Module 1 Science, Technology and Society

Unit 1 General Concepts and Historical Developments

Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of this chapter, the students are expected to:
1. Articulate ways by which society is transformed by science and technology

1.1 Introduction
The historical antecedents discussed how it affected the course of science and technology.

Brilliant minds responded to the call of the times and created things that could make life easier for

the people. There have also been instances when advancements in science and technology changed

people’s perceptions and beliefs. Much of these events happened in a period now known as the

Intellectual Revolution. The developments during the Intellectual Revolution showed how society

was transformed by science and technology.

COPPERNICAN REVOLUTION

The Copernican Revolution was the paradigm shift from the Ptolemaic model of the

heavens, which described the cosmos as having Earth stationary at the center of the universe,

to the heliocentric model with the Sun at the center of the Solar System. It is a shift in the field of

astronomy from a geocentric understanding of the universe, centred around Earth, to a

heliocentric understanding, centred around the Sun, as articulated by the Polish

astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus in the 16th century.

 • Claudius Ptolemy

- Geocentrism – as stated by Ptolemy that the planets, as well as the sun and the moon,

moved in a circular motion around the Earth. The sun and moon’s revolution explained the

existence of days and nights. He believed that the Earth was at the center.

- It was widely accepted by the people and was one of the greatest discoveries of that time

• Nicolaus Copernicus

- Heliocentrism – during the 16th century, a Polish mathematician and astronomer

challenged the Ptolemaic model. He suggested that the center of the Solar System was not the

Earth but actually the sun.

- It was rejected at first by the public because it contradicted to their religious beliefs.

They believed that Earth was created first before all other things.

- After some time, astronomers realized that his model simplified the orbits for planets.

It also answered issues that could not be explained by the geocentric model.

• It was eventually accepted by the people in a period which was called the birth of modern

astronomy. This era began what was known as the scientific revolution which resulted in

the transformation of society’s thoughts and beliefs.

DARWINIAN REVOLUTION

• In 1859, Charles Darwin, and English naturalist, biologist, and geologist, published his

book, On the Origin of Species.

• He introduced the theory of evolution, which posited that populations pass through a

process of natural selection in which only the fittest will survive. He stated that organisms

have the ability to adapt to their environment and would gradually change into

something that would be more competitive to survive, a process known as evolution.

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 • This theory became very controversial because it is contradictory to the church’s

teachings that the source of life is the powerful creator. The people believed and accepted

the biblical version of the Earth’s creation. It even sparked a massive debate between

science and religion.

• It was only after some time that people came to understand that Darwin’s theory of

evolution was not in fact against the teachings of the church and both can coexist.

FREUDIAN REVOLUTION

• Psychology was considered more of an art rather than a science.

• In the late 19th century, Sigmund Freud was able to change people’s perception of

psychology with his revolutionary theory of psychoanalysis.

• Psychoanalysis is the study that explains human behavior.

• Freud explained that there are factors that can influence behavior and emotions. He also

argued that personality is a product of three conflicting behaviors: id, ego, and superego.

• Id – pleasure-principle; anything that makes you happy (desire, selfish)

• Ego – reality-principle; between good and evil

• Superego – conscience-principle

• Many believed that Freud’s theory had no scientific basis as no empirical or

experimental data could support it.

• He continued to work on refining his theory and tried to explain how psychoanalysis can

be a clinical method in treating some mental disorders. Soon enough, people were able to

understand the concepts of psychoanalysis, which eventually resulted in classifying

psychology as a science.

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 Mesoamerican Revolution Maya Civilization

• Mesoamerica – includes the entire area of Central America from Southern Mexico up to

the border of South America. Rich in culture and knowledge.

• Maya Civilization

- one of the famous civilization that lasted for approximately 2,000 years. Known for their

works in astronomy.

- They incorporated their advanced understanding of astronomy into their temples

and other religious structures. This allows them to use their temples for astronomical

observation.

- For example, the pyramid at Chichen Itza in Mexico is situated at the location of the

Sun during the spring and fall equinoxes.

- Developed the technology for growing different crops and building elaborate cities using

ordinary machineries and tools.

- They built hydraulics system with sophisticated waterways to supply water to different

communities

- Believed to be the one of the first people to produce rubber products 3,000 years before

Goodyear received its patent in 1844.

