counselors, and MFTs; Orlinsky et

al., 2005). This seems to be, at the very least, somewhat curious considering the power and

influence that therapists have over their clients. It would seem prudent that therapists understand

the motivations that have influenced their career choices, given the risks that may accompany

those who may not be cognizant of their motives (Barnett, 2007; McBeath, 2019).

The forces behind the motivation for one to become a therapist are not simple, nor are

they always conscious ones (Norcross & Faber, 2005). Within the literature that does address the

motivational factors that have influenced one's decisions to choose psychotherapy as a career,

two prevalent themes provide potential rationales for these choices (Farber et al., 2005; Safi et

al., 2017). The first involves an emphasis on unconscious processes and the role of early

relationships (Barnett, 2007; Braunstein-Bercovitz et al., 2014). Unconscious motivations are

perceived as the underlying forces behind the motives of the wounded healer (Groesbeck, 1975).

The wounded healer concept suggests that the psychotherapist may be influenced by their past

issues, resulting in an unconscious need to help others (Orlinsky et al., 2005). One example of

these past issues could be parental divorce. The second theme focuses on the vocational self,

suggesting more conscious motives to choose a career as a psychotherapist (Braunstein-

Bercovitz et al., 2014; Safi et al., 2017).

In a study comparing conscious motivational factors for career choices between social

psychologists and psychotherapists, the psychotherapists reported that matters such as altruism,

job-related possibilities, professional success, and personal growth opportunities were more
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influential factors contributing to their career choices than they were for the social psychologists

(Murphy & Halgin, 1995). Further motivational factors for a career as a psychotherapist include

fulfilling the need for intellectual stimulation, autonomy, and the opportunity to develop a

psychological mindedness (Farber et al., 2005). A study of German psychology students found

that the rigors of the educational and training process, including commitments of time and costs,

wield substantial influence on career choices to become psychotherapists (Glaesmer et al., 2010).

Interestingly, a study of 24 master's-level psychologists found that the participants were

motivated to choose psychotherapy as a career for 1) tangible reasons, such as financial security,

and 2) the role of personal experiences and life histories, including parental divorce (Safi et al.,

2017). Conscious factors do indeed play a role in the choice of psychotherapy as a career for

many in the mental health field.

The notion of the wounded healer has drawn considerable attention from the scholarship

community for more than four decades (Groesbeck, 1975; McBeath, 2019; Norcross & Faber,

2005; Zerubavel & Wright, 2012). This idea suggests that those who have lived through adverse

conditions, which could be identified as a parental divorce, are more inclined to serve in the

helping field and better equipped because of their experience of coping with ACEs (Evans &

Evans, 2019). The therapist's past experiences allow for a greater capacity for empathy and the

positive use of countertransference to facilitate the client's healing (Zerubavel & Wright, 2012).

The notion of the wounded healer suggests that the activation of the wounded healer duality

serves as the mechanism that informs the healing process (Miller & Baldwin, 2000). This

paradigm posits that the more the understanding of her or his wounds the healer has, the more

likely they are to assist their clients through a healing process of their own (Evans & Evans,

2019; Norcross & Farber, 2005). The research community agrees that people in the mental health
 60

professions have experienced more ACEs than those in other professions (Nikčević et al., 2007).

Considering that therapists have experienced painful experiences of their own (Zerubavel &

Wright, 2012), it is logical to consider that the role of the wounded healer may be a contributing

factor to the identity of those who choose MFT as a career. Therefore, it seems prudent to

assume that possibly an adverse experience such as parental divorce could be a contributing

factor to choosing MFT as a career.

The scholarship community has supported the concept of the wounded healer, with

considerable attention paid to early experiences and family of origin as influences in choosing

psychotherapy as a career (DiCaccavo, 2002; Fussell & Bonney, 1990; Murphy & Halgin, 1995;

Racusin et al., 1981). Researchers have suggested that therapists have, at times, made their career

choices to work through disruptions in the function of their family of origin (Fussell & Bonney,

1990; Racusin et al., 1981; Whiston & Keller, 2004). In a comparative study of physicists and

psychotherapists, it was discovered that therapists were more likely to report a higher incidence

of childhood trauma and emotional deprivation, including death, and divorce, and separation of

parents (Fussell & Bonney, 1990).

Furthermore, therapists commonly report problems from their family of origin as a factor

in choosing their careers (Farber et al., 2005; Fussell & Bonney, 1990; Racusin et al., 1991). For

example, in a study contrasting female mental health professionals to women from other

professions, those who work in the mental health field reported significantly increased instances

of trauma, psychological stress, and interpersonal conflict with members of their family of origin

than their counterparts (Elliott & Guy, 1993). In their study contrasting career choices between

psychotherapists and social psychologists, psychotherapists were more likely to report family

distress as a factor in choosing their career paths, including the parentification of children and the
 61

presence of family disputes (Murphy & Halgin, 1995). In a study of 42 doctoral-level

psychotherapists, therapist participants reported their families to be less physically healthy than

the comparison group (Fussell & Bonney, 1990). Although problems with members of one's

family of origin are commonplace, it is not reported universally among therapists (Murphy &

Halgin, 1995; Norcross & Guy, 2014). The counseling literature contains numerous personal

accounts of the wounded healer, where therapists recognize the choice to enter their field is

significantly influenced by their past hurts and the potential to rework the painful experiences of

their early years (Sedgwick, 1994).

Unconscious motivation presents a common theme in investigating career choice in MFT

(DiCaccavo, 2005; Farber, 2005; McBeath, 2019; Sussman, 1992). The unconscious motivation

of therapists in selecting psychotherapy as a career reflects a diverse range of psychological

needs, including the need for affirmation, the desire for connection with others, and needs related

to sex and aggression (Sussman, 1992). In a study of unconscious motivation for their career

choice with nine experienced therapists, Barnett (2007) reported two prominent motivations that

drove therapists' motivation. First, each therapist had experienced some form of loss before the

age of 20 years, through the absence of their fathers, followed by their mothers becoming

emotionally unavailable (Barnett, 2007). The second was the therapist's fulfillment of their own

needs as a means for their career choices. In some cases, therapists report attending to their

clients to compensate for negative personal impacts resulting from the divorce of parents

(Barnett, 2007). The phenomenon of therapists using their careers as a place to attain personal

healing finds robust support within the literature (Farber et al., 2005; McLaughlin, 2005;

Skovholt et al., 2004).

 62

Therapists and researchers report that after years into their careers, the therapists were

able to better comprehend their motivations for their career choices (Barnett, 2007). Therapists

also report that their training in family therapy has enlightened their understandings of the

functioning of their family of origin (Nikčević et al., 2007; Yusof & Carpenter, 2015). This may

be significant when considering that therapists, notably experienced therapists, may have an

increased awareness of ACES and family of origin matters when reporting their experiences.

Therapists may be more aware than the general public of what has happened and is happening

around them. Although the factors that influence the decision to become a MFT has drawn some

attention within the research community (Heathcote, 2009; Murphy & Halgin, 1995; Norcross &

Farber, 2005; Yusof & Carpenter, 2015), and given that there has been a focus on both ACEs and

family of origin matters on their decisions (DiCaccavo, 2002; Evans & Evans, 2019; Fussell &

Bonney, 1990; Murphy & Halgin, 1995; Racusin et al., 1981), it is curious to consider that the

influence of parental divorce on one’s choice to become a MFT has not been investigated.

Summary

According to government statistics, almost half of all marriages in the U.S. end in divorce

(CDC, 2017). Parental divorce is one of the most troubling adverse events a child can experience

(Du Plooy & Van Rensburg, 2015). Children who experience divorce or separation of their

parents are at an increased risk of developing numerous emotional, psychological, social, and

behavioral consequences compared to children from continuously married families (Amato,

2001; Amato & Afifi, 2006; Morrison et al., 2017; Wallerstein et al., 2001). Parental divorce

impacts nearly every aspect of a child's life (Morrison et al., 2017; Roper et al., 2020). Young

ACOD also report that their parents' divorces negatively impacted the development of emotions

and identity (Pantelis et al., 2015). Identity is how individuals make meaning of their life events,
 63

helping them define themselves as unique individuals, role participants, or members of a group

Frederick & Dunbar, 2022; Stets & Burke, 2000).

Understanding one's identity is fundamental to choosing a career (Tang, 2018). The role

of the family of origin influencing children's career decisions has been the subject of scholarly

inquiry for over six decades, finding that family plays a distinctive role for children and young

adults (Whiston & Keller, 2004). Part of the experience during the emerging adult years is the

work they do to develop their identity in relation to their social context (Frederick & Dunbar,

2022; Marshall & Farrell, 2019; Stets & Burke, 2000). In some cases, family of origin problems,

including divorce, result in a weakened sense of identity for young adults and consequent

difficulty making independent decisions about their careers (Larsen & Wilson, 1998).

The decision to become a MFT has not received much attention from the scholarship

community (DiCaccavo, 2002; McBeath, 2019). The literature discussing the motivational

factors that lead to choosing psychotherapy as a career suggests two themes behind these

decisions: (1) conscious motives such as financial and personal achievements (Glaesmer, 2010;

Safi et al., 2017); and (2) unconscious motivations fueled by the therapist's past experiences

(Barnett, 2007; Braunstein-Bercovitz et al., 2014). Several studies have determined that

therapists have been able to identify retrospectively personal emotional wounds and troubling

family of origin matters as influential factors in choosing psychotherapy as a career (Farber et

al., 2005; Fussell & Bonney, 1990; Racusin et al., 1991). Nevertheless, the current literature does

not provide any insight into how the role of parental divorce may influence one's choice in MFT

as a career.

Therefore, there is a need to understand if and to what degree parental divorce has

influenced the decisions of those who have chosen MFT as a career. Examining this
 64

phenomenon through the lens of BFST (Bowen, 2004; Kerr & Bowen, 1988) provides a view

into how the family system may have unconsciously influenced the decision-making process of

ACOD MFTs. Further, understanding the role of experiencing parental divorce in the lives of

ACOD MFTs can inform couples therapists of potential biases that they may unknowingly bring

into their work. Qualitative phenomenological inquiry (Giorgi, 2012; Giorgi et al., 2017; Smith

& Osborn, 2007) facilitates the exploration of the subjective meaning and lived experiences of

ACOD MFTs, ultimately providing data for the initial research into this phenomenon.
 65

Chapter 3: Research Method

The problem addressed by this study was to understand how the experience of parental

divorce and the phenomenon of intergenerational transmission may influence one’s choice to

become a marriage and family therapist. The implications of this study provide insight into how

parental divorce, and the role of intergenerational transmission, shape career choice, and the

therapist’s view of the self, which may impact the treatment provided to clients.

Intergenerational transmission, the process whereby one’s experiences from their family of

origin influences one’s worldviews, and the way in which they interact with and perceive others,

plays a significant role in the developmental path for members of families (Costa-Ramalho et al.,

2017; Kerr & Bowen, 1998). It is conceivable that FOO factors could impact one’s career

choices, and influence how MFTs view their clients and their problems resulting in therapist

biases which may impact the therapeutic care provided to individuals, couples, and families

(Bowes et al., 2020; Corey, 2017).

The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study was to understand the experience

of MFTs who lived through a parental divorce before the age of 18, and the role that parental

divorce may have had on their choice to become therapists. Interpretive phenomenological

analysis ([IPA] Hale et al., 2008) was chosen for this project to facilitate the exploration of the

subjective meaning and lived experiences of adult children of divorce ([ACOD], Hale et al.,

2007; Glesne, 2016; Knabb et al., 2009). This research expands the current literature by

increasing the understanding of whether and to what extent the experience of parental divorce

had on ACODs choice to become MFTs. This study sampled ACODs who have chosen to

become MFTs, whose parents divorced prior to the subjects' eighteenth birthday, and were

currently living in the United States. Subjects participated in semi-structured interviews, which
 66

were recorded on a secure laptop computer, transcribed, then analyzed based on interpretive

phenomenological analysis.

This qualitative phenomenological inquiry was guided by the following research

questions:

RQ1: How might the experience of divorce during childhood or adolescence contribute to the

motivation to become a marriage and family therapist?

