VIETNAMESE

MATHEMATICAL
COMPETITIONS

2019
 VIETNAMESE
MATHEMATICAL COMPETITIONS 2019

VMC
Hanoi, July 2019

1
2
 Preface

Vietnam Mathematical Olympiad 2019 for high school students took

place in all cities of Vietnam on 13-14th January, 2019. After that
competition, a two-day IMO Team selection test was organized. The
top 48 students from VMO and one student who got a Silver medal at
IMO 2018 took the tests on 29-30th of March, 2019.

Based on the TST result, Vietnamese team for the 60th International
Mathematical Olympiad 2019 in Bath city, United of Kingdom were
selected as follow

1. Vương Tùng Dương

2. Nguyễn Khả Nhật Long
3. Nguyễn Thuận Hưng
4. Nguyễn Nguyễn
5. Vũ Đức Vinh
6. Phan Minh Đức

Dr. Lê Anh Vinh (Vietnam Institute of Educational Sciences) and Dr.

Lê Bá Khánh Trình (Vietnam National University - HCM city) were
appointed as the Leader and the Deputy Leader of Vietnamese IMO
team 2019. The team is also accompanied with Dr. Nguyễn Chu Gia
Vượng (Institute of Mathematics) as Observer A and with teachers
from some schools for the gifted as Observers C. This booklet, including
problems and solutions of VMO and TST this year, was edited by Lê
Phúc Lữ (Vietnam National University - HCM city).
 Vietnamese team at IMO 2019

Tùng Dương Nhật Long Thuận Hưng

Nguyễn Nguyễn Đức Vinh Minh Đức

Team Training Administrators

Lê Bá Khánh Trình Lê Anh Vinh Nguyễn Chu Gia Vượng

4
Problems from the
competitions
 Problems of VMO 2019

1. Vietnamese MO 2019
1.1. Day 1 (13th January, 2019)

Problem 1. Consider the continuous function f : R → (0; +∞) such

that lim f (x) = lim f (x) = 0.
x→−∞ x→+∞

1. Prove that f (x) obtains the maximum value on R.

2. Prove that there exist two real sequences (xn ), (yn ) with xn <
yn , ∀n = 1, 2, 3, ... such that they converge to a same limit and
f (xn ) = f (yn ) for all n.
Problem 2. Consider the integer sequence (xn ) such that 0 ≤ x0 <
x1 ≤ 100 and xn+2 = 7xn+1 − xn + 280, ∀n ≥ 0.
1. Prove that if x0 = 2, x1 = 3 then for each integer n, the sum of
positive divisors of the number xn xn+1 + xn+1 xn+2 + xn+2 xn+3 +
2018 is divisible by 24.
2. Find all pairs (x0 , x1 ) such that xn xn+1 +2019 are perfect squares
for infinitely many numbers n.
Problem 3. For each polynomial f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn , denote
Γ(f (x)) = a20 + a21 + · · · + a2m . Let be given a polynomial P (x) = (x +
1)(x+2) . . . (x+2020). Prove that there exist at least 22019 polynomials
Qk (x) for 1 ≤ k ≤ 22019 with positive coefficients that satisfy the
following two conditions
i) deg Qk (x) = 2020.
ii) Γ (Qk (x)n ) = Γ (P (x)n ) for every positive integer n.
Problem 4. Let ABC be triangle with H is the orthocenter and I
is incenter. Denote A1 , A2 , B1 , B2 , C1 , C2 be the points on the rays
AB, AC, BC, BA, CA, CB, respectively such that

AA1 = AA2 = BC, BB1 = BB2 = CA, CC1 = CC2 = AB.

7
 Problems of VMO 2019

Suppose that B1 B2 cuts C1 C2 at A0 , C1 C2 cuts A1 A2 at B 0 and A1 A2

cuts B1 B2 at C 0 .

1. Prove that the area of triangle A0 B 0 C 0 is smaller than or equal to

the area of triangle ABC.
2. Let J be circumcenter of triangle A0 B 0 C 0 . Suppose that AJ cuts
BC at R, BJ cuts CA at S and CJ cuts AB at T . Denote K
as the intersection of circles (AST ), (BT R), (CRS). Prove that if
triangle ABC is not isosceles then HIJK is a parallelogram.

1.2. Day 2 (14th January, 2019)

Problem 5. Consider polynomial f (x) = x2 − αx + 1 with α ∈ R.

√
1. For α = 215 , express f (x) as the ratio of two polynomials with
non-negative coefficients.
2. Find all α such that f (x) can be written as the ratio of two
polynomials with non-negative coefficients.

Problem 6. Let ABC be an acute, nonisosceles triangle which inscribed

in a circle (O) and has orthocenter H. Denote M, N, P as the midpoints
of sides BC, CA, AB and D, E, F as the feet of the altitudes from
vertices A, B, C of triangle ABC. Let K as the reflection of H through
BC. Two lines DE, M P meet at X; two lines DF, M N meet at Y .

1. The line XY cuts the minor arc BC of (O) at Z. Prove that

K, Z, E, F are concyclic.
2. Two lines KE, KF cut (O) the second time at S, T . Prove that
BS, CT, XY are concurrent.

Problem 7. There are several identical caro papers of size 5 × 5. Some-

one uses n colors to fill in each paper such that two cells at the same
position on two sides share the same color. Two paper are considered

8
 Problems of VMO 2019

congruent if they can be stacked together in such a way that the pairs
of squares at the same position have the same color. Prove that, by the
definition of congruence, one can obtain at most
1 25
n + 4n15 + n13 + 2n7


8
distinct colored caro papers.

2. Team selection tests 2019

2.1. Day 1 (29th March, 2019)

Problem 1. In a country, there are n ≥ 2 cities such that each pair of

cities has a direct two-way flight route that connects them. The author-
ity will license some airline using these flight routes with conditions

i) Each flight route is used by exactly one airline.

ii) For each airline, passengers can travel from a city to all other
cities by using its routes.

Find the maximum number of airlines that the authority can license.

Problem 2. Let n be a positive integer. Prove that the following poly-

nomial has exactly n distinct real roots
n  
X 2n
Pn (x) = 2k
· xk · (x − 1)n−k .
2k
k=0

Problem 3. Let ABC be an acute, non isosceles triangle which in-

scribed in a circle (O) with M is the midpoint of BC, orthocenter H.
The circle of diameter BC cuts AH at D, D0 such that D0 lies inside
triangle ABC. Suppose that AO cuts M D at X.

