Market Intelligence Brief #7

Introducing the non-rancidity trait

into pearl millet seed: Scenarios
for achieving future impact in
Kenya
Pauline Muindi, Colleta Khaemba, Pieter Rutsaert, Jason Donovan,
Anindya Bandyopadhyay, Sarah Hearne

Abstract
The International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) and partners
are working to apply CRISPR technology to achieve a step-change in pearl millet
seed product design: altering fatty acid metabolism to achieve the non-rancidity
trait to create grain that when milled into flour has extended shelf life. Kenya is
a country where the regulatory environment permits the introduction of gene-
edited seed products when derived from site directed nuclease 1 and 2 derived
technologies. Market intelligence looked to shed light on the question, If such a
seed product were available in Kenya, what would be the potential relevance for
millet farming and value chains? This brief explores that question by examining
the context in which millet is produced, processed, and sold and the associated
expectations and requirements of farmers, consumers, and processors. Data
were collected through interviews with millet farmers (n=35) and rural consumers
(n=35), local processors (n=14), traders (n=3), and flour producers (n=6). Value chain
actors reported rancidity as a problem, but it was not perceived to be a primary
challenge. Rancidity was overshadowed by larger challenges related to lack of
improved seeds of any type, low production volumes, and postharvest challenges.
Achieving impact from millet seed products with extended shelf life rests on
changing expectations about the commercial opportunities for millet flour (such
as flour-blending policies) and building viable, high performing seed systems with
new varieties that address farmers’ needs, such as high yield, drought tolerance,
and bird resistance. This brief concludes with future scenarios on how non-
rancidity millet could deliver impact at scale.