RQ2: How do ACOD MFTs perceive the positive influence of parental divorce on their choice

to become MFTs?

RQ3: How do ACOD MFTs perceive the negative influence of parental divorce on their

choice to become MFTs?

This chapter of the dissertation proposal includes information on the interpretive

phenomenological inquiry and support for its use in this study. Furthermore, this chapter will

also include information concerning the particulars of the design of the study, population and

sample, instruments used, study procedures, data collection and analysis, assumptions,

limitations, delimitations, and ethical considerations.

Research Methodology and Design

I utilized qualitative phenomenology using IPA to facilitate the exploration of the

subjective meaning and lived experiences of ACOD MFTs (Hale et al., 2007; Hale et al., 2008;

Smith & Osborn, 2007). This study aimed to inform the field of MFT about possible impacts of

parental divorce on MFTs by identifying how ACOD factors and their effects, which are

incorporated into a meaning-making framework, may have contributed to ACODs’ motivations

to become MFTs. Qualitative research places an emphasis on discovery, meaning-making, and

description (Gehart et al., 2001; Giorgi et al., 2017) versus prediction, control, and measurement
 67

found in quantitative research. Qualitative research provides the researcher the means to obtain a

broad view of the subjective experiences of research participants, which allows for a greater

understanding of the potential meaning-making derived from the phenomenon under study

(Bloomberg & Volpe, 2019; Giorgi et al., 2017). Phenomenological study strives to allow the

researcher to gain a rich description of the participant’s experience, rather than attempting to

supply an explanation (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2019; Gehart et al., 2001). IPA allows for the

researcher to understand, in detail, the lived experiences of ACOD MFTs, making sense of the

participant’s understanding of their world and rich descriptions of their experiences as described

by the participants (Giorgi, 2012; Giorgi et al., 2017; Hale et al., 2007; Smith & Osborn, 2007).

Furthermore, using qualitative phenomenology allows for the researcher to remain curious, open-

minded, and free of preconceptions, allowing a greater understanding of the lived experiences of

the participants (Finlay, 2014).

Interpretive phenomenological analysis (Smith & Osborne, 2007) was chosen for this

study to provide the researcher with the means to best understand the lived experience of ACOD

who have chosen the field of MFT and the potential role that divorce has played on career choice

(Bloomberg & Volpe, 2019; Knabb et al., 2009). When interviewing research participants and

conducting data analysis, qualitative researchers focus on the basic structures of lived

experience, which allows for an understanding of the participant’s perceptions of the examined

phenomenon (Gehart et al., 2001). Qualitative research also allows the researcher the means to

be flexible when addressing difficult issues with participants by providing a format where trust

can be established between researcher and participant (Yin, 2013). In particular, IPA helps the

researcher to explore how the participants make sense of their experiences, focusing on the

meaning of a particular experience (Smith & Osborne, 2007).

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In this study, I interviewed licensed MFTs (N = 5) who report a history of parental

divorce during their childhood who are currently practicing therapists. I conducted semi-

structured interviews with the therapists to gather the data for the study, which were analyzed

using IPA (Smith & Osborne, 2007). Interviews were conducted using the secure web

conference platform (Zoom). This platform allows for the opportunity for me to conduct near

face-to-face interviews with participants located throughout the United States. The data obtained

from the interviews of ACOD MFTs provided insight into the role of parental divorce on MFT

career choice by understanding (1) the lived experience of ACOD for MFTs, and (2) the effects

of ACOD on a specific career choice – licensed marriage and family therapists (Gehart et al.,

2001).

Alternative Methodologies

Alternative qualitative research designs were considered for this project including case

study, ethnographic research, narrative research, and grounded theory. For the purposes of this

study, I prefer phenomenological inquiry because it provides a richer, more in-depth

understanding of the participant’s lived experience to best answers the research questions

(Bloomberg & Volpe, 2019; Gehart et al., 2001). Phenomenological inquiry has been determined

to be the most appropriate as it provides a platform for the researcher to gain a detailed

understanding of what the role of parental divorce may have played in the participants’ choices

to become a MFT.

Case Study. In qualitative inquiry, the term case study refers to the examination of a

single case or social unit (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2019). The term case can vary between several

definitions from an individual to a village, or a particular event to a larger process (Glesne,

2016). This method would not be suitable for this study as it would limit the inquiry to an
 69

individual case, which would not allow the researcher to gain a broader understanding of the

phenomenon.

Ethnographic Research. Ethnography was developed as a means to understand and

interpret culture (Glesne, 2016). Ethnography uses culture as the theoretical framework for

studying and describing groups by examining folklore, history, linguistics, and sociology

(Bloomberg & Volpe, 2019). Ethnography is not an appropriate research method for this study as

it requires the researcher to place emphasis on the culture itself, immersing one’s self into the

culture (Glesne, 2016), which is not appropriate for this study.

Narrative Research. Narrative research places emphasis on understanding the lived

experience of individuals through the stories they tell about themselves (Glesne, 2016). Narrative

research achieves this through the development of a deep nuanced explanation of the examined

subject (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2019). Although narrative research does provide the researcher an

understanding of the individual's lived experience, it does not provide insight into the subjective

meaning of the subject's experience, as phenomenological inquiry does, which is more

appropriate for this study.

Grounded Theory. Grounded theory is best utilized by researchers to develop theories

that are supported by data involving specific procedures for data collection and analysis (Glesne,

2016). Grounded theory aims to generate theories about particular phenomena (Bloomberg &

Volpe, 2019). Grounded theory was not chosen for this research as it is not the intention of the

researcher to discover a theory.

Population and Sample

The participants for this research study were be selected by two inclusion criteria. First,

participants must be individuals who are ACOD and who experienced parental divorce prior to
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turning 18 years old. Second, they must be practicing, licensed MFTs in the United States. The

decision to sample only ACOD MFTs was imperative to the nature of the study as the research

intends to discover common themes derived from the experience of parental divorce and their

potential impact on MFT as a career choice. The choice to limit the participants to licensed

MFTs was to promote consistency with the sample to be those who demonstrate identification

with a high level of commitment to the profession of MFT. Participants needed to demonstrate

identification with the MFT profession; licensure serves as the best marker of identification as a

MFT. Purposive convenience sampling was used as the primary means of obtaining participants

for the study. Purposive sampling allowed me the means to find a more closely defined group of

participants for whom the research question will be significant (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2019;

Smith & Osborn, 2007). Individual, semi-structured interviews were conducted to provide a rich

description of the lived experiences of the research participants (Hale et al., 2008; Smith &

Osborn, 2007). Qualitative research typically involves a small number of participants in contrast

to quantitative research (McCracken, 1998). There are no authoritative rules determining how

many participants are needed for studies utilizing IPA (Hale et al., 2008). Previously, five or six

participants were recommended for students conducting research utilizing IPA (Smith & Osborn,

2007). More recently, the literature suggests as few as one participant (Smith & Osborn, 2007).

Five interviews were performed (see Appendix A) to provide a manageable body of data to

obtain full and rich individual accounts from each participant, then the potential common

concepts and themes across the sample were investigated (Hale et al., 2008). The qualitative

inquiry interviews were 45 to 60 minutes in duration to allow adequate time for the participants

to share their accounts, providing me with an understanding of the participants' lived experience

(Gehart et al., 2001).

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To identify potential participants, I recruited through postings in several MFT Facebook

groups and MFT affiliation groups based throughout the U.S (Appendix B). I posted IRB

approved recruiting messages in these groups. The Facebook and MFT affiliation group posts

sought out participants, by giving a brief description of the research and criteria for participants

who were included in the study, and requesting that potential participants contacted me via

email.

Materials

This descriptive phenomenological study examined the lived experiences of ACOD

MFTs and how parental divorce impacted their choice to become therapists. Participation was

anonymous to protect the identity of the participants. Confidentiality may also provide a sense of

security for the participants, ultimately promoting the reliability of the data. To promote

confidentiality, I provided each participant with a number (P-1, P-2, …) and kept the

participants’ names separate from all collected data. Holding the identities of the participants in

confidence was design to foster an atmosphere of safety, allowing them to freely describe their

lived experiences and beliefs concerning their career choices.

The data for this study were collected using the interpretive phenomenological inquiry.

IPA was chosen to allow me the opportunity to explicate the lived experience of the participants

(Smith & Osborn, 2007). I conducted in-depth, semi-structured, one-on-one interviews. The

interviews included open-ended questions and supplemental clarifying questions intended to

illuminate the participants’ stories (Giorgi et al., 2017; Knabb et al., 2009). The use of semi-

structured interviews allowed for various themes of the participant’s experience, of parental

divorce and choice to become MFTs, to be revealed throughout the interviewing process. I

adopted an attitude of curiosity and openness, while setting aside any preconceived notions about
 72

the phenomenon, allowing for a greater chance to comprehend the lived experiences of the

participants (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2019). The interviews were conducted via a secure web

conference platform (Zoom), digitally recorded, and stored on a secure laptop computer.

I was the sole researcher and data collection instrument in this study and conducted in-

depth, semi-structured one-on-one interviews (see Appendix A). In qualitative research, it is not

unusual for the researcher to be the instrument in data collection and analysis (Bloomberg &

Volpe, 2019). It is noteworthy that I gained an interest in intergenerational transmission of

divorce through personal experience as an MFT, often working with couples who are

experiencing this phenomenon. It is important to mention that I did not disclose my clinical

experiences and observations to participants throughout the research process.

I took care to ensure that I remain mindful that I did bring assumptions into this study. In

IPA, the goal of understanding the participants’ personal world is dependent upon, and is

complicated by, the researcher’s presuppositions (Smith & Osborn, 2007). I utilized open

reflexive reporting of my assumptions, and the challenges to those assumptions, to provide

insight into this matter and supporting my findings as impartial as suggested in Hale et al.

(2007).

Study Procedures

Participants were recruited through postings to multiple MFT Facebook groups. I

obtained permission from the Facebook group administrators before posting announcements for

volunteer participants to the Facebook groups. I directed the Facebook posts toward licensed

MFTs who experienced parental divorce prior to turning eighteen years of age (see Appendix B).

The Facebook post requested interested participants to email me to confirm eligibility criteria is

met (see Appendix C). After I received an email confirming that applicants meet the eligibility
 73

criterion, I emailed potential participants to further inform the applicant of the procedures,

provide informed consent, and make an appointment for the video interview. When the informed

consent was returned, the scheduled meeting commenced.

The interviews were conducted via secure web conferencing platform at a time that was

convenient for both parties. The interviews were digitally recorded and then transcribed.

Interested persons who did not qualify for this study were sent an email response thanking them

for their interest and informing them that they did not meet the criteria for this study (see

Appendix D).

Data Analysis

When utilizing interpretive phenomenological inquiry, researchers are provided the

opportunity to assemble data by interviewing participants, providing a pathway to understanding

the lived experiences of the research subjects (Finlay, 2014; Giorgi et al., 2017; Smith & Osborn,

2007). Interviews took place via a secure web conference platform (Zoom), and were digitally

recorded. The next step entailed the verbatim transcription of the interviews. Following the

transcription of the interviews, I analyzed the data in a three-level process as described in Hale et

al. (2008).

1. I examined transcripts of the interviews to gain an overall account of the

phenomenon. I wrote notes in the margins of the transcripts, which were

transferred, along with field notes, to an electronic master sheet, with sufficient

information to trace each code back to their locations in the manuscripts (Hale et

al., 2008; Smith et al., 1999).

2. I organized and interpreted themes into major and minor components. Minor

themes provided support for major themes. Knowledge of the extant literature
 74

informed the interpretation of the themes, while mt presuppositions were

simultaneously considered to reduce potential instances of bias (Hale et al., 2008;

Smith et al., 1999).

3. Data analysis continued throughout the next several weeks, including re-reading

of transcripts, taking intentional breaks, and jotting down notes as insights

spontaneously arose. Identification of shared themes and subsequent analysis of

these themes were followed by the creation of a coding scheme of the data. Then I

searched for patterns and connections found in each account (Hale et., al 2008;

Smith et al., 1999).