9
 Problems of VMO 2019

1. Prove that AM bisects the segment D0 X.

2. Define the points E, F similarly to D; define the points Y, Z simi-
larly to X. Suppose that S is the intersection of two tangent lines
of (O) at B, C and G is the projection of midpoint of AS onto
the line AO. Prove that there is a point has the same power to
four circles (SGO), (BY E), (CF Z), (O).

2.2. Day 2 (30th March, 2019)

Problem 4. Find all triplets of positive integers (x, y, z) such that

2x + 1 = 7y + 2z .

Problem 5. Let ABC be an non isosceles triangle which inscribed in

a circle (O) and has incircle (I). Suppose that BI cuts AC at E and
CI cuts AB at F. The circle passes through E, tangent to OB at B
cuts (O) at M. The circle passes through F tangent to OC at C cuts
(O) at N. The lines M E, N F respectively cut (O) second time at P, Q.
Denote K as the intersection of EF and BC. The line P Q cuts BC, EF
respectively at G, H. Prove that the median of the vertex G in triangle
GHK is perpendicular to the line OI.

Problem 6. A bug lies on the position with coordinate x = 1 of the real

number axis. In each second, from the position of coordinate x = a, it
can jump to x = a + 2 or x = a2 . Prove that in at most n seconds, there
are exactly
Fn+4 − (n + 4)
distinct positions (including the first one) that the bug can jump to,
in which (Fn ) is the Fibonacci sequence which is defined by F0 = F1 =
1, Fn = Fn−1 + Fn−2 with n ≥ 2.

10
Solution of problems
 Solution of VMO problems

3. Solution of VMO problems

3.1. Day 1

Problem 1. Consider the continuous function f : R → (0; +∞) such

that lim f (x) = lim f (x) = 0.
x→−∞ x→+∞

1. Prove that f (x) obtains the maximum value on R.

2. Prove that there exist two real sequences (xn ), (yn ) with xn <
yn , ∀n = 1, 2, 3, ... such that they converge to a same limit and
f (xn ) = f (yn ) for all n.

Solution. 1) Consider f (0) > 0, by lim f (x) = lim f (x) = 0 and

x→−∞ x→+∞
the definition of limit at infinity, there exist a small enough and b big
enough such that f (x) < f (0), ∀x ≤ a and f (x) < f (0), ∀x ≥ b.

On the range [a; b], due to the continuity, f (x) reaches the maximum
value M = f (c) with M ≥ f (0) and c ∈ [a; b]. It is easy to see that
∀x ∈ (−∞; a)∪(b; +∞) then f (x) < f (0) ≤ M thus f (x) ≤ M, ∀x ∈ R.
Hence, on (−∞, +∞) , function f (x) has the maximum value M .

2) From the intermediate value theorem, it is easy to deduce that if

f (x) can take on two values A, B with A < B, it will take on all values
in the range (A; B). Back to the problem, we have two cases

1. If there exists an interval (a, b) that contains the number c such

that f (c) = M and f (x) < M, ∀x\{c}. Take A, B 6= c in the
range (a, b) so that c ∈ [A; B], from now on we only consider this
range. Since f (x) is continuous on [A; c] and [c; B], the smallest
value on these two segments will exist, denote as m1 , m2 . Sup-
pose m = max{m1 , m2 }. According to the intermediate theorem,

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 Solution of VMO problems

∃x1 ∈ [A; c] and ∃y1 ∈ [c; B] such that f (x1 ) = f (y1 ) = m; In ad-
dition, we also have x1 < c < y1 . Again applying the intermediate
theorem on [x1 ; c] and [c; y1 ], there exist x2 , y2 such that
m+M
f (x2 ) = f (y2 ) = and x2 < c < y2 .
2
Just like that, we consider the sequence (un ) with u1 = m and
un+1 = un +M 2 , ∀n ≥ 1. It is easy to check that (un ) converging
to M and for each n ≥ 2, there always exists numbers xn ∈
[xn−1 ; c], yn ∈ [c; yn−1 ] such that

f (xn ) = f (yn ) = un and xn < c < yn .

The sequence (xn ) increases with c is the upper bound so it con-

verges to a limit l ≤ c. But if l < c then due to continuity,
M = lim un = lim f (xn ) = f (l) < M , contradiction. Similarly,
lim xn = c. So (xn ), (yn ) satisfy the problem.
2. If the range (a, b) as above does not exist, then there exist a range
[a; b] where f (x) = M, ∀x ∈ [a; b]. Consider the sequences
a+b a−b a+b b−a
xn = + n and yn = + n
2 2 2 2
then it is easy to see xn , yn ∈ [a; b], ∀n so f (xn ) = f (yn ) = M
and xn < a+b2 < yn , lim xn = lim yn = 2 .
a+b

Therefore, in all cases, the statement is always true.

Remark. The problem can be solved easy by following lemma

Let f be a continuous function on [a, b] and f (a) = f (b), then

1. ∃c ∈ [a, b] such that f (c) = f c + a+b

2 .
2. There exist sequences (xn ), (yn ) with xn < yn , f (xn ) = f (yn ), ∀n
and they are convergent.

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 Solution of VMO problems

Problem 2. Consider the integer sequence (xn ) such that 0 ≤ x0 <

x1 ≤ 100 and xn+2 = 7xn+1 − xn + 280, ∀n ≥ 0.

1. Prove that if x0 = 2, x1 = 3 then for each integer n, the sum of

positive divisors of the number xn xn+1 + xn+1 xn+2 + xn+2 xn+3 +
2018 is divisible by 24.
2. Find all pairs (x0 , x1 ) such that xn xn+1 +2019 are perfect squares
for infinitely many numbers n.

Solution. 1) Firstly, we need the following lemma

Lemma. Let n be a positive integer such that 24 | n + 1, then the sum

of its positive divisors σ(n) is divisible by 24.

Proof. Indeed, if d is some divisor of n then nd is also a divisor of n.

Since n ≡ 2 (mod 3) so it is not a perfect square, then we can write
X n X d2 + n
σ(n) = (d + )= .
d d
d|n,d2 <n d|n,d2 <n

Notice that n ≡ 2 (mod 3) and d2 ≡ 1 (mod 3) so 3 | σ(n). On the

other hand, n ≡ 7 (mod 8) and d ≡ 1, 3, 5, 7 (mod 8), deduce to d2 ≡ 1
(mod 8) so 8 | σ(n) implies that 24 | σ(n). The lemma is proved.