- They are also famous as one of the world’s first civilizations to use a writing system

known as

Mayan hieroglyphics.

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 • Inca civilization

- roads paved with stones.

- stone buildings that surmounted earthquakes and other disasters.

- irrigation system and technique for storing water for their crops to grow in all types of

land.

- calendar with 12 months to mark their religious festivals and prepare them for planting

system.

- the first suspension bridge.

- quipu, a system of knotted ropes to keep records that only experts can interpret.

- Inca textiles since cloth was one of the specially prized artistic achievements.

• Aztec Civilization

- Mandatory education – The Aztec puts value on education; that is why their children

are mandated to get education regardless of their social classes, gender, or age. It is an early

form of universal or inclusive education.

- Chocolates - The Aztec valued the cacao beans highly and made it as part of their tribute

to their gods.

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 - Antispasmodic medication – it could prevent muscle spasms and relax muscles, which

could help during surgery.

- Chinampa – a form of Aztec technology for agricultural farming in which the land was

divided into rectangular areas and surrounded by canals.

- Aztec calendar – enabled them to plan their activities, rituals, and planting season.

- Invention of the canoe – A light narrow boat used for traveling in water systems.

Asian Revolution

• India

- Manufacturing iron and metallurgical works. Their iron steel is considered to be the best

and held with high regard in the whole of Roman Empire.

- Medicine. E.g., Ayurveda, a system of traditional medicine that originated in ancient

India before 2500 BC is still practiced as a form of alternative medicine. They discovered some

medicinal properties of plants that led them to develop medicines to cure various illnesses.

- Astronomy. Developed theories on the configuration of the universe, the spherical self-

supporting Earth, and the year of 360 days with 12 equal parts of 30 days.

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 - Mathematics. The Indus Valley Civilization tried to standardize measurement of length

to a high degree of accuracy and designed a ruler, the Mohenjodaro ruler.

• China

- Traditional medicines. The practice of acupuncture.

- Technology: compass, papermaking, gunpowder, and printing tools, iron plough,

wheelbarrow, and propeller among others.

- Astronomy. Significant records of supernova, lunar and solar eclipses, and comets, which

were carefully recorded and preserved to understand better the heavenly bodies and their effects

to the world.

Middle East Revolution

• The Middle East countries are dominantly occupied by Muslims.

• With the spread of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries, a period of Muslim scholarship, or

what is called the Golden Age of Islam lasted until the 13th century.

• A Muslim scientist named Ibn-al-Haytham is regarded as the Father of Optics, especially

for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light.

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 • Mathematics. The mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi gave his name to

the concept of algorithm while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr. What is known as

the Arabic Numeral System originally came from India, but Muslim mathematicians did

make several refinements to the number system, such as the introduction of decimal point

notation.

• Chemistry. Jabir ibn Hayyan considered to be the “Father of Chemistry”

• Medicine. Ibn Sina pioneered the science of experimental medicine and was the first

physician to conduct clinical trials. His two most notable works in medicine, the Book of

Healing and The Canon of Medicine, were used as standard medicinal texts in both Muslim

world and in Europe during the 17th century. He also discovered the contagious nature of

infectious diseases and the introduction of clinical pharmacology.

African Revolution

• Astronomy. Three types of calendars: lunar, solar, and stellar, or a combination of three.

Lunar Calendar

A lunar calendar is a calendar based on the monthly cycles of the Moon's phases (synodic

months), in contrast to solar calendars, whose annual cycles are based only directly on the

solar year.

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 Stellar Calendar

The Stellar Year is based on the position of the Sun in the Zodiac. ... The Stellar

Calendar Year has 364 days, with an extra day every 72 years (these years are known as leap

years), and a second extra day every 90 leap years (known as a Great Quarter).

Solar Calendar

A solar calendar is a calendar whose dates indicate the season or almost equivalently the

apparent position of the Sun relative to the stars. The Gregorian calendar, widely accepted as

standard in the world, is an example of a solar calendar.

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 • Metallurgy. They invented tools used in their homes, in agriculture, and in building their

magnificent architectures.

• Mathematics. The Lebombo Bone from the mountains between Swaziland and South

Africa, which may have been a tool for multiplication, division, and simple mathematical

calculation or a six-month lunar calendar, is considered to be the oldest known

mathematical artifact dated from 35,000 BCE.

Lebombo Bone

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