In qualitative research, triangulation can be employed to ensure validity, reduce errors,

and enhance the reliability and trustworthiness of the study (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2019; Knabb

et al., 2009). Triangulation is accomplished when the researcher uses a minimum of three

sources that converge to support the findings of the study. I addressed this issue with three

safeguards to ensure trustworthiness of the findings (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2019). The data were

viewed and analyzed through the lens of Bowen family systems theory. For the purposes of this

study, the most significant concept of BFST was the multigenerational transmission process

(Bowen, 2004; Kerr & Bowen, 1998). Multigenerational transmission process is of particular

interest to this study as it is possible that parental values, and beliefs about divorce and marriage,

may be passed from one generation to another, ultimately influencing one’s career choices to

become a MFT (Kerr & Bowen, 1998). Bowen’s theory is explored in the literature review

section of this dissertation. Further, I conducted “transcript review,” where I sent copies of the

transcript to the participants for review to ensure accuracy (Rowlands, 2021). Finally, I utilized

outside expert to review and verify the data. This outside expert possesses a doctorate in
 75

Marriage and Family Therapy and is a licensed clinician and holds extensive knowledge of

family systems theory. I furnished the data to the outside expert utilizing spreadsheets with the

data included via email. Further, the outside expert and I reviewed the data via a Zoom meeting,

discussing the results and themes identified. The outside expert examined the data and concurred

that the findings were consistent with the extant literature and what the outside expert expected

me to report.

Assumptions

The first foundational assumption was that the methodology, research questions and

interview questions would sufficiently address the research problem. It is without a doubt that

other factors may be relative to the problem, I assumed that those under examination are the

most suitable for the purposes of this study. A second assumption was that there would be a

sufficient number of participants to provide the breadth and depth of data necessary for this

study. Over the two years, prior to commencement of data collection, during casual conversation

about my ideas for this project, I had several MFTs prematurely offer to “volunteer” for this

project as its conception was still in its infancy. Another assumption was that the participants of

this study would respond with honesty while sharing their lived experiences. Since this study

focused on the participant's experiences, and perceptions of these experiences, I assumed that

there is no potential for gain should the participants respond dishonestly.

Another assumption was that while conducting interviews, the participants would be able

to accurately recall information about their experiences. This issue presents itself as a challenge

to this study as some of the accounts explored occurred two or three decades prior to the

interviews. However, for the purposes of this study the priority lay in the perceptions of the lived
 76

experiences of the participants and how they now, retrospectively, believe their parents’ divorce

may or may not have influenced their career paths.

An additional, significant assumption was that parental divorce plays a role in one’s

choice to become an MFT for ACOD MFTs. Foundational research concerning the concept of

the “wounded healer” indicates that ACEs play a significant role in one’s choice to enter into the

helping professions (Barnett, 2007; Evans & Evans, 2019; Felitti et al., 1998). Finally, I assumed

that I would be able to adequately capture the sense of the participants’ experiences, resulting in

rich data that will contribute to the existing literature.

Limitations

One potential limitation of concern to this study was that the sample may not accurately

represent the experience of the larger population, as qualitative data does not contain the same

capabilities to generalize to the general population as its quantitative counterpart does (Willig,

2016). Because I am located and extensively networked in Orange County, CA, where there are

more MFTs per-capita than any other county in the U. S., there was concern that an

overrepresentation of participants from my local area might arise. In an attempt to avoid the

limitation of geographic transferability, I cast a broad net to attract a wider base of participants

by placing promotional efforts to MFT Facebook groups that reach across the U.S. Further, since

qualitative research gives attention to a particular group and phenomenon, the focus of this study

placed an emphasis on credibility and dependability (Dahl & Boss, 2005; Morse et al., 2002).

Therefore, to support credibility in this study, I investigated the phenomenon of the lived

experiences of MFTs who have experienced parental divorce. The dependability of this study

was be supported with the use of interpretive phenomenological analysis (Smith & Osborn,

2007).
 77

Another limitation was that I utilized a social media platform to recruit participants.

Because I utilized Facebook MFT groups as my recruitment tool, I limited my pool of potential

participants to those who are active in these groups and those who hear by word of mouth.

Therefore, the participants may not accurately represent the larger population by age,

socioeconomic status, tech-savvy, and familiarity with Facebook.

Furthermore, an additional limitation to this study was time. Although willing to share

their lived experiences for the purposes of this study, participants tend to live busy lives that may

have restricted the amount of time they could devote to this project. Therefore, interviews were

structured to last for 45 to 60 minutes. Further, time constraints for participants may have

impacted the diversity of subjects, or alienate certain MFTs from participating in this study.

Delimitations

I established several boundaries to ensure that the study narrowed its scope to address the

problem being examined. The specific problem to be addressed, the purpose of the study,

interview questions, and the population studied all assisted to sharpen the focus of the study.

Specifically, the study excluded any participants who did not experience parental divorce prior to

their eighteenth birthday, and further excluded any MFTs who have not yet received licensure.

The choice to exclude participants who did not experience parental divorce before their

eighteenth birthday was imperative to the nature of the study as it is the intention of the research

to discover common themes derived from the experience of parental divorce and their potential

impact on MFT as a career choice. The decision to prohibit MFTs who have not yet achieved

licensure was to promote consistency with the sample to be those who demonstrate identification

with a high level of commitment to the profession of MFT.

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Ethical Assurances

Data were not collected for this study, nor did recruitment begin, before I had received

approval from the Northcentral University IRB to conduct the study. To ensure ethical standards

were met, I provided and reviewed informed consent, protection from harm, the right to privacy,

and honesty with each prospective participant. Upon understanding and acceptance of these

issues, the prospective participants were given the opportunity to voluntarily participate in this

study.

This study proposed minimal risks to participants with the exception of potential

discomfort concerning the revisiting childhood memories of their experiences of parental

divorce. During the interviews I did not notice any participant becoming distressed or agitated.

Hence, the need to pause the interview and check-in with the participant was not indicated. I

protected the confidentiality of each participant by providing each with a number (P-1, P-2, …)

and no identifying information on the study results. Participants' right to privacy and anonymity

are protected as all data will be kept confidential. Participants reviewed consent forms and

provided a verbal agreement prior to their interviews allowing them to be audio and video

recorded.

For the purposes of this study, my role as researcher dictates that I served as the only

interviewer, processor of data, and data analyst. I have ten years of professional clinical

experience working with ACOD, which holds the potential that my presuppositions may

influence my research. Thus, when engaging in qualitative research utilizing semi-structured

interviews, where the researcher co-constructs a narrative with the participants, the researcher

brings his or her values into the encounter (Hale et al., 2007). Therefore, my ability to best

understand the participants’ lived experience is dependent upon, and complicated by my own
 79

conceptions (Smith, 2007). Consequently, in such instances of interpretive analysis the practice

of bracketing cannot be achieved (Hale et al., 2007). Therefore, open reflexive reporting of my

presuppositions, and whether they were contested, was utilized to provide me with insight

concerning this phenomenon. IPA encourages researchers to consider the influence they made

upon the data gathering process and analysis of that data, and then should be noted and

illuminated during the course of the research (Hale et al., 2007).

Informed Consent

I obtained approval from the Northcentral University IRB prior to this commencing

public announcement, or data collection for this study. Participants were made aware that their

participation was entirely voluntary and that they were able to extract themselves from the study

at any time. Participants were provided with an informed consent form to review and consent to

if they decided to be part of the study (see Appendix E). I utilized the Northcentral University

template for consent forms as found in the NCU IRB libguide. The informed consent form

communicated the research participants' role, the purpose of the study, and the procedures of the

study. In keeping with the ethical principle of beneficence (Caldwell & Stone, 2016; Zygmond &

Boorhem, 1989), I informed the participants about the timeline of the research process, the risks

and benefits associated with participating in this study, and how their information will be stored

confidentially.

This study proposed minimal risks to the participants with the exception of possible

distress brought on by discussion matters concerning their parents' divorce, their memories of

that time, and their lived experience of that chapter of their lives. Although there was minimal

risk of psychological or emotional distress, coupled with the fact that all participants were

licensed MFTs, should participants have felt the need for psychological care as a result of being
 80

triggered during the interview, I would have provided them with a list of mental health resources

(see Appendix F). If the participants who live in the State of California should have experienced

emotional or psychological distress, this author would have provided a referral for a therapist

who would provide one to two free counseling sessions with the therapist’s email address, office

phone number, and office address.

Confidentiality

All participants were provided the option of scheduling their interviews via telephone or

email, based upon personal preference. Participants were given numbers to protect their

identities. I stored participants' names and demographic information with their corresponding

pseudonyms on an encrypted document stored on my personal computer.

The data for this study were stored on a password-protected private computer. I

conducted the interviews on the secure web conference Zoom video platform. All recordings of

the interviews are stored on a password-protected digital storing device that only I have the

passcode. Once I completed the study, all data were removed from my private computer and will

be stored on a password-protected digital storage device for seven years. Data will be stripped of

any identifying information to protect all participants in this study.

Summary

This chapter was provided to inform the reader of the research methodology for the

study. I utilized the interpretive phenomenological analysis to facilitate the exploration of the

subjective meaning and lived experiences of ACOD MFTs (Hale et al., 2007; Smith, 2007). The

aim of this study was to take the current research literature a step further by identifying how

ACOD factors and their effects contributed to their choice to become MFTs. Phenomenological

study allows for the researcher to utilize open-ended questions to better understand, in detail, the
 81

lived experiences of participants (Giorgi, 2012; Knaab et al., 2009). Within this chapter, the

reader was presented with a detailed description of the rationale for the intended research

methodology and design, a discussion of materials and instruments to be utilized; study

procedures; data collection and analysis; assumptions, limitations, and delimitations; and ethical

assurances of the intended study.

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Chapter 4: Findings

The purpose of this interpretive phenomenological analysis (IPA) was to understand the

experience of MFTs who live through parental divorce before the age of eighteen, and the role

that parental divorce may have had on their decision to choose marriage and family therapy for

their career. This research provides the field of marriage and family therapy a window into the

lived experiences of ACOD MFTs, by informing the MFT discipline of whether and to what

extent the experience of parental divorce had on ACODs choice to become MFTs. I conducted

virtual face-to-face, semi-structured interviews with five ACOD MFTs to collect information

describing or portraying the lived experiences of each participant. This study contributes to the

current body of literature concerning the role that parental divorce influenced the career choices

of participating MFTs. The results of this research provide insight into the lived experiences of

five licensed marriage and family therapists’ and the role that parental divorce played in their

career choices. The implications of this study provide a view into how the role of parental

divorce, and other family of origin factors, influenced the career paths of MFTs, while also

providing an understanding into how the participants perceive their experiences impact their

work as marriage and family therapists.

Trustworthiness of the Data

To ensure the results of this study are credible, and to decrease the chances of bias, I

implemented the practice of triangulation as suggested in Bloomberg and Volpe (2019). First, I

examined the data through the lens of BFST. Bowen family systems theory is detailed in the

literature review section of this study. Second, upon completion of the transcription of the

interviews, I implemented transcript review, sending each participant the transcript of their

interview for review (Rowlands, 2021). This allowed the opportunity for participants to verify
 83

the accuracy of the interview transcript, while also allowing participants to note any changes

needed to improve the accuracy of their statements. Each participant reviewed the transcriptions

of their interviews, and two participants responded noting statements that required clarification.

One participant found two errors, while a second participant clarified one inaudible statement

and three errors in their transcript. Further, I engaged an outside expert who reviewed and

verified the data.

To support the dependability of this research, the methodology and research design are

detailed in the Methodology and Design section of Chapter 3 of this dissertation, providing

specifics of the research design implemented in this study. The methodology used for this study

is a qualitative phenomenological inquiry using the interpretive phenomenological analysis (Hale

et al., 2007; Hale et al., 2008; Smith & Osborn, 2007; Smith et al., 1999). The study design was

created with particular methods concerning the interview process and interview questions to best

suit the intentions of the study. The study design also describes the specific three-step process for

analyzing the data (Hale et al., 2008) as described in the Data Analysis section of Chapter 3 of

this paper. These detailed procedures, along with written and recorded materials, provide a

platform for this study to be repeated in the future should the opportunity arise.