This Initiative aims to maximize
CGIAR and partners’ returns on
investment in breeding, seed
systems and other Initiatives
based on reliable and timely
market intelligence that enables
stronger demand orientation
and strengthens co-ownership
and co-implementation by
CGIAR and partners.
Key points
● Traditionally, across Africa and Asia the rancidity issue—i.e., the tendency
for flour made from pearl millet to become rancid rapidly after milling—has
reduced the commercial viability of millet.
● Market Intelligence looked to understand the current and future relevance
in Kenya of a potential step change in millet seed product design (i.e.,
introduction of the non-rancidity trait) within the context of existing millet
production, processing, and seed systems.
● The seed system has not released millet seed products in more than two
decades. Farmers typically sow millet grain from previous harvests or
purchase grain for planting–they recognize the problems of low yields from
very old varieties.
● Farmers also reported major challenges to increase millet output. First
was bird damage to maturing panicles. Another was the lack of machinery
for postharvest processing, including threshers, shellers, and winnowing
machines.
● Consumers, who are often millet farmers, and millers manage the rancidity
issue in different ways, such as milling in small volumes and/or more frequent
visits to mills and preparation of porridge in smaller quantities.
● The future impact from investments in genetic innovation for millet will
depend on advances in creating both viable seed systems and value chains
for millet. Future research and engagements should consider building
consumer demand for healthier flour, support for flour millers to construct
new millet-based product lines, and engaging with traders and millers to set
up links with farmers (including support for access to improved millet seeds).
2 Market Intelligence Brief 7
Introduction
The United Nations has declared 2023 as the International
Year of Millets. Enthusiasm around millet responds to its
potential to advance development goals related to food
security, nutrition, health, environmental sustainability,
and economic development. Millet and other dryland
crops, including sorghum, provide resilience in the face of
changing agroclimatic conditions, as well as support small-
scale production with income, food, and nutritional security
(Satyavathi et al 2021, Wang et al 2018). Their production
tends to be less resource-intensive, allowing for production
on poor-quality soils and requiring lower volumes of water
and fertilizer (Wang et al 2018). These crops can be important
for poor and otherwise vulnerable farmers in some of the
most challenging agricultural landscapes in Sub-Saharan
Africa (Ndiku, Jara, and Sabaté 2014). Additionally, pearl
millet is rich in resistant starch, soluble and insoluble dietary
fibers, minerals, and antioxidants (Saleh et al 2013).
In Sub-Saharan Africa, the production of millet is
concentrated in West Africa, with Burkina Faso being the
largest producer. Millet production in East Africa is relatively
small and has experienced slow growth. Finger millet, rather
than pearl millet, has been the more important product for
farmers in the region. However, millet and other dryland
crops are projected to triple in production toward 2050 in
East Africa (Orr et al 2016). At the same time, production
areas for maize, one of the most important crops for food
security in the region, are likely to decrease in the region
due to more frequent periods of extreme heat and drought
(Ojara et al 2021).
The potential to increase consumption and overall
commercial viability of millet flour in East Africa depends
on increasing the production and availability of millet
production. However, pearl millet traditionally has not been
commercially viable in the region due to the short shelf life of
pearl millet flour. As a result, pearl millet is mainly consumed
on-farm, with any excess production sold to local traders as
grain. Pearl millet has a high oil content that makes it prone