Back to the problem, set yn = xn xn+1 + xn+1 xn+2 + xn+2 xn+3 , we need
to prove that σ (yn + 2018) is divisible by 24. We also have 2018 ≡ 2
(mod 24), so by the lemma, we need to prove yn ≡ −3 (mod 24).

Consider the period of terms when divide by 3 with note that xn+2 ≡
−xn+1 − xn (mod 8), we have 2, 0, 2, 0, 2, 0, . . . which mean it is a pe-
riodic sequence of period 2 and yn ≡ 0 · 2 + 2 · 0 + 0· = 0 (mod 3).

15
 Solution of VMO problems

Similarly, consider the period of terms when divide by 8, we can see

that 2, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, . . . means it is a periodic sequence of period 3
and yn ≡ 2 · 3 + 3 · 3 + 3 · 2 = 5 (mod 8). Thus yn + 3 is divisible by
both of 3 and 8 so yn ≡ −3 (mod 24) which finishes the proof.

2) We will prove the following lemma

Lemma. If the integer sequence (zn ) satisfying zn+2 = azn+1 − zn + b

2
for n ≥ 0 and a, b ∈ Z then zn+1 − zn zn+2 − bzn+1 = const, ∀n ≥ 0.

Proof. Indeed, we have the following calculation

2
zn+1 − zn zn+2 − bzn+1 = zn+1 (zn+1 − b) − zn (azn+1 − zn + b)
= zn+1 (azn − zn−1 ) − zn (azn+1 − zn + b)
= zn2 − zn−1 zn+1 − bzn

2
Equality is true for all n ≥ 0 so zn+1 − zn zn+2 − bzn+1 is constant.

Back to the problem, there exists C ∈ Z such that x2n+1 − xn xn+2 −

280xn+1 = C. Thus

x2n+1 − xn (7xn+1 − xn + 280) − 280xn+1 = C

⇔ x2n+1 + x2n − 7xn+1 xn − 280(xn+1 + xn ) = C
⇔ (xn+1 + xn − 140)2 = 9(xn+1 xn + 2019) − 9 · 2019 + C + 1402
⇔ u2n = vn2 + C + 1429
√
in which un = xn+1 + xn − 140, vn = 3 xn+1 xn + 2019 with all n ≥ 0.

Since the integer sequence (xn ) increases so it is unbounded, implies

that (un ) is also increases and unbounded. Also, if xn xn+1 + 2019 is
a perfect square, then vn ∈ Z+ . Therefore, (un + vn ) | C + 1429 with

16
 Solution of VMO problems

infinite many values n. Obviously this only happens when C +1429 = 0.

So we have the equations

(xn+1 + xn − 140)2 = 9(xn+1 xn + 2019)

for every n ≥ 0. Note that

(x0 + x1 − 140)2 ≥ 2019 · 9 > 442 · 32 = 1322

so |140 − x0 − x1 | ≥ 133 where 0 ≤ x0 < x1 < 101 implies that 140 −

(x0 + x1 ) ≥ 133, then x0 + x1 ≤ 7. We also have

C = x21 + x20 − 7x1 x0 − 280(x1 + x0 ) = −1429.

Notice that x21 + x20 ≤ 49 so −1429 = C < 49 − 280(x1 + x0 ), followed

by x0 +x1 ≥ 5. But for x1 +x0 = 7 then x21 +x20 −7x1 x0 = 531 and with
x1 + x0 = 6 then x21 + x20 − 7x1 x0 = 251, easy to see that they do not
satisfy. Hence, x0 + x1 = 5, followed by x0 x1 = 6, then x0 = 2, x1 = 3.

So only pair (x0 ; x1 ) = (2; 3) satisfies the given condition.

Problem 3. For each polynomial f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn , denote

Γ(f (x)) = a20 + a21 + · · · + a2m . Let be given a polynomial P (x) = (x +
1)(x+2) . . . (x+2020). Prove that there exist at least 22019 polynomials
Qk (x) for 1 ≤ k ≤ 22019 with positive coefficients that satisfy the
following two conditions

i) deg Qk (x) = 2020.

ii) Γ (Qk (x)n ) = Γ (P (x)n ) for every positive integer n.

Solution. Firstly, we consider the following lemma

1


Lemma. Γ(f (x)) is equal to the


constant in the expansion of f (x)f x ,
1
which is denoted as δ f (x)f x .

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 Solution of VMO problems

Indeed, f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 +
· · · + a1 x + a0 thus δ f (x)f
x1 =

an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 xann + xan−1 a1

n−1 + · · · + x + a0 so the
constant is a2n + a2n−1 + · · · + a21 + a20 .

From this, we can conclude that for every polynomial f (x) and all
positive integers n,
  
n a 1
 n
n
Γ ((ax + b) f (x)) = δ (ax + b) + b f (x)f
x x
b n
   
n 1
=δ a+ (a + bx) f (x)f
x x
n
= Γ ((bx + a) f (x)) .

Therefore, for each binomial in the product (x+1)(x+2) . . . (x+2020),

the exchange x + k → kx + 1 for 2 ≤ k ≤ 2020 will not change the
value of Γ(P (x)n ). Since each binomial can be chosen between keeping
the same or changing, so there are 22019 ways to change the given
polynomial, that corresponding to 22019 satisfactory polynomials.

Problem 4. Let ABC be triangle with H is the orthocenter and I

is incenter. Denote A1 , A2 , B1 , B2 , C1 , C2 be the points on the rays
AB, AC, BC, BA, CA, CB, respectively such that

AA1 = AA2 = BC, BB1 = BB2 = CA, CC1 = CC2 = AB.

Suppose that B1 B2 cuts C1 C2 at A0 , C1 C2 cuts A1 A2 at B 0 and A1 A2

cuts B1 B2 at C 0 .

1. Prove that the area of triangle A0 B 0 C 0 is smaller than or equal to

the area of triangle ABC.
2. Let J be circumcenter of triangle A0 B 0 C 0 . Suppose that AJ cuts
BC at R, BJ cuts CA at S and CJ cuts AB at T . Denote K
as the intersection of circles (AST ), (BT R), (CRS). Prove that if
triangle ABC is not isosceles then HIJK is a parallelogram.