To increase confirmability for this study I took effort to remain cognizant that I indeed

did bring assumptions into this research. In IPA, understanding the participant’s personal world

depends on, and is complicated by, the researcher’s own presuppositions (Smith & Osborn,

2007). As suggested in Hale et al. (2007) I utilized open reflexive reporting of my assumptions,

and if they were challenged, to provide insight into this matter and supporting my findings as

impartial. IPA encourages researchers to consider themselves, their assumptions, and the

influence these two factors made upon the data gathering process and analysis of that data, and
 84

then to note and illuminate these factors during the course of the research (Hale et al., 2007;

Smith & Osborn, 2007). I have numerous close family members who have experienced their own

divorces or parental divorce. The use of consistent open reflexive reporting of the assumptions

that I brought into this research served to facilitate an impartial role in understanding the lived

experiences of the participants.

Transferability is best understood in qualitative research as the degree to which the

findings of the study are relevant to readers based upon the particular contexts to which the

readers may employ them (Polit & Beck, 2014). Transferability, for the purpose of this study,

refers to the ability to apply elements of the phenomenon of the influence of parental divorce on

the career choices of MFTs. Using the robust principles of IPA allowed for the participants to

provide rich descriptions of their experiences of parental divorce and how it influenced their

decisions to become marriage and family therapists, establishing transferability. The accounts of

the participants may be similar to career choice processes of other MFTs who have experienced

parental divorce prior to their eighteenth birthday. Potential limitations to transferability include

the small sample size (n=5) and lack of gender diversity among participants as all participants

identified as female.

Results

The purpose of this interpretive phenomenological analysis (IPA) was to understand the

experience of MFTs who live through parental divorce before the age of eighteen, and the role

that parental divorce may have had on their decision to choose marriage and family therapy for

their career. There were three research questions to direct this study:

RQ1: How might the experience of divorce during childhood or adolescence contribute to the

motivation to become a marriage and family therapist?

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RQ2: How do ACOD MFTs perceive the positive influence of parental divorce on their choice

to become MFTs?

RQ3: How do ACOD MFTs perceive the negative influence of parental divorce on their

choice to become MFTs?

This section includes the results from the interviews of the five participants of this study

for research questions one, two and three. I utilized the interpretive phenomenological analysis

method while analyzing the data informed by Smith and Osborn (2007) as described in Chapter 3

of this paper.

Participant Demographics

A purposive sample of five licensed marriage and family therapists who experienced

parental divorce prior to the age of eighteen participated in this phenomenological study. All

participants were female and ranged in age from 35 to 45 years old. Three participants were

married, two have never been married, one participant has been divorced and since has married

another partner. Participants reported their parents divorcing when they were between the ages of

two and eleven years old. Two participants reported having at least one parent marrying again

and subsequently ending that marriage via divorce.

Data Analysis

To gain a rich understanding of the lived experiences of the research participants (Hale et

al., 2008; Glesne, 2016; Smith & Osborn, 2007) the data for this study was accumulated through

semi-structured interviews using a secure video platform (Zoom). I interviewed five participants

using semi-structured interviews (Appendix A). The interviews were audio recorded and

transcribed verbatim by me. Upon completion of the transcription of the interviews, I employed

transcript review by emailing the transcriptions to their corresponding participant for review
 86

(Bloomberg & Volpe, 2019; Glesne, 2016; Rowlands, 2021). This step allowed opportunity for

participants to examine the transcripts of their interviews and identify any mistakes or omissions

that necessitated correction. After the interviews were transcribed and the transcript review was

concluded, I analyzed the data through the lens of interpretive phenomenological inquiry in a

three-level process as described in Chapter 3 (Hale et al., 2008).

I utilized qualitative phenomenology by employing IPA to facilitate the exploration of the

subjective meaning and lived experiences of ACOD MFTs (Hale et al., 2007, 2008; Smith &

Osborn, 2007). Qualitative research places an emphasis on discovery, meaning making, and

description (Gehart et al., 2001; Giorgi et al., 2017) versus prediction, control, and measurement

found in quantitative research. IPA allows for the researcher to understand, in detail, the lived

experiences of ACOD MFTs, making sense of the participant’s understanding of their world and

rich descriptions of their experiences as described by the participants (Giorgi, 2012; Giorgi et al.,

2017; Hale et al., 2007; Smith & Osborn, 2007). Interpretive phenomenological analysis was

chosen for this study to provide me with the means to best understand the lived experience of

ACOD who have chosen the field of MFT and the potential role that divorce has played on

career choice (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2019; Hale et al., 2007). I was the sole researcher and data

collecting instrument in this study. Engaging in IPA was challenging for as I was cognizant of

the self of the researcher and possible presuppositions I may have had. Open reflexive reporting

of the researcher’s presuppositions, and whether they were contested, was utilized to provide

insight throughout the data analysis. IPA encourages researchers to consider the influence they

made upon the data gathering process and analysis of that data, and then should be noted and

illuminated during the course of the research (Hale et al., 2007). I have numerous close family

members who have experienced their own divorces or parental divorce. The use of consistent
 87

open reflexive reporting of the assumptions that I brought into this research served to facilitate

an impartial role in understanding the lived experiences of the participants while reducing the

opportunity for bias.

Further, I utilized the expertise of an outside expert to review and verify the data. This

outside expert possesses a doctorate in Marriage and Family Therapy and is a licensed clinician

and holds extensive knowledge of family systems theory. I furnished the data to the outside

expert utilizing spreadsheets with the data included via email. Further, the outside expert and I

reviewed the data via a Zoom meeting, discussing the results and themes identified. The outside

expert reviewed the data and concurred that the findings were consistent with the extant literature

and what the outside expert expected the me to report.

Participant Sample Characteristics

Five ACOD MFTs volunteered to participate in this study. Each participant was assigned

a number corresponding with the order in which the interviews were conducted (P-1, P-2, …).

The participants had varying experiences of parental divorce prior to turning eighteen years old,

with three experiencing one parental divorce and two experiencing more than one parental

divorce. All participants are licensed MFTs. All participants of the study identified as female and

ranged in age from 35 to 45 years old. Three of the participants were married at the time of the

interviews, with one of these three having a marriage end in divorce and now is in a second

marriage. Two participants have never been married. Participants reported their parents

divorcing when they were between the ages of two and twelve years old.
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Table 1 Characteristics of Participants

Characteristics of Participants Number of Participants

Number of parental divorces prior to eighteenth birthday

One 3

More than one 2

Age when parents were divorced

2 to 3 years of age 2

5 to 7 years of age 2

12 years of age 1

Gender

Female 5

Male 0

Marital status

Married 3

Never married 2

Personal history of divorce 1

Age

35 to 39 years 3

40 to 45 years 2
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Research Question 1

RQ1: How might the experience of divorce during childhood or adolescence contribute

to the motivation to become a marriage and family therapist?

To gain a rich descriptive account of the lived experience of the participants in this study,

the participants shared about their processes of choosing MFT as a career. Each ACOD MFT

discussed the events that led up to their career decisions, the motivating factors that propelled

them towards those decisions, and how they believed that their parents’ divorce(s) influenced

their choices to become MFTs. Five prominent themes were identified: Give to others what I

needed, wanting to help families, personal experiences with therapy were influential, my life

experiences are clinical assets, and early career interest as a therapist.

Theme 1: Give to others what I needed. When asked about the motivating factors of their

career choices and how they believed that divorce of their parents may have influenced their

decisions to become MFTs, all five participants communicated that they wanted to be able to

provide the services for others that they needed at the time of their parents’ divorce, or in the

aftermath. Two of the participants were able to recall positive experiences in therapy during their

youth. One participant recalled her experiences of only a few therapy sessions during the time of

her parents’ divorce:

It was a place… where I was actually paid attention to by an adult…. With all of the

difficulty of the impending divorce… there probably wasn’t much time to fully pay

attention to us children… I thought what that person gave to me, well, I have enough so I

can give that to someone else.

Another participant, P-5, shared about her brief experience as a teenager in family therapy with

her mother and sister: “It was a couple of sessions… but shortly after that I was like ‘Wow, that
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was really nice.’” She went on to explain that she wanted to be able to be a part of someone’s life

so she could be a person that could “hear somebody out, listen to them, just provide that safe

space, because I didn’t have that.”

A third participant shared a quite different, yet very influential experience with therapy

that influenced her career choice. This individual’s account was unique to this study, as she is the

only participant who has had their own marriage end in divorce. She attributes her career path

toward marriage and family therapy as influenced by factors related to both her parents’ divorce

and her own divorce. She shared details concerning the latter experience while bringing her

children to therapy during her divorce. She recounted the story:

I found a therapist for the kids. He was in his late 70s. He had a toupee falling off the side

of his head. He had a stuffy office in the basement of his house, with brown shag

carpeting and brown paneled walls. And he would blow off the dust from his original

Scrabble board, and the kids did not want to go… and at one point… I said “I can do

better than this”… I was thinking “There’s a need for child therapy. I think I could

provide a better experience for children.”

Three out of the five participants were able to look back over their histories and point to at least

one experience with therapy that served as a place where they found the desire to give to others

what they needed. The remaining two participants discovered their desire to provide for others

what they did not receive while looking into graduate schools. One participant stated that when

speaking with a representative from the MFT program she was later to attend she was able to:

“Connect the dots and say, this would have been helpful… thinking about ‘what could have

been' made me want to help other families in similar situations.” P-4 shared a similar story when

looking into graduate marriage and family therapy programs, while feeling a desire to work with
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and strengthen families, recalling: “Just wanting to help kids, (and) be that person that I didn’t

have growing up.” Four of the five participants expressed that at some point in their career

decision process they were able to look back at their experiences, during and after their parents’

divorces, and saw that they would have benefited from having regular access to a therapist.

Theme 2: Wanting to help families. A second themed that emerged was the participants

all shared the desire to help families. When considering MFT as a career, three of the participants

envisioned their role in helping families would be achieved by working with the family system.

One saw herself helping families by working with the couples, and one imagined her work with

children and young adults as a means to help the entire family. P-3 imagined herself in the role

as a family system advocate by working to help the multiple relationships within the family

repair broken or damaged relationships. She recalled part of her process in choosing MFT as a

career: “I’m going to help people fix things. I’m going to help people put their relationships back

together. I’m going to help them put their families back together.” One participant was able to

relate her personal experiences as a catalyst toward her career choice, “I learned a lot from

personal experience and wanted to share that with others and strengthen families. That was my

vision.” Another participant stated it this way, “(I want to) try to help families understand their

children better, because they’re always misunderstood, made sense to me. Like this is my

purpose of helping that along.” P-2 shared about how she envisioned herself working with

couples as a means to help families: “Maybe it happens to you subconsciously, but you just want

to be a marriage saver…. I wanted to have more of a role in helping the entire family system…

for lack of a better word, be a marriage saver.” P-5 explained how she saw her role in helping

families, explaining that while she was coaching a girls sports team she was able to build

relationships with the players and their parents. She found that she was often “naturally” serving
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as an intermediary between the parents and players. She then realized that she could play a

similar supportive role in a career capacity, then considering: “Yeah, I think I want to pursue

this.”

Theme 3: Personal experiences with therapy were influential. Another theme that

emerged was the idea that prior personal experiences in therapy played a role in participants’

decisions to pursue marriage and family therapy as a career. Three of the participants identified

experiences in therapy as key factors toward becoming a MFT. Two participants had similar

experiences with therapy during their youth, both having brief experiences in therapy around the

time of their parents’ divorces. One of these two had only the one brief stint of therapy in her

teen years, while another had a significantly longer experiences in therapy during her teen years

in addition to her brief stint at twelve years old. One participant shared about her experiences in

family therapy with her sister and stepmother: “My stepmom and I had gone to counseling with

my sister, to work on something. I think at that point I was like ‘this was kind of nice.’” This

participant continued to share how she soon thereafter was assigned a high school project to

author a report on a career that she would like to have: “So, I started to look into the world of

therapy.”