to rancidity. Off flavors in pearl millet flour develop shortly
after milling and is acknowledged as the key bottleneck
for wider consumer acceptability, growth, and investment
(Goyal and Chugh 2017). Shorter shelf life of the milled flour
may also result in food wastage. Additionally, the rancidity
problem can be a drudgery for women, as the amount that
can be milled by commercial mills is limited, resulting in the
need for frequent trips to millers or regularly pounding small
amounts of millet grain at home to produce a small quantity
of flour.
Recently, CIMMYT and partners applied CRISPR technology
to achieve a step change in seed product design for pearl
millet: flour that has an extended shelf life due to the
introduction of the non-rancidity trait. Kenya is a country
where the seed regulatory environment allows for the
introduction of gene-edited seed products. Through
CRISPR1 technology, new pathways become available to
suppress the formation of off flavors after milling (Sharma
et al 2022), potentially opening new commercial uses for the
crop as well as reducing drudgery for growers.
1 CRISPR (short for “clustered regularly interspaced short
palindromic repeats”) is a technology that scientists can use
to selectively modify the DNA of living organisms.
Box 1: Applying CRISPR for rancidity
mitigation in pearl millet
Discovery of CRISPR Cas9 and related genome-editing
technologies has opened immense opportunity to edit
genes and develop crops with beneficial traits. These
technological breakthroughs allow precise and rapid
genetic variations in plants to target specific traits.
Pearl millet grain has a proportionately larger germ
layer than other cereals and a higher lipid content
(5–7 percent). During milling, the bran and germ layer
rupture, releasing endogenous lipases that commence
the hydrolysis of stored lipids (triacylglycerols, or TAG)
and release of free fatty acids (FFAs). Two genes were
identified, fatty acid desaturase-2 and lipase, which are
involved in rapid development of the off flavor of pearl
millet after milling. Using CRIPSR Cas9 technology,
both the genes will be knocked out in pearl millet
to eliminate the process of production of specific
chemicals responsible for rancidity.
In this brief, we respond to the question, If such a seed
product were available in Kenya, what would be the potential
relevance for millet farming and value chains? The next
section presents our methodological approach to responding
to the question. The sections after present results on the
expectations and requirements of millet farmers and rural
consumers, local processors, traders, and flour producers for
millet varieties and assess whether a potential step change
in innovation, i.e., pearl millet with the non-rancidity trait, can
reinvigorate the seed system and overall interest in pearl
millet in Kenya. While Kenya is not a major pearl-millet-
growing country, it does have a mature regulatory framework
in place for gene-editing products. In addition, the Kenyan
government is planning to make flour blending mandatory to
reduce overreliance on maize, support underutilized crops,
and improve nutrition. We conclude in the final section with
scenarios for how new millet products with the non-rancidity
trait could have positive impacts at scale for farmers and
across the millet value chain.
Methodology
Key informant interviews were carried out with farmers, rural
consumers, and owners of small-scale (posho) mills (n=10)
in four Kenyan counties (Embu, Tharaka Nithi, Machakos,
and Kitui) located in the drier eastern region of the country
(Table 1). These counties were selected due to their relatively
high volumes of pearl millet production. Consumers of
pearl millet were consulted at home or at posho mills when
Table 1. Study locations and sample size
Posho
Study Locations Farmers Consumers
Millers
Embu County 9 3 1
Tharaka Nithi County 5 5 6
Machakos County 3 3 4
Kitui County 18 24 3
Other information sources
● KEPHIS officer
● Millet traders (n=3)
● Flour processors (n=6)
● Supermarket and
agrodealer visits

