FIBPRO 0058 2022 E 14th PHD Symposium in Rome Italy

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14th fib PhD Symposium

in Civil Engineering
Rome (Italy), September 5-7, 2022, Proceedings
Edited by: M. di Prisco, A. Meda, G.L. Balázs

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Proceedings of the 14th fib PhD Symposium in Civil Engineering
held in Rome, Italy
September 5-7, 2022.
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Editors:
Marco di Prisco, Politecnico of Milan, Milan, Italy
Alberto Meda, University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, Rome, Italy
Gyorgy L. Balazs, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Budapest, Hungary
© Fédération Internationale du Béton – International Federation for Structural Concrete

Every effort has been made to ensure that all published information has been reviewed by suitably
qualified professionals and that all information submitted is original, has not been published previously
and is not being considered for publication elsewhere. Further, the fib has made every effort to ensure
that any and all permissions to quote from other sources has been obtained. The editor and the publisher
are not responsible for the statements or opinions expressed in this publication.
fib Proceedings are not able to, nor intended to, supplant individual training, responsibility or judgement
of the user, or the supplier, of the information presented. Although the Scientific Committee did its best
to ensure that all the information presented in this publication is accurate, no liability or responsibility of
any kind, including liability for negligence, is accepted in this respect by the organization, its members,
employees or agents.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, modified, translated, stored in a
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Cover Photo “Pier Luigi Nervi Palazzetto dello Sport Rome 1960”, photo credits Mario Carrieri 2010
ISSN 2617-4820
ISBN 978-2-940643-17-2
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PREFACE
The 14th fib PhD Symposium in Civil Engineering has been held for the first time in Italy, at the University
of Rome Tor Vergata.
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The previous editions were organized in Budapest (1996, 1998), Vienna (2000), Munich (2002), Delft (2004),
Zurich (2006), Stuttgart (2008), Lingby (2010), Karlsruhe (2012), Quebec City (2014), Tokyo (2016), Prague
(2018), Paris (2020/21).
The selection of the venue has been decided by a quite large group of colleagues who have participated,
as members of the Scientific Committee, to promote fib in the Scientific Community and to animate it by
means of their scientific activity. Rome, the Eternal City, represents the past, the present and the future of
concrete from an architectural point of view, and very few towns can compete with it in this special
representativeness.
The event is a look at the future of the scientific community that must face the challenge of sustainable
building: it collects around 120 PhD theses on the main research topics of concrete structures, carried out
by the people who will take up the baton to make complex choices on the built environment to guarantee
the progress of technical and social activities without sacrifying the future of subsequent generations.
The researchers come from all over the world. We received more than 151 papers from 72 research
Institutes and Universities: as expected, Italy has the largest representativeness with 49 papers, Germany
the second one with 31 papers and the third position is from Hungary and Switzerland, both with 8 papers.
Twenty-nine countries have candidates. The selection was quite hard, and we arrived to admit only 115
papers.
The four main topics involved in the theses are: Structural Analysis and Design (27%), Innovation in Concrete
Technology (18%), Durability and Materials (17%) and Retrofitting and Assessment of Existing Structures (14%).
For the first time we have also theses on History of Concrete Structures and Assessment of Heritage Buildings.
The high scientific level of the Symposium also attracted the interest of large companies operating at
international level. Companies like MAPEI, Bekaert, specialized companies like ASDEA Software, ÎHUYHQND
Consulting (ATENA) and the National Federation of Concrete Companies FEDERBETON, that represents the
whole industrial chain of concrete firms in Italy, have decided to give away significant prizes to promote
the technological culture of concrete and the commitment of the young participants.
The Symposium has been used also by REcube, an Erasmus Plus Project financed by European Community
aimed at the transmission and the dissemination of a new sustainable approach to the conservation and
reuse of modern reinforced concrete architecture at European and international level, as multiplier event.
It collects 10 Research Institutes, 5 Associated Partners (fib included) and promotes the enhancement of
the significant European heritage: the REcube action is oriented to prepare master's degree students of
engineering and architecture by courses organized by university partners to foster the development of a
new mentality in the field of modern heritage regeneration.
The main contribution to the communication with the candidates, the distribution of the reviews and the
patient daily control of the progress in the selection of papers has been followed by the Italian fib Young
Members Group and, in particular, by Isabella Giorgia Colombo, Marta Del Zoppo, Diego Gino, Simone
Spagnuolo, Diego Alejandro Talledo: our thanks go to them for the time dedicated to this precious activity.
Marco di Prisco, Alberto Meda and Gyorgy Balazs
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ORGANISING COMMITTEE
Marta Del Zoppo – University of Naples Federico II, Italy – University College London, United Kingdom
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Isabella Giorgia Colombo – DSC Erba, Italy
Simone Spagnuolo - University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, Italy
Diego Gino – Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy
Diego Talledo – University IUAV of Venice, Italy
Fabio Di Carlo - University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, Italy
Ilaria Giannetti - University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, Italy
Simona Bianchi – TU Delft, The Netherlands
Elena Ciampa - University of Sannio, Italy
Antonio Conforti - University of Brescia, Italy
Simone Labò - University of Bergamo, Italy
Costantino Menna - University of Naples Federico II, Italy
Giovanni Minafò - University of Palermo, Italy
Daniele Perrone - University of Salento, Italy
Luca Pozza - University of Bologna, Italy

Giulio Zani – Polytechnic University of Milan, Italy
SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE
Marco di Prisco (Chair) - Polytechnic University of Milan, Italy
Alberto Meda (Vice-Chair) - University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, Italy
David Fernandez-Ordonez (Vice-Chair) – fib International
Akio Kasuga (fib President) - fib International
Edoardo Cosenza - University of Naples Federico II, Italy
Maria Antonietta Aiello – University of Salento, Italy
Joao Almeida - University of Lisbon, Portugal
Domenico Asprone - University of Naples Federico II, Italy
György L. Balázs - Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Hungary
Patrick Bamonte – Polytechnic University of Milan, Italy
Beatrice Belletti – University of Parma, Italy
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Konrad Bergmeister - University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Austria
Antonio Bilotta - University of Naples Federico II, Italy
Mikael Braestrup - Ramboll, Engineering Company, Denmark
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Robby Caspeele - Ghent University, Belgium
Paolo Castaldo -Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy
Henry Chris - Atkins, Engineering and design company, United Kingdom
Matteo Colombo – Polytechnic University of Milan, Italy
Dario Coronelli - Polytechnic University of Milan, Italy
Hugo Corres Peiretti - Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain
Manfred Curbach - Technische Univeritat Dresden, Germany
Frank Dehn - Karlsruhe Institut of Technology (KIT), Germany
Wit Derkowski - Linnaeus University, Sweden
Iria Doniak - Member of the fib Presidium
Rolf Eligehausen - Universität Stuttgart, Germany
Vyacheslav Falikman - Deputy President of fib
Liberato Ferrara - Polytechnic University of Milan, Italy

Stephen Foster - Moscow State University of Civil Engineering, Russia
Paolo Franchin - Sapienza Rome University, Italy
Hans Rudolf Ganz - Ganz Consulting, Swizerland
Natividad Garcia - Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral (ESPOL), Ecuador
Petr Hájek - Czech Technical University in Prague, Czech Republic
Steinar Helland - S Helland Konsult, Norway
Alper Ilki - Instanbul Technical University, Turkey
Eduardo Julio - Instituto Superior Técnico, Portugal
Milan Kalny - Pontex Consulting Engineering, Czech Republic
Lidia La Mendola – University of Palermo, Italy
Xilin Lu - Tongji University, China
Giuseppe Mancini - Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy
Marco Menegotto – aicap, Italy
Fausto Minelli – University of Brescia, Italy
Harald Muller - Karlsruhe Institut of Technology (KIT), Germany
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Aurelio Muttoni – EPFL, Swizerland
Tor Ole Olsen - Past President of fib
Joao Pacheco - University of Lisbon, Portugal
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Stefano Pampanin - Sapienza Rome University, Italy
Fulvio Parisi - University of Naples Federico II, Italy
Maria Rosaria Pecce - University of Naples Federico II, Italy
Giovanni Plizzari – University of Brescia, Italy
Andrea Prota - University of Naples Federico II
Zila Rinaldi - University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, Italy
Paolo Riva - University of Bergamo, Italy
Anna Saetta - University IUAV of Venice, Italy
Koji Sakai - Japan Sustainability Institute, Japan
Marco Savoia – University of Bologna, Italy
Andri Setiawan – fib YMG Indonesia
Alfred Strauss - University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Austria
Luc Taerwe - Ghent University, Belgium

Jean-Michel Torrenti - Université Gustave Eiffel, France
Tamon Ueda - Hokkaido University, Japan
Agnieszka Bigaj Van Vliet – TNO, The Netherlands
Lucie Vandewalle - Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium
Jan Vitek - Czech Technical University, Czech Republic
Joost Walraven - TU Delft, The Netherlands
UNIVERSITIES
BAM
Bogazici University
Budapest University of Technology and Economics
Czech TU
Delft University of Technology
Eindhoven University of Technology
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EPFL
ETH Zurich
Ghent University
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Imperial College London
Instituto superior Técnico, Lisboa, Portugal
Israel Insitute of Technology
KIT
KU Leauven
North Caroline State University
Ovidius University of Constanta
Politecnico di Milano
Politecnico di Torino
Polytechnic University of Catalonia
Rurh University Bochum
Seoul National University
Slovak University of Technology

Ss. Cyril and Methodius University
Technical University of Cluj-Napoca
Technische Universität Berlin
TU Braunschweig
TU Chemnitz
TU Denmark
TU Dortmund
TU Dresden
TU Graz
UIB Universitat de les Illes Balears
Universidad Politécnica de Madrid
Università IUAV di Venezia
Université de Nantes
Université Gustave Eiffel
University of Applied Sciences Würzburg-Schweinfurt
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University of Augsburg
University of Bath
University of Bologna
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University of Brescia
University of Calabria
University of Dundee
University of Hannover
University of Kaiserslautern
University of Messina
University of Molise
University of Naples Federico II
University of New South Wales
University of Palermo
University of Parma
University of Rome La Sapienza
University of Rome Tor Vergata

University of Salerno
University of Southen Denmark
University of Technology Chemnitz
University of Udine
Vilnius Gediminas Technical University
Yokohama National University
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Theme: Structural analysis and design
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A new perspective on the punching resistance of edge columns with and without shear reinforcement applying refined
measurement techniques
Diego Hernández Fraile and Aurelio Muttoni 1
Geometric characteristic of flexural-shear cracks of members without shear reinforcement
Jiandong Lu, Yuguang Yang and Max A.N. Hendriks 9
Effects of steel ties layout and corrosion on structural behavior of Gerber half-joints
Filippo Molaioni and Zila Rinaldi 17
An in-situ experimental test on a reinforced concrete beam: test design and main results
Guglielmo Amendola, Paolo Castaldo, Giuseppe Mancini, Elena Tetta, Giulia Lastrico, Massimo Gammino,
Auro Palastanga, Giuseppe Pasqualato, Christian Bonaldi and Maurizio Deiana 25
High performance-fibre reinforced concrete as a high performance and cost-effective solution for precast concrete
bridges
Rafael Ruiz, Leonardo Todisco and Hugo Corres 33
Robustness analysis of reinforced concrete structures: design issues
Elena Miceli and Paolo Castaldo 41
Experimental investigation of the influence of stirrup spacing on the shear capacity of reinforced concrete beams
Frederik Autrup, Henrik Brøner Jørgensen and Linh Cao Hoang 49
Shear tests on reinforced concrete beams focused on the transition of beams with and without shear reinforcement
Christoph Betschoga, Daniel Gheorghiu, Sebastian Rosenhahn, Josef Hegger and Tue Nguyen Viet 57
Shear tests on continuous reinforced concrete beams with variable M/V ratios
Daniel Gheorghiu, Yolcu Sever, Christoph Betschoga and Tue Nguyen Viet 65
Probabilistic robustness assessment of precast reinforced concrete buildings