A second participant spoke of the experience of seeing a therapist while her parents were

in the midst of divorce, “It was a place and a time where I was actually paid attention to by an

adult…. I just remember it being… probably just neutral. In the phases of divorce there’s

probably no place that feels safe for a child.” This participant continued, sharing about after her

parents divorced she was able to have a more extended time with a therapist, being able to see

the therapist for about a year. She spoke about her positive experience in therapy: “I do feel that

just having that consistent engagement… having that person relate to you, that was helpful.” This
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participant continued to share about how comfortable she became with the therapist, adding how

“it must have left an impression on me… thinking, I can do this.” A third participant shared

about how the experience of bringing her children to a therapist, during the time of her own

divorce, was influential in her career decision process. After speaking about the unattractive,

unfriendly confines of that therapist’s office, and her children’s subsequent reluctance to

continue after a few sessions: “I said ‘I can do better than this’… I was thinking ‘there’s a need

for child therapy. I think I could provide a better experience for children.’”

Theme 4: My life experiences are clinical assets. Four participants viewed their lived

experiences, as a child of divorce, could be viewed as assets, which would contribute toward a

successful career as a marriage and family therapist. All four of these participants shared in their

own way, that they believed their past experiences equipped them to relate to others and meet

others “where they are at.” One participant shared some of her thoughts, concerning challenging

times she experienced as a child, when considering entering a graduate program for marriage and

family therapy: “I had already been through so much in my life at that point… But also, I’m not

the only person that has experienced these things in my life, so there’s got to be a means for me

to help other people.” P-2 discussed how she believed her difficult life experiences would

facilitate her ability to relate with others: “I think at one point, I was like ‘this is cool’ you know,

not that I have these experiences, but when people come in with similar experiences, I’m like

‘hey, I’ve been there.’” This participant later added that she believed that since she had stood in

“similar shoes” as others, it would help her to empathize with others. Another participant shared

about how she viewed challenges from her experience of parental divorce and in her marriage,

and successes working through them as a potential asset in her career choice process. She

reported: “It was really tough getting through those earlier years. We kind of fought through
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them, and I thought ‘Okay, I had this growing up’… and my husband and I did fairly good in the

long run at creating a healthy relationship, so just wanting to help people with that.”

Theme 5: Early career consideration. While participants described the accounts of their

career decisions, the theme of early career consideration arose. Three of the five participants’

accounts expressed an early interest choosing MFT as a career. Two of the participants began

considering therapist as a career at 12 years old, with another at 15 years old. P-3 recounts that

she began to consider therapy as a career when she was twelve years-old, while her parents were

going through their divorce, “I felt as though I started getting the sense when I was younger.

because my parents were actually going through marital issues that led to divorce…. I was able

to be a good listener… and I could see multiple views.” The participant then shared about when

she enthusiastically told her father that she wanted to be a therapist: “I remember him laughing at

me… I was not exactly sure how to comprehend that. So, I think that was probably a motivating

factor to… become a therapist.” This participant also reported that she was further interested in a

career in therapy while taking psychology and sociology classes in high school.

Another participant described when she initially became interested in becoming a

therapist, “I think even as a kid I wanted to do something in the psychology field. I was always

fascinated by people and human behavior… I’m going to say when I was eleven or twelve

people would ask me what I wanted to do, and I said I wanted to be a child psychologist.” P-5

explained her early interest in a career in therapy after having a positive experience with a

therapist when she was twelve years old. This participant then shared about how a high school

assignment played a role in her career interests: “I had to do a report on a job interest, a career

that we would like to have. So, I dug deeper into the world of therapy… and it was like ‘Wow,
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this could be really cool, (therapy) would have been really helpful had it been offered to me’…

Once I got into my senior year I was looking into therapy as a career.”

Research Question 2

RQ2: How do ACOD MFTs perceive the positive influence of parental divorce on

their choice to become MFTs?

When participants were asked to share how any positive influences from their parents’

divorce may have played a role in their career choices, each participant was able to note at

least one positive aspect from their parents’ divorces, but could not directly correlate these

positive aspects with their decisions to choose MFT as a career. Further, when reviewing the

participant accounts, the responses lacked the commonalities necessary to form any consistent

themes. P-2 told of how her mother wanted her father to have a significant role in the

participant’s life, and how the mother and father lived about one half mile from each other

post-divorce to make it easier on the kids. P-4 believed that her parents’ divorce influenced an

acceleration in her maturity, declaring “I feel like I really grew up fast.” She followed up by

sharing that living in a single parent home fostered in her a maturity that she would not have

gained if her parents had remained together. She added another positive from the divorce “I

feel like I can connect with other people really well, because I had a really difficult

experience growing up.”

P-5 stated that her parents’ divorce catalyzed her desire to work to improve herself so

she would be able to someday have healthy relationships. She stated that she was able to

identify a family pattern of divorce, throughout three generations, and she wanted to break

that pattern. She explained, “There was no way I was going to be able to be a healthy partner

for anybody if I didn’t go to work on those things.” P-1 explained that her parents’ divorce led
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to a more stable household environment for her to grow up in. She noted the unknown future

she would have had if her parents had stayed married. She continued, “I mean, having an

alcoholic father and living in that situation I probably would have been a prostitute on the side

of the street.” She then discussed how her mother and stepfather provided a more stable

environment for her than what her mother and father could have offered. Another participant

recounted how important it was for her parents to have an amicable divorce.

P-3 shared about how through her parents’ divorce she caught a glimpse of how she

could move toward a career in MFT, and eventually move out of her father’s house and away

from her father’s projected anger. She expressed “I don’t know if I would have wanted to be a

therapist, I don’t know.” She noted that after having a positive experience in therapy, and then

learning about psychology and sociology in advanced high school classes, she was able to

envision a career as a therapist. She described a career in MFT as a “pathway out” propelling

her toward her career and out of her father’s house, “in a completely different direction from

everything that was present… away from what I had in front of me.”

Research Question 3

RQ3: How do ACOD MFTs perceive the negative influence of parental divorce on

their choice to become MFTs?

The third research question focused on how the participants perceived how the

negative influences of their parents’ divorce(s) may have played a role in their choices to

become MFTs. Participants shared accounts of negative experiences and influences of their

parents’ divorces, yet none overtly stated how these negatives led directly to their career

choices. Three themes emerged from this topic, themes related to the disruption of thei r
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nuclear families, their emotional well-being, and changes to participants’ relationships with

their parents.

Theme 1: Disruption with the nuclear family. When participants spoke of their

experiences of parental divorce and how they believed the negative influences impacted them

, four of the participants spoke about how their experiences disrupted their nuclear families.

P-1 shared about the changes to her family’s living situation immediately after her parents

decided to divorce: “Our parents sat us down with our dog, and told us they’re getting rid of

the dog, and for some reason I felt like I saw the dog crying… and a couple of days later…

they got rid of the dog and he (brother) was crying outside, because things were really

happening.” She then spoke about the disbursement of the family unit as she soon had to

move out from the family home, “I don’t remember much after that. I just know we moved in

with my grandmother for a year.” She then described how the living situation was for her, her

mother, and her brother after moving in with her grandmother: “She had a very big house, but

we all lived in the attic, all three of our beds were all up on the same floor.” P-1 also shared

feelings she and her brother had after their mother (custodial parent) remarried about a year

later, and later had a child with their stepfather: “Like, my brother and I were always

describing it as: ‘We’re the Joneses living with the Smiths.’ We always felt like we were a

little out of place because they had a child.”

P-5 shared her experiences of when she visited her father (non-custodial parent) who

had married another woman shortly after the divorce with the client’s mother:

So, it was very difficult for me to feel a sense of belonging…. When I was visiting my

dad, I would go visit my step side of the family and almost felt like I was a visitor. I

felt like I was a guest, I wasn’t part of the family.

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She later shared, “I always felt like kind of a burden, because there was always like ‘Oh,

where’s (P-5) going to sleep?’ Because everyone else had their own room, their own space

and I didn’t.” P-5 later shared her experiences of when she and her family found themselves

homeless: “We got evicted from our house. I went to live with a friend for three months, my

mom, my stepdad and my sister did the same thing” She then remarked:

I just felt like I was wandering and very unstable. So, that’s why I say the divorce just

reminds me of being unstable and insecure. Because I think if my mom and dad still

had been together it would have never gotten to this point of not having that need met.

P-2 shared about her post-parental divorce experiences recounting, “I never grew up with

my dad. I don’t remember living with him. I remember visiting. I was a visitor… and then my

dad ended up moving and we (P-2 and sibling) had a guest room (to stay in).” She later added: “I

don’t know what it is like to live with a dad who was sleeping in the master bedroom… like

other families where there’s that nuclear family of mom, dad, and kids.” She also shared about

her experiences around the holidays: “I’ve never had that traditional holiday… it was always mix

and match… I never had that solid footing for a holiday.” P-3 recounted her family’s unique

circumstances soon after her father filed for divorce and her father moved out: “We lived in a

two-family home. My grandmother lived in the bottom portion. He stayed in the bottom with his

mother… they (parents of P-3) wouldn’t communicate so he would leave my mother money to

pay for food and bills.” She later remarked how her experience was that her father was now

living a life separate from the participant client and her sibling.

Theme 2: It impacted my emotional well-being. A theme reported by all five participants

concerned how issues surrounding their parents’ divorces affected their emotional well-being.

Participants’ accounts focused on two prominent issues that concerned their well-being, matters
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concerning their mental health and their sense of safety. Three participants spoke about issues

related to their safety, while every participant told of the impact on their mental/emotional

health. P-3 recounted her experience after her mother had moved out of state shortly after her

father gained full custody of the children: “Just being completely hopeless, you know, especially

like I said, since my father's anger was now targeted towards me. I was completely depressed

and hopeless that things were ever going to change.”

P-1 provided a rich description recounting her thoughts considering her mental health and

its relation to her parents’ divorce. The participant shared that one of the key reasons for her

parents divorcing was that her father was an alcoholic. She later added:

I found out there were many instances where I would be at my dad's house, he would just

pass out drunk, and I'm like “that's where all my anxiety has come from over the years.” I

mean, I thought we were going to die every time he drove me home.

This participant continued by describing how returning to her mother's home was not particularly

comforting. She explained that her mother was not protecting her, as her mother continued to

send P-1 to her father’s home on weekends: “Because here my mom is sending me to an unsafe

situation, and then I come back and saying I don't feel safe, and she continues to send me back.”

She added, “So then, I didn't really feel safe, no matter where I went.” P-1 continued explaining

how she wishes she had felt safer in her primary home environment. She did state that she was

housed, fed, clothed, and taking care of when she was sick, but concluded her statement saying:

“But the actual act of them neglecting that part of my emotional needs messed me up.”

Another participant shared about the impact of domestic violence between her mother

and stepfather, adding: “There was just a lot of tension in these relationships, and I didn’t like

that. It didn’t feel safe and stable.” P-4 described how her mental well-being has been affected:
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“I think it (parents’ divorce) is very tied to my anxiety as an adult. I dealt with significant anxiety

issues from my mid-teens, even to today. And I think a lot of it stemmed from the divorce and

the subsequent childhood trauma.”

Theme 3: Impacted relationships with parents. A third theme that emerged concerning

the negative influence of parental divorce and its influence on the participants’ career choices

involved how the divorces altered their relationships with parents. All participants reported this

phenomenon during their accounts with emphasis on two sub-themes: The experience of a

having a non-custodial parent and parentification.

All five participants spoke of the experience of having a custodial parent and a non-

custodial parent. One participant shared that after her father moved out of the house she was then

able to get to know more about her father. She described the change to her relationship with her

father that would ensue: “My father was an alcoholic. He was never home…. My dad would go

to work and then go to the bar and come home late… we really didn’t see him very often.” She

then described that it was then that she was “forced to spend one-on-one time with him” which

gave her more exposure to her father. She added, “It was his responsibility to take care of me and

he could not because of his lifestyle. So, I guess it made me more aware, and it scared the crap

out of me.” Another participant shared of her experience when her custodial parent moved to a

new home, which was a further distance from her non-custodial parent. This made it more

difficult to see her father, thus reducing the frequency of visits and altering the parent-child

relationship. A third participant reported a different experience after her non-custodial parent

moved to a different state: “It was not great once my mom left and was gone, as I became the

object of my father’s anger and rage. It literally just changed to me.” This participant also
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reported after her mother moved to a different state she gradually lost contact with her mother’s

family who she had been close with prior to the divorce.