they were buying pearl millet flour or porridge and having
their grain milled to use it for home consumption. We also
sought information and insights from representatives of the
Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate Service (KEPHIS), millet
trading businesses (n=3), flour processors (n=6), and Kenyan
supermarket visits. Seed companies will be interviewed in a
next phase to scope the interest of formal seed producers
in seed production.
Millet production and consumption
Pearl millet consumption is localized near production areas
where the crop is grown. Pearl millet production is mainly for
the farm family’s own consumption, but when farmers have
a surplus yield, they sell it on local markets for relatively
high prices (USD 25–50 for 100 kg, which is double the value
of maize in the region). Local posho mills are mainly used
for milling although some farmers still prefer grinding millet
by hand. Outside of local markets, there was no additional
demand for pearl millet. Farmers and local consumers
consumed a variety of pearl-millet-based foods, but the
most popular dish was uji, a fermented porridge made from
millet and maize flours often consumed by children.
Land area allocated for pearl millet cultivation by the
farmers interviewed tended to be small, roughly 0.5–2 ha.
These farmers had cultivated pearl millet for more than
10 to15 years and utilized about 10 kg of seed to plant a
hectare. Yield in the surveyed areas was very low, with
farmers reporting yields from 500 kg to 650 kg per hectare,
which is approximately 25 percent of what can be expected
from pearl millet (i.e., a yield gap of 75 percent).
Seed access
New pearl millet varieties have not been released since 2001
(Table 2). To date there are three registered and released
improved varieties of pearl millet, namely, KAT PM1, KAT
PM2, and KAT PM3. These varieties were developed by the
Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization
(KALRO). A major challenge was that farmers interviewed
had no access to pearl millet seed and recalled that the last
time they received new millet varieties was in 2001. A visit
and discussion with the most popular agrodealers in Embu,
Tharaka, Machakos, and Kitui also revealed no available
pearl millet varieties in the market. Additionally, breeding for
new pearl millet varieties is currently not a priority given the
budget constraints in KALRO and the small production zone.
Most farmers had tried one or two varieties. Farmers stated
they recycle seed, practice seed exchange with other
farmers, and purchase grain (USD 1 per kg) from the local
market to be used as seed. They preferred to select and
save based on the following physical characteristics: large
Table 2. Improved varieties of pearl millet varieties released in Kenya since 2000
Variety Year of Optimal production
Owner
name/code release altitude range (Masl)
KAT/PM 1 2000 KALRO 250–1150
KAT/PM 2 2000 KALRO 250–1150
KAT/PM 3 2001 KALRO 250–1150
Source: KEPHIS Kenya national variety list.
Market Intelligence Brief 7 3
size of grain and good quality (clean seed with no pest/
diseases/damage) to plant in the next season. However, the
continuous use of saved seeds was acknowledged to result
in more susceptibility to pests and diseases, coupled with
lower yields. Farmers also noted that despite pearl millet
being drought tolerant by nature, a prolonged drought in
Kenya in recent years has affected overall yield targets,
especially since farmers are using old, recycled varieties.
Dealing with birds and postharvest
Farmers considered bird damage (i.e., loss of grain to birds)
to be their biggest challenge for pearl millet production.
They also reported spending considerable resources (both
money and time) keeping birds away from their fields, using
techniques such as scarecrows (mainly made of clothing
purchased from a local market), shiny ribbons, sounding a
bell (hitting a stone on a metal sheet), and configuring ropes
to throw stones (releasing the stone creates a loud sound)
to scare the birds off the fields. All farmers noted that they
plant at the same time to spread the risk of crop loss to
birds—if a farmer plants late, losses can be severe because
that crop is the only one available. According to farmer
reports, the mwanza (local variety) was not prone to bird
attack because of an important trait characteristic—bristles
on earheads that are sharp, pointy, or prickly, making it
difficult for birds to access and consume the grain.
Another critical challenge related to millet farming was
postharvest crop management. The postharvest process
for pearl millet is labor- and time-intensive. The earheads
are cut manually, dried, and threshed using sticks to remove
the grain. The lack of mechanized threshers is a deterrent
to increasing the acreage. In Kitui, farmers lacked the
tarpaulins needed during threshing and drying processes
to prevent postharvest losses and maintain the quality of
threshed grain. Second, provision of labor is heavily reliant
on women and children, who are tasked with winnowing,
cleaning, seed selection, seed management and storage,
and milling the grain. Pearl millet grain was stored in
hermetic bags, especially in Kitui; in Embu and Tharaka
Nithi Counties, most farmers stored it in sisal bags.
Dealing with rancidity in millet flour
Given the much larger challenges of seed, drought, birds,
and postharvest, rancidity was not a top-of-mind concern
for farmers or millers. However, that does not mean that
rancidity should be ignored. Farmers and consumers have
adapted to the challenge by milling pearl millet flour in
small, required quantities, which leads to time loss at the
millers’ and very frequent visits to flour mills. Due to the
small quantities brought in, millers require consumers to
Duration to Grain yield
Special attributes
maturity (months) (kg/ ha)
- 80% bristled
2–3 2.7
- Tolerant to bird damage
2 2.3 - Grain used at dough stage
2 1.8 - Bold grains
4 Market Intelligence Brief 7