Martina Scalvenzi, Simone Ravasini, Emanuele Brunesi and Fulvio Parisi 73
Failure and limit states of precast concrete joints under low cycle shear
Edom Zewdie and Koichi Maekawa 81
Optimised Strut and Tie Models for Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Several Limit States
Jeff Larsen, Peter Noe Poulsen, John Forbes Olesen and Linh Cao Hoang 89
Effect of load path bifurcation on the behavior of reinforced concrete beams
Péter Pál Ther and István Sajtos 97
Asymmetrical loading of reinforced concrete deep beams monitored with full field-of-view digital image correlation
Dhanushka K. Palipana and Giorgio T. Proestos 105
Flexural performance of Ultra High Performance Concrete slabs under simultaneous environmental and mechanical
loading
Salam Al-Obaidi, Simone Dicembre, Marco Davolio, Marco Del Galdo, Francesco Lo Monte, and Liberato
Ferrara 113
Non-linear analyses of slender RC members: on the assessment of global factors for safety verification
Elena Miceli, Guglielmo Amendola, Costanza Anerdi, Diego Gino and Luca Giordano 121
Numerical study on the behaviour of an innovative concrete dry joint: Investigations under shear loading
Agemar Manny, Robert Renz, Albert Albers, Lothar Stempniewski and Alexander Stark 129
Validation of bond models for the crack width estimation based on detailed measurements
Enrique Corres and Aurelio Muttoni 137
Moment redistribution and strain localisation in two-span concrete slab strips reinforced with low strain hardening
steel
Nathalie Reckinger, Karel Thoma and Walter Kaufmann 145
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Experimental Investigation of the Anchorage Capacity of Looped Wire Ropes placed in Wall Elements for T- and L-
connections
Torkil Veyhe, Henrik B. Joergensen and Søren G. Hansen 153
Backfilling stabilisation on arched bridges
Conrad Pelka, Sven Wroblewski and Steffen Marx 161
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Numerical investigation of shear behavior of prestressed concrete beams without stirrups
Yolcu Sever, Christoph Betschoga, Daniel Gheorghiu and Tue Nguyen Viet 169
Study of tower and fairlead steel-concrete connections of a prestressed concrete spar supporting a 10 MW floating
offshore wind turbine
Wichuda Munbua, Muhammad S. Hasan, Rodolfo T. Gonçalves, Chikako Fujiyama, Koichi Maekawa 177
Experimental study of precast wall connection with high strength wire loops
'DQ0LFOăXЮRLX*iERU-Álmos Sándor, Horia Constantinescu, BRJGDQ+HJKHЮ0LKDL1HGHOFX 185
Effect of loading rate on reinforced concrete walls under dynamic loading
Hyeon-Keun Yang and Hong-Gun Park 193
Digital Design of automatically wound shear reinforcement for non-prismatic concrete beams.
Anna Perepechay, Saverio Spadea, Eduardo Costa, Paul Shepherd 201
Application of FSE approach for structural fire safety assessment of car and motor scooter parks
Margherita Autiero, Enrico Cardellino, Donatella de Silva and Emidio Nigro 209
Post-earthquake seismic residual capacity and economic loss assessment of reinforced concrete buildings
Livio Pedone and Stefano Pampanin 217
Exploiting traffic-induced vibration for high-resolution damage identification in bridges with sparse instrumentation
Said Quqa, Luca Landi and Pier Paolo Diotallevi 225
Theme: Durability and materials
Chloride ingress – investigation of rapid testing methods with focus on their application to new cement compositions
Hannah Drenkard, Christian Fischer and Christoph Gehlen 233

Prediction of the time of corrosion initiation of reinforced geopolymer concrete hollow piles
Ali Abdulhasan Khalaf and Katalin Kopecskó 241
Experimental and numerical investigation on PC beams with artificially corroded post-tensioned tendons
Dario De Domenico, Matteo Mazzeo, Davide Messina and Antonino Recupero 249
Applicability of the fib Model Code 2010 for predicting strength and shrinkage behaviour of alkali-activated slag
concrete
Richard Caron, Ravi Patel and Frank Dehn 257
Mechanical properties and stress-strain response of rubberised one-part alkali-activated concrete
Mohamed Elzeadani, Dan Bompa and Ahmed Elghazouli 265
A critical review on structural behavior of alkali-activated concrete beams
=KHQ[X4LDQ(YD2//DQWVRJKWDQG0ODGHQD/XNRYLü 273
Mechanical characterization and modelling of Ultra High Performance Fiber Reinforced Concrete
Sara Bascì, Matteo Colombo and Giulio Zani 281
Numerical modelling of the ageing of Ultra High Performance Fibre Reinforced Cementitious Composites
Antonio Cibelli, Giovanni Di Luzio and Liberato Ferrara 289
Fatigue behavior and effect of stimulated autogenous self-healing in Ultra High-Performance Concrete
Niranjan Prabhu K., David Alejandro Clerque Vela, Yanira Ginori Ocampo Pacheco, Francesco Lo Monte, Nele
De Belie and Liberato Ferrara 297
Mechanical performances of thermally-conditioned Fabric Reinforced Cementitious Matrix systems
Marielda Guglielmi, Pietro Mazzuca and Luciano Ombres 305
Steel and carbon fiber textile reinforced high-strength-concrete columns
Yedidya M. Shachar, Rami Eid and Avraham N. Dancygier 313
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Durability of Eco-Friendly Strain-Hardening Cementitious Composite incorporating Recycled Textile Waste Fiber
and Silica Fume
Payam Sadrolodabaee, Josep Claramunt, Mònica Ardanuy and Albert de la Fuente 321
Investigation of self-healing property of UHPC with sustained loads under aggressive exposure environments
Bin Xi, Zhewen Huang, Salam Al-Obaidi, Francesco Lo Monte and Liberato Ferrara 329
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Assessment of Prestressed Dry Joints by X-ray Computed Tomography
Martin Rettinger, Peter Gänz, Jajnabalkya Guhathakurta, Sven Simon and Alex Hückler 337
Creep and shrinkage of concrete under cyclic ambient humidity conditions
Anna-Lena Podhajecky, Nadja Oneschkow and Michael Haist 345
The adaption of the set-up for gas permeability measurements for ultra-high performance concrete
Marieke Voigt, André Gardei and Birgit Meng 353
A numerical study of the cracking pattern of reinforced concrete rings under hydrostatic pressure
Sébastien Michel and András A. Sipos 361
Effect of calcined clay minerals on hydration kinetics of tricalcium silicate
Hee-Young Hwang, Jiseul Park and Sung-gul Hong 369
A new testing procedure to quantify unfavourable environmental effect on mechanical performance of composite
reinforcement system
Haji Akbar Sultani, Arvydas Rimkus, Aleksandr Sokolov and Viktor Gribniak 377
New protocol for the durability assessment of offshore cement-based structures submitted to creep and seawater
attack
Marinelle El-Khoury , Emmanuel Roziere, Frederic Grondin, Rachid Cortas and Fadi Hage Chehade 385
Creep and creep recovery behavior of concrete under slow load cycling
Marija Docevska, Goran Markovski and Peter Mark 393
Valorization of Cellulose Acetate Fibers in Mortars
Joe Tannous, Thouraya Salem, Sandrine Marceau, Othman Omikrine-Metalssi and Teddy Fen-Chong 401
Fine aggregate characterization by micro-computed tomography – Sample size and comparability to laboratory test
results
Sophie Burgmann and Wolfgang Breit 409
Effect of impressed current technique on the mechanical behaviour of steel reinforcement in concrete
Andrea Nino Consiglio, Giovanni Muciaccia, Dario Coronelli and Gianpaolo Rosati 417
Theme: Bridges, dams and tunnels
Experimental tests and finite element analyses of reduced-scale post-tensioned concrete bridge girders
Simone Galano, Giacomo Miluccio, Daniele Losanno and Fulvio Parisi 425
Challenges on the shear behavior of existing continuous precast girder bridges
Mohammed S. Ibrahim, Yuguang Yang, Marco Roosen and Max A.N. Hen-driks, 433
Numerical analysis of Precast Concrete Segmental Bridges for high-speed railway bridges
Javier Cañada Pérez-Sala and Ana M. Ruiz-Teran 441
A pushover method for seismic design of Integral Abutment Bridges
Andrea Marchi and Paolo Franchin 449
Structural fire design and assessment of bridges: State of the Art
Marco Gallo, Donatella de Silva, Laura De Falco and Emidio Nigro 459
Design of longitudinal tunnel lining joints - experimental investigation on partially loaded reinforced concrete blocks
Fabian Morger and Walter Kaufmann 467
Theme: Retrofitting and assessment of existing structures
Experimental study of the bond degradation in concrete due to reinforcement corrosion

Thomas Van Beirendonck, Charlotte Van Steen and Els Verstrynge 475
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Analytical and numerical approaches for the deformation capacity assessment of corroded concrete beams
Alberto Stella and Anna Saetta 483
Dependency of pitting corrosion spatial variability on crack pattern of prestressed concrete members
Lorenzo Franceschini, Beatrice Belletti, Javier Sanchez and Francesco Tondolo 491
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Seismic retrofitting of a reinforced concrete building with strongly different stiffness in the main directions
Giada Frappa and Margherita Pauletta 499
A simplified framework for the loss assessment of alternative seismic retrofit options of reinforced-concrete buildings
Lucia Praticò, Marco Bovo and Marco Savoia 509
Experimental investigation on confinement of columns with TRC: a comparison between basalt and carbon textile
fabrics
Giorgio Mattarollo, Randl Norbert, Margherita Pauletta and Edoardo Rossi 517
Numerical modelling of bond behaviour in Fabric Reinforced Cementitious Matrix strengthened reinforced concrete
members
Maria Concetta Oddo, Lidia La Mendola and Giovanni Minafò 525
Strengthening by thermal pre-stressing
Jens Löschmann and Peter Mark 533
Dapped-end beams retrofitted with Fabric-Reinforced Cementitious Mortars: experimental and preliminary
analytical study
Katherina Flores Ferreira, Marco C. Rampini, Giulio Zani, Matteo Colombo and Marco di Prisco 541
Stress transferred at the main shear crack of reinforced concrete beams strengthened with U-wrapped inorganic-
matrix composites
Veronica Bertolli and Tommaso D‘Antino 549
Effect of freeze-thaw cycles on shear resistance of reinforced concrete beams strengthened with UHPFRC
Yitao +XDQJDQG0ODGHQD/XNRYLü 557
Enhancing seismic safety of existing RC buildings through external exoskeletons.
Simone D’Amore and Stefano Pampanin 565

Experimental investigation of dowel action using advanced measurement techniques
Marko 3HMDWRYLüDQG$XUHOLR0XWWRQL 573
In-plane response of two storeys infilled reinforced concrete frame using a pseudo-dynamic testing framework
Carmine Molitierno, Ciro Del Vecchio, Marco Di Ludovico and Andrea Prota 581
Experimental study of crack propagation in a brittle hemispherical dome with two pre-existing cracks
Siwen Cao and András A. Sipos 589
Ageing Effects on Interactions of Embedded and Externally Bonded Reinforcement in Strengthened Concrete
Structures – Experiment and Modelling
Zhuo Chen, Thorsten Leusmann and Dirk Lowke 597
Results of ongoing experimental study for verification of long-term properties of FRP reinforced concrete members
Stanislav Blaho and Katarína Gajdošová 605
Theme: Composite structures
Jute fiber mortar composites for integrated retrofitting

Arnas Majumder, Flavio Stochino, Andrea Frattolillo, Monica Valdes, Fernando Fraternali and Enzo Martinelli 613
Numerical modelling of the bond behaviour between uncracked concrete and deformed steel and fibre reinforced
polymer bars
Szabolcs Szinvai and Tamás Kovács 621
Quantification of Concrete-Concrete Interface Strength – A Review
6KR]DE0XVWDID(ULN6FKODQJHQDQG0ODGHQD/XNRYLü 629
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Theme: History of concrete and assessment of heritage buildings
Comparing optimization methods for Finite Element model updating of a reinforced concrete structure
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Ilenia Rosati, Carlo Rainieri and Giovanni Fabbrocino 637
A study over Roman Mortar from Ovidiu's Roman fortress
Nicolae-Costin Mociu, Carmen-Elena Maftei, Madalina Stanescu and Popa Calin 645
The role of structure in the dialogue between places of dwelling in the projects of Gio Ponti
Bianca Maria Rodriguez 651
Theme: Sustainability and life cycle assessment
On the use of Electric Arc Furnace slags in concrete for structural applications
Alan Piemonti, Antonio Conforti, Luca Cominoli, Antonella Luciano, Sabrina Sorlini and Giovanni Plizzari 657
Evaluation of Steel and Polypropylene Fiber Efficiencies for Conventional and Roller Compacted Concrete for
Pavements
Onur Ozturk and Nilufer Ozyurt 665
Effect of slenderness ratio on the environmental impact of piles bored in clayey soil - case study
Kareem Abushama, Will Hawkins, Loizos Pelecanos and Tim Ibell 673
Experimental study of the effect of recycled aggregate and glass fibre reinforced polymer reinforcement on the
behaviour of linear concrete members
0DWHM-XUJRãDQG9LNWRU%RU]RYLþ 681
How to account for benefits of Self-Healing concrete in design? A LCA/LCC perspective
Davide di Summa, Liberato Ferrara and Nele De Belie 689
The effects of inclusion graphene oxide on supplementary cementitious material based cementitious matrix: a review
Zaid Khaiqani and Katalin Kopecskó 697
Theme: Innovations in concrete technology
Influence of Concrete Mix Composition on the Early Age Concrete Strength Development
Pavel Kasal and Jan L. Vítek 705
Impacts of Aggregate Type and Elevated Temperature on Flexural Tensile Strength of Concrete
Ahmed M. Seyam and Rita Nemes 713
The influence of PVA fibres on mechanical properties of foam concrete
Jiehong Li, Ailar Hajimohammadi and Taehwan Kim 721
Steering fiber orientation in concrete for structural applications
Filippo Medeghini, Giovanni A. Plizzari and Peter Mark 729
Fibre-reinforced alkali-activated slag concrete: from mechanical properties characterisation to structural design
Laura Rossi, Ravi A. Patel and Frank Dehn 737
Performance of Single Cast-In Headed Anchors in Low-Thickness High-Strength Fibre-Reinforced Concrete
João Baptista, Paulo Fernandes and Eduardo Júlio 745
Near-net-shape extrusion and milling of complex con-crete elements for the production of moulds
Marvin Abstoß, Enrico Rudolph, Henrik Funke and Sandra Gelbrich 755
Automated production of textile reinforced concrete modules for the assembly of shell structures
(JRU,YDQLXN=ODWD7RãLü0DUWLQ)ULHGULFK(LFhenauer, Steffen Müller, Daniel Lordick and Viktor
Mechtcherine 763
Robot assisted flow production processes tool development for the fabrication of thin-walled fibre-reinforced concrete
elements
Marco Lindner, Ralf Gliniorz, Henrik Funke and Sandra Gelbrich 771
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Artificial Neural Networks and Fuzzy Logic applied to concrete rheology for the study of printability
Andrea Marcucci and Liberato Ferrara 779
Near-net-shape extrusion and milling of complex con-crete elements for the production of moulds
Marvin Abstoß, Enrico Rudolph, Henrik Funke and Sandra Gelbrich 787
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Using iron-based shape memory alloy rebars as hogging prestress for continuity of Hollow-Core Slabs
Sandra del Río-Bonnín, Luís A. Montoya-Coronado, Carlos R. Ribas, Joaquín G. Ruiz-Pinilla and Antoni
Cladera. 795
Testing methods for deformation characterization on 3D printed carbon fiber reinforced cementitious composites
Michael Engelhard, Andreas Kalytta-Mewesand and Dirk Volkmer 803
A comparative study of hardened-state mechanical properties of D printed and conventionally cast Fibre Reinforced
Concrete
Kasyapa Sriram Kompella, Francesco Lo Monte, Andrea Bassani, Stefano Guanziroli, Marinella Levi and
Liberato Ferrara 811
Investigation of the Interlayer Strength of 3D Printed Concrete Shear Walls
Lucia Licciardello, Adriano Reggia, Giovanni Metelli and Giovanni A. Plizzari 817
Topology optimization of structural beam systems considering 3D concrete printing technology constraints
Lien Saelens, Kim Van Tittelboom, Robby Caspeele and Roman Wan-Wendner 825
Numerical analysis on stability of cylindrical structures in 3D printing process
Jiseul Park, Seung-su Jeong and Sung-gul Hong 833
A Numerical Model of 3D Concrete Printing
Giacomo Rizzieri, Massimiliano Cremonesi and Liberato Ferrara 841
Theme: Structural reliability and risk analysis
Seismic reliability of reinforced moment frame equipped with Lateral Impact Resilient frictional isolators
Gaspar Auad, Paolo Castaldo and José L. Almazán. 849
Probabilistic reliability assessment of cracked concrete