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 Solution of VMO problems

Solution. 1) Let X, Y, Z respectively be symmetry points of A, B, C

through the midpoints of BC, CA, AB. Denote A0 0 as the tangent point
of the inscribed circle of triangle XY Z with Y Z. Without losing gen-
erality, we may assume that AC ≥ AB, then

0 1 0 0 1
AA0 = (A0 Z − A0 Y ) = (XZ − XY ) = AC − AB
2 2
Hence, AA0 = AB2 , combined with AA0 k BC, we have

∠ABC
∠ABA − ∠BB2 B1 = 90◦ −
2
thus A00 is on B1 B2 . Similarly, we have A00 ∈ C1 C2 then A0 ≡ A00 .
Similarly, we also have B 0 , C 0 is also the tangent point of the incircle
of triangle XY Z with XZ, XY .

Notice that SXY Z = 4SABC so to prove SABC ≥ SA0 B 0 C 0 , we just need

SXY Z ≥ 4SA0 B 0 C 0 . To finish, we prove the following lemma

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 Solution of VMO problems

Lemma. Let ABC be a triangle with a point P lies inside it. Denote
D, E, F respectively as intersections of AP, BP, CP with BC, CA, AB,
then SDEF ≥ 41 SABC .

BD
Proof. Indeed, put BC = a, CE AF
CA = b, AB = c. We need to prove

3
P = a · (1 − c) + b · (1 − a) + c · (1 − b) ≥ .
4

But by applying Ceva’s theorem, we have abc = (1 − a)(1 − b)(1 − c)

3
so 1 − P = 2abc. Thus (abc)2 = [a(1 − a)][b(1 − b)][c(1 − c)] ≤ 41 = 64
1

so 2abc ≤ 41 . The lemma is proved.

2) Denote G as the centroid, Ia , Ib , Ic as the excenters which respect to

the angles A, B, C and O as the circumcenter of 4ABC. Note that J
is the incenter of 4XY Z. We have the following lemma

Lemma. Let N be Nagel point of the 4ABC (it is the concurrent

point of 3 lines connect each vertex to the tangent point of excircle
with opposite side) then I, G, N are collinear and N G = 2GI.

20
 Solution of VMO problems

Proof. Put BC = a, CA = b, AB = c and p = a+b+c

2 then we have
 −→ −→ −→ → − −−→ −−→ −−→ −→

aIA + bIB + cIC = 0 ⇒ aN A + bN B + cN C = 2pN I,
−→ −−→ −−→ → − −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→

GA + GB + GC = 0 ⇒ pN A + pN B + pN C = 3pN G,
−−→ −−→ −−→ → −


(p − a)N A + (p − b)N B + (p − c)N C = 0 .


−−→ −→ −−→ −→
This implies that 3pN G = 2pN I ⇒ N G = 32 N I so lemma is proved.

Back to the problem, consider the homothety of center G and ratio −2,
which maps A, B, C to X, Y, Z, respectively.

21
 Solution of VMO problems

Note that I, J are incenters of triangles 4ABC, 4XY Z respectively

GI
so GJ = − 21 or J ≡ N is the N agel point of 4ABC. This proves that
R is the tangent point of (Ia ) with BC or Ia R ⊥ BC.

Denote K 0 as the symmetric point of I respect to O. Since the midpoint

of the line IIa is also the midpoint of the arc BC of the circle (O), the
midline is parallel to K 0 Ia of the triangle IIa K 0 is perpendicular to
BC implies that K 0 R ⊥ BC. By the same way, we also have K 0 S ⊥
CA, K 0 T ⊥ AB therefore K 0 ∈ (AST ).

Similarly, K 0 ∈ (BT R), (CRS) deduce to K 0 ≡ K. We continue to

prove another lemma
Lemma. If 4ABC is not isosceles, then O, I, H are not collinear.

Proof. Suppose that I ∈ OH. We already know that H, O are isogonal

conjugate in 4ABC so AI, BI, CI are respectively the angle bisectors
of ∠OAH, ∠OBH, ∠OCH. Thus
HA HB HC IH
= = = .
OA OB OC IO
But OA = OB = OC so HA = HB = HC thus H ≡ O implies that
4ABC is equilateral, contradiction. Thus O, I, H are not collinear.

From this lemma, by applying T hales theorem, we have IO k HJ and

IO = HJ where O is the midpoint of IK so IHJK is parallelogram.

Remark. The original idea of this problem is: Let ABC be an acute
non isosceles triangle with orthocenter H, incenter I and M, N, P are
midpoints of sides BC, CA, AB. Denote d1 , d2 , d3 as the lines respec-
tively pass through M, N, P and perpendiuclar to the internal angle
bisector of angles A, B, C. Suppose that d1 , d2 , d3 form a triangle DEF
with circumcenter K. Prove that K is midpoint of HI.

22
 Solution of VMO problems

3.2. Day 2

Problem 5. Consider polynomial f (x) = x2 − αx + 1 with α ∈ R.

√
1. For α = 215 , express f (x) as the ratio of two polynomials with
non-negative coefficients.
2. Find all α such that f (x) can be written as the ratio of two
polynomials with non-negative coefficients.

Solution. 1) We consider the following calculations

√ ! √ !
2 15 2 15 7
x − x+1 x + x + 1 = x4 − x2 + 1,
2 2 4
  
7 7 17
x4 − x2 + 1 x4 + x2 + 1 = x8 − x4 + 1,
4 4 16
  
17 17 223 8
x8 − x4 + 1 x8 + x4 + 1 = x16 + x +1
16 16 256
223 8
Thus, f (x) is ratio of two polynomials x16 + 256 x + 1 and
√ !  
15 7 17 4
x2 + x+1 x + x2 + 1
4 8
x + x +1 .
2 4 16

P (x)
2) Suppose that Q(x) = x2 − αx + 1 with P, Q are non-negative coef-
P (1)
ficient polynomials . Substitute x = 1, we have 2 − α = Q(1) > 0 so
α < 2.

We will prove that every real number α < 2 will satisfy. Indeed,

If α ≤ 0, then polynomial f (x) is itself satisfy so we can choose P (x) =

f (x), Q(x) = 1.

23
 Solution of VMO problems

If α ∈ (0; 2), then similar as above, let consider the multiplication

(x2 − αx + 1)(x2 + αx + 1) = x4 + (2 − α2 )x2 + 1.

