UNIVERSITY FOR DEVELOPMENT STUDIES (UDS)

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING (SoE)

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING (DAE)

DAE 471 Farm Machinery Design (2 Credits)

By

ABDULAI KARIMU
Karimu Abdulai 1
Course Objectives
• By the end of the course, students will be able to:
1. Learn about machine design processes and procedures
2. Recognize the significance of using the right materials for
construction
3. Acquire knowledge on designs of low cost agricultural
machinery
4. Design machine elements and machine fabrication
Course Content
• Machine design processes and procedures;
• Materials of construction: selections, strength properties,
stress analysis, costing.
• Design of machine elements, machine fabrication.
• Typical designs of low cost agricultural machinery.
• Problems and Prospects of agricultural machinery
development and commercial manufacture in Ghana.
Reading Material

1. Mechanics in Agriculture. Phipps, L.J., 1983

2. Structural Mechanics. Darkov, D., 1992
3. Principles of Physical Metallurgy book by Reed-Hill
4. The Science and Engineering of Materials by Askeland
5. Materials Science and Engineering by Callister
 INTRODUCTION
• In the beginning, all crops for the sustenance of mankind
were produced and prepared by pure human power.
• With the discovery of iron, tools were fashioned to reduce
the human power requirement.
• The power of animals was later used to significantly reduce
the human power requirement.
• The development of the steel plough, the internal-
combustion engine, and other modern farm machines have
accelerated the transition from subsistence farming to
commercial farming.
• Farm machinery can be grouped into clearing, cultivation,
planting/seeding, protection, fertilizer application, spraying,
and harvesting machines
 UNIT 1: MACHINE DESIGN PROCESSES AND
PROCEDURES
• The Design Process
• Stress Analysis
 THE DESIGN PROCESS
• Taking the concept for an artifact to the point
just before the process of converting it into a
physical form may be termed as its design
process
• The design process is independent of the
product and is based on the concept of product
life cycle.
• The content of each engineering design
problem is unique, but the methodology for
solving these problems is universal and can be
described in a specific way.
• Identification of need generally starts the design
process.
Figure 1.1: General Design Process
The need
• Identification of need is the first step in the
design process. A need is usually perceived in
one of two ways. Someone from sales field
reports or customer feedback must recognize
either a problem in an existing design or a
customer-driven opportunity in the
marketplace for a new product.
• In either case, a need exists which can be
addressed by modifying an existing design or
developing an entirely new design.

Karimu Abdulai 9
Problem Definition
• All significant parameters in the problem to
be solved must be clearly defined.
• These parameters often include cost limits,
quality standards, size and weight
characteristics, and functional
characteristics.
Synthesis/conceptual design
•The designer moves on to the preliminary
design stage where knowledge and creativity
can be applied to conceptualize various initial
designs which are investigated, and
quantified in terms of established metrics.
Karimu Abdulai 10
Analysis and Optimization
• Analysis – proposed concepts are analyzed
to determine whether constituent
components can meet the demands placed
on them in terms of performance,
manufacture, cost and any other specified
criteria. Alternatively, analysis is used to
determine the size components need to be
in order to meet the required functions.
• Designs that do not survive analysis are
revised or discarded. Those with potential
are optimized to determine the best
performance of which the system is capable. 11
• Optimization - Inevitably there are conflicts
between requirements. Cost minimization
may call for compromises on material usage
and manufacturing methods. These
considerations form part of the optimization
of the product to produce the best or most
acceptable compromise between the desired
criteria.
• Synthesis, analysis and optimization are
intimately and iteratively related.