Annika L. Schultheiß, Ravi A. Patel, Michael Vogel and Frank Dehn 857
Seismic scenario analysis of precast reinforced-concrete buildings at the large scale
Lucia Praticò, Marco Bovo, Nicola Buratti and Marco Savoia 865
Probabilistic finite element investigation of direct fasteners in concrete with discrete aggregates
Nikolaos Mellios, Bushra Mustafa, Alhussain Yousef, Panagiotis Spyridis 873
Probabilistic finite elements of direct fixings in concrete with discrete steel-fibres
Alhussain Yousef, Nikolaos Mellios and Panagiotis Spyridis 881
Determination of uncertainty in the description of crack widths using artificial neural networks
Anton van der Esch, Rob Wolfs and Simon Wijte 889
Evaluation of the model uncertainty of action effects in statically indeterminate systems
Xhemsi Malja and Aurelio Muttoni 897
Theme: Structural health monitoring
Variational Autoencoder and One-Class Support Vector Machine for unsupervised damage detection
Andrea Pollastro, Giusiana Testa, Roberto Prevete, and Antonio Bilotta 905
Criticality maps of built areas based on Artificial Intelligence applied to Satellite data
Annalisa Mele, Autilia Vitiello, Manuela Bonano, Andrea Miano, Riccardo Lanari, Giovanni Acampora and
Andrea Prota 913
xiii
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A new perspective on the punching resistance of edge
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columns with and without shear reinforcement applying
refined measurement techniques
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Diego Hernández Fraile and Aurelio Muttoni
Structural Concrete Laboratory, IBETON
School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering, ENAC
École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, EPFL
Station 18, EPFL, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
Abstract
Despite edge columns being instrumental components of flat slabs, most punching research has focused
on internal connections. Several particularities of edge columns, such as load eccentricity and moment
transfer, require additional experimental investigations. This paper examines the behaviour of edge
connections on the basis of two tests on edge panels (one with shear reinforcement, one without). The
setup was designed to approximate the actual boundary conditions of this type of connection in a flat
slab. Refined measurement techniques have been extensively used. The global slab behaviour is ana-
lysed, as is the influence of the shear reinforcement. The focus then shifts towards shear stress concen-
trations, analysing the column penetration and the shear reinforcement activation. The impact on design
of the incorporation of stress redistributions in FE modelling is then evaluated.
1 Introduction
Flat slabs constitute an efficient structural system because of reduced construction times, simple build-
ing techniques, and efficient material use. Their two-way behaviour guarantees a large bending redis-
tribution capacity, but their support on a discrete number of columns leads to shear stress concentra-
tions, and failures tend to occur due to punching. The complexity of the punching phenomenon has
triggered substantial research, mostly targeted to concentric, axisymmetric punching [1],[2]. Relevant
investigations on non-axisymmetric scenarios, such as edge connections, have been performed through-
out the years, but the experimental output is more limited [3]-[5]. As a matter of fact, the presence of
an unbalanced moment due to non-symmetric loading or geometry in eccentric punching further com-
plicates the understanding of the phenomenon, as shear force concentrations lead to uneven distribu-
tions of stresses and potentially to redistributions around the supported region prior to failure.
An instrumental feature of tests on edge connections is the design of adequate boundary conditions,
influential on the response of the specimen [5],[6]. Experimental tests on edge connections usually
consist of isolated specimens tested as a cantilever, hence neglecting the effect of the surrounding slab
on the tested panel [3]. Research accounting for this effect is still limited. Some works have been per-
formed on full-slab setups, for instance with a two-bay-by-two-bay system [4]. Other works study two-
column assemblies such as in [5], where the experimental setup included an edge connection and the
adjacent internal column, with externally introduced boundary conditions.
The refined techniques available nowadays allow performing detailed measurements on the con-
crete and the reinforcement, boosting our capacity to understand the local phenomena occurring prior
to failure [7]. Recent works on edge connections have typically relied on predictions made by Finite
Element modelling calibrated on existing experimental results [8]. These simulations provide insightful
information on the stress concentration patterns around the supports. Nevertheless, it is important to
support these numerical results with refined measurements performed directly on specimens tested un-
der representative conditions of actual buildings.
Since early in the research on punching, flexural deformations in the slab were found to be related
to its punching capacity, appearing the first kinematical models [2]. The Critical Shear Crack Theory
(CSCT), proposed by Muttoni [9], establishes the slab rotation as the fundamental kinematic parameter
governing the punching capacity. It assumes that the opening of a so-called critical shear crack, pro-
portional to the slab rotation, influences the resistance of a connection. Tests have helped validate these
Proc. of the 14th fib International PhD Symposium in Civil Engineering 1

Sep. 5 to 7, 2022, Rome, Italy
14 th
fib International PhD Symposium in Civil Engineering
principles. However, experimental results on the resistance of slabs with large amounts of shear rein-
forcement [10] have shown that the shear deformations also seem to play an important role in the ca-
b
pacity of the connection. Further research on slabs without shear reinforcement showed similar rela-
tionships [11], indicating that the derivation of a direct relationship between shear stresses and strains
is possible. Eventually, a refined mechanical model was developed within the theoretical framework of
the CSCT which explicitly incorporated shear deformations as a kinematical variable, initially proposed
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for slabs without shear reinforcement [12] and later extended for slabs with shear reinforcement [13].
This paper presents the results of an experimental programme on two edge slab-column subassem-
blies with a specifically designed setup to provide adequate boundary conditions. The specimens were
instrumented with refined measurement techniques in an attempt to comprehend the mechanics of
punching failures in edge connections: Digital Image Correlation (DIC) for studying the concrete sur-
faces and Fibre-optic measurements (FOMs) for obtaining the strains along the reinforcement bars [7].
A first section presents the global behaviour of the slabs, focusing on the role of the load eccentricity
and the contribution of the shear reinforcement. Secondly, the concentration of shear stresses around
the column perimeter is analysed by means of the column penetration and the activation of the shear
reinforcement. Finally, the paper examines the role of shear deformations on the punching capacity,
studying the relationship between the shear load and the shear deformations from experimental tests.
2 Description of the experimental campaign

The experimental programme consisted of two edge slab-column assemblies, PHS1 and PHS2. They
shared the same geometry, flexural reinforcement and setup; they differed in that PHS1 had no shear
reinforcement, while PHS2 included double-headed vertical studs.
The design of the experimental setup sought to reproduce the behaviour of edge slab-column con-
nections in a realistic manner with simplified means. Testing isolated members, as in the case of internal
connections, does not fully represent the actual response of edge panels, due mainly to the asymmetry
perpendicular to the slab edge. Based on observations from experimental research [5],[11] and sup-
ported by Finite Element simulations [6], slab continuity in the direction perpendicular to the free edge
was identified as the most relevant boundary condition, representing the effect of the adjacent inner
panel on the analysed edge connection. Further information on this analysis can be found in [6],[14].
Figure 1 illustrates the experimental setup, the geometry of the slabs and the instrumentation. The
slabs were rectangular, 3 m × 2 m in plan (parallel and perpendicular to the free edge, respectively),
with a thickness of 250 mm. The slabs rested on a square steel column with sides of 390 mm, centred
in the direction parallel to the free edge and leaving a gap between the back face of the column and the
free edge of the slab of 30 mm (Figure 1d). Four high-strength post-tensioned steel threaded bars joined
the slab and the column to simulate a monolithic connection (Figure 1a,b). A system of hydraulic jacks
connected to high-strength threaded steel bars loaded the slabs downwards, transferring the load to the
top face of the slab at six points. These points matched the elastic contraflexure line of a uniformly-
loaded continuous slab [6],[14]. Two steel profiles simulated slab continuity in the direction perpendic-
ular to the free edge. They were fixed to the farthest edge of the slab by short steel profiles and hand-
tightened steel bars, ensuring full moment transfer between them and the slabs (Figure 1a,b). At their
opposite end, the profiles rested at the expected location of the elastic radial contraflexure line of the
adjacent interior connection [6],[14]. This support included a hinge, providing an upward reaction cor-
responding to the shear force at the contraflexure line in the equivalent continuous slab system. Figure
1b shows the forces acting on the concrete specimen, either through the hydraulic actuators (marked in
red) or as reactions of the system (in blue).
The average hogging and sagging flexural reinforcement ratios were 1.22% and 0.54%, respec-
tively, with rebar diameters of 18 mm and 12 mm and a typical spacing of 100 mm. The measured
average hogging effective depth was 209 mm for both slabs. In PHS2, the double-headed Ø14 mm
shear studs formed a radial arrangement including 9 perimeters of 9 studs (Figure 1c). To avoid tan-
gential distances between adjacent studs larger than 3dv, extra stud lines were added where needed. The
first perimeter of studs was 80 mm away from the column face, and the space between consecutive
perimeters was constant at 120 mm. The concrete had a cylinder strength at the time of testing of 34.5
MPa for PHS1 and 37.4 MPa for PHS2; the steel yield stress was 531 MPa for the hogging reinforce-
ment, 516 MPa for the sagging reinforcement, and 532 MPa for the shear studs. Additional information
can be found in [14].
2 Structural analysis and design

Figure 1
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Experimental test setup: (a) top view; (b) Side view, showing the static system; (c) arrange-
ment and FOMs of shear reinforcement of PHS2; and (d) Section A-A, details of the rein-
forcement and FOMs. All dimensions in millimetres.
Load cells followed the external loading and the reactions at the far end of the steel profiles, in the
second case incorporating a hinge to guarantee a vertical reaction. Inclinometers located on the upper
face of the slab measured rotations in different directions; an additional inclinometer was installed at
the top of the column to obtain the relative rotation between the slab and the column. DIC monitored
in detail the displacements and crack patterns in three faces of the slab: the top face, the bottom face,
and the side face at the free edge. FOMs were used to obtain the strains in the flexural and shear rein-
forcement. A continuous fibre introduced within the cross section of the bars at two diametrically op-
posed positions allowed obtaining both the average axial strains and the curvature of the rebars at each
point. The rebars instrumentation was as follows:
▪ 16 flexural rebars distributed in the directions perpendicular and parallel to the free edge
(their measurements are not discussed in this article, see [14])
▪ The first four studs of four different radii, covering half of the specimen (Figure 1c).
3 Global response of the slabs

Figure 2 summarises the global behaviour of slabs PHS1 and PHS2. Figure 2a shows the load-rotation
curves of both slabs in the two main orthogonal directions (perpendicular and parallel to their free
edge). Slabs PHS1 and PHS2 failed at column reactions of 661kN and 1186 kN, respectively. The
difference indicates a significant enhancement of the punching resistance of the slab-column connection
by the addition of shear reinforcement, which is around 79%. Moreover, its addition largely improved
the rotation capacity of the connection, increasing from 5.6 mrad to 14.5 mrad perpendicular to the free
edge and from 8.3 mrad to 37.1 mrad parallel to it. These results illustrate the far more ductile behaviour
of slab-column connections with shear reinforcement. The observed slab behaviour was substantially
stiffer perpendicularly to the free edge, possibly due to the flexural continuity introduced by the steel
profiles. Their addition helped shifting the line of contraflexure perpendicular to the free edge towards
the support and reduced the negative bending moment transferred to the column in this direction (when
compared to an isolated specimen). Based on DIC measurements of the displacement fields and crack-
ing patterns, failure occurred first in the direction perpendicular to the free edge, where larger concen-
trations of shear forces appeared (mostly as a consequence of load eccentricity [15]), and then propa-
gated around the column perimeter towards the free edge. When comparing the response of slabs PHS1
14 th
and PHS2, differences in the two directions can be observed. Parallel to the free edge, both slabs ex-
hibited a very similar stiffness, slightly larger for PHS2. In the perpendicular direction, the difference
b
is more significant and can be explained by an earlier apparition of torsional cracks in PHS1 (at a load
of about 120 kN) than in PHS2 (at around 200 kN).
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Figure 2 Slab behaviour: (a) Load-rotation in directions perpendicular (┴) and parallel (//) to the free
edge for slabs PHS1 and PHS2, and (b) eccentricity (M/V) of the load in the direction per-
pendicular to the free edge.
Figure 2b depicts the evolution of the moment transferred from the slab to the column. It allows infer-
ring the redistributions of bending moments between the hogging and sagging regions of the slab, as
they are reflected in the changes of eccentricity. The initial state, marked with a square, corresponds to
the equilibrium of the system before applying the external load. At that time, the axial load on the
column was quite large (around 55 kN, corresponding to the self-weight of the system), while the hog-
ging moment at the connection was small due to the presence of the steel profiles. The load applied by
the jacks rapidly increased the transferred moment until reaching a maximum value of the eccentricity.
It corresponds to the generalised cracking of the slab in the hogging region. The local reduction of
stiffness due to cracking changed the load repartition in favour of the steel profiles. In PHS1, the limited
deformation capacity of slabs without shear reinforcement meant that the slab was unable to reach the
generalised-cracking load of the sagging region. Therefore, the eccentricity decreased steadily until
failure. In slab PHS2, on the other hand, the enhanced punching capacity of the connection led to a
larger deformation capacity, and an increase in the eccentricity can be observed at a load similar to the
failure of PHS1, probably due to the cracking of the sagging region. However, due to the ratio of hog-
ging to sagging reinforcement, further stiffness reduction in the hogging region occurred soon after-
wards, leading to a gradual reduction of the eccentricity until failure. Of particular interest is the mo-
ment when the full negative bending capacity of the connection was reached, marked by a more pro-
nounced reduction of eccentricity.
4 Investigations on the stress concentrations around the column perimeter