Continuing like that, we find that the coefficient of the first and last
term of the polynomial is always 1, and the middle coefficient is deter-
mined by the sequence (un ) as follow
(
u0 = α,
un+1 = 2 − u2n , n ≥ 0

We will prove that there exists a positive term in this sequence. Suppose
that for every n ≥ 1, un < 0. Then, since α ∈ (0; 2) so by induction,
one can show that −2 < un < 0, ∀n ≥ 1. Note that

un+1 − un = 2 − un − u2n = (2 + un )(1 − un ) > 0

so un+1 − un > 0, ∀n ≥ 1. This implies that (un ) increases, but it has

an upper bound so converging to a limit L ∈ (−2; 0]. In addition,

L = 2 − L2 ⇔ L = 1 ∨ L = −2.

This contradiction shows that there exist some number n = N such

that uN ≥ 0.
n+1 n
Consider polynomials sequence fn (x) = x2 + un x2 + 1 with n =
1, 2, 3, . . . , N and easy to see that f (x) is the ratio of the two polynomi-
als fN (x) and f1 (x)f2 (x) . . . fN −1 (x). Clearly, these polynomials have
no negative coefficient.

Remark. In addition to the above approach by sequence, notice that

α ∈ (0; 2) and α → 2 − α2 , so we
can also use trigonometric when
putting α = 2 cos ϕ with ϕ ∈ 0; π2 then 2 − α2 = 2 cos 2α and we
can get conclusion that there
will exist positive integer k such that 2k α
belongs to the interval π2 ; 3π
2 .

24
 Solution of VMO problems

Problem 6. Let ABC be an acute, nonisosceles triangle which inscribed

in a circle (O) and has orthocenter H. Denote M, N, P as the midpoints
of sides BC, CA, AB and D, E, F as the feet of the altitudes from
vertices A, B, C of triangle ABC. Let K as the reflection of H through
BC. Two lines DE, M P meet at X; two lines DF, M N meet at Y .

1. The line XY cuts the minor arc BC of (O) at Z. Prove that

K, Z, E, F are concyclic.
2. Two lines KE, KF cut (O) the second time at S, T . Prove that
BS, CT, XY are concurrent.
!
DP N
Solution. 1) First, apply Pascal’s theorem to 6 points on the
M EF
nine-point circle of 4ABC, we get that the intersection of three pairs
of lines (DE, M P ); (DF, M N ); (P F, N E) are collinear or in the other
words, A, X, Y are collinear. It is easy to see that,

180◦ − ∠BAC = ∠BHC = ∠BKC

so K ∈ (O). Next, we will prove that XY bisects EF. We have M N, M P

are midlines of 4ABC so M N k AB, M P k AC. Therefore, according
to Thales’s theorem, we have

YD M D XE MC
= , = .
YF M B XD MD
Denote Q as the intersection of the lines XY, EF . Apply Menelaus’s
theorem to 4DEF, we have

QF XD Y F MB MD
= · = · = −1
QE XE Y D MD MC
so Q is the midpoint of EF . From here, we deduce that AQ, AM are
isogonal conjugate in ∠BAC so AQ is the symmedian of the 4ABC.
So the quadrilateral ABZC is harmonic.

25
 Solution of VMO problems

Let J be the intersection of lines EF, BC then (JD, BC) = −1 so we

have K(JD, BC) = −1, but K(ZA, BC) = −1 implies that KZ passes
through J. From this we can conclude that

JE · JF = JB · JC = JK · JZ

so points K, Z, E, F are concyclic.

2) We have ∠EBF = ∠ECH = ∠EDH, ∠HED = ∠HCD = ∠BEF

since two quadrilaterals BCEF, EHDC are cyclic. So 4BEF ∼ 4DEH.
From these, we get
HK HD BF BF
= = = ,
2EH EH EF 2F Q
combined with ∠BF Q = ∠EHK, thus 4BF Q ∼ 4KHE so ∠F BQ =
∠EKH = ∠ABS thus the points B, Q, S are collinear. Similarly, points
C, T, S are also collinear. Therefore, BS, CT, XY concur at Q.

26
 Solution of VMO problems

Problem 7. There are several identical caro papers of size 5 × 5. Some-

one uses n colors to fill in each paper such that two cells at the same
position on two sides share the same color. Two paper are considered
congruent if they can be stacked together in such a way that the pairs
of squares at the same position have the same color. Prove that, by the
definition of congruence, one can obtain at most
1 25
n + 4n15 + n13 + 2n7


8
distinct colored caro papers.

Solution. We will prove the following lemma

Lemma. Consider positive integer m = 2k + 1 with k ≥ 2, and the

square table of size m × m in which each cell is filled by one of n
colors. Then the number of different ways to color (not duplicated by
the rotation) is equal to

n(a4 + a2 + 2a) 2
with a = nk +k .
4

Proof. Note that the middle cell, with symbol C as shown in the image,
is not affected by the rotation so there is always n ways to fill it.

27
 Solution of VMO problems

Consider the collection of 4 squares k × k in the corners as set A =

A1 ∪ A2 ∪ A3 ∪ A4 and 4 rectangles 1 × k as set B = B1 ∪ B2 ∪ B3 ∪ B4
in such a way that Bt is immediately followed by At for 1 ≤ t ≤ 4. We
consider 4 pairs consists of two subsets (At , Bt ) of A, B.

The number of cells on each pair (At , Bt ) are k 2 + k, so the number

2
of ways to fill in each pair of subsets is a = nk +k . Here, we consider
each pair like that as a vertex of some square XY ZT . We will count
the number of coloring for the vertices X, Y, Z, T so that they do not
duplicate each other by the rotation. We have the following cases

1. All four vertices are filled with the same color, there are a ways.
2. The coloring is alternative, so we just concern how to fill in 2
2
adjacent vertices with the number of ways is a 2−a .
3. Otherwise, there is some identical pairs that is not cyclical of 2,
then the number is a4 − (a2 − a) − a. This way of coloring has a
4 2
circular permutations, so it will generates a −a
4 different ways.

In total, the number of coloring is

a4 − a2 a2 − a a4 + a2 + 2a
+ +a= .
4 2 4

Back to the problem,

Using the above lemma when 2k + 1 = 5, we have a number of ways to

fill in the paper 5 × 5 that not duplicate each other by the rotation is
 24
n + n12 + 2n6 n25 + n13 + 2n7

n = .
4 4
Denote S as a set of these coloring ways. In this problem, we also need
to consider the reflection transformation. We separate S to two types

28
 Solution of TST problems

of papers, namely X, Y : papers can and cannot create itself through

the vertical or horizontal reflections.