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Evaluation
• The design is then tested/evaluated
according to the parameters set forth in the
problem definition. A scale prototype is
often fabricated to perform further analysis
and testing to assess operating performance,
quality, reliability, and other criteria.
• If a design flaw is revealed during this stage,
the design moves back to the preliminary
design/analysis stages for redesign, and the
process moves in this circular manner until
the design clears the testing stage and is
ready for presentation.
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• The following parameters are usually used is
evaluation:
✓Functionality
✓Ergonomics
✓Cost
✓Appearance
✓Ease of manufacture
✓Ease of maintenance

14
Stress analysis (Autodesk Inventor)
Procedure
• Analysis set-up - After the modelling, “stress analysis” is
selected from the ribbon under the “environment” tab.
• In the stress analysis ribbon, “create study” is selected
followed by the selection of “static analysis” from the
opened study dialogue box.
• After setting up the analysis environment, the first step in
the analysis is to assign a material to the model.
• Under the “Assign Material” button, an original material is
selected and overridden by the actual material used.
Stress analysis (Autodesk Inventor) cont.
• Apply constraints to the component.
• Apply the appropriate loads to the model
• Select the appropriate mesh.
• After the meshing, the Simulation button is selected,
followed by the selection of the Run button from the opened
dialogue box.
• After the simulation, the report button is selected and the
desired results and document format options are picked for
the generation of the report.
Interpretation of stress analysis results
• The important parameters in the analysis are the
1. Von Mises stress,
2. 1st Principal stresses
3. 3rd Principal stresses
4. Displacement and
5. Factor of safety.
Interpretation of stress analysis results (cont.)
Von Mises stress
This is usually the biggest form of stress in the analysis. If the
maximum Von mises stress is less than the yield strength of
the material used, such a design is considered a good design.
1st Principal stresses
This represents the maximum tensile stress induced in the
model. And is usually less than the Von mises stress.
3rd Principal stresses
This represents the maximum compressive stress induced in
the model. It is usually the smallest form of stress in the
analysis
Interpretation of stress analysis results (cont.)
Displacement
This shows the maximum displacement a part of the design
can make when the maximum load is applied to the design.
The factor of safety.
• Designers usually work with the minimum safety factor value
instead of the maximum value, unlike the other parameters.
• The minimum safety factor in a design should not be less
than 1, for a design to be considered safe.
• The recommended safety factor for most engineering
designs is between 1 and 5 (Tooley, 2009).
• In an analysis, if the safety factor is less than 1, the design
should be optimized.
• A design can be optimized by either increasing material
thickness or reducing the maximum load to be applied.
 UNIT 2: MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
• Materials selection, Material strength properties
• Costing.
MATERIALS
• The strength, durability, and service of a farm implement
depend largely upon the kind and quality of the material
used in building it.
• There is a tendency in the construction of implements to
eliminate as many castings as possible and to use pressed
and stamped steel.
• Where this is done, the cost of manufacturing machinery in
quantities is significantly reduced. The weight of the machine
is also reduced but the strength and durability are retained
and often improved.
• The success or failure of an implement frequently depends
upon the materials used in building it.
Classification of materials
• There are two broad groups of materials namely metallic and
non-metallic materials
• Non-metallic materials include wood, rubber, leather,
Fiberglass, Teflon, etc.
• Metallic materials are also grouped into ferrous and non-
ferrous metals (metals containing iron and those not
containing iron respectively).
• Cast iron is an example of ferrous metal while aluminium is a
non-ferrous metal.
• Metallic materials can also be categorized into pure metals
and alloys
Wood
• Today iron and steel have practically taken the place of
wood.
• There are perhaps two reasons for this: first, steel is more
durable; second, it is becoming cheaper than good wood
because of the scarcity of the latter.
• Many farm machines are defective because the wood used in
their construction is not well cured and free from knots.