wait for delivery of more grain by other consumers to be

milled together, since it is costly to operate the mills that
are diesel-operated for minor quantities. Local traders deal
with the challenge of having only small volumes of millet
flour available in their stores to avoid food waste, which
consumers also deal with.
One of the biggest consequences of millet rancidity was not
found on the farms but on the shelves of supermarkets or
local shops. Due to the short shelf life after milling because
of the rancidity issue, none of the stores would sell packaged
pearl millet flour. Only finger millet could be found in flour
blends, often targeted at parents with small children. But
fixing the rancidity problem alone would not automatically
transform pearl millet into a crop of choice for the processing
industry. The processors saw little potential in pearl millet
as a flour product due to the low supply and low consumer
interest, even with the rancidity challenge resolved.

Future scenarios for impact from pearl

millet seed with non-rancidity
The previous discussion suggests that achieving impact
at scale from the introduction of new millet seed products
with extended shelf life is a long-term proposition, to be
achieved once larger challenges are addressed. Besides
introducing the non-rancidity trait, significant efforts will
be needed to develop improved pearl millet varieties
that are higher yielding and resistant to disease and birds.
Seed systems need to be put in place that give farmers
access to seed, whether through collaboration with seed
companies or public sector investments. Introducing labor-
saving mechanization for postharvest millet processing,
such as motorized milling and threshing machines, could
significantly reduce processing time and effort. Once these
challenges are met, what future scenarios could exist for
millet in Kenya and what would the return on breeding
investments be (Table 3).
First, the return on investment (ROI) in breeding will depend
on the area of pearl millet production. The popularity of
maize as a staple in Kenya together with its well-organized
seed systems and significant investments in breeding,
could lead to a further decline of millet production area,
potentially reducing the ROI. However, the opposite is likely
as well. Predictions are that the effects of climate change
and increased frequency of crop failure might push farmers
to switch to traditional dryland crops such as millet and
sorghum. Supported by the availability of new varieties and
established seed systems, pearl millet could become the
predominant crop in Eastern Kenya.
Secondly, value chain drivers could lead to increased ROI
in breeding. Currently, pearl millet use is limited to the
production zones and there is little to no value addition
happening. Flour processors could become interested in
expanding their product portfolio and start new production
lines with pearl millet; however, processor interviews
highlight that without increased consumer demand, there is
a reluctance for processors to make substantial investments
to increase mill capacity to produce pearl-millet-based
products. Also, government policies pushing processors to
use millet due to mandatory flour blending could result in a
strong increase in millet production, resulting in increased
ROI. This scenario would depend less on consumer demand
as a necessary condition for success but does necessitate
Figure 1. Examples of the use of finger millet in flour
available at Kenyan supermarkets and local shops
testing of consumer acceptance of blended flours. This
scenario requires that non-rancidity millet grain be traded,
processed and marketed in a differentiated matter (through
different supply chains), which would require a rapid assay
to identify grain with the non-rancidity trait. Alternatively,
this scenario would be viable if all pearl millet produced had
the low-rancidity trait—this would be a huge undertaking
and would still require the assay to reject grain without the
desired trait. Nevertheless, these scenarios do start from
functioning seed systems for millet.
References
Goyal P, Chugh LK. 2017. Shelf life determinants and enzyme
activities of pearl millet: A comparison of changes
in stored flour of hybrids, CMS lines, inbreds and
composites. Journal of Food Science and Technology
54:3161–3169.
Ndiku MH, Jara E, Sabaté J. 2014. Formative research on
acceptability of pearl millet in rural eastern Kenya–A
pilot study. Sustainable Agriculture Research 3(4):1–8.
Ojara MA., Yunsheng L, Ongoma V, Mumo L, Akodi D,
Ayugi B, Ogwang BA. 2021. Projected changes in East
African climate and its impacts on climatic suitability
of maize production areas by the mid-twenty-first
century. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment
193:1–24.
Orr A, Mwema C, Gierend A, Nedumaran S. 2016. Sorghum and
millets in Eastern and Southern Africa: Facts, trends and
outlook. Working Paper Series no. 62. ICRISAT Research
Program, Markets, Institutions and Policies. Patancheru
502 324, Telangana, India: International Crops Research
Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics. 76 pp.
Saleh ASM, Zhang Q, Chen J Shen Q. 2013. Millet grains:
Nutritional quality, processing, and potential health
benefits. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and
Food Safety 12:281–295.
 Market Intelligence Brief 7 5

Table 3. Future scenarios on importance of millet in Kenya and implications for the return on breeding investments
Scenario with the Investments by governments,
introduction of seed private sector and producers
products with the
non-rancidity trait
Business as usual ● Investments in millet genetic
improvement, including
introduction of non-rancidity trait
● No complementary investments ● Farmers using recycled
in seed systems or value chains
Modest increase in ● Investments in millet genetic
millet production improvement
● Strategic and coordinated
investments in pearl millet
seed systems (production and
distribution of new pearl millet
seed products)
Strong increase in ● Investments in millet genetic
millet production improvement
as value chain for ● Strategic and coordinated
millet emerges and investments in millet seed
develops systems
● Strategic and coordinated
investments in pearl millet value
chains allowing for growth of new
millet product lines for sale in
national market
● Government advancing with its
regulations that require blending
of maize and wheat flours with
pearl millet and sorghum
Potential outcomes
● Seed system performance
low, with no demand pull
from flour processors
seed with limited access to
improved seed products
● Production mainly for own
and local consumption
● Seed system performance
improving, but no demand
pull from flour processors
● Farmers with reliable access
to (and using) new millet
seed products
● Millet use still mainly in rural
communities (limited value
added)
● Farmers expanding
production of millet
● Farmers with access to
(and using) new millet seed
products
● Processors generating new
product lines with locally
sourced millet
● Processors increasing millet
purchases in response to
government flour-blending
regulations
Potential return on
investments (ROI)
● None
For farmers and rural
consumers
● Higher millet productivity
● Less drudgery/time saving
for women
● Less food waste
● Greater on-farm
consumption of millet
For farmers and rural
consumers
● Higher millet productivity
● Less drudgery/time saving
for women
● Less food waste
● Greater on-farm
consumption of millet
● Increased income from sale
of millet product
For millers and urban
consumers
● Increased economic activity
● Nutritional benefits