The sub theme of parentification arose in the description of three participants. One

participant shared about an experience with her non-custodial parent (father) who reached out to

both her and her sibling for emotional support in what the participant believes to be an

inappropriate manner. She shared about her response to her father, “In my tiny little brain I

decided it's not my responsibility to make my dad feel good, so I didn’t engage.” She then stated

that she was able to understand at that early age it was not her job to be responsible for his

emotions. Another participant shared about how her father attempted to triangulate her against

the participant’s mother: “He tried to cozy up to me and tell me negative things about my

mother…. He exposed me to what was taking place in the divorce, which led me to be mean to

my mother.” Another participant discussed how she was parentified when her father’s

relationship with the stepmother was rocky. She shared that she once had to intervene in a

domestic violence incident between her father and her stepmother. Later, this individual was

thrust into the role of parent with both her mother and father as they often would reach out to her

for consultation and advice. Two participants also reported multiple instances of triangulation

between their parents, and between parents and stepparents.

Evaluation of the Findings

The findings of this study are consistent with current literature concerning career choice

(Holland, 1996), Bowen’s concepts of intergenerational transmission and differentiation of self

(Bowen, 2004; Kerr & Bowen, 1988), and the wounded healer theory (Groesbeck, 1975;

McBeath, 2019). These subjects are discussed at length in Chapter 2. The findings are discussed

in detail below, addressing the results of each research question individually. The findings of this
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study were interpreted through the lens of BFST (Bowen, 2004; Kerr & Bowen, 1988).

Participants’ accounts of their experiences were consistent with the concept of the

multigenerational transmission process, founded in BFST (Bowen, 2004; Kerr & Bowen, 1988).

Further, Bowen’s concept of differentiation of self (Bowen, 2004; Kerr & Bowen, 1988)

emerged throughout the accounts of all five participants. Additionally, the participants

descriptions reflect notions suggested in both the literature addressing identity and those

suggested by Holland’s Typology theory addressing their career choice processes (Holland,

1996; Tang, 2018). Lastly, participant accounts paralleled themes found within the concept of the

wounded healer (Groesbeck, 1975; McBeath, 2019). Lastly, it is worth noting that RQ1 provides

robust support for differentiation of self and the wounded healer concepts, while RQ2 and RQ3

serve to add additional details to what is derived from RQ1.

Research Questions

RQ1: How might the experience of divorce during childhood or adolescence contribute

to the motivation to become a marriage and family therapist?

All participants in this study identified manners in which their experiences of parental

divorce propelled their career decision making processes toward becoming MFTs. Five

prominent themes emerged in response to RQ1 through participants’ responses. The first theme

to emerge was the desire to give to others they type of support they believe needed during the

years of their youth. All five participants expressed that these thoughts came to them at some

point in their career decision-making process, influencing their career choices. The idea of

helping others after living through similar adverse conditions is congruent with the literature

addressing the concept of the wounded healer and the desire to do good for others (Evans &

Evans, 2019; Miller & Baldwin, 2000; Norcross & Farber, 2005). The next theme that arose
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from the interviews was expressed as a desire to help other families. Three of the participants

reported envisioning their careers as MFTs to be a platform for them to help the family system.

These accounts seem to agree with the wounded healer concept (Groesbeck, 1975, McBeath,

2019) while also supporting the literature indicating that conscious factors play a role in the

career choices of psychotherapists (Safi et al., 2017). The third theme surfacing from the

participants was that they believed their personal experiences in therapy were influential toward

choosing their careers. Three participants described how their experiences with a therapist was

foundational to the motivation that led them into the field of MFT. This process is congruent

with the literature concerning identity (Frederick & Dunbar, 2022; Singer, 2004), and

particularly narrative identity (McAdams & McLean, 2013).

The fourth theme emerging from RQ1 was the idea that one’s lived experiences, notably

experiences related to being a child of divorce, would serve as assets toward a successful career

in MFT. Four participant accounts contributed to the development of this theme. These

sentiments are supported by literature devoted to narrative identity, more specifically the

research addressing imagoes or personal myths (McAdams, 1997; Singer, 2004). The final theme

to come forth from RQ1 was the belief that parental divorce led to an early consideration of MFT

as a career. Three participants shared their considerations of how they earnestly conceptualized

MFT as a possible career during their youth. The notion that a child may begin to form ideas

about their careers is supported in the literature (Liu et al., 2015a), and specifically that FOO

influences serve as factors for those choices (Chope, 2005). Overall, the data emerging from

RQ1 shares many commonalities with the notion of the wounded healer. This becomes

abundantly clear, as participants were able to retrospectively describe how their past experiences

as children of divorce held an essential role in their career choices to become MFTs. Participants
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were able to draw from experiences in therapy, educational processes, and personal narratives to

direct their career choices.

RQ2: How do ACOD MFTs perceive the positive influence of parental divorce on

their choice to become MFTs?

Participants were each able to identify at least one positive factor resulting from their

parents’ divorces yet did not provide any collaborating data to support the emergence of a central

theme. Additionally, participants did not directly correlate any positive influences of their

parents’ divorce that contributed to their decision-making processes. One participant shared

about how her parents worked together to mitigate layers of disruption to support the transition

that the participant and her sibling would experience post-parental divorce. This is supported by

the literature addressing the potential impact to children of divorced concerning the many

adjustments they undertake as their parents split up (Amato, 2000; Amato, 2010). Another

participant shared about how her parents’ divorce resulted in her growing up more quickly than

she would have had her parents remained together. This participant’s experience aligns with

research underscoring how children from divorced families tend to become more independent

and self-reliant than children from intact families (Arditti, 1999; Riggio, 2004). One participant

recounted how she believes her parents’ divorce pushed her to work on herself, as she did not

want to fall into the same relationship patterns that have persisted in her family for three

generations, which aligns with two of Bowen’s concepts, intergenerational transmission, and

differentiation of self (Bowen, 2004; Kerr & Bowen, 1988).

Another participant shared that she was able to grow up in a more stable, healthier

environment because her parents divorced, which aligns with the research form Amato (2000)

and Amato and Booth (1991). The final participant stated that her parents’ divorce enabled her to
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identify that she had choices she could make to create a path for herself to a different outcome

than the family patterns that were modeled to her, aligning with Bowen’s concepts of

intergenerational transmission and differentiation of self (Bowen, 2004; Kerr & Bowen, 1988).

P-3 and P-5 shared about how they both desired to break away from undesired family patterns

and practices, choosing to pursue a career in MFT as a way to accomplish this. Although no

significant themes emerged from this research question, the information drawn out of this

question was significant to this study, as it helped to provide a more complete picture of the

participants’ complete experience as a child of divorce.

RQ3: How do ACOD MFTs perceive the negative influence of parental divorce on

their choice to become MFTs?

All five participants identified that negative aspects of their parents’ divorces played a

role in the sequence of events that culminated in their decisions to choose marriage and family

therapy as a career. While analyzing the date from RQ3, it became evident that although the

participants identified negative aspects of their parents’ divorces, none identified negative

experiences that directly led to their career choices. During the review of the participants’ data,

three robust themes were identified in response to RQ3. The first theme centered on the

disruption of the nuclear family and how those events influenced the career decision making

process. The research literature supports the notion that disruption in the family unit is most

often detrimental to children of divorce as parental divorce impacts nearly all facets of a child’s

life (Morrison et al., 2017; Roper et al., 2020). The next theme identified focused on how

parental divorce impacted the emotional well-being of participants. All five ACOD MFTs

interviewed in this study provided data to support this theme. The notion that children from

divorce are at increased risk for psychological consequences is supported throughout the research
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literature for decades (Amato, 2001; Amato & Afifi, 2006; Cartwright, 2006; Morrison et al.,

2017; Wallerstein et al., 2001). The third theme to emerge from RQ3 addressed how the divorce

altered the participants’ relationships with their parents. The participant accounts support the

research literature denoting that parental divorce often impacts children through changes in their

relationships with parents (Morrison et al., 2017; Roper et al., 2020; Wallerstein et al., 2001).

The findings from RQ3 seem to support the findings reported from RQ1. Divorce, like any other

adverse childhood event, takes an emotional toll on children, as indicated in this study. Changes

in family structure, living arrangements, visitation, and day-to-day function impacted the

emotional well-being of all participants.

A surprising theme arose throughout participant responses to questions related to all three

research questions: differentiation of self. Although not clearly presented in any one of the

research questions, this was a robust theme that emerged related to the participants’ desire to

increase differentiation of self (Bowen, 2004; Kerr & Bowen, 1988). Data supporting this theme

weaved itself throughout the responses to interview questions addressing all three research

questions. All five participant accounts illustrated a conscious choice to differentiate from their

parents’ (or family members’) patterns and practices, while they were in their youth and

adulthood. All participant accounts described a conscious choice to separate from unwanted

patterns as catalysts toward either beginning personal theory or choosing their graduate

educational programs.

While reviewing the data, a common thread throughout the participants’ responses

emerged, where participants shared that they were able to identify instances of enmeshment,

divorcing, or abusive relationships, where participants then described their decisions to move

away from family patterns and toward what they viewed as more healthy ways of relating to
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others. Participants described their decisions to differentiate as markers that began a chain of

events that would lead to a career in marriage and family therapy. P-4 told of how she

experienced some very difficult times in her marriage: “I knew my family wasn’t healthy… and

when I got married I was determined it was going to be good…and after my husband and I

figured out how to have a healthy marriage I wanted to help others with that.” P-3 shared her

process of seeking MFT as a career that would give her a means to break patterns of family

dysfunction, and then chose a career in MFT as “a way out” of her family’s undesirable

practices. P-5 reported that she had to make personal changes in order to break her family of

origin’s multigenerational pattern of divorce. She recounted: “I didn’t want to continue with my

family’s dysfunction. I didn’t want to yell in my marriage relationship. I didn’t want to

stonewall. I knew I had to make changes before I got into any kind of serious relationship.”

When reviewing the transcripts of each participants’ interviews, it became evident that there was

an underlying process at work whereby choices to break away from unhealthy family patterns

served as a significant step toward participant career choices.

Summary

The purpose of this interpretive phenomenological analysis was to explore the lived

experiences of ACOD MFTs to determine if and to what degree parental divorce may have

influenced their career choices. Prior to this study, there was scant literature addressing this

phenomenon. This chapter reports the results of five semi-structured interviews designed to

provide a rich description of the lived experiences of marriage and family therapists who

experienced parental divorce prior to their eighteenth birthdays.

The results of this study demonstrate that parental divorce did influence the career

decision making processes of all five MFTs. Four participants reported that their parents’ divorce
 108

was a significant factor in their career decisions, one participant reported that her parents’

divorce and her own divorce played equal parts in her choice to pursue MFT as a career.

Participants reported on events and factors that influenced their career choices and how they

relate to their parents’ divorce(s). The accounts of all participants of this study shared themes in

common with the wounded healer narrative. All participants were able to point to aspects of the

therapeutic treatment that they either received, or wish they had received, as informative to their

career decision-making process.

The results of this study found that the participants career choices were influenced to a

greater degree by negative impacts of parental divorce than positive impacts. The majority of

participants described the negative influences that factored in their career choices as mostly

relating to issues surrounding their family of origin. Additionally, the theme of differentiation of

self emerged throughout the accounts of all participants. Participants’ considerations and

determinations to differentiate from parents, and family patterns played a key role in the career

decision making process of all participants

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Chapter 5: Implications, Recommendations, and Conclusions

The purpose of this interpretive phenomenological analysis was to understand the

experience of MFTs who live through parental divorce before the age of 18, and the role that

parental divorce may have had on their decision to choose marriage and family therapy for their

career. Virtual face-to-face, semi-structured interviews were conducted with five ACOD MFTs

to collect information describing or portraying the lived experiences of each participant. This

study contributes to the current body of literature by informing the MFT discipline of whether,

and to what extent, the experience of parental divorce had on ACODs choice to become MFTs.

The results of this research found that the experiences of parental divorce influenced the career

decision-making processes of all five participants. The implications of this study provide a view

into how the role of parental divorce influenced the career paths of MFTs, while also providing

an understanding into how the participants perceive their experiences as currently impacting their

work as marriage and family therapists.