The implementation of refined measurement techniques (particularly DIC and FOMs) in reinforced
concrete specimens is a powerful method for better understanding the local phenomena in concrete. For
this work, the combined use of both technologies has allowed deepening our understanding of the stress
concentrations due to the load eccentricity and the geometry of the support, and the relevance of the
shear deformations linked to these concentrations.
Typically, the measurements of column penetration are performed locally at the column axis
[10],[11]. In this work, the measurements have been performed along the column perimeter for a more
comprehensive understanding of the column penetration variation and the shear stress distribution
around the support. These results constitute the final confirmation of theoretical hypotheses and FE
predictions of the shear stress distribution around the column in eccentric punching [15],[16]. Figure 3
presents the measurements of the column penetration (Δw) along the support perimeter for both slabs
at several load steps. They were obtained from the DIC measurements of the bottom surface of the slab
along a line around the column perimeter 20 mm away from the column face.

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Figure 3 DIC measurements of the penetration of the column into the slab around the support perim-
eter for different load steps: (a) line of measured points and geometric definition of column
penetration, (b) results for slab PHS1 and (c) results for slab PHS2.
The penetration is significantly larger in the front face of the column (where the concentration of
stresses due to the load eccentricity occurs) than along its sides, confirming the predictions from Finite
Element simulations [8],[15]. Interestingly, the penetration along the column sides is sensibly linear,
and negative values (uplifting) appear towards the back face. This uplift seems to be linked to the ec-
centricity of the load. A much larger pre-peak penetration can be observed in slab PHS2 than in PHS1,
showing the enhanced shear deformation capacity of the shear-reinforced slab. In the post-peak regime
(blue lines), a pronounced increase of column penetration can be observed in PHS1, illustrating the
failure propagation from the front face of the column towards the free edge. In the case of PHS2, a
mixed-mode failure occurred, with a yield line forming perpendicular to the free edge [14]; in this case
the variation of column penetration after peak was limited.
Column penetration measurements are strongly linked to the shear stress concentrations and shear
deformations around the perimeter of the column, which take place in the region of inclined shear cracks
around the support region, particularly concentrating in the critical shear crack. The use of punching
shear reinforcement enables the apparition of further shear cracks, as the loss of load-transfer capacity
through concrete along the critical shear crack is compensated by its activation. Consequently, the
strains in the shear reinforcement provide valuable information on the shear deformations and shear
stress concentrations, and can be associated with the measurements of column penetration.
Figure 4 Fibre-optic measurements of the shear reinforcement strains in the two first perimeters of
studs, expressed as a function of the yield strain of the studs, for slab PHS2: (a) Point A,
located in the first perimeter at the lower half of the studs, and (b) Point B located in the
top region of the studs of the second perimeter.
Figure 4 presents the activation of studs, expressed as the ratio of the stud axial strain to the yield strain
εy, around the column perimeter at selected locations. FOM readings helped to assess this activation
(Figure 1c). Point A (Figure 4a) is located below mid-height of the studs in the first perimeter, whereas
Point B (Figure 4b) is near the upper head of the studs in the second perimeter. Points A and B corre-
spond to the locations where the measurements revealed peaks in the average axial deformation, indi-
cating the presence of inclined cracks. The strains in the studs in the first perimeter (Point A, Figure
4a) show that, at intermediate levels of load (50% of ultimate load Vu), the activation was overall small
and similar around the column perimeter. As the load increased, activation grew significantly at the
front face of the column and in the diagonal direction, where the shear deformations were larger (Figure
14 th
3), while parallel to the free edge the change was moderate. At failure, the activation in the diagonal
spiked, locally plastifying the stud; in the front face of the column, activation increased but did not
b
exceed 70% of the yield capacity; in the direction parallel to the free edge, it remained practically
constant, not even reaching 50% of the capacity of the studs. The results at the second perimeter parallel
to the free edge (Point B, Figure 4b) describe a similar activation pattern to the first perimeter. The
activation in the diagonal grew more steadily than in the first perimeter, reaching around 80% of its full
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capacity near failure. The studs perpendicular to the free edge followed an opposite trend than for the
first perimeter: while in the first perimeter the activation of the central stud was always larger than that
of the stud in front of the column corner, in the second perimeter the stud at the column corner had
larger strains.
5 The role of shear deformations on the punching capacity of flat slabs

The assessment of shear deformations in punching tests is not an easy task, and they are typically not
reported in experimental works. Precise experimental measurements of shear deformations are essential
for understanding the shear stress distribution around the support and the redistributions prior to failure.
Column penetration has shown to be directly linked to the shear deformations of the slab. It was reported
in concentric punching tests for slabs with and without shear reinforcement [10],[11]. In this work,
measurements of column penetration for eccentric punching have been reported around the column
perimeter. This section further analyses shear deformations and compares column penetration meas-
urements available in the literature with the measurements presented in this paper.
Figure 5 Experimental measurements of column penetration: (a) as reported in [10] for slabs PL7,
PL9 and PL10 (figure re-worked from reference); (b) computed from DIC measurements
for slabs PHS1 and PHS2 at two key locations (mid-point of the lateral face of the column
and front column corner).
Figure 5a presents the measured column penetrations as reported in [10]. The slabs presented here all
had large amounts of shear reinforcement, and all three failed in maximum punching, by crushing of
the concrete near the column face. After an initial elastic response that extended until around 70-80%
of the failure load, a second, highly-inelastic, much softer branch governed the response until failure.
Interestingly, the final value of the penetration was similar for all three slabs with different depths.
Figure 5b depicts the measured column penetration of slabs PHS1 and PHS2 at two key points, identi-
fied as C and D, and compares the column penetration between the slab with and without shear rein-
forcement, as well as between regions with high stress concentrations (Point D) and lower stress con-
centrations (Point C). It is clear that, for the slab without shear reinforcement, the elastic branch governs
and failure occurs before the inelastic branch fully develops. This is related to the much smaller stress
redistribution capacity of slabs without shear reinforcement, reflected in their typically brittle response
at failure. When the two locations are compared (Points C and D), a softer, more non-linear behaviour
can be observed at the column corner.
In cases where stress redistributions or large strains are expected, a better understanding of the
evolution of shear deformations around the supporting region is instrumental for assessing the ultimate
capacity of slab-column connections from a rational perspective. The lack of expressions relating shear
stresses with shear deformations impedes considering the redistribution potential of a connection. This
typically leads to conservative designs based on Linear Elastic FEM and nominal shear strengths, some-
times even further reduced due to stress concentrations. The experimental measurements can be used

to derive expressions to improve the design of slab-column connections in flat slabs. For that matter, a
rational approach with sound theoretical bases is necessary to propose formulations that are generally
b
applicable.
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Figure 6 Shear deformations of punching failures: (a) column penetration (Δw) and localised rota-
tions at the critical shear crack (ψ2 – ψ1), (b) detail of the shear deformation due to the
localisation of rotations at the critical shear crack, (c) idealised representation of the column
penetration-shear stress relationship, (d) comparison of the measured column penetration
of specimen PE9 [11] with the calculation using the refined mechanical model [12]
Figure 6 shows the details of shear deformations, outlines the relationship between shear load and col-
umn penetration, and compares experimental results with simulations performed using the refined me-
chanical model of Simões et al. [12]. Figure 6a depicts the main variables defining the shear defor-
mations: the column penetration and the concentration of rotations at the critical shear crack. Figure 6b
illustrates how this concentration at the critical shear crack results in shear deformations. The difference
in rotation localised in it (defined as the difference between the rotation at its lips, ψ2 – ψ1) would lead
to a geometry of the slab soffit that does not correspond to the actual geometry; shear deformations
occur to make this concentration of rotations compatible (δψ in the figure). Figure 6c schematically
presents the breakdown of the column penetration into its elastic and inelastic (plastic) branches. Figure
6d compares the experimental results of slab PE9 reported in [11] with the calculated shear force-col-
umn penetration relationship using the refined mechanical model [12]. This model was initially derived
for predicting the punching resistance and kinematics at failure of a slab-column connection. In this
paper, it has been used to calculate the relationship between the applied punching load and the corre-
sponding column penetration, showing that it captures well the evolution of the shear deformations
during loading. This plot illustrates that an analytical expression relating the shear deformations and
shear stresses can be derived from the combination of refined theoretical approaches and experimental
observations. With this relationship, stress redistributions could be accounted for explicitly in FE mod-
elling, allowing for the direct evaluation of the punching resistance of slab-column connections.
6 Conclusions
This paper presents the results of an experimental campaign of two edge slab-column connections with
a test setup designed to simulate realistic boundary conditions in actual buildings. The use of refined
instrumentation techniques has allowed obtaining significant measurements related to the shear defor-
mations in eccentric punching. The main conclusions of this work are:
▪ The use of representative boundary conditions of actual slabs is necessary to understand the
bending moment redistribution capacity of edge panels, and its influence in the overall behav-
iour. This influence is most notable in the evolution of the load eccentricity.
▪ There is a clear difference in the behaviour of edge connections in the directions parallel and
perpendicular to the free edge. While the resistance in the first direction is determined by slab
rotations, the stress concentrations and the capacity of the connection to redistribute them
around the support are governing in the second.
▪ The unbalanced moment transferred to the column leads to stress concentrations at its front
face, with a non-uniform distribution of shear. Further stress concentrations occur at the column
corners, showing the relevance of support geometry. Measurements of the column penetration
highlight these concentrations, as penetrations are larger where failure was triggered first.
14th
▪ Stress concentrations have an important role in the activation of the shear reinforcement, as the
studs in regions with larger column penetrations presented larger strains. This aspect is im-
b
portant for design, as shear reinforcement near the free edge of the slab may not be as effective
as that in the region with higher shear forces.
▪ Shear deformations are essential for understanding the response of connections with large de-
formation capacity or uneven stress distributions. Experimental results show that column pen-
if
etrations can be divided in two separate regimes, and suggest that analytical expressions can be
derived to account directly for stress redistributions in design.
▪ The refined mechanical model for punching failures [12] has been used in this work for the
analysis of the loading process of experimental tests. It is accurate in predicting the measured
shear force-column penetration relationship of tests, and its use could facilitate the derivation
of analytical relationships. Such expressions could be implemented in FE analysis to assess in
a direct manner the resistance of slab-column connections.
Acknowledgements
The authors want to acknowledge the valuable contributions to this research by Dr. Andri Setiawan,
Júlia Borges dos Santos and Prof Miguel Fernández Ruiz, recent members of IBETON.
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Geometric characteristic of flexural-shear cracks of
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members without shear reinforcement
Jiandong Lu1, Yuguang Yang1 and Max A.N. Hendriks1,2
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1 Department of Engineering Structures,
Delft University of Technology,
Stevinweg 1, 2628CN Delft, the Netherlands
2 Department of Structural Engineering,

Norwegian University of Science and Technology,
Richard Birkelands vei 1A, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
Abstract
For reinforced concrete members without shear reinforcement, the shear failure is characterized by the
formation of a critical flexural shear crack. Recently experimental observations making use of Digital
Image Correlation (DIC) by many researchers suggested the significance of geometric characteristics
and kinematic conditions of critical shear cracks in shear failure. However, limited efforts were reported
in literature on the quantification of the geometric characteristics of critical shear cracks. This is mainly
due to the lack of understanding of the mechanism of how the flexural shear cracks form. In this paper,
the available models in literature for the shear crack trajectory and the underlying theoretical
assumptions are reviewed first. Those models include the shear crack model proposed by the authors.
Next, the shear crack trajectory models are validated using a collection of shear crack patterns based
on the DIC data obtained from the shear failure database from Delft University of Technology. The
majority of the crack patterns are from full-scale shear tests of deep beams with an effective depth
larger than 1.0 m. The comparison helps us to have a basic understanding of how accurate the available
flexural shear crack trajectory models can achieve.
1 Introduction
Flexural-shear failure of reinforced concrete members without shear reinforcement remains a very
challenging topic even after many theories have been developed [1]-[3]. In these theories, the shear
capacity is determined by an individual discrete critical shear crack. For a single critical flexural shear
crack, the shear capacity is carried by four mechanisms: the contribution of the uncracked compressive
zone, residual tensile strength, aggregate interlock, and dowel action. Aggregate interlock contributes
a large portion of the total shear resistance [4]. And it highly depends on the geometric characteristics
and kinematic conditions of the critical shear cracks. Therefore, in the past decade, more and more
researchers have agreed that the shear crack trajectory significantly affects the shear capacity of the
reinforced concrete (RC) members without shear reinforcement [4]. However, only limited efforts have
been paid to describe the geometric characteristics of flexural shear cracks in literature. The existing
trajectory models for flexural shear crack patterns lack a systematic verification. With the help of the
advanced measurement technology Digital Image Correlation (DIC), a more detailed measurement of
the crack patterns and kinematic information can be obtained [5]-[7]. Therefore, it creates the possibility
of making a comparison between the actual crack pattern and the available models in the literature.
This paper aims to quantitatively verify the existing trajectory models for flexural-shear cracks in
RC beams without shear reinforcement. First, the existing models from the literature are briefly
reviewed. Then, a database of RC beams without shear reinforcement from Delft University of
Technology is used to validate the existing crack trajectory models. Specifically, the equivalent strain
field from DIC measurement data is used to extract the geometric characteristics of the cracks. The
database consists of full-scale shear tests of deep beams with a height of 1.2 m, and the detailed
measurement report can be found in Reference [8]. Finally, the coefficient of determination between
the actual and theoretical crack patterns is used to show the effectiveness of the existing models.