Satyavathi C, Ambawat S, Vikas Khandelwal V, Srivastava
R. 2021. Pearl millet: A climate-resilient nutricereal
for mitigating hidden hunger and provide nutritional
security. front. Plant Science 13:https://doi.org/10.3389/
fpls.2021.659938.
Sharma KK, Palakolanu SR, Bhattacharya J, Shankhapal
AR, Bhatnagar-Mathur P. 2022. CRISPR for accelerating
genetic gains in under-utilized crops of the drylands:
Progress and prospects. Frontiers in Genetics 13:999207.
Wang J, Vanga SK, Saxena R, Orsat V, Raghavan V. 2018.
Effect of climate change on the yield of cereal crops: A
review. Climate 6(2):41.
Authors
Pauline Muindi is a research support specialist at CIMMYT,
based in Nairobi. She supports the design and
implementation of studies on cereal seed systems in
East Africa, using qualitative and quantitative research
methods. She holds a master’s degree in gender and
development studies from the Nairobi University in
Kenya.
Colleta Nabwile Khaemba is a research associate at
CIMMYT, based in Nairobi. Her focus is on seed value
chains and markets in Kenya. Prior to joining CIMMYT,
she worked with the International Center for Tropical
Agriculture (CIAT) and the International Center of
Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE) in Nairobi.
Pieter Rutsaert is a seed systems specialist at CIMMYT,
based in Nairobi. His work focuses on seed systems
and market intelligence for cereal crops in East Africa.
Before joining CIMMYT, he worked at the International
Rice Research Institute (IRRI) in the Philippines and as
research director for Haystack International, a market
research consultancy firm in Belgium.
Jason Donovan is a senior economist at CIMMYT, based in
Mexico. He leads a global team working on market-
based solutions to seed systems development for
cereal crops in East Africa and Latin America. Prior to
joining CIMMYT, he worked at the World Agroforestry
Centre (ICRAF) in Peru and the Tropical Agricultural
Research and Higher Education Center (CATIE) in
Costa Rica.
6 Market Intelligence Brief 7

Anindya Bandyopadhyay is a genome editing Lead at Acknowledgements

CIMMYT, based in Mexico. By training Anindya is a
crop biotechnology specialist and previously worked
as molecular biologist at International Rice Research
Institute (IRRI) in the Philippines and worked with
Syngenta, Beijing China as global genome editing
program lead.
Sarah Hearne is the director of the Genetic Resources
Program a.i. at CIMMYT, based in Mexico. For over 20
years Sarah’s work has focused on the exploration and
application of genetic variation in crop improvement.
Sarah currently leads the Allele Mining Initiative and
different work packages of the Accelerated Breeding
Initiative of the CGIAR.
This work was funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation
through the ShelfPlus —Reducing Millet Rancidity through
Gene Editing Project [INV-039460] as well as the One-CGIAR
initiative Market Intelligence, supported through the CGIAR
Fund. We appreciate suggestions by Peter Coaldrake that
informed the design of this work and improved the clarity
of the text.
The views and opinions expressed in this publication are
those of the author(s) and are not necessarily representative
of or endorsed by CGIAR.

About this series Series editor

The Market Intelligence Brief offers evidence-based Jason Donovan, CIMMYT
insights into the potential for increased impact toward
the CGIAR Impact Areas from investments in crop Editorial committee
breeding and seed systems development. This peer- Peter Coaldrake, CIMMYT
reviewed series brings together voices from diverse Matty Demont, IRRI
fields, including marketing and agribusiness, gender, Guy Hareau, CIP
plant sciences and climate change to inform debates
Berber Kramer, IFPRI
on future priorities and investments by CGIAR, NARES,
Dean Muungani, IITA
the private sector and non-governmental organizations
(NGOs). This series is a collaborative effort of the CGIAR Vivian Polar, CIP
Initiative on Market Intelligence. For more information, Recommended citation
including potential submissions, please contact Lila Train
Muindi P, Khaemba C, Rutsaert P, Donovan
at <l.train@cgiar.org>.
J, Bandyopadhyay A, Hearne S. 2023. Introducing the
non-rancidity trait into pearl millet seed: Scenarios for
achieving future impact in Kenya. Market Intelligence
Brief Series 7, Montpellier: CGIAR.
CG Space Repository: https://hdl.handle.
net/10568/135533