The methodology chosen for this was qualitative phenomenological inquiry employing

interpretive phenomenological analysis (Smith et al., 1999). The nature of this phenomenological

study aimed to understand the experiences of adult children of divorce and how their experiences

of divorce may have played a role in their career decision-making processes. Interpretive

phenomenological inquiry provides the researcher a platform to understand the lived experiences

of participants as they recount their stories (Smith & Osborn, 2007). Utilizing IPA, allows the

researcher to comprehend, in detail, the experiences of participants’ lives, making sense of the

participants’ understanding of their world and rich descriptions of their experiences as described

by the participants (Hale et al., 2007; Smith & Osborn, 2007). IPA was chosen for this study to

provide me with the means to best understand the lived experiences of ACOD who have chosen
 110

the field of MFT, and the potential role that divorce has played on career choice (Bloomberg &

Volpe, 2019; Hale et al., 2007).

The results of this study demonstrate that the experience of parental divorce was a

significant factor in the career decision-making process to become marriage and family

therapists, for all participants. The results indicate that the participants’ personal narratives,

centered around their parents’ divorce, navigated the decision-making process that led

participants to choose MFT as a career. Additionally, the results suggest that the negative factors

associated with the parents’ divorces were more influential than positive factors in the career

choices of participants. Another key result was that all participant accounts of their decision-

making processes aligned with the description of the wounded healer.

A limitation of this study is that the participants of this study experienced parental

divorce at young ages (2, 3, 5, 7 & 11 years old). If participants had a more diverse

representation of age at time of parental divorce, results may have been impacted due to a wider

variety of developmental stages included. Another possible limitation to this study is due to the

lack of diversity of participants. All participants in this study were female. If there had been male

representation in this study, it is possible that different results would have emerged. An

additional limitation to this study concerns the use of the social media platform Facebook as the

sole recruitment tool. The participant pool may not have accurately represented the larger

population by age, socioeconomic status, tech-savvy, and familiarity with Facebook. The final

limitation to this study was time. In an attempt to respect the participants’ time, interviews were

limited to 45 to 60 minutes. Also, time constraints may have influenced the participation of this

study as potential participants may not have volunteered for this study due to a lack of available

time for the interviews.

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This chapter will discuss the implications of the study. Initially, implications specific to

RQ1 will be discussed, followed by implications for RQ2, and then implications for RQ3.

Following the discussion of the implications, this chapter provides recommendations for

practice, recommendations for future research, and will close with the conclusions of the study.

Implications

Prior to this study the influence of parental divorce on the career choices of MFTs was

unknown. The implications of this study provide valuable insight into the career decision-making

processes of ACOD MFTs. They are presented in the order in which the research questions were

originally formed. Implications concerning the first research question are significantly correlated

with the concept of the wounded healer as a substantial factor in participant career choices. The

implications of the second research question address how the positive influences of divorce

influenced career choices. For the third research question, how the negative influences of

parental divorce contributed to the career decision-making processes of the participants is

discussed.

Research Question 1

How might the experience of divorce during childhood or adolescence contribute to the

motivation to become a marriage and family therapist?

The first research question drew on the participants’ retrospective accounts of how their

experiences of parental divorce may have influenced their career choices. Findings from this

study demonstrate that participants’ experiences associated with parental divorce, during their

youth, were significant factors in their career decision-making processes. These findings are

corroborated with the current literature asserting that individuals’ career choices are often

influenced by a variety of factors, including sociocultural, educational, and economic matters

 112

(Swanson & Frouad, 2020; Tang, 2018). The understanding that career choice factors can be

developed through family of origin experiences is also consistent with prior research (Workman,

2015; Whitson & Keller, 2004).

The most substantial contributing factor of the career choice process of the participants

was the desire to help others. The desire to help individuals and families who are in the midst of

divorce, who have a history of divorce, or to help prevent families form experiencing divorce is

consistent with the notion of the wounded healer (Groesbeck, 1975; McBeath, 2019; Norcross &

Faber, 2005). Participant accounts demonstrated a that they felt capacity for empathy for others

as a result of being a child of divorce. This is supported through the current literature noting that

therapists’ past experiences provide a mechanism to facilitate the client’s healing (Zerubavel &

Wright, 2012). The participants’ experiences in therapy and their educational processes gave

them a view into how they could provide care for others. Participants described that they

envisioned providing the types of care they wished they had received during their times of need,

corresponding with research suggesting that altruism is often a motiving factor for psychologists

when choosing a career (Murphy & Haglin, 1995).

Another notable result of this study was that most participants believed that their difficult

life experiences, including adverse childhood events, prepared them for a career as a MFT. The

research addressing the wounded healer (Evans & Evans, 2019) contends that those who have

lived through ACEs are more inclined to serve in the helping field and are better equipped to

help others (Goldklank, 1986). Participants’ beliefs that their lived experiences equipped them

for a career as a MFT are consistent with themes derived from Holland’s Typology theory

(Holland, 1996; Tang, 2018).

 113

A review of the findings from RQ1 demonstrate that this study strongly supports the

concept of the wounded healer as described in the prevailing literature (Evans & Evans, 2019;

Groesbeck, 1975; Miller & Baldwin, 2000; Murphy & Haglin, 1995; Zerubavel & Wright, 2012).

While considering career options, ACOD MFTs found that their difficult experiences from their

parents’ divorces could equip them with the tools they would need to help future clients. They

looked retrospectively upon their stories and saw that their experiences as children of divorce

provided direction and catalyzed their paths toward their decisions to become MFTs.

Research Question 2

How do ACOD MFTs perceive the positive influence of parental divorce on their choice to

become MFTs?

The second research question explored how the positive influences of parental divorce

may have influenced the career decision-making process of ACOD MFTs. The research

addressing the influences of parental divorce on children highlights both positive effects (Amato

& Booth, 1991: Riggio, 2004) and adverse outcomes (Amato, 2001, 2010; Amato & Cheadle,

2005; Auersperg et al., 2019; Cartwright, 2008; Cherlin et al., 1998; Wallerstein et al., 2001).

Findings from this study established that parental divorce could produce positive outcomes for

children which is in agreement with findings from previous research (Amato & Booth, 1991:

Riggio, 2004). This research confirmed that children of divorce were able to experience

increased responsibility, and greater decision-making capabilities at a young age as described in

the literature (Andritti, 1999; Riggio, 2004).

Research Question 3

How do ACOD MFTs perceive the negative influence of parental divorce on their choice

to become MFTs?
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The third research question examined how negative factors of parental divorce may have

indirectly played a role in the career choices of the participants. Consistent with the literature, the

findings of this study demonstrate that career decision making processes begin in childhood and

are influenced by one’s family (Desmond & Landis-Santos, 2019; Whiston & Keller, 2004).

Two participants reported beginning to conceptualize their careers as children, and had their

minds set on their future careers as young as twelve years old. This is consistent with the

literature noting that children are capable of having basic understandings concerning work and

career (Liu et al., 2015a), and begin to form potential career aspirations in preadolescence (Nota

et al., 2016).

This study found three negative influences of parental divorce that are factors in the

career decision-making processes of ACOD MFTs. First, this study’s findings revealed that post-

divorce disruptions to the nuclear family were influential to participants’ career choices. The

occurrence of post-divorce disruptions is consistent with the previous literature. Children of

divorce face numerous adjustments within their family system over time (Amato, 2001; Amato,

2010), including custodial arrangements, new stepparents and stepsiblings, and the stressors of

their new living arrangements (Wallerstein & Lewis, 2017). This study also determined that the

changes in relationships between participants and their parents were significant to participants’

choosing MFT as a career. This finding is harmonious with the literature stating that children of

divorced families tend to have more stressful relationships with family members (Cartwright,

2008), and reduced contact with non-custodial parents is associated with children’s well-being

(Amato & Keith, 1991). Congruent with Pantelis et al. (2015), this study established that

participants experienced a significant emotional toll post parental divorce, that played a crucial
 115

role in their career choices as the participants sought their careers in MFT as a way to help others

to avoid similar challenges as that they experienced.

A notable result of this study found that parental divorce can have significant long-term

consequences for children of divorce, which is in contrast with previous literature stating that

long-term consequences of parental divorce are relatively moderate (Amato & Booth, 2000).

This research found that participants continue to experience mental health issues well into their

adult years that they believe are rooted in the trauma experienced via parental divorce. The

accounts of the participants align with the literature stating that children who experience divorce

or separation of their parents are at an increased risk of developing numerous emotional and

psychological problems (Amato, 2001; Amato & Afifi, 2006; Morrison et al., 2017; Wallerstein

et al., 2001), and can experience emotional consequences into adulthood (Amato & Keith, 1991).

One unexpected finding of this study was the role of differentiation of self (Bowen, 2004,

Kerr & Bowen, 1988). Differentiation of self describes the individual’s conscious choice to

move away from one’s family system, or an individual, while remaining in that system (Bowen,

2004; Kerr & Bowen, 1988). This study revealed that each participant’s choice to become a

marriage and family therapist was a conscious decision to differentiate from family patterns and

practices, that either led to divorce or were born in the aftermath of divorce. This study affirmed

that the participants’ lived experiences, including disruptions to the nuclear family and

influences on their emotional well-being, played a key role in the shaping of their identities

(Carter, 2013; McAdams, 1997), and ultimately their career choices. While differentiation of self

is seen as a positive in BFST (Bowen, 2004; Kerr & Bowen, 1988), this finding of a negative

influence of parental divorce was the result of participants’ taking decisive action to move away

from negative impacts associated with their parents’ divorce.

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Post parental divorce, participants experienced three prominent negative influences: (1)

the discomfort of disruption to their nuclear families; (2) changes in their relationships with their

parents; and (3) impacts to their emotional well-being. Participants identified unhealthy patterns

and practices from their families of origin that contributed to and resulted in these negative

influences. This led to two crucial steps in the career decision-making processes of each

participant. First, participants made the deliberate choice to differentiate from their family

patterns and practices. Participants accomplished this by making conscious decisions not to

continue in the harmful family patterns they were exposed to, or by seeking therapy for

themselves or their children. Second, the person of the wounded healer activated within each of

the participants. Participants then made deliberate decisions to choose a career where they might

serve as a resource for future clients, in hope that the clients they would work with would not

endure the same difficulties that the participants did.

Recommendations for Practice

Prior to this study there was no research available to inform the field of MFT concerning

the influence of parental divorce on becoming a marriage and family therapist. The study of this

phenomenon helped to fill the void of the need to understand how parental divorce played a

significant role in the career choices of ACOD MFTs. The findings from this study have revealed

practical applications for ACOD MFTs.

The self of the therapist refers to the thoughts, experiences, biases, emotional and

cognitive reactions that therapists bring into the therapeutic setting (Sude & Biama; 2021).

Family of origin issues, such as parental divorce, bring along potential implications that may

influence the therapist’s work with clients (Titelman, 2004). Thus, it makes sense that ACOD

MFTs may experience countertransference that can fundamentally impact their practice and their
 117

clients (Titelman, 2004). The accounts of participants in this study revealed that

countertransference impacts their work. One participant shared that they will not work with

couples as couples therapy triggers her with strong feelings related to the divorce of her parents.

Another participant noted that after her parents’ divorce her view of her father changed, that it

was not until then she realized that he was an alcoholic. This participant reports that because of

her father’s alcoholism she does not work with clients who struggle with substance abuse issues.

Therefore, the results of this study have produced three recommendations for clinical practice.

The first recommendation is that ACOD MFTs constantly monitor for signs of

countertransference (Bowen, 2004; Kerr & Bowen, 1988) associated with their parents’ divorce

in their clinical setting. Therapists may benefit from monitoring their parental divorce related

behaviors, values, and standards. The process of self-monitoring will look different from one

therapist to another based upon various factors. One way that ACOD MFTs could self-monitor

could include keeping a journal for reflection concerning attitudes and actions that may be

countertransference related. The therapist can create entries into the journal after meeting with

couples or individuals who are considering divorce. Later, the ACOD MFT can take note of

potential countertransference issues influencing his or her treatment of clients, by reviewing the

journal prior to meeting with couples or clients who are considering divorce.