• The wood parts should be well painted.
Cast Iron
• Cast iron is an iron containing so much carbon, or its
equivalent, that it is not usefully malleable at any
temperature.
• The amount of carbon varies from 2.2 to 4.3 per cent,
depending on the amount of silicon, sulphur, phosphorus,
and manganese,
• There are two grades of cast iron. These are grey cast iron
where the carbon is segregated from the iron in the form of
graphite and white cast iron which has carbon and iron
combined. Mottled cast iron is a mixture of grey and white.
• Cast-iron castings are generally large, bulky, very brittle, and
cannot be hammered to any great extent without breaking.
• They cannot be forged but can be cemented together by
brazing or welding.
• Chilled Cast Iron: It is made by chilling or rapid cooling certain
portions of the casting. Chilled parts have the characteristics of white
cast iron and slowly cooled parts exhibit characteristics of grey cast
iron. Example: Mould boards (only one side is hardened)
• Malleable Cast Iron: It is made by subjecting the white casting to an
annealing or “softening” process.
• Cast iron is heated to a temperature of about 900°c and is held in the
oven for a sufficiently long period and then cooled quite slowly.
• This changes the chemically combined carbon into free carbon in an
“amorphous” form but not in the crystalline form as in the grey cast
iron.
• Casting made out of malleable cast iron is tough, strong and easy to
machine. Examples: Mower guards, ledger plates, control pedals
(clutch, brake), chain links etc.
Steels
Steel is an alloy of carbon and iron. It is classified according to:
a) Manufacturing Process:
• Bessemer Steel
• Open Hearth Steel
• Electric Steel
b) Carbon Content:
• Low Carbon (uptup to25% c)
• Medium Carbon Steel (0.25% to 0.50% c)
• High carbon steel (0.50 to 1.2% c)
c) Alloy steel (mixture of two or more chemical substances one of
which is a metal)
d) According to Uses:
• Structural Steel
• Tool steel
e) According to the Method of Forming:
• Rolled Steel
• Forged Steel
• Cast Steel
• Formed Steel
Application of Steel
a) Low-carbon steel: Used extensively in the construction of
farm machinery frames and most of the other members.
b) Medium carbon steel: Used for greater strength and
hardness. Members such as shafts, connecting rods etc. are
made of medium carbon steel.
c) High carbon steel: It is very hard and is used for making
tools, ball and roller bearings, cutting tools etc.
Alloy Steels - Composition and Uses
Boron Steel
• Contains a small amount (2.3%) of Boron. Boron increases
the hardenability of steel.
• Used for Axles, wheel spindles, steering nickel arms, cap
screws, studs etc.
Manganese Steel
• Contains 11-14% manganese & 0.8-1.5% carbon
• It has extreme hardness and ductility. Can be cast in desired
shapes and finished by grinding.
• Used for Machine parts subjected to severe wear e.g. feed
grinders
Nickel Steels
• Contain 2-5% nickel & 0.10-0.5% carbon
• They are strong, tough and ductile
• Used to make parts subjected to repeated shocks and stresses.
Chrome-Vanadium Steel
• Contains 0.5-1.5% chrome, 0.15-0.3% vanadium and 0.15-1.10%
carbon
• Used for hard and malleable machinery casting, forgings, springs,
shafts, gears and pins.
Chrome Steel
• Contains 0.5-2% chrome and 0.10-1.5% carbon
• 14-18% chrome used to produce a variety of stainless steels
• Used for high-grade balls, rollers, races for ball and roller bearings
Structural steel
• Structural steel comes in the form of angle irons, I-beams,
channels, tee bars, round and square rods, tubes, plates and
strips.
• The steel used in these pieces is made by one of two
processes; open-hearth and Bessemer.
• The former process gives the best grade of material, but is
more expensive; hence, we find in agricultural machinery the
latter kind being used.
• The steel is first made into large bars and then rolled into
various shapes.
Case-hardened Steel
• This steel is made by heating soft or mild steel in contact
with carbon so that the carbon will penetrate the outer skin,
making a high-carbon steel surface which is very hard.
• The surfaces of cams are usually case hardened.
Copper (Cu)
• Used for tubing, wires, windings etc
Brass
• Ordinary brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. Some
commercial brasses contain small percentages of lead, tin,
and iron.
• The percentage of copper in the brass may range from 60 to
90 per cent, and the percentage of zinc from 10 to 40 per
cent.
• Used for making radiator pipes, brass welding rods, screens
for fuel lines, etc.
Bronze
• Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. However, zinc is,
sometimes added to cheapen the alloy or change its colour