14 th
2 Existing models for flexural shear crack pattern
b
2.1 Carpinteri’s crack model
Carpinteri et al. [9] proposed an equation for the shear crack trajectory based on experimental
observations. In this model, the shear crack trajectory includes two parts as shown in Eq. (1).
 x0 sc
if
 
( s ) =   s−c  (1)
 x0 +   (l − x0 ) c  s  h
 h−c
Where h is the beam depth, l is the shear span, s is the crack height, c is the reinforcement cover, x is
the crack tip horizontal position, x0 is the crack mouth horizontal position and  is the exponent of the
crack trajectory function. The definitions of parameters can be seen in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 Definition of parameters used in Carpinteri’s model. (Adapted from Reference [9])
In this model, the first part of the crack trajectory model is a straight line, which propagates to the level
of longitudinal reinforcement. After that, the crack propagates along an exponential-shaped curved line
described in Eq. (1). To describe the geometric characteristic of a crack using Eq. (1), the exponent
factor  needs to be determined. However, the authors did not propose a specific method to determine
this factor in the paper, and they proposed to fit the exponent factors  with experimental data instead
[10]. That means the model cannot be a prediction model but rather a description model based on
observations. As it is not the main aim of this paper, this model was not used in the comparison.
2.2 Cavagnis’s model

Cavagnis et al. [2] proposed another crack trajectory model based on the experimental observations.
The basic idea of this model is to divide a flexural shear crack into two straight lines as shown in Fig.
2. In this model, the quantified geometric information of flexural shear cracks is determined by the
regression analysis based on test data.
For straight line AB, the angle and the length can be obtained using Eq. (2)-(3), respectively.
 AB = 45 + 15 A1/3  90 (2)
lA = d B / sin  AB = (d − c) / sin(45 + 15 A1/3 ) (3)
Where d is the effective depth of the section, c is the height of the compressive zone, and A=MA/(VAd),
with MA and VA representing respectively the moment and the shear force in the section at the location
of point A.
Fig. 2 Crack pattern in Cavagnis’s model. (Adapted from Reference [2])
For the secondary branch BF of the flexural shear cracks, the angle is a constant, which equals 22.5
degrees, and the length equals one-sixth of the effective depth. Although the crack trajectory model was

derived based on regression analysis of test data, it can capture the most important characteristics of
flexural shear cracks.
b
2.3 Classen’s model
Classen [1] developed the Shear Crack Propagation Theory to predict the shear capacities of the
reinforced concrete members without shear reinforcement. In this theory, the biaxial stress state at the
if
crack tip of the flexural shear cracks was considered. Furthermore, the angle of principal stress at the
crack tip can be calculated, which is perpendicular to the crack propagation angle in a certain step. He
used the biaxial failure criterion of concrete to determine the next step of the crack propagation. In this
manner, the whole propagation of flexural shear cracks is obtained and the corresponding shear capacity
can be calculated as well. His model can be used to obtain a full crack path of a flexural shear crack.
However, the model lacks an explicit equation for the crack trajectory and requires complex iterative
calculation, which makes a systematic comparison of the model with a large amount of actual crack
patterns from different specimens rather challenging. Therefore, the present paper does not include a
systematic comparison with this model.
2.4 Yang’s model

Yang [3] proposed a crack trajectory model based on fracture mechanics. In this model, the stress state
at the crack tip was also considered. Compared to Classen’s model [1], Yang used the analytical solution
from the failure Mode I (tension) and Mode II (shear) to describe the stress state at the crack tip, which
related the stress state to the stress intensity factor. And it is assumed that the crack propagates along
the direction perpendicular to the maximum principal stress direction. Based on this assumption, a basic
form of the crack path was derived.
d 2 x Vd c M
=  ( ,  0 , kc , , ) (4)
ds 2 M h Vd
Where x is the horizontal distance between the crack path and the initial cracking point, s is the crack
height, V is the shear force and moment acting in the section at the location of the initial cracking point,
M is the corresponding moment, d is the effective depth of the section, and  is a general function
including the influence of the beam height h, the concrete cover c, the inclination of stress relief line kc,
the normalized height of stabilized major  and the normalized height of a developing crack .
Due to the complexity of the function , Yang [3] concluded that it is impractical to derive an
analytical solution for Eq. (4). To get an explicit equation, Yang used nonlinear finite element method
simulations based on Sequentially Linear Analysis (SLA) method proposed by Rots et al. [11]-[12] and
Slobbe et al. [13]. Finally, after a series of parametric analyses of the numerical simulations, a semi-
theoretical crack trajectory model was derived from the regression analysis of numerical crack paths as
shown in Eq. (5).
−0.5
M 
 =  cr −0.2   2 (5)
 Vd 
Where =x/d is the normalized coordinate of the crack in the longitudinal direction, =s/d is the
normalized coordinate of the crack in the height direction, cr=lcrm/d is the normalized crack spacing
and the rest of the symbols represent the same meaning as the aforementioned.
Basically, this equation uses a second-order power function to describe the crack path. And it is
worthwhile to mention that it includes the influence of generalized span ratio factor M/(Vd) on crack
patterns, which shows consistency with both experimental observations and previous theoretical
derivations.
3 Development of a crack pattern data set of deep beam tests

To make a systematic comparison between the predicted and the actual crack patterns, a data set
including the quantitative information of actual crack patterns is needed. However, such a data set can
not be found in the existing literature. To achieve this goal, the present paper creates a data set using
the crack patterns of 34 specimens without shear reinforcement from the report in Reference [8]. All
the specimens were loaded by a single point with the simply supported condition. The height of the
majority of the specimens is 1200 mm and the width of them is 300 mm. The naming rule is explained
here to help readers associate the mechanical properties of the beam to the label better. For H401A
14th
specimen, the initial letter represents the test series, the first two digits mean the longitudinal
reinforcement ratio, the last digit represents the name of the specimen, and the last letter is related to
b
the loading position. Therefore, specimen H401 is the first beam with a reinforcement ratio of around
0.40% in test series H. In this chapter, an algorithm is used to extract the quantitative information of
actual crack patterns from the DIC analysis. The main procedure of the algorithm can be seen in the
following sections. In total, the data set includes the quantitative information of 126 cracks.
if
3.1 Detection of crack patterns
The direct output of DIC analysis is the displacement field of the member, then, the strain field is
calculated based on the finite element method with a linear 4-nodes element method. In this method, a
linear shape function of the displacement field is assumed. Therefore, the discontinuity due to cracking
results in some relatively high strain values in the cracking area. The algorithm identifies the crack
pattern by detecting the high strain area in the strain field obtained from the DIC analysis. The DIC
analysis in this paper was conducted by an algorithm developed by Jones [14]. The input picture size
is 8688 by 5792 pixels. Since the main aim is to extract the crack profile, a relatively large subset size
of 121 pixels and a step size of 50 pixels are used in the DIC analysis. As an example, the equivalent
strain field of specimen H403A is given in Fig. 3 a).
Then, the missing data points due to a large crack width are filled by three times the mean value of
the equivalent strain field so that a full equivalent strain field is obtained as shown in Fig. 3 b). Clearly,
some noises can be seen in the red box area, which can result in biased detection. To reduce the noise
level, a mean value filter is applied. Specifically, the global mean value of the full equivalent strain
field is used as a threshold value. When a data point has a value that is higher than the threshold, it is
preserved. Although using the global mean value as the threshold value does not have a very solid
physical background, the noise level can be reduced and the main geometric characteristic information
of major flexural cracks can be preserved as shown in Fig. 3 c).
X (pixels)
X (pixels)
a) Equivalent strain field b) After filling the missing data point
c) After global mean value filtering d) After grouping

Fig. 3 Crack pattern detection procedure
The last step is to determine the final crack pattern from the filtered strain field. Here this paper used
an algorithm originally developed by Celada [15]. This algorithm provides the function to distinguish
different cracks and group them. In this algorithm, firstly, the filtered strain field matrix is converted
into a logical matrix. Then, the algorithm divides the high strain area into different groups by judging

whether they are connected with each other. To make the detection more robust, two criteria are used
to determine whether an individual group can be labeled as a crack instead of a noise area:
b
The first criterion is the number of pixel points in a group. Since the picture at the moment closed
to failure is chosen to extract the crack patterns, the cracks have already developed into a certain height.
It means that a real crack group should include a large enough amount of pixels points, otherwise this
group represents a noise area or does not develop into enough height.
if
The second criterion is the shape formed by all pixel points in a group. Due to the setup of other
measurement instruments, some area of the measured surface is blocked by a small steel frame in some
specimens. To avoid detecting this steel frame as a crack, this criterion is applied. In the original
algorithm, a first-order linear polynomial function is used as a reference, which means that the shape
formed by all the pixel points in a single group should have a good approximation compared with a
straight line. To achieve this aim, the algorithm follows the next two steps. First, based on the square-
least method, a linear regression equation is obtained using the pixel points from one group. Then, the
values from the regression function and actual values are used to calculate the coefficient of
determination. If the coefficient of determination is larger than a threshold value, this group is
categorized as a crack. After observing the shape of the flexural shear crack, this paper uses a three-
orde polynomial function as the reference function to increase the robustness of the detection algorithm.
The final grouping results can be seen in Fig. 3 d). Although the algorithm can not distinguish the major
crack and secondary branches, the majority of well-developed flexural cracks can be detected by this
algorithm. After grouping, the data is converted into a point cloud and displayed in the unit of mm.
3.2 Selection of major flexural-shear crack

It is clear that some crack point groups also include the secondary branch while the available crack
trajectory models are only for major flexural shear cracks. An algorithm is designed to select the points
from the major crack and eliminate the influence of the secondary branch. The general idea of the
algorithm is to scan the point cloud of each group from the bottom to the top along a straight line in the
longitudinal direction. The scanning procedure starts from the level of longitudinal reinforcement and
terminates after reaching the bottom surface of the compressive zone. If the intersection area only
includes continuous indexes of points, which means the horizontal scanning line only crosses the major
crack, the middle point of the intersection area is selected as the cracking point. When the intersection
area includes discontinuous indexes of points, it means the scanning line crosses both the major crack
and the secondary branch. For this situation, the first group of points with continuous indexes is
considered the major flexural shear crack since the loading point is located on the left-hand side of the
image. Then, the corresponding middle point of this group is extracted. The final results can be seen in
Fig. 4.
Fig. 4 Selection of the major flexural-shear crack pattern
4 Model validation
4.1 Determination of local generalized span ratio

To obtain the predictive crack patterns based on both Cavagnis’s [2] and Yang’s [3] model, the M/Vd
ratio at the initial cracking point should be determined first. It is defined by the intersection point
between the major flexural shear crack and the longitudinal reinforcement as shown in Fig. 4. Since the
thickness of the concrete cover is known, the intersectional points and their corresponding coordinates
14th
in the x-direction can be determined easily. After determining the location of the loading point, the
generalized span ratio can be calculated by (6).
b
To determine the location of the loading point, for the images including the jack, the location can
be directly selected from the picture. However, for those pictures without the jacks, the locations were
roughly assumed to be the left edge of the image, which means the corresponding x-coordinate equals
0.
if
M V (a − ( x + xload )) a − ( x + xload )
= = (6)
Vd Vd d
Where a is the span ratio, x is the x-coordinate of the intersection point, and xload is the x-coordinate of
the loading point.
4.2 Criterion of the comparisons

After obtaining the local generalized span ratio, the full crack pattern can be obtained using Eq. (2)-(3)
or Eq. (4), respectively. It should be noted that since only the crack pattern under the compressive zone
will be used in the comparisons, the secondary branch described in Cavagnis’s model [2] will not be
used. Due to the variation and randomness of cracks, it is not practical to verify the models by a single
crack. So the rest of the results will be shown in a statistical way. To compare the actual crack patterns
and the existing models in a quantitative way, the coefficient of determination was used and it can be
calculated by Eq. (8).
n
 ( xi − fi )
2
SS
R = 1 − res = 1 − i =n1
2
(8)
( x − x )
SStot 2
i
i =1
Where SSres is the sum of squares of residuals between the prediction values and actual values, SStot is
the total sum of squares, xi is the x-coordinates of the actual flexural shear cracks, fi is the x-coordinates
of the calculated flexural shea cracks and 𝑥̅ is the mean value of the coordinates of the actual flexural
shear cracks.
4.3 Statistics results