The second recommendation applies to therapists who are experiencing minimal markers

of countertransference. Licensed therapists are encouraged to seek peer consultation. Pre-

licensed therapists are recommended to seek out their supervisors to address the issue. Such

markers will include feeling triggered by certain behaviors and circumstances surrounding the

couple’s situation; wanting to “fix” the clients’ relational difficulties; finding themselves

worrying about their clients at home; and taking on the role of the parent/protector of children.
 118

The third recommendation applies to therapists who experience significant

countertransference concerning working with couples or individuals considering divorce.

Indicators of significant countertransference include refusing to work with couples, or

individuals who are considering divorce; and finding themself taking the side of one partner or

the other in couple’s therapy. Individual psychotherapy is recommended for MFTs who

experience these indicators of countertransference due to being triggered by divorce related

issues. Individual therapy may also be sought out to address the countertransference markers

mentioned in the paragraph above.

Recommendations for Future Research

The study contributes to the current body of research on psychotherapist career choice, as

this is the first phenomenological qualitative study investigating the influence of parental divorce

on career choices of marriage and family therapists. Therefore, this study paves the way for

multiple opportunities for future research. The following recommendations for future research

are a result of topics that emerged as significant to me.

One limitation to this study what is that all participants experienced divorce at a relatively

young age. Future studies may benefit by the inclusion of participants with a wider range of age

at the time of parental divorce. Participants in this study range from ages two years of age to 12

years of age when their parents divorced. All participants experienced parental divorce as

children. Had they experienced parental divorce in their teen years, results and findings may

have differed from those of this study.

A second limitation of this study was the homogeneous group of participants. This study

included a total of five participants, all of whom identified as female. Future studies may benefit

by including a more diverse representation of participants by including male participants.

 119

Although the majority of marriage and family therapists are female, the inclusion of the account

of one or more male participants may produce different results in a similar study, and a more

accurate representation of the phenomenon.

Another limitation of this study is that it encompassed a small sample size of five

participants. Although interpretive phenomenological analysis allows for a relatively small

sample size, a larger number of participants may have allowed for additional themes and findings

to come forth. Future studies addressing this phenomenon may benefit from the inclusion of a

larger of participants.

To build upon this study, the next logical direction for research would be to examine the

potential of differentiation of self (Bowen, 2004; Kerr & Bowen, 1988) as a factor in choosing

marriage and family therapy as a career for ACOD MFTs. Although not expected, differentiation

of self emerged as a strong theme throughout the accounts of all participants. Further research

focusing on how differentiation of self may or may not play a role in the career choices of MFTs

may provide new and valuable information into the phenomenon examined in this study.

The final recommendation for future research would be to study the influence of parental

divorce on how ACOD MFTs work with couples. All participants in this study reported that their

experiences of parental divorce have influenced their clinical work. It seems plausible that

ACOD MFTs might bring biases into their work with couples. This study found participants near

polar opposites on the subject of divorce, with one stating that divorce is “an option if things

aren’t working out” while another described the desire to be “a marriage saver.” An interpretive

phenomenological analysis is recommended for this study. I suggest employing the same

methodology as utilized in this study, to provide the researcher with an excellent platform to

understand the lived experiences of the participants. Exploring how parental divorce may
 120

influence how ACOD MFTs treat couples would provide beneficial information to the field of

MFT.

Conclusions

The purpose of this interpretive phenomenological analysis was to understand the

experience of MFTs who live through parental divorce before the age of 18, and the role that

parental divorce may have had on their decision to choose marriage and family therapy for their

career. Virtual face-to-face, semi-structured interviews were conducted with five ACOD MFTs

using the interpretive phenomenological analysis as described in Hale et al., (2007); Hale et al.,

(2008); and Smith (1999). BFST (Bowen, 2004; Kerr & Bowen, 1998) provided the theoretical

lens that framed the findings of this study.

This study revealed that parental divorce was a significant factor in participants’ career

decisions to become MFTs. Nine themes emerged as a result of this study. This study addresses a

gap in the literature regarding the career choice process of marriage and family therapists who

experienced parental divorce prior to 18 years of age. The findings provide valuable insight into

the career decision-making process of ACOD MFTs, highlighting the influence of difficult

experiences as children of divorce as motivating factors for those decisions. Additionally, this

study identified the activation of the wounded healer as a critical component of participants’

career choices. Further, the findings also present the field of MFT with an important

understanding of the role of intergenerational transmission and differentiation of self in the

participants’ career choices.

The study discovered that participants’ career decision processes began at a young age. In

two cases, the process started as early as twelve years old. Participants described how they

experienced negative consequences from their parents’ divorce(s), and later made conscious
 121

choices to differentiate from undesirable family practices. Out of these choices, the wounded

healer arose within the hearts and minds of the participants, resulting in their choices to become

marriage and family therapists. The participants entered into the field of MFT so they would be

able to help others who face similar hurts and challenges as they did in their youth. Future

studies may provide further insight in two key areas: (1) The role of differentiation of self on the

career choices for MFTs, and (2) the influence of parental divorce on how ACOD MFTs work

with couples. The results of this study reveal that negative influences of parental divorce served

as powerful agents in the career decision making processes of all participants. Negative

experiences included disruptions to the nuclear family; unwelcome changes in relationships with

family members; and unpleasant impacts on one’s emotional well-being. These factors catalyzed

participants’ career journeys toward careers as marriage and family therapists.

 122

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Appendix A: Interview Questions

Interview Questions:

1. Tell me about that moment when you knew you wanted to become a marriage & family

therapist.

o How did you know you wanted to be a marriage & family therapist?

o What events led up to that decision/discovery?

o How old were you when you came to the realization that you wanted to be a

MFT?

2. What were the motivating factors that led to your decision to become a marriage &

family therapist?

3. Please share with me some of the context and circumstances surrounding your parents’

divorce.

o For how long prior to the divorce were you aware that they were going to be

divorced?

o What were the living arrangements for your family members leading up to the

time of the divorce?

4. What was it like for you after your parents divorced?

5. How do you believe your parents’ divorce may have impacted you?

6. How do you believe your parents’ divorce may have influenced your decision to become

a marriage & family therapist?

7. If you look back at your experience of parental divorce, can you identify any ways where

that experience influenced you in a positive manner?

o Can you identify any way that the divorce influenced you in a negative manner?
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8. Around the time when you decided to become a therapist, what were your overall

thoughts about divorce, and how it impacts families?

9. Overall, do you believe that your parents’ divorce influenced your decision to become an

MFT?

o How do you think it was (or was not) influential?

10. Lastly, I am wondering if your parents' divorce did anything to influence your identity

when you were younger?

o In other words, how might have parental divorce shaped your identity as a

child/youth/young adult?
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Appendix B: Recruitment Letter

I am conducting a research study to understand the influence of parental divorce on one’s

decision to become a marriage and family therapist.

I am recruiting individuals who meet these criteria:

1. You have experienced parental divorce prior to turning 18 years of age.

2. You are a practicing licensed marriage and family therapist.
The activities for this research project will include:
1. Participating in a 1:1 online interview over Zoom for 45-60 minutes.
2. Review interview transcript via email for 10-15 minutes.

During these activities, you will be asked questions about:

x Your experiences before, during, and after your parents’ divorce.

x Your experiences with your family of origin.
x Your career decision-making process that led you to become a marriage and family
therapist.

After you complete the interview and transcript review, you will receive a $75 Amazon gift card
via email.

If interested, please contact me at: 714-351-3457 or m.miller8868@o365.ncu.edu.

Thank you!

Michael Miller

Doctoral Student at Northcentral University

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Appendix C: Participant Eligibility Criteria

Participant Eligibility Criteria

Thank you for your interest in participating in this research study. I am recruiting individuals

who meet these criteria:

1. You have experienced parental divorce prior to turning 18 years of age.

2. You are a practicing licensed marriage and family therapist.

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Appendix D: Thank You Letter to Interested Volunteers

Thank you for your interest in the research study on the influence of parental divorce on one’s

choice to become a marriage and family therapist. Unfortunately, I will not be able to use your

help on this study for one of the following reasons:

x You did not experience parental divorce prior to turning 18 years of age.

x You are not a practicing licensed marriage and family therapist.

x You do not agree to be audio recorded.

x Current licensure as an LMFT could not be verified.

x The maximum number of participants for this study has been reached.

x The study is closed.

I wish you the best and appreciate your consideration for participation.

Respectfully,

Michael Miller, LMFT

Doctoral Candidate
Northcentral University
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Appendix E: Informed Consent

Introduction
My name is Michael Miller. I am a doctoral student at Northcentral University.
I am conducting a research study to understand the influence of parental divorce on one’s choice
to become a marriage and family therapist. The name of this research study is “The Role of
Parental Divorce on Becoming a Marriage and Family Therapist.” I am seeking your consent to
participate in this study.
Please read this document to learn more about this study and determine if you would like to
participate. Your participation is completely voluntary, and I am here to address your questions
or concerns at any point during the study.
Eligibility
You may participate in this research if you meet all of the following criteria:
1. You experienced parental divorce prior to turning 18 years of age.
2. You are a practicing licensed marriage and family therapist.
I hope to include 8-15 people in this research.
Activities
If you decide to participate in this study, you will be asked to do the following activities:
3. Participate in a 1:1 online interview over Zoom for 45-60 minutes.
4. Review interview transcript via email for 10-15 minutes.

During these activities, you will be asked questions about:

x Your experiences before, during, and after your parents’ divorce.

x Your experiences with your family of origin.
x Your career decision-making process that led you to become a marriage and family
therapist.

All activities are optional: you can skip any part of this study that you do not wish to complete
and can stop at any time.
If you need to complete the activities above in a different way than I have described, please let
me know, and I will attempt to make other arrangements.

Risks
Some possible risks include: You may experience some emotional discomfort as you revisit
childhood experiences at or around the time of your parents’ divorce.
 156

To decrease the impact of any risk, you can skip any question you do not wish to answer, skip
any activity, or stop participation at any time.
Benefits
If you participate, there are no direct benefits to you. This research may increase the body of
knowledge in the subject area of this study.
Privacy and Data Protection
I will take reasonable measures to protect the security of all your personal information, but I
cannot guarantee confidentiality of your research data. In addition to me, the following people
and offices will have access to your data:
x My NCU dissertation committee and any appropriate NCU support or leadership staff
x The NCU Institutional Review Board

This data could be used for future research studies or distributed to other investigators for future
research studies without additional informed consent from you or your legally authorized
representative.
I will securely store your data for 3 years. Then, I will delete electronic data and destroy paper
data.
How the Results Will Be Used
I will publish the results in my dissertation. I may also share the results in a presentation or
publication. Participants will not be identified in the results.
Mandated Reporting
My professional role outside of NCU requires me to report suspicion of child or elderly abuse,
suspicion of possible harm to self or others, and committed crimes to the appropriate authorities.
Audio Recording
I would like to audio record your responses with Zoom during the interview.
Compensation
After you complete the interview and transcript review, you will receive a $75 Amazon gift card
via email.
Contact Information
If you have questions, you can contact me at: 714-351-3457 or m.miller8868@o365.ncu.edu.
My dissertation chair’s name is Dr. Krista Speicher. They work at Northcentral University and
are supervising me on the research. You can contact them at: Kspeicher@ncu.edu.
 157

If you have questions about your rights in the research or if a problem or injury has occurred
during your participation, please contact the NCU Institutional Review Board at irb@ncu.edu or
1-888-327-2877 ext. 8014.
Voluntary Participation
If you decide not to participate, or if you stop participation after you start, there will be no
penalty to you: you will not lose any benefit to which you are otherwise entitled.
 158

Appendix F: Mental Health Resources

Mental Health Resources:

For individuals residing in the State of California:

1. Arlene O’Connor, PsyD. 949-916-0340. www.ocmentalhealth.com

2. Hope Counseling Center. https://www.hiu.edu/current-students/student-life/health-and-

wellness/hope-counseling-center.php

3. Psychology Today therapist finder. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/therapists

For individuals residing outside of California

1. AAMFT therapist locator. https://www.therapistlocator.net//

2. Psychology Today therapist finder. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/therapists

3. Betterhelp.com find a therapist. www.betterhelp.com

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