and increase its malleability.
• The percentage of tin in bronze may vary from 5 to 20 per
cent. Phosphor-bronze, manganese bronze and aluminium
bronze are special copper alloys containing small
percentages of tin, zinc, or aluminium.
• Used for making bushings, springs, pipe fittings, valves,
pump pistons and bearings.
COSTING
• For a manufacturing company, material consumption and material
cost are vital aspects.
• Ascertainment of the accurate cost depends on the correct valuation
of material used in the product.
• The material cost consists of invoice price plus freight, carriage,
cartage, insurance, taxes, store costs, etc.
• Materials are issued to different departments, different orders and
jobs from stores.
• The jobs are to be correctly charged with material consumed. But the
material in stores will be of different lots received at different prices
on different occasions.
• This makes it necessary to decide about the price to be charged to
jobs which are issued with materials from different lots.
Essential Measures for Ascertainment of Accurate
Material Cost
1. Computation of total cost of material purchased.
2. Systematized material issue procedure.
3. Appropriate methods of pricing material issues.
1. Computation of Total Cost of Material Purchased
• Most of the details needed to ascertain the total cost of
material purchased can be obtained from the invoice sent by
the supplier.
• The basic purchase price has to be adjusted in light of
delivery and forwarding charges, sales tax, excise duty, etc.
Similarly, transport charges and the cost of containers have
to be included. Any discounts receivable have to be
appropriately subtracted.
2. Material Issue Procedure
• Materials kept in the stores are to be issued to production
departments whenever the departments require them. The
storekeeper is to issue materials only when a material
requisition is presented to him.
a. Bill of Materials
• It is a document listing all the materials required with quantities
required for a particular job, order or process. It can serve the
purpose of material requisition.
• The bill of material is prepared for a job of non-standardized type
so that estimate of all materials required for the job is made by the
production department before the job is started.
• This is helpful to estimate the material cost of the job for
submitting tenders or quotations.
A specimen form of a bill of materials is given below:
b. Return of Surplus Material:
• Sometimes, excess materials may be issued to production
departments.
• When these materials are returned to stores a Material Return
Note is to be prepared by the department which has the excess
materials.
• Generally, three copies are prepared. One copy is retained by the
department which is returning the material. Two copies are sent to
the storekeeper.
• The storekeeper keeps one copy for making entries in the Bin card
and the second copy is sent to the cost office for making entries in
the store’s ledger and for giving credit to the job where the
material is in excess.
3. Methods of Pricing Material Issues
• The purchase prices of materials fluctuate on account of
changes in the product prices, buying from different
suppliers and on account of quantity discounts.
• Because of price fluctuations, the stock may include several
lots of the same material purchased at different prices.
• When these materials are issued to production, it is
important to consider the correct price at which these
materials are charged to production.
• The various methods used for determining this are:
a. Cost Price Methods
b. Average Price Methods
c. Notional Price Methods
a. Cost Price Methods:
• With this method, each lot of materials purchased is charged to
various departments at the actual cost of purchase.
• When one lot at a particular price is exhausted, the next lot is issued
at the purchase price of that lot and so on. Thus, the prices charged
are always the actual purchase prices.
b. Average Price Methods:
• When the variance between purchase prices is very little, the total
prices of materials in the stock are divided by the number of prices
used to ascertain the simple average price.
• When the variance between purchase prices is more, the weighted
average price is calculated by dividing the value of stock in the stores
by the quantity in the stock from which materials are to be issued.
c. Notional Price Methods:
• With this method, either a standard predetermined price is fixed on
the basis of all factors affecting the price and compared to the actual
price.
• Or Inflated Price which includes purchase price plus losses due to
evaporation, wastage in handling and storage, carrying costs, etc. This
method aims at recovering the full material cost.