Notice that each paper in X generates 2 different papers in S (should

only be counted as 1 in the original problem); meanwhile, each paper
in Y generates exactly 1 paper in S. Hence,

n25 + n13 + 2n7

2 |X| + |Y | = .
4

Also, it is easy to count |Y | = n15 (fill the left half of the piece of paper,
also the middle line as well). From that we can calculate

1
2 |X| + 2 |Y | = (2 |X| + |Y |) + |Y | = (n25 + n13 + n7 ) + n15
4
thus
n25 + 4n15 + n13 + n7
|X| + |Y | = .
8
This is the number of different papers we need to count. The problem
is completely solved.

Remark. Another way to solve this problem is to use the results related
to Burnside theorem of group theory.

Given a set of transformations G acting on a finite set X and denote

I(g) as the number of invariant elements of some transformation g ∈ G.
Then the number of different possible elements is

1 X
|XG | = I(g).
|G|
g∈G

In the given problem, the finite set is squares of the table; the transfor-
mation are: reflection through the axes and rotations 90◦ , 180◦ , 270◦ .

29
 Solution of TST problems

4. Solution of TST problems

4.1. Day 1

Problem 1. In a country, there are n ≥ 2 cities such that each pair of

cities has a direct two-way flight route that connects them. The author-
ity will license some airline using these flight routes with conditions:
i) Each flight route is used by exactly one airline.
ii) For each airline, passengers can travel from a city to all other
cities by using its routes.
Find the maximum number of airlines that the authority can license.

Solution. Supposej n that

k there are m airlines can be licensed. We shall
prove that m ≤ . Indeed,
2
Suppose that the flight route used by airline k ∈ {1, 2, . . . , k} is num-
bered k. Since i), each flight route is numbered once. Since ii), the
passengers can travel by k-th airline from a city to all other cities, so
by induction, there are at least n − 1 flight routes are numbered by k
(otherwise, if there are at most n − 2 flight routes, some city will be
not visited).
n(n−1)
Since the total number of flight routes is 2 ,
we have
n(n − 1) jnk
m(n − 1) ≤ thus m ≤ .
2 2
jnk
Next, we will prove that m = airlines can be licensed by induction
2
on n.
If n = 2, there are 2 cities and there is 1 airline licensed.
Suppose that the assertion is true with all k ≤ n, n ≥ 2, we prove that
it is also true with n + 1.

30
 Solution of TST problems

• If n = 2k, k ∈ Z+ . Consider city B and 2k cities A1 , A2 , . . . , A2k .

By the hypothesis of induction, A1 , A2 , . . . , A2k are licensed for k
airlines. We license the routes between B and Ai for i−th airlines,
1 ≤ i ≤ k; other routes can be licensed arbitrary. Then passengers
using one of k airlines can flight to A. Thus, for n = 2k + 1, the
answer is k.
• If n = 2k +1, k ∈ Z+ . Consider two cities B, C and 2k other cities
A1 , A2 , . . . , A2k . By the hypothesis of induction, A1 , A2 , . . . , A2k
are license for k airlines. We license the route between B and A2i
for i−th airline; the route between C and A2i−1 for i−th airline,
1 ≤ i ≤ k. Between B, C and B → A2i−1 , C → A2i , we license
by a new k + 1−th airline.

We should note that k old airlines have flights to B and C. Be-

31
 Solution of TST problems

sides, new airline also have flight to A1 , A2 , . . . , A2k . Thus for

n = 2k + 2, the answer is k + 1.
jnk
By induction, the assertion is true ∀n ≥ 2. Hence, mmax = .
2
Problem 2. Let n be a positive integer. Prove that the following poly-
nomial has exactly n distinct real roots
n  
k 2n
X
Pn (x) = 2 · xk · (x − 1)n−k .
2k
k=0

Solution. First, note that if Pn (x0 ) = 0 then 0 < x0 < 1. Indeed,

• If x0 > 1 then x0 , x0 − 1 > 0 so Pn (x0 ) > 0, not satisfy.

• If x0 < 0 then put y0 = −x0 > 0, so Pn (x0 ) = (−1)n Pn (y0 ), but
Pn (y0 ) > 0 thus Pn (x0 ) 6= 0, also not satisfy.

Consider x0 ∈ (0; 1) and put 2x0 = a2 , 1 − x0 = b2 then (x0 − 1)n−k =

((−1)(1 − x0 ))n−k = (ib)2 , in which i2 = −1. It deduces to
n  
X 2n
Tn = · a2k · (ib)2n−2k .
2k
k=0

Consider the expansions

2n  
2n
X 2n
(a + ib) = · ak · (ib)2n−k ,
k
k=0
2n  
2n
X 2n
(a − ib) = (−1)k ak · (ib)2n−k
k
k=0
2
(a+ib)2n +(a−ib)2n

Thus Tn = . Note that a2 + b2 = x0 + 1 so √ a +
2 x0 +1
 2
√ b √ a = cos ϕ, √xb +1 = sin ϕ with ϕ ∈ 0; π2 .


x0 +1
= 1, put x0 +1 0

32
 Solution of TST problems

Thus,
(cos ϕ + i sin ϕ)n + (cos ϕ − i sin ϕ)n
Tn = .
2
By De Moivre’s formula for the exponent of complex number, we get

cos(2nϕ) + i sin(2nϕ) + cos(2nϕ) − i sin(2nϕ)

Tn = = cos(2nϕ).
2
From this, we conclude that Pn (x0 ) = 0 ⇔ Tn (x0 ) = 0 ⇔ cos(2nϕ) =
π π
0 ⇔ ϕ = 4n + k 2n with 0 ≤ k ≤ n − 1. For each number ϕ, it is
easy to check that there is exactly one number x0 ∈ (0; 1) thus there
are n numbers x0 such that Pn (x) = 0, which implies that the given
polynomial has n distinct real roots.

Remark. This problem can be solved by pure trigonometric method or

induction on n but these ways are more complicated.

Problem 3. Let ABC be an acute, non isosceles triangle which in-

scribed in a circle (O) with M is the midpoint of BC, orthocenter H.
The circle of diameter BC cuts AH at D, D0 such that D0 lies inside
triangle ABC. Suppose that AO cuts M D at X.

1. Prove that AM bisects the segment D0 X.

2. Define the points E, F similarly to D; define the points Y, Z simi-
larly to X. Suppose that S is the intersection of two tangent lines
of (O) at B, C and G is the projection of midpoint of AS onto
the line AO. Prove that there is a point has the same power to
four circles (SGO), (BY E), (CF Z), (O).