To show the comparison results from the algorithm, two specific specimens H301A and H402A are
selected and the results can be seen in Fig. 5 and Fig. 6, respectively. They both fail in flexural-shear
failure and have the typical flexural-shear crack pattern. Since the function of the algorithm is to detect
the crack patterns and make the comparison, the selection of the specimens does not affect its robustness
and generalization. In Fig. 5 and Fig. 6, both models reach a similar level of approximation to the actual
flexural shear cracks. Cavagnis’s model has a higher coefficient of determination.
a) Comparison with Cavagnis’s model b) Comparison with Yang’s model

Fig. 5 Crack pattern comparison of Specimen H301A
a) Comparison with Cavagnis’s model b) Comparison with Yang’s model

Fig. 6 Crack pattern comparison of Specimen H402A

Fig. 7 shows the coefficient of determination results against the ratio between the distance from the
initial cracking point to the loading point and the average cracking spacing of major cracks. The detailed
b
derivation of average cracking spacing of major cracks can be seen in Reference [3] and the value can
be calculated by Eq.(9). Note that the major cracks mentioned here are the cracks that can develop to a
curtained height scr and the secondary branches toward to the level of longitudinal reinforcement are
not considered as a part of the major cracks.
if
scr (1 +  s ne − 2  s ne + (  s ne ) )d
2
lcrm = = (9)
kc kc
It is very clear that when the ratio is smaller than 1, both models have very poor approximations against
the actual crack pattern. Because when the cracks are closed to the loading point, the stress state at the
crack tip is highly affected by the localized compression and the cracks are likely to be straight lines
rather than curved lines. Both models are only suitable to describe the cracks which are one time of lcrm
far away from the loading point.
-50
R2 [-]
-100
-150
Cavagnis
-200 Yang
0 1 2 3 4
k=xini/lcrm [-]
Fig. 7 Coefficient of determination against the ratio between the distance from the initial cracking
point to the loading point and the average cracking spacing of major cracks.
After selecting the suitable cracks, only the cracks having positive coefficient of determination are
chosen. In this manner, there are 63 cracks in total for Cavagnis’s model and 61 cracks for Yang’s
model. Their statistical histogram results can be seen in Fig. 8. In this paper, when the coefficient of
determination is larger than 0.7, we conclude that the calculated results fit the experimental results well.
Therefore, for Cavagnis’s model, around 60% of the calculated results have an R 2 coefficient larger
than 0.7, and around 44% of the calculated results from Yang’s model have a coefficient that can exceed
0.7.
30% 30%
Relative frequency [-]
Relative frequency [-]
25% 25%
20% 20%
15% 15%
10% 10%
5% 5%
0% 0%
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
R2 [-] R2 [-]
a) Cavagnis’s model b) Yang’s model

Fig. 8 Histogram results of the coefficients of determination for two models
5 Conclusions
In this paper, the possibility to verify the flexural-shear crack trajectory model using crack patterns
obtained from experiments in a quantitative way was explored. And a crack data set using the proposed
algorithm has been created. The procedure and the statistical results lead to some conclusions and
recommendations as follows.

14th
1) Based on the statistical results, Cavagnis’s model and Yang’s model both showed poor
approximation to the actual crack pattern when the cracks are closed to the loading point. Therefore, it
b
can be concluded that both models have a certain workable range and only the cracks that are one time
of lcrm away from the loading point can be described by those two models.
2) The statistical results prove that both models can reach a good level of approximation against the
experimental crack pattern and Cavagnis’s model had a better result. Those two models are suitable for
if
further use in a mechanical shear model to derive the corresponding kinematic model.
3) The current paper only collects the data of some simply supported beams with one depth. To
verify the models more systematically, more data from tests of members under different boundary
conditions and configurations are needed.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to acknowledge the experimental data and algorithm support from Zarate Garnica.
References
[1] Classen, M., 2020. Shear Crack Propagation Theory (SCPT)–The mechanical solution to the
riddle of shear in RC members without shear reinforcement. Engineering Structures, 210,
p.110207.
[2] Cavagnis, F., Simões, J.T., Ruiz, M.F. and Muttoni, A., 2020. Shear Strength of Members
without Transverse Reinforcement Based on Development of Critical Shear Crack. ACI
Structural Journal, 117(1).
[3] Yang, Y., 2014. Shear behaviour of reinforced concrete members without shear reinforcement:
a new look at an old problem. PhD diss., Delft University of Technology.
[4] Cavagnis, F., Fernández Ruiz, M. and Muttoni, A., 2018. An analysis of the shear‐transfer
actions in reinforced concrete members without transverse reinforcement based on refined
experimental measurements. Structural concrete, 19(1), pp.49-64.
[5] Cavagnis, F., 2017. Shear in reinforced concrete without transverse reinforcement: from refined
experimental measurements to mechanical models (Doctoral dissertation, Ecole Polytechnique
Fédérale de Lausanne).
[6] Gehri, N., Mata-Falcón, J. and Kaufmann, W., 2020. Automated crack detection and
measurement based on digital image correlation. Construction and Building Materials, 256,
p.119383.
[7] Zarate Garnica, G., 2018. Analysis of shear transfer mechanisms in concrete members without
shear reinforcement based on kinematic measurements.
[8] Zarate Garnica, G., & Yang, Y., 2018. Measurement report on the shear behaviour of 1.2m deep
RC slab strips.
[9] Carpinteri, A., Carmona, J.R. and Ventura, G., 2007. Propagation of flexural and shear cracks
through reinforced concrete beams by the bridged crack model. Magazine of concrete research,
59(10), pp.743-756.
[10] Carpinteri A, Carmona JR, Ventura G. Failure Mode Transitions in Reinforced Concrete
Beams--Part 2: Experimental Tests. ACI Structural Journal. 2011;108.
[11] Rots, J.G. and Invernizzi, S., 2004. Regularized sequentially linear saw‐tooth softening model.
International journal for numerical and analytical methods in geomechanics, 28(7‐8), pp.821-
856.
[12] Rots, J.G., Belletti, B. and Invernizzi, S., 2008. Robust modeling of RC structures with an
“event-by-event” strategy. Engineering Fracture Mechanics, 75(3-4), pp.590-614.
[13] Slobbe, A.T., Hendriks, M.A.N. and Rots, J.G., 2012. Sequentially linear analysis of shear
critical reinforced concrete beams without shear reinforcement. Finite Elements in Analysis and
Design, 50, pp.108-124.
[14] Jones, E., 2015. Documentation for Matlab-based DIC code, Version 4. University of Illinois,
Champaign County, Illinois.
[15] Celada Blesa, U., 2019. Theoretical and experimental study of the behaviour at service and
failure of partially prestressed concrete beams under flexure and shear. PhD diss. Universitat
Politècnica de Catalunya

Effects of steel ties layout and corrosion on structural
b
behavior of Gerber half-joints
Filippo Molaioni and Zila Rinaldi
if
Departement of Civil Engineering and Computer Science Engineering,
University of Rome “Tor Vergata“,
Via del Politecnico 1, Rome (00133), Italy
Abstract
Gerber half-joints were widely used in the XX century to develop RC girder bridges. Nevertheless,
these systems are affected by durability issues due to de-icing salts exposure. As chloride corrosion
causes reductions in both capacity and ductility of RC members, reliable references for the non-linear
behavior of corroded half-joints are needed. An experimental survey on sixteen specimens was planned
at the University of Rome “Tor Vergata”. The first experimental results presented in this work show
that both reinforcement layout and corrosion compromise the strength and ductility of the saddles. Fur-
thermore, the DIC technique’s results allow to identify the compression fields’ shapes and to better
interpret the failure mechanisms.
1 Introduction
Reinforced concrete (RC) Gerber half-joints, also known as saddles or dapped-end beams, were widely
used in the XX century’s road network development as a key connection between the structural ele-
ments of the bridges’ deck. Given the issues related to the inspection, maintenance, and durability, the
Gerber scheme is no longer used. Nevertheless, many existing bridges and viaducts still feature Gerber
half-joint details and considering their age and exposure to the de-icing salts leakage, many of them are
exposed to a high deterioration risk. In this context, the recent "Guidelines on risk classification and
management, safety assessment and monitoring of existing bridges" [1] classify it as "critical," leading
to the need for a detailed safety evaluation. The urgent need to develop reliable analytical and numerical
tools based on experimental evidence arises from these reasons.
Studies on the structural behavior of Gerber saddles through experimental tests on un-corroded
specimens can be found in the literature. In [2], a design procedure for reinforced or prestressed dapped-
end beams, based on an experimental investigation on eight dapped end is proposed. In [3], the test
results of 24 RC dapped-end beams, varying the compressive strength of concrete, the shear span-to-
depth ratio, and the horizontal load are reported. The contribution of the internal reinforcement layout
to the load capacity of RC saddles through an experimental survey on four full-scale half-joint beams
is investigated in [4]. In [5], the results of an experimental program consisting of twenty-eight tests on
fifteen different reinforcement configurations with and without inclined reinforcement are described,
proposing a simplified procedure for defining the geometry of STMs considering spalling failures.
Shear and flexural failures of Gerber half-joints through an experimental campaign consisting of eight
large-scale dapped-end tests are investigated in [6].
Corrosion induced by chloride-rich water can degrade the mechanical properties of concrete and
steel. Therefore, reductions in the bearing capacity of the Gerber half-joint and changes in the failure
mechanism may be triggered by corrosion. An experimental survey on RC half-joint beams, incorpo-
rating different defects and reinforcement detailing, was performed in [7] to discuss the impact of rein-
forcement layout, anchorage, and concrete cracking on the structural capacity. In [8], a full-scale test
on a saw-extracted beam-end from the Annone overpass is performed to check the effectiveness of the
STM adopted for the evaluation of the failure mode of the corroded element. Nevertheless, the problem
of assessing the structural safety of corroded Gerber saddles is still far from a satisfactory solution.
For this purpose, an exhaustive experimental survey was planned at “Laboratorio di Strutture e
Prove Materiali” of the University of Rome “Tor Vergata” within the framework of an Italian ReLUIS-
2021 project. The main goal is the evaluation of the structural behavior of existing reinforced concrete
half-joints characterized by several reinforcement layouts and in the presence of corrosion of the steel
reinforcement. To support the interpretation of the specimens' non-linear behavior and better map the

14 th
crack pattern until failure, the Digital Image Correlation (DIC) technique is implemented in the expe-
rimental survey evaluating the displacement and strain fields through the open source tool Ncorr [9].
b
DIC is a non-contact optical technique for evaluating displacements and strains of specimens sub-
jected to mechanic loads. It is based on comparing the image of the specimen captured before and
during the test [10]. Given its accuracy, it is widely used in experimental tests on materials. Further-
more, given the technique's potential, many applications of RC elements on a real scale have recently
if
been performed [11]-[16]. Although the optimal parameters (i.e., pattern, camera distance, acquisition)
for applications on the structural specimen’s scale are still being defined, this technique has shown
satisfactory results as regards: flexural crack assessment on RC and hybrid RC members [12],[13];
shear crack opening examination [14]; and the evolution of the crack pattern in bridges slabs [15],[16].
This paper presents and discusses the experimental survey's first outcomes in terms of load-dis-
placement capacity curves and failure mechanisms of four un-corroded and two corroded Gerber half-
joints.
2 Experimental survey
2.1 Test specimens

An experimental survey for the evaluation of the behavior of un-corroded and corroded RC Gerber
half-joints has been planned and conducted at the “Laboratorio di Strutture e Prove Materiali” of the
University of Rome “Tor Vergata”. The paper presents the first outcomes of the experimental survey
related to six specimens. The design of the specimens is based on the Strut and Tie Models (STMs)
proposed in EN 1992-1-1, named here Model A and Model B, respectively, and reported in Figure 1.
With the aim to investigate different collapse mechanisms of the half-joints, the sixteen specimens are
designed according to:
• two reinforcement layouts, considering the activation of Model A only or a combination
in parallel of Model A and Model B (i.e. presence of diagonal tie);
• two different steel reinforcement amounts are adopted, named respectively “low” and
“high”; for which the number of rebars belonging to each tie is summarized in Table 1.
a) b)
Figure 1. Strut and Tie Models (STMs) proposed in EN 1992-1-1: a) Model A and b) Model B
Table 1 summarizes the layout of the specimens presented in this paper. Four of the six specimens
were kept un-corroded (NC) for reference. The remaining two specimens were subjected to an artificial
corrosion process of the steel ties to investigate the effects of chlorides corrosion phenomena on the
structural behavior of the element.
The specimens are made by casting RC beams with Gerber half-joint details at the end. Therefore,
each cast beam allows the testing of two specimens. The beams are 3000 mm long, the nibs are 300 mm
long with a 200 x 250 mm cross-section, while the internal part of the beam has a 200 x 500 mm cross-
section. The average concrete strength measured on seven 150 mm side cubes is 52.6 MPa. Further-
more, tensile tests have been performed on the steel rebars (Italian B450C type), considering all used
diameters, obtaining values of the yielding strength equal to 516.0 MPa, 565.0 MPa, and 464.0 for the
steel rebars having a diameter equal to 10 mm, 12 mm, and 16 mm, respectively.
18 Durability and materials

Table 1. Specimens’ reinforcement layout
b
T1 T2 TD Foreseen
Corrosion
specimen STM Amount Ф n° Φ n° Ф n°
mm - mm - mm - %
if
G1-NC A+B LOW 12 2 10 2 12 3 -
G2-NC A+B HIGH 12 4 10 3 12 3 -
G1-NC A+B LOW 12 2 10 2 12 3 15
G2-NC A+B HIGH 12 4 10 3 12 3 15
G3-NC A LOW 12 2 10 2 12 - -
G4-NC A HIGH 12 4 10 3 12 - -
2.2 Artificial corrosion process

The specimens G1-C and G2-C were subjected to an artificial corrosion process of the steel ties. Cor-
rosion has been provided with an accelerated process through electrolytic cells by dipping the speci-
mens in a 3% saline solution placed in a suitable pool to cover the upper surface of the saddle (Fig-
ure 2.a). For each beam edge, the steel rebars belonging to the T1, T2, and TD ties have been connected
to the positive pole of a power supply (anode), while the other reinforcement were epoxy coated against
corrosion (Figure 2.b). The cathodes have been realized with two Ø10 mm diameter steel bars placed
inside the pool near each beam edge. A current intensity equal to 1.16 A and 1.53 A has been adopted
for specimens G1-C and G2-C, respectively, in agreement with the values suggested in [17].
a) b)
Figure 2. Artificial corrosion process: a) scheme; b) detail of specimen’s reinforcement.
The time to obtain the desired corrosion level was evaluated with Faraday’s law, suitably modified in
order to account for the concrete presence:
𝜆 ⋅ 𝑚𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛 ⋅ 𝐶𝐹𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒[𝑠𝑒𝑐] = (1)
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡[𝐴] ⋅ 𝑀𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛
where Mspecimen is the molar mass of the reinforcing rebar (equal to 55.8 mol), n specimen is the valence
equal to 2, CFaraday is the Faraday constant (equal to 96485 C/mol), and λ is the constant accounting for
the possibility that the corrosive process does not start immediately due to the concrete cover, assumed
equal to 1.6, based on previous studies [18]. After the tests, the effective corrosion amount and mor-
phology were evaluated by extracting the steel rebars from the specimens. In particular, the actual cor-
rosion is evaluated in terms of mass loss, measured by weighing the reinforcement after the rebar clean-
ing in agreement with (ASTM G1-90, 2002). The average mass loss values are 13% and 14%, respec-
tively for specimens G1-C and G2-C.
2.3 Test Setup

The test setup, shown in Figure 3.a, has been specifically defined aiming to simulate the actual
loading and restrain condition of an existing Gerber half-joint, since a RC Gerber bridge is characterized
14th
by a suspended span resting on the nibs of the pier or adjacent beams. The beam is anchored to the
laboratory strong floor through two steel beams and two pre-tensioned high-strength rebars, each con-
b
nected to a hydraulic 300 kN jack. The load is applied through a 4000 kN hydraulic jack placed at a
distance equal to 1500 mm from the axis of the steel beams (800 mm from the axis of the cylindrical
support). The jack has been fixed to the load frame of the laboratory and is equipped with a 1000 kN
load cell and a hinged joint.
if
a)
b) c)
Figure 3. a) Image of the test setup, b) Scheme of the measuring instrumentation, c) ROI and pattern
for DIC analysis.
In Figure 3.b the layout of sensors is reported; on one of the lateral sides of the specimen, five wire
encoders (ENC) were placed to measure the vertical displacement of the specimens; four potentiometer
transducers (POT) in correspondence with the position of the ties were placed to measure the relative
displacement of the specimens’ surface; and three LVDT were placed to measure the cracks opening in
correspondence of the nib’s re-entrant corner and of the expected concrete struts.
DIC analysis uses image comparison to obtain displacements and strain fields of specimens sub-
jected to mechanic loads. For this purpose, on the other lateral side of the specimens, a hand-made
stochastic pattern, characterized by 4 mm speckle diameter and 20% surface coverage, was depicted to
allow the DIC algorithm to recognize subsets within the Region Of Interest (ROI) between the several
images captured during the mechanical test. The pattern and the entire ROI set for the analysis are
shown in Figure 3.c; the latter has the shape of the half-joint, and it covers all the specimen's height and
extends up to 500 mm from the nib-beam connection. The camera for the images acquisition is a "LU-
MIX DMC-TZ70". It is equipped with a MOS sensor 1/2.3 and a LEICA DC VARIO-ELMAR. For
practical reasons, a 25 fps Full High Definition (FHD) video was recorded during the test, then the
images for the subsequent DIC analyses were selected from the video relatively to the main stages of
the test (i.e., first crack, first yielding, maximum load, collapse). The resolution of the obtained frames
is 3840x2160 px. To ensure a homogeneous brightness on the specimen’s surface, this was illuminated
with a spotlight placed at 1m. Furthermore, the video acquisition was synchronized with the purchase
of the sensors to compare the DIC results with the experimental ones (i.e. sensors).

2.4 Digital Image Correlation
b
The Gerber half-joint’s displacement and strain fields are evaluated in this work through the open-
source 2D DIC package Ncorr [9]. It represents a useful and flexible Matlab software based on the
Reliability Guided DIC method [10]. It is based on the subset method (i.e. local DIC), correlating in-
dependent subsets of the image, and therefore does not guarantee the compatibility between adjacent
subsets. The tool has been widely used in several experimental studies, obtaining satisfying results in
if
material characterization tests [19] and RC structural members experiments [14]. Used DIC analysis
parameters are described in the following, and it is remarked that some sensitivity analyses were needed
to identify the optimal output of the results. The subset radius was selected equal to 80 pixels, and the
subset spacing was set equal to 5 pixels. For the iterative solver options, 1e-06 is set as the difference
norm vector threshold, and 50 is selected as the maximum number of iterations. The subset truncation
discontinuous analysis is enabled since, as specimens are tested until failure, high displacement and
crack width are expected. Therefore, to investigate the behavior until the collapse, high strain step anal-
ysis is enabled with the option "seed propagation" in which the reference image is updated based on the
correlation coefficient and the number of iterations to the convergence of the seeds. No correlation
coefficient cutoff is introduced in the displacement analysis to better evaluate the whole mechanism of
the specimen. Strains calculations are made using a 5-pixels strain radius and enabling the subset trun-
cation.
3 Results
The experimental results of the uncorroded (i.e. G1-NC, G2-NC, G3-NC, G4-NC) and the corroded
Gerber half-joints specimens (i.e. G1-C and G2-C) are presented and compared in Figure 4, in terms of
Load-Displacement curves. The load relates to the 1000 kN load cell measurement, while the displace-
ment refers to the average displacement measured by ENC 1 and ENC 2.
Figure 4. Force-Displacement curves of the tested specimens.
A comparison between the nib’s displacements obtained with the DIC and measured by the wire
encoders was made to check the reliability of the analysis. Results in terms of vertical displacement of
the nib showed a Mean Absolute Error (MAE) of 2.06 mm, 0.93 mm, 1.03 mm, and 0.99 mm, respec-
tively, for G1-NC, G2-NC, G3-NC, and G4-NC.
The main results of the DIC analysis are reported in Figure 5. The shear strain 𝜀𝑥𝑦 is chosen as the
main output of the DIC analysis to better interpret the crack evolution since the half-joint geometry
involves the formation of compressed diagonal concrete struts. The video acquisition was synchronized
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with the purchase of the sensors to compare the DIC results with the experimental ones (i.e. sensors);
therefore, for each analyzed image, the corresponding load and displacement of the specimen are
b
known. For the sake of brevity, the results are reported only relatively to the maximum load of the un-
corroded specimens, as at these stages, the cracking pattern better highlights the structural behavior.
The maximum load exhibited by the un-corroded specimens is 294.8 kN for G1-NC, 331 kN for G2-
NC, 140 kN for G3-NC, and 220 kN for G4-NC.
if
Specimens characterized by low reinforcement amounts (i.e. G1-NC & G3-NC), showed a com-
bined flexure shear failure at the nib-beam corner governed by the rupture of the longitudinal rebars
(T1) for both specimens. For specimen G1-NC also spalling of concrete under the nib was observed.
Specimens with high reinforcement amounts (i.e. G2-NC & G4-NC) exhibited a failure governed by
nib struts compression with yielded reinforcement. It is remarked that, despite the shear-compression
failure, which highlights that the weakest element in the STM is the concrete strut in the nib, the non-
linear behavior is characterized by a certain degree of ductility due to the yielding of the longitudinal
ties (T1). As a result of the higher reinforcement amount that characterizes specimens G2-NC and G4-
NC with respect to specimens G1-NC and G3-NC, the concrete struts in the beam zone have undergone
greater stresses, as can be seen in Figures 5.b and 5.d.
a) b)
c) d)
Figure 5. Shear strain at maximum load. a) G1-NC; b) G2-NC; c) G3-NC; d) G4-NC.
Regarding the un-corroded specimens, it is noted that the presence of diagonal ties leads to an
increase in strength of 155 kN (+111%) for the low reinforced half-joints and an increase in strength of
111kN (+50%) for the half-joints with high reinforcement amount. Furthermore, it is noted that the
diagonal ties help to contain the development of cracks in the pre-yielding phase.
DIC results allow to identify the specimens' cracks and show the mechanism evolution: the flexure-
shear cracks in the re-entrant corner develops with the increasing loads, while the crack related to the
compressed strut in the nib is the first compression crack to appear. Cracks in the beam zone highlight
the involvement of compression fields in the beam, which, however, seems interested in smeared
cracks, unlike the localized crack in the nib. Failure happens in the nib zone for each of the four speci-
mens, and it is possible to appreciate the significant involvement of the concrete (cracks) in the speci-
mens characterized by a high amount of reinforcement (G2-NC & G4-NC).
Regarding the corroded specimens, the comparison of Figure 4 between un-corroded and corroded
capacity curves shows reductions in capacity and ductility. It is remarked that specimens G1-C and G2-
C represent the corroded twins of specimens G1-NC and G2-NC, respectively. More specifically, a
reduction of the capacity equal to 44% and 25% is observed for the specimen with low (G1-C) and high
(G2-C) reinforcement amounts, respectively. It is worth highlighting that an average mass loss of 13%
and 14% were found in the corroded specimens G1-C and G2-C, respectively. For specimen G1-C, a
maximum load equal to 166 kN is observed for bending-shear failure in the nib; and the rupture of one
b
of the corroded diagonals rebars was observed after the execution of the test. It is also noted that the
concrete in the beam region suffered fewer cracks than the un-corroded twin G1-NC, as the corrosion
of the tie acted as a fuse, preventing the development of the capacity of the struts. For specimen G2-C
a maximum load of 247 kN was observed; the failure mechanism features a shear-traction collapse due
if
to the rupture of the corroded stirrups belonging to the tie T2. It must be remarked that the collapse
mechanism of the un-corroded twin G2-NC was governed by the compression of the struts in the nib,
therefore, in addition to the reduction in both capacity and ductility, a change in the collapse mechanism
can also be achieved due to the corrosion effect.
4 Conclusion
The paper resumes the first outcomes of a wide experimental survey on the structural behavior of the
Gerber half-joints, characterized by several: reinforcement layout, reinforcement amount, and steel cor-
rosion degrees. The corrosion was artificially induced with an accelerated process through electrolytic
cells by dipping the specimens in a 3% saline solution placed in a suitable pool up to cover the upper
surface of the saddle to reach a mass loss of about 15%. The corroded steel ties, extracted from the two
corroded saddles, showed different values of the actual corrosion, with an average value of 13% and
14%, respectively. The behavior of the specimens is captured using both sensors (i.e. load cell, wire
encoders, potentiometer transducers, LVDT) and Digital Image Correlation analyzing the images cap-
tured during the tests through the open source tool Ncorr.
After the presented results, the following conclusion could be made:
▪ the failure mechanism of the un-corroded specimens with the low reinforcement amount (G1-
NC & G3-NC) is governed by the rupture of the longitudinal rebars in the nib (T1) and by the
spalling of the concrete cover under the nib, while the failure of high reinforced specimens
(G2-NC & G4-NC) is governed by the collapse of compression struts in the nib with yielded
reinforcement;
▪ specimens C3-NC and C4-NC, characterized by the absence of the diagonal reinforcement TD
(i.e. Strut and Tie Model A only) showed lower capacity when compared with the specimens
C1-NC and C2-NC, -53% and -34%, respectively,. Furthermore, they exhibited wide cracks
in the early stage of loading;
▪ corroded specimens showed great reductions in both capacity and ductility;
▪ for the corroded specimen with low reinforcement amount (G1-C), governed by a bending-
shear failure, the rupture of one of the corroded diagonal rebars was observed after the execu-
tion of the test;
▪ for corroded specimen with high reinforcement amount (G2-C), a shear-traction collapse due
to the rupture of the corroded stirrups belonging to the tie T2 is observed, therefore a change
of the collapse mechanism is found with respect with the un-corroded twin (G2-N);
▪ The results in terms of displacements measured by DIC were satisfactory, with mean absolute
errors around 1 mm when compared with the experimental measurements. The study of the
deformation fields with DIC allows highlighting and better understanding of the failure mech-
anisms established in the specimens.
This paper highlights the effect of steel ties layout and corrosion on the Gerber half-joint behavior.
Further studies will be carried out within the same experimental survey, evaluating the effects of several
corrosion degrees and the localization of corrosion on single ties. The authors believe that experimental
and DIC analysis results can represent a strong scientific reference for the analytical and numerical
structural assessment of existing corroded Gerber half-joints.
Acknowledgements
The paper presents some of the results obtained in the framework of the ReLUIS project (accordo at-
tuativo DM 578/2020).
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An in-situ experimental test on a reinforced concrete
b
beam: test design and main results
Guglielmo Amendola1, Paolo Castaldo1, Giuseppe Mancini1, Elena Tetta2, Giu-
lia Lastrico2, Massimo Gammino3, Auro Palastanga3, Giuseppe Pasqualato3,
if
Christian Bonaldi4 and Maurizio Deiana4
1 Dipartimento di Ingegneria Strutturale, Edile e Geotecnica (DISEG),
Politecnico di Torino,
Corso Duca degli Abruzzi 24, Turin 10129, Italy
2 Sacertis Ingegneria S.r.l.
3 Sina S.p.A.
4 Autostrada dei Fiori S.p.A.
Abstract
A traditional issue in the structural safety is the estimation of the actual condition as well as residual
lifetime of existing structures and infrastructures. To this extent, an in-situ experimental test has been
carried out on a reinforced concrete beam built more than 60 years ago and with a span equal to 25.90m.
The abovementioned beam was purposely removed during the demolition operations of the Mollere
viaduct, along the Torino-Savona highway, in Italy. The in-situ experimental test has been conducted
supporting the beam through two isolated foundations. Successively, through a force control approach,
the beam has been directly loaded by means of masses with a weight of 100 kN, specifically calibrated
to achieve the collapse or near-collapse state at the end of the test. This paper summarizes the overall
design steps behind the experimental test, and comes out with the capacity curve of the beam under the
imposed loads.
1 Introduction
Nowadays the structural safety of existing bridges is crucial to help engineering companies of large-
scale infrastructures in developing mitigation policies aiming at reducing the impact of future harmful
events involving existing bridges, as well as to assist national authorities to design risk reduction plan
[1]-[4]. One of the key issues in existing bridges involves the circumstance that most of them have
approached or are about to approach their nominal service life. The presence of outdated transportation
infrastructures requires the necessity to check the actual safety condition and monitor vehicle overloads
and environmental degradation [5]-[6]. Recently small-scale experimental tests were carried out by
means of a shaking table to investigate the seismic performance of a bridge system [7]. In spite of the
certain usefulness of this kind of experiment, they are still not sufficient to represent the real behavior
of a beam under traffic loads.
This work presents a full-scale experimental test performed out on a 25.90m long reinforced con-
crete beam built more than 60 years ago. Firstly, the beam was purposely removed during the demoli-
tion operations of the Mollere viaduct, along the Torino-Savona highway, in Italy. Since then, the beam
was placed in a dedicated area and supported through two isolated foundations. The test was carried
out in a force control approach by loading the beam with a system of iron masses of about 105 kN. The
level of force was specifically designed to approach the collapse or near-collapse state at the end of the
test. The main goal of the test involves either presenting an overview of the design framework behind
the experimental campaign and highlighting how the specific beam properties have affected the main
parameters under control.
2 Overview on the main structural properties of the tested beam

The beam under study is a single span reinforced concrete beam of length 25.90m, whose geometry is
depicted in Fig. 1-2. Particularly, the selected beam is a 185cm high reinforced concrete precasted beam
characterized by an asymmetrical cross-section (resulting from the longitudinal cut operated) and by a
20cm thick cast in-situ reinforced concrete slab.

14th
a)
if b
b)
Fig. 1 Geometric configuration of the beam: a) plan view and lateral view b) Steel longitudinal
reinforcement along the beam.
Based on the historical documentation and information gathered from the on-field survey, it was pos-
sible to reach a preliminary identification either of the beam reinforcement or of the main mechanical
properties of materials used during construction. Accordingly, the beam was reinforced with #2028
longitudinal bars on the tension side, bent in correspondence of the supports to absorb the shear force
within the web, with the absence of stirrups along the span length . The so-picked mean mechanical
properties for concrete, as well as for steel, were adopted as reference values in the design of the exper-
imental test, and using to derive the section's ultimate capacity both in flexure than under shear forces.
When such properties were not available from the original documentation, they have been assumed or
derived with reference to [8]-[13]. It is worth mentioning here that after collapse induced test, a further
campaign with destructive tests was performed to characterize in a more refined way the material prop-
erties listed below. Accordingly to the historical documentation, the structural materials are defined as
follows:
a) Cast in-situ concrete
Strength class 250 (Mpa):
- Rck = 25 MPa characteristic cube strength;
- fck = 0.83Rck= 20.75MPa characteristic cylinder strength;
This document may notAn
bein-situ
copied or distributed without prior permission from fib.
experimental test on a reinforced concrete beam: test design and main results
- fcm = fck + 8= 28.75 MPa mean cylinder compressive strength;
b
- fcd = 13.83 MPa design compressive strength;
- fctm =2.26 MPa mean tensile strength;
- Ec = 22000 ((fck + 8)/10)0.3 = 30200 MPa mean value of the modulus of elasticity.
if
b) Precast concrete
Strength class 350 (Mpa):
- Rck = 35 MPa characteristic cube strength;
- fck = 0.83Rck= 29.05 MPa characteristic cylinder strength;
- fcm = fck + 8= 37.05 MPa mean cylinder compressive strength;
- fcd = 19.36 MPa design compressive strength;
- fctm =2.84 MPa mean tensile strength;
- Ec = 22000 ((fck + 8)/10)0.3 = 32558 MPa mean value of the modulus of elasticity.
c) Reinforcing steel
Ribbed bars FeB44k:
- fyk≥440 MPa characteristic yield stress;
- fym=1.1fyk =484 MPa mean yield stress;
- fyd = 383 MPa design yield stress.
Furthermore, for the reinforcing steel a modulus of elasticity Es = 200000 MPa is considered.
a)
b) c)
Fig. 2 In-situ configuration of the tested beam : a) full view of the reinforced concrete beam, b)
detail of the support c) cross-sectional view.
3 Description of the experimental test

The experimental test was carried out by means of iron pallets each with a weight of 105 kN (i.e. 10.5
tons), superimposed on the beam slab, in correspondence of the midspan, over a length of 11m. The
beam was beared by two isolated supports, aiming at simulating a double pinned restraint. Such con-
figuration was specifically adopted to assess the beam response when increasing the applied load.
Guglielmo Amendola, Paolo Castaldo, Giuseppe Mancini, Elena Tetta, Giulia Lastrico, Massimo Gammino, 27
Auro Palastanga, Giuseppe Pasqualato, Christian Bonaldi and Maurizio Deiana
14th
In detail, along the midspan, a support structure was realized by means of 8 hydraulic jacks and supports
made of azobé wood on which a central steel plate with a 5cm thickness was placed. In particular, the
b
two hydraulic jacks placed at the ends of each torsional support (not illustrated in this work for sake of
brevity) had the function of balancing any torsional movements of the beam, most likely to occur due
to its particular section shape. The central steel plate was kept close to the beam intrados (at a distance
varying between 1 and 5cm) throughout the test by means of 4 out of 8 hydraulic jacks. Such configu-
if
ration is intended to hold the beam in the event of a (brittle) flexural collapse characterized by limited
ductility.
In the following, the design and execution of the above-mentioned collapse-induced load test are
presented and discussed.
3.1 Beam loading design

The load design aims at maximizing the flexural moment and simulating in a better way possible a
concentrated load. Accordingly, the iron pallets have been disposed over an overall length of 11m
across the midspan. Once the geometric and mechanical data were available from the historical and in-
visu survey, the maximum flexural capacity has been evaluated. The resisting moment results equal to
10728 kNm. It is worth specifying again that such a moment has been obtained by adopting the mean
values of the mechanical properties of the materials and following the normative references in Section
2.
In order to reach the so-estimated ultimate moment, 4 different layers (SA, SB, SC, SD) were
designed, each consisting of 4 iron pallets (1, 2, 3, 4). In this configuration, each layer of pallets
represents a load of 420 kN (42.0 tonnes), with a total value of 1680 kN (168.0 tonnes), when all 4
layers are considered. In qualitative terms, concerning the single layer, this configuration simulates the
dimensions and load of a heavy vehicle (truck) with a mass of 44 tons. Fig. 3 shows the loading
configuration when all the layers of pallet are placed over the beam. Fig. 4 further illustrates the loading
run program up to which the beam collapse was reached, say 1260kN, at the positioning of the entire
third layer of pallets (SC1-4).
Fig. 3 Experimental test setup: plan view and lateral view of the iron pallets configuration.
Iron pallet
SC4
Iron pallet
SB4
Load [kN]
Iron pallet Iron pallet

SA4 SA4
Run n° [-]
Fig. 4 Experimental test setup: number of loading runs.
bein-situ
3.2 Monitoring instruments
b
In this section, it is described the instrumentation layout installed along the beam to monitor the re-
sponse parameters assumed to be most significant for analyzing the behavior of the beam. Particularly,
the following set of different instruments have been used/adopted:
- Topographic survey for the horizontal and vertical displacements;
if
- Deflectometer survey for the horizontal and vertical displacements;
- Strains survey by means of LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer) sensors and
Strain Gauges;
Fig. 5 Summary of the installed instrumentation for the registration of the monitored response
parameters.
a) b)
c) d)
Fig. 6 Summary of the installed instrumentation for the registration of the monitoring response pa-
rameters: a) LVDT sensors placed in correspondence of the midspan b) target points of the topographic
survey placed in correspondence of the support B c) lateral view of the instrumentations d) horizontal
deflectometer placed in correspondence of the midspan.
4 Main test results

This section presents and discusses the results of the load test. In particular, along with the description
of the observed collapse mechanism, the data measured from some of the devices installed along the
beam and introduced in Section 3.2 are reported. All the outcomes in terms of displacements and rota-
tions are reported in the following coherently with the reference system of Fig. 7. Rotations are assumed
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to be positive if they are counterclockwise about the considered axis and vertical displacements are
positive downwards.
if b
Fig. 7 Reference system adopted during the experimental test.
As described above, the cross-section geometry has determined a significant bi-axial bending moment
even if the test was designed to have only vertical loads applied. In order to control the out-of-plane
rotation and bending of the beam, some technical solutions have been adopted, either before the test or
during the test. According to this, the slab was partly cut in a region (denoted with a grey grid in Fig. 3
and 7) of 15 meters along the span length of the beam to enhance the simmetry condition of the cross
section. In this region, the new section configuration is Section 2-2 reported in Fig.3 whereas during
the loading program of the beam, the in-plan position of the iron pallets has been adjusted to avoid
unexpected load eccentricities. With all this done, the loads applied to the beam have been pushed up
to a value of 1260kN (126.0 ton), corresponding to layer SC1-4, according to the configuration design
of the test. The beam vertical deflection was about 9cm in correspondence with the midspan. Contex-
tually, comparable displacements in the horizontal direction were observed. At this point, the collapse
occurred as not all the sources of eccentricities were effectively removed. The kind of collapse that
occurred was difficult to predict until its occurrence.
Fig. 8 Experimental test photographic survey: pallet configuration before the collapse.
4.1 Topographic instruments results

Fig. 9 shows the transverse displacements (along x), vertical displacements (along y), and longitudinal
displacements (along z) measured by the topographic sights as a function of the load run specified in
the test protocol. The vertical displacements are corrected for the vertical displacements of the supports
to make them absolute. The peak displacement that occurred was 9cm.

bein-situ
1400 0.1
b
1200 Load
0.08
P10-ux
1000 P10-uy 0.06
Load [kN]
800 P10-uz
uy [m]
0.04
600
if
0.02
400
200 0
0 -0.02
0 10 20 30 40
Run n° [-]
Fig. 9 Topographic survey results in terms of horizontal and vertical displacements: target P10.
4.2 Deflectometer instruments results

Fig. 10 shows the evolution with time of the points recorded by the vertical deflectometers FR4, FR5,
installed along the beam according to the configuration depicted in Fig.5. In particular, the displace-
ments along the y-axis are coherent with what is registered by the topographic monitoring-beam points.
a)
uy [m]
Load [kN]
Time [min]
Fig. 10 Deflectometer survey results for the vertical displacements: instruments FR4 and FR5.
5 Conclusions
The present work represents the first important step to evaluating the structural safety of existing
bridges such that to improve the bridges' performance objectives (e.g., life safety and collapse preven-
tion). The scope of the study is to summarize the main issues behind the design of an on-field experi-
mental test, performed in a full-scale condition by loading a beam 25.90m long, simply supported. The
overview provides evidence on how the non-symmetric shape of the cross-section has affected the test
and the main outcomes in terms of monitored parameters. Indeed, the results analyzed up to now and
depicted in Fig. 9-10, are mainly related to the abovementioned geometric configuration of the beam.
With this in mind, Fig. 9 shows that the vertical displacement is comparable in terms of magnitude with
the transverse displacement. A much more comprehensive study will be coming next, providing the
comparison among different monitoring strategies and performing numerical simulations of the exper-
imental test.
References
[1] Troisi, R. and Alfano G. 2019. “Towns as Safety Organizational Fields: An Institutional
Framework in Times of Emergency.” Sustainability 11, 7025. DOI:10.3390/su11247025.
[2] Troisi, R. and Castaldo, P. 2022. “Technical and organizational challenges in the risk man-
agement of road infrastructures.” Journal of Risk Research,
DOI:10.1080/13669877.2022.2028884.
[3] Castaldo, P., Gino, D., Marano, G.C. and Mancini, G. 2022. “Aleatory uncertainties with
global resistance safety factors for non-linear analyses of slender reinforced concrete co-
lumns.” Engineering Structures, 255, 113920
[4] Bertagnoli, G., Gino, D. and Martinelli, E. 2017. “A simplified method for predicting early-
age stresses in slabs of steel-concrete composite beams in partial interaction.” Engineering
Structures, 140, 286-297. 10.1016/j.engstruct.2017.02.058 (Elsevier)
14th
[5] Miluccio, G., Losanno, D., Parisi, F., and Cosenza, E. 2021. “Traffic-load fragility models
for prestressed concrete girder decks of existing Italian highway bridges. ” Engineering Struc-
b
tures, 249, 113367.
[6] Cardone, D., