Chapter 2

Electrostatic Fields

An electrostatic field is produced by a static charge distribution. Electro-

static fields are governed by:

1. Coulomb’s law, and

2. Gauss’s law.

2.1 Coulomb’s Law

Coulomb’s law states that if point charges Q1 and Q2 are located at points
having position vector r1 and r2 , then the vector force F12 on Q2 due to Q1
is (Figure 2.1)
Q1 Q2
F12 = aR (2.1)
4πεo R2 12
where

R12 = r2 − r1 (2.2a)
R = |R12 | (2.2b)
R12
aR12 = (2.2c)
R
10−9
εo = 8.854 × 10−12 ≈ Farad/m (2.2d)
36π
By substituting (2.2) in (2.1)

Q1 Q2 R12
F12 = (2.3)
4πεo R3

1
 Class Notes on ECEG-2110
2.1. COULOMB’S LAW Electromagnetic Fields

or
Q1 Q2 (r2 − r1 )
F12 = (2.4)
4πεo |r2 − r1 |3
By the principle of superposition, if there are N charges Q1 , Q2 , . . . , QN
located respectively at r1 , r2 , . . . , rN , the resultant force F on a charge Q
located at r is
QQ1 (r − r1 ) QQ2 (r − r2 ) QQN (r − rN )
F= + + ··· + (2.5)
4πεo |r − r1 |3 4πεo |r − r1 |3 4πεo |r − rN |3
or
N
Q X Qk (r − rk )
F= (2.6)
4πεo |r − rk |3
k=1

2.1.1 Electric field Intensity E

The electric field intensity or electric field strength is defined as the force
per unit charge q when placed in the vicinity of a charge Q
F
E = lim (2.7)
q→0 q

or
F
E= N/C or Volt/m (2.8)
q
The electric field intensity at point r due to a point charge Q located at r0
is (from Eq. 2.4)

Q Q (r − r0 )
E= aR = (2.9)
4πεo R2 4πεo |r − r0 |3

For N point charges, E at point r is

N
1 X Qk (r − rk )
E= (2.10)
4πεo |r − rk |3
k=1

Example 2.1: Point charges 1 mC and -2 mC are located at (3, 2, −1) and (−1, −1, 4)
respectively. Calculate the electric force on a 10 nC charge located at (0, 3, 1) and
the electric field intensity at that point.

Exercise 2.1: Point charges 5 nC and -2 nC are located at (2, 0, 4) and (−3, 0, 5)
respectively

Murad Ridwan, 2 of 12
Dep. of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
Oct 2010.
 Class Notes on ECEG-2110
2.2. CONTINUOUS CHARGE DISTRIBUTIONS Electromagnetic Fields

a. Determine the force on a 1 nC charge located at (1, −3, 7)

b. Find the electric field E at (1, −3, 7)

Ans. (a) −1.004ax − 1.284ay + 1.4az nN, (b) −1.004ax − 1.284ay + 1.4az
V/m.
Exercise 2.2: Eight identical point charges 1 nC each are placed one on each cor-
ner of a cube with side 2 m. Find the magnitude of the total force on each of the
charges. (Ans. 7.4 nN)

Exercise 2.3: Two point charges of equal mass m, charge Q are suspended at
a common point by two threads of negligible mass and length l. Show that at
equilibrium the inclination angle α of each thread to the vertical is given by

Q2 = 16πεo mgl2 sin2 α tan α

If α is very small, show that

s
3 Q2
α=
16πεo mgl2

(Hint: for small α, sin α ≈ tan α ≈ α )

Example 2.2: Electrostatic separation of solids: Florida phosphate ore, consisting

of small particles of quartz (-ve) and phosphate (+ve) rock, can be separated into
its components by using a uniform electric field as in Figure 2.2. Assuming zero
initial velocity and displacement, determine the separation between the particles
after falling 80 cm. Take E = 500 kV/m, Q/m = 9µC/kg.

2.2 Continuous Charge Distributions

Let the line charge density, surface charge density and volume charge density
be represented by ρl (C/m), ρs (C/m2 ) and ρv (C/m3 ) respectively. The
electric field due to each distribution is obtained by replacing Q in (2.10)
with charge elements ρl dl, ρs dS or ρv dV
Z
ρl dl
E = aR line charge (2.11)
4πεo R2
ZL
ρs dS
E = aR surface charge (2.12)
4πεo R2
ZS
ρv dV
E = a
2 R
volume charge (2.13)
V 4πεo R

Murad Ridwan, 3 of 12
Dep. of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
Oct 2010.
 Class Notes on ECEG-2110
2.3. ELECTRIC FLUX DENSITY D Electromagnetic Fields

Note that R2 and aR vary as the integrals in the above equations are eval-
uated.

Example 2.3: Standard charge distributions: Derive the electric field intensity for
the charge distributions:
a. A finite length line charge
ρl
E= [−(sin α2 − sin α1 )aρ + (cos α2 − cos α1 )az ] (2.14)
4πεo ρ

b. Infinite line charge

ρl
E= aρ (2.15)
2πεo ρ
c. Infinite surface charge
ρs
E= an (2.16)
2εo
where an is a unit vector normal to the sheet surface.
Exercise 2.4: A circular ring of radius a carries a uniform charge ρl C/m and is
placed on the xy-plane with axis the same as the z−axis.
a. Show that
ρl ah
E(0, 0, h) = az
2εo (h2 + a2 )3/2
b. What value of h gives the maximum value of E? (ans. ± √a2 )
c. If the total charge on the ring is Q, find E as a → 0.
Exercise 2.5: Planes x = 2 and y = −3 respectively carry charges 10 nC/m2 and
15 nC/m2 . If the line x = 0, z = 2 carries charge 10π nC/m, calculate E at (1, 1, −1)
due to the three charge distributions. (ans. E = −162πax + 270πay − 54πaz V/m.)

2.3 Electric Flux Density D

The electric flux density D for linear isotropic homogeneous media is defined
as
D = εE C/m2 (2.17)
and the electric flux Ψ through a surface S is defined as
Z
Ψ= D · dS C (2.18)
S

Murad Ridwan, 4 of 12
Dep. of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
Oct 2010.
 Class Notes on ECEG-2110
2.4. GAUSS’S LAW Electromagnetic Fields

In SI units, one line of electric flux emanates from +1 C and terminated on

-1 C charge.

Example 2.4: Determine D at (4, 0, 3) if there is a point charge −5π mC at (4, 0, 0)

and a line charge 3π mC/m along the y−axis.

Exercise 2.6: The line y = 1, z = −3 carries charge 30 nC/m while the plane x = 1
carries charge 20 nC/m2 . Find D at the origin. (Ans. −10.01ax −0.478ay +1.434az
nC/m2 )

2.4 Gauss’s Law

Gauss’s law states that the total electric flux Ψ through any closed surface
is equal to the total charge enclosed by that surface.

Ψ = Qenc (2.19)

Since I Z
Ψ= D · dS, Q= ρv dV
S V
then I Z
D · dS = ρv dV (2.20)
S V

By applying the divergence theorem,

I Z
D · dS = ∇ · DdV
S V

we have
∇ · D = ρv (2.21)
Equations (2.20) and (2.21) are the first of the four Maxwell’s Equations in
integral and differential forms, respectively.

Gauss’s law provides an easy means of finding E or D for symmetrical charge

distributions. To exploit symmetry, first select a closed surface (known as
Gaussian surface) such that D is normal or tangent to the surface, hence
D · dS = D dS or D · dS = 0.

Murad Ridwan, 5 of 12
Dep. of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
Oct 2010.
 Class Notes on ECEG-2110
2.5. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL V Electromagnetic Fields

Example 2.5: Using Gauss’s law, derive D for point charge, infinite line charge
and infinite sheet of charge.

Example 2.6: Consider a sphere of radius a with uniform charge ρv C/m. Find
D for r ≤ a and r > a.

Example 2.7: Given that D = zρ cos2 φ az C/m2 , calculate the charge density
at (1, π/4, 3) and the total charge enclosed by the cylinder of radius 1 m with
−2 ≤ x ≤ 2 m.

Exercise 2.7: If D = (2y 2 + z)ax + 4xyay + xaz C/m2 , find

a. the volume charge density at (−1, 0, 3)
b. the flux through the cube defined by 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, 0 ≤ y ≤ 1, 0 ≤ z ≤ 1
c. the total charge enclosed by the cube.
(Ans. (a) -4 C/m2 , (b) 2 C, (c) 2 C )
Exercise 2.8: Determine the electric flux density due to
a. ρv = −(x2 + y 2 + z 2 )−5/2 µC/m3
−r
b. ρv = 10−6 er2 µC/m3
20
c. ρv = r4 µC/m3 , r ≥ a 6= 0
Exercise 2.9: Given D = 2ρz cos2 φ aρ − ρz sin φ cos φ aφ + ρ2 cos2 φ az C/m2 ,
calculate the charge enclosed by the whole cylinder ρ = 3, 0 ≤ z ≤ 5. (ans. 706.9
C)

2.5 Electric Potential V

The work done in moving a point charge Q from point A to point B in an
electric field E is
dW = −F · dl = −QE · dl
or Z B
W = −Q E · dl (2.22)
A
The negative sign indicates that the work is being done by an external agent.

Murad Ridwan, 6 of 12
Dep. of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
Oct 2010.
 Class Notes on ECEG-2110
2.5. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL V Electromagnetic Fields

The potential difference between A and B, VAB , is the work done per unit
charge. Hence
Z B
W
VAB = =− E · dl (2.23)
Q A
For point charge Q located at origin
Z rB
Q
VAB = − a · dl
2 r
rA 4πε or
but dl = dr ar + rdθ aθ + r sin θ aφ
Z rB
Q dr
⇒ VAB = −
4πεo rA r2
 
Q 1 1
= −
4πεo rA rB
or VAB = VB − VA
It implies that the potential is independent of the path taken. VA , VB are
the absolute potentials at A and B.

If VA = 0 as rA → ∞, the potential at any point (rB → r) due to Q at

origin is
Q
V = (2.24)
4πεo r
In general, the potential at any point is defined as the potential difference
between that point and a chosen point at which the potential is zero.

If Q is at r0
Q
V (r) = (2.25)
4πεo |r − r0 |
For N charges Q1 , Q2 , . . . , QN located at r1 , r2 , . . . , rN , the potential at r is
N
1 X Qk
V (r) = (2.26)
4πεo |r − r0 |
k=1
For continuous charge distributions, we have
ρl (r0 )dl0
Z
1
V (r) = line charge (2.27)
4πεo L |r − r0 |
ρs (r0 )dS 0
Z
1
V (r) = surface charge (2.28)
4πεo S |r − r0 |
ρv (r0 )dV 0
Z
1
V (r) = volume charge (2.29)
4πεo V |r − r0 |

Murad Ridwan, 7 of 12
Dep. of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
Oct 2010.
 Class Notes on ECEG-2110
2.6. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN E AND V Electromagnetic Fields

If the reference point in the above equations is chosen other than infinity,
then Z
V = − E · dl + C, C − constant (2.30)

Example 2.8: Point charges −4 µC and 5 µC are located at (2, −1, 3) and (0, 4, −2)
respectively. Find V at (1, 0, 1) assuming V (∞) = 0.

Example 2.9: A point charge 5 nC is located at the origin. If V = 2 V at (0, 6, −8),

find
a. the potential at A(−3, 2, 6)
b. the potential at B(1, 5, 7)
c. the potential difference VAB
Example 2.10: A line of length l carries charge λ C/m. Show that the potential
in the medium plane can be written as
λ 1 + sin α
V = ln
4πεo 1 − sin α
Exercise 2.10: A point charge 5 nC is located at (−3, 4, 0) while line y = 1, z = 1
carries uniform charge 2 nC/m.
a. If V = 0 V at O(0, 0, 0), find V at A(5, 0, 1)
b. If V = 100 V at B(1, 2, 2), find V at C(−2, 5, 3)
c. If V = −5 at O, find BBC
Exercise 2.11: A thin square loop carries a uniform charge ρl . show that the
potential at the center of the loop is
2ρl √
V = ln(1 + 2)
πεo

2.6 Relationship between E and V

VAB = −VBA
I
⇒ VAB + VBA = E · dl = 0

or I
E · dl = 0 (2.31)

Murad Ridwan, 8 of 12
Dep. of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
Oct 2010.
 Class Notes on ECEG-2110
2.6. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN E AND V Electromagnetic Fields

i.e., the work done in moving a charge along a closed path in electrostatic
field is zero.
Applying Stokes’s theorem
I Z
E · dl = ∇ × E · dS,

we have
∇×E=0 (2.32)
Eq (2.32) is Maxwell’s second equation. E is conservative/ irrotational/
potential field.
Z
V = − E · dl
⇒ dV = −E · dl = −Ex dx − Ey dy − Ez dz
∂V ∂V ∂V
but dV = dx + dy + dz
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂V ∂V ∂V
⇒ Ex = − , Ey = , Ez =
∂x ∂y ∂z
Thus
E = −∇V (2.33)
If V is known, E can be computed.

10
Example 2.11: Given V = r2 sin θ cos φ
a. Find the electric flux density D at (2, π/2, 0)
b. Calculate the work done in moving a 10 µC charge from point A(1, 300 , 1200 )
to B(4, 900 , 600 ).
Exercise 2.12: Given E = (3x2 + y)ax + xay kV/m, find the work done in moving
a −2 µC charge from (0, 5, 0) to (2, −1, 0) by taking the path:
a. (0, 5, 0) → (2, 5, 0) → (2, −1, 0)
b. y = 5 − 3x
(Ans. a. 12 mJ b. 12 mJ)

Murad Ridwan, 9 of 12
Dep. of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
Oct 2010.
 Class Notes on ECEG-2110
2.7. ELECTRIC DIPOLE Electromagnetic Fields

2.7 Electric Dipole

An electric dipole is formed when two point charges of equal magnitude but
opposite sign are separated by a small distance.
At P,  
Q 1 1 Q r2 − r1
V = − =
4πεo r1 r2 4πεo r1 r2
If r  d,
r2 − r1 ≈ d cos θ, r1 r2 ≈ r2 (2.34)
then
Q d cos θ
V = (2.35)
4πεo r2
If d = daz , then d cos θ = d · ar .

Define
p = Qd (p directed from − Q to + Q) (2.36)
as the dipole moment, then (2.35) becomes
p · ar
V = (2.37)
4πεo r2
If the dipole center is not at the origin but at r0 ,

p · (r − r0 )
V = (2.38)
4πεo |r − r0 |3

Example 2.12: Derive E due to a dipole moment with center at the origin.

Example 2.13: two dipoles −5az nCm and 9az nCm are located at (0, 0, −2) and
(0, 0, 3) respectively. Find the potential at the origin.

Example 2.14: An electric dipole of 100az pCm is located at the origin. Find V
and E at points (0, 0, 10) and (1, π/3, π/2).

Exercise 2.13: An axial quadrupole is formed by three point charges Q, −2Q, Q

located at (0, 0, d), (0, 0, 0), (0, 0, −d) respectively. Show that at point (r, θ, φ)
Qd2
V ≈ (3 cos2 θ − 1) where r  d
4πεo r3
3Qd2 
(3 cos2 θ − 1)ar + sin 2θ aθ

E = 4
4πεo r

Murad Ridwan, 10 of 12
Dep. of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
Oct 2010.
 Class Notes on ECEG-2110
2.8. ENERGY IN ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS Electromagnetic Fields

2.8 Energy in Electrostatic Fields

To determine the energy present in an assembly of charges, first determine
the amount of work necessary to assemble them.
Consider three charges brought one after the other to an initially empty
space
The total work done is

WE = W1 + W2 + W3
= 0 + Q1 V21 + Q3 (V31 + V32 )

where Vij is the potential at Pi due to Qj .

In reverse order,

WE = W 3 + W2 + W1
= 0 + Q2 V23 + Q1 (V12 + V13 )

Adding the two equations

2WE = Q1 (V12 + V13 ) + Q2 (V21 + V23 ) + Q3 (V31 + V32 )

= Q1 V1 + Q2 V2 + Q3 V3
1
or WE = (Q1 V1 + Q2 V2 + Q3 V3 )
2
For N point charges,
N
1X
WE = Qk Vk (2.39)
2
k=1

For continuous charge distribution,

Z
1
WE = ρl V dl (line) (2.40)
2
Z
1
WE = ρs V ds (surface) (2.41)
2
Z
1
WE = ρv V dV (volume) (2.42)
2

Eq. (2.42) can be written as (prove)

Z Z
1 1
WE = D · E dV = εo E 2 dV (2.43)
2 V 2 V

Murad Ridwan, 11 of 12
Dep. of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
Oct 2010.
 Class Notes on ECEG-2110
2.8. ENERGY IN ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS Electromagnetic Fields

The electrostatic energy density wE (J/m3 ) is

dWE 1 1
wE = = D · E = εo E 2 (2.44)
dV 2 2

Example 2.15: Three point charges -1 nC, 4 nC, and 3 nC are located at (0, 0, 0), (0, 0, 1),
and (1, 0, 0) respectively. Find the energy in the system.

Exercise 2.14: If V = x − y + xy + 2z V, find E at (1, 2, 3) and the electrostatic

energy stored in a cube of side 2 m centered at the origin. (ans. −3ax − 2az V/m,
0.207 nJ)

Murad Ridwan, 12 of 12
Dep. of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
Oct 2010.