Solution. 1) Denote H 0 as the reflection of H through M . Since BH 0 k

CH, CH⊥AB we have BH 0 ⊥AB so AH 0 is the diameter of (O). Let
Ha be the midpoint of DD0 then DHa is altitude of 4DBC is right,
thus
Ha D2 = Ha B · Ha C = Ha H · Ha A.

33
 Solution of TST problems

Hence, (HA, DD0 ) = −1 implies that X(HA, DD0 ) = −1. But M is

midpoint of HH 0 so by the propety of the harmonic bundle, we have
HH 0 k D0 X. Thus, AM bisects D0 X.

2) First, we shall prove that there exist a point that has the same power
to four circles (AXD), (BY E), (CZF ) and (O). Consider the following
lemma

Lemma. The circle (ADX) cuts (O) at the second point La . Then,
ALa is symmedian of triangleABC.

Proof. Denote Hc as the projection of H onto AB then Hc , H, Ha , B

are concyclic so

AH · AHa = AHc · AB = AD0 · AD

34
 Solution of TST problems

0 AD0
Thus AD AHa 0 0 AX
AH = AD but D X k HH so AH = AH 0 . Hence, by T hales
theorem, we obtain Ha X k DH 0 so

AD · AX = AHa · AH 0 = AB · AC.

Morever AD, AX are isogonal conjugate in the angle ∠BAC so D, X

can be obtained by a symmetric inversion of power AB · AC and axis
is the angle bisector of ∠BAC. But DX passes through the midpoint
M of BC so ALa is indeed the symmedian of triangle 4ABC.

Back to the problem,

By the lemma, the symmedian ALa is the radical axis of (AXD) and
(O); similarly, the symmedians of vertices B, C are respectively the
radical axes of (BY E), (CZF ) with (O).

35
 Solution of TST problems

Thus the Lemoine point L of 4ABC, which is concurrent point of three

symmedians, has the same power to four circles (AXD), (BY E), (CZF )
and (O).

Next, we will prove that L also lies on the radical axis of (SGO) and
(O). Consider the following lemma

Lemma. Three points L, M, N are collinear.

Proof. Indeed, put BC = a, CA = b, AB = c then

−−→ −−→ → −
(a2 + b2 − c2 )Ha B + (a2 + c2 − b2 )Ha C = 0
and
−→ −→ −→ → −
a2 LA + b2 LB + c2 LC = 0
so
−→ −→ −−→
(a2 + b2 − c2 )LB + (a2 + c2 − b2 )LC = 2a2 LH.
−−→ −−→ −→ −→ −→ −−→
Thus a2 LN = a2 LHa +a2 LA = (b2 +c2 −a2 ) LB+ 2
LC
= (a2 −b2 −c2 )LM
hence, L ∈ M N.

Now, denote N as the midpoint of AHa and U, V are intersections of

M N with (O). Note that ∆AM Ha ∼ ∆AJG (since two pairs of lines
AHa , AO and AJ, AM are isogonal conjugate in the angle ∠BAC) thus
∆AM N ∼ ∆ASG, so
∠OGS = ∠AGS = ∠AN M = ∠OM V since AN k OM.
From OM · OS = OV 2 , we conclude that ∠OM V = ∠OV S, which
leads to ∠OGS = ∠OV S thus O, G, V, S are concyclic. Now we have
M O · M S = M B · M C = M U · M V so five points O, G, U, V, S are
concyclic.

Therefore, the point L has the same power to all five circles
(AXD), (BY E), (CZF ), (SGO), (O).

36
 Solution of TST problems

4.2. Day 2

Problem 4. Find all triplets of positive integers (x, y, z) such that

2x + 1 = 7y + 2z .

Solution. Since x, y, z ∈ Z+ we have 7y > 1, so 2x > 2z or x > z, the

given equation can be written as

2z (2x−z − 1) = 7y − 1.

Note that 7y ≡ 1 (mod3) so 3|7y − 1, which leads to 3|2x−z − 1 thus

x − z must be even. (*)

We consider some cases

1. If y is odd then by LTE lemma, we have v2 (7y −1) = v2 (7−1) = 1.
Thus v2 (2z ) = 1 ⇒ z = 1. Substitute into the original equation,
we have 2x = 7y + 1. But v2 (7y + 1) = v2 (7 + 1) = 3, leads to
x = 3, y = 1. Thus z = 1 and we obtain a solution in this case is
(x, y, z) = (3, 1, 1).
2. If y is even, put y = 2k with k ∈ Z+ , then

2z (2x−z − 1) = 49k − 1.

We continue to consider two following cases:

(a) If k is odd then v2 (49k − 1) = v2 (49 − 1) = 4, leads to z = 4.
Substitute to the given equation, we have 2x − 49k = 15,
but z = 4 so by (*) we get x is even, then put x = 2t with
t ∈ Z+ we have

4t − 49k = 15 ⇔ (2t + 7k )(2t − 7k ) = 15.

Since 2t + 7k ≤ 15 then 7k < 15 so k = 1. Thus 4t = 64

or t = 3. Hence, we have x = 6, y = 2.Then we can obtain
another solution is (x, y, z) = (6, 2, 4).

37
 Solution of TST problems

(b) If k is even, put k = 2l thn y = 4l, so we have 49k ≡

(−1)k ≡ 1 (mod25) thus 25|2x−z − 1. Follow by (*), put
x − z = 2a with a ∈ Z+ then 25|4a − 1 so 5|4a − 1, implies
that a is even; then continue to put a = 2b with b ∈ Z+ then
v5 (49k − 1) ≥ 2, with note that

v5 (2z (16b − 1)) = v5 (16b − 1) = v5 (15) + v5 (b) = 1 + v5 (b).

From this, we can conclude that 5|b so put b = 5c with

c ∈ Z+ , we have 2x−z − 1 = 1024c − 1 ≡ 0 ( mod 1023). Note
that 31|1023 so 31|7y − 1. But
5
715 = (73 ) ≡ 3435 ≡ 25 = 32 ≡ 1(mod31)

and 73 , 75 , 710 6= 1 ( mod 31) so ord31 (7) = 15. Hence, by the

property of the order of number, we obtain 15|y so 3|y, but
4|y then 12|y, this implies that 13|7y − 1 by Little Fermat
theorem.

Thus 13|2x−z − 1 and ord13 (2) = 12 which leads to 12|x − z,

and 7|2x−z − 1, a contradiction since the right hand is not
divisible by 7. So in this case, the given equation does not
have any solution.

Therefore, all triplets satisfy condition are (x, y, z) = (3, 1, 1), (6, 2, 4).

Problem 5. Let ABC be an non isosceles triangle which inscribed in

a circle (O) and has incircle (I). Suppose that BI cuts AC at E and
CI cuts AB at F. The circle passes through E, tangent to OB at B
cuts (O) at M. The circle passes through F tangent to OC at C cuts
(O) at N. The lines M E, N F respectively cut (O) second time at P, Q.
Denote K as the intersection of EF and BC. The line P Q cuts BC, EF
respectively at G, H. Prove that the median of the vertex G in triangle
GHK is perpendicular to the line OI.

38
 Solution of TST problems

Solution. First, we need to prove the following lemma

Lemma. Let ABC be an acute, non isosceles triangle with altitudes

AD, BE, CF . DE cuts CF at X, and DF cuts BE at Y . Denote N
as the nine-point center then we have AN ⊥ XY.

Proof. Denote H, O as the orthocenter and circumcenter of triangle

ABC. Let O0 is the reflection of O through BC then O0 is the circum-
center of (BHC). Since N is the midpoint of OH, then OM = 12 AH
implies that OO0 = AH, so AHO0 O is the parallelogram. So A, O0 , N
are collinear.

Since H, F, D, B lie on the circle of diameter HB so Y H ·Y B = Y F ·Y D

implies that Y belongs to the radical axis of (N ), (BHC). Similar to
X, then we obtain XY ⊥O0 N.

39
 Solution of TST problems

Back to the problem, note that the Apollonius circle of vertex B is

orthogonal to (O) and passes through B, E so (BEM ) is indeed, the
MA BA EA
B − Apollonius circle. Thus M C = BC = EC or M E is the angle
bisector of ∠AM C. Thus, P is the midpoint of the arc AC contains B.
Similarly, Q is the midpoint of the arc AB contains C, thus P Q ⊥ AI.

Denote Ia , Ib , Ic as the excenters respect to vertices A, B, C of triangle

ABC. Note that AIa , BIb , CIc are the altitudes of triangle Ia Ib Ic so
by the lemma, we get OIa ⊥EF. Let S be the midpoint of the minor
BC of (O) then S is the midpoint of IIa and OS⊥GH. But P, Q are
midpoints of Ia Ic , Ia Ib so P Q⊥AIa , the altitude of triangle Ia Ib Ic .

From these, we conclude that the sides of two triangles 4GKH, 4SOIa
are corresponding perpendicular, so they are similar and there exist a
spiral similarity of angle 90◦ maps one triangle to another. So we need
to prove that the median of vertex S of 4SOIa is parallel to OI.

40
 Solution of TST problems

But this is obvious because if denote R as midpoint of the segment OIa

then SR is the midline of 4Ia IO then SR k OI.

Problem 6. A bug lies on the position with coordinate x = 1 of real

number axis. In each second, from the position of coordinate x = a, it
can jump to x = a + 2 or x = a2 . Prove that in at most n seconds, there
are exactly
Fn+4 − (n + 4)
distinct positions (including the first one) that the bug can jump to ,
in which (Fn ) is the Fibonacci sequence defined by F0 = F1 = 1, Fn =
Fn−1 + Fn−2 with n ≥ 2.

Solution. Denote M as the set of number of form 2ab with a is odd

positive integer, n is non-negative integer. It is easy to see that elements
of M is all the position the bug can jump to.

For each x ∈ M , denote f (x) as the minimum number of seconds

that need to visit x from 1. Clearly, f (x) is well-defined and finite
because we note that with number x0 = 2ab ∈ M , the bug can visit
after a−1
2 jump of types "+2"and b jumps of type "/2", which implies
that f 2ab ≤ a−1


2 + b.

For
 each positive integer n, put Pn = {x |x ∈ M ∧ f (x) = n } , Qn =
x x ∈ Pn ∧ x2 ∈ Pn+1 and Rn = Pn \Qn . Note that Qn is the set
of numbers x such that the number x2 only can obtained after n + 1
seconds, and Rn is the set of number x such that x2 ∈ Pn . By that
definitions, we can see that the total distinct positions the bugs can
jump to after n jumps is

|P0 | + |P1 | + · · · + |Pn | .

It is required to find the formula for Pn . We have some observations

41
 Solution of TST problems

• If to travel from 1 → x, the bug needs n seconds then to travel

from 1 → x + 2, the bug needs n + 1 seconds.
• If to travel from 1 → x2 , the bug needs n + 1 seconds then to
travel from 1 → x, the bug needs n seconds.
Hence, for all x ∈ M with f (x) = n then f (x + 2) = n + 1. Thus
|Pn+1 | = |Pn | + |Qn | , ∀n ∈ Z+ .
Next, we shall prove that
x ∈ Pn ⇔ x + 4 ∈ Rn+2 .
Indeed, consider x0 ∈ Pn thenx0 + 4 ∈ Pn+2 , but x02+4 = x20 + 2 is the
number can be obtained by just n + 2 jumps so x0 + 4 ∈ Rn+2 . In the
other hand, if x0 + 4 ∈ Rn+2 then similarly x20 + 2 ∈ Pn+2 → x20 ∈
Pn+1 → x0 ∈ Pn . From this, we conclude that
|Pn | = |Rn+2 | .
So we have the inductive relations
|Pn | = |Qn | + |Rn | = |Pn+1 | − |Pn | + |Pn−2 |
⇒ |Pn+1 | = 2 |Pn | − |Pn−2 | with n ≥ 2.
Note that |P0 | = 1, |P1 | = 2, |P2 | = 4 so by put un = |Pn+1 | − |Pn | then
un = un−1 + un−2 and u0 = 1, u1 = 2 so easy to obtain un = Fn+2 so
|Pn | = Fn+2 − 1 for all n ≥ 0. Finally, we just need to prove that
n
X
(Fk+2 − 1) = Fn+4 − (n + 4).
k=0
But this can be done easy by noticing that
• By substituting n → n + 1, the left hand side increases Fn+3 − 1.
• By substituting n → n + 1, the right hand side increases
(Fn+5 − (n + 5)) − (Fn+4 − (n + 4)) = Fn+3 − 1.

The problem is solved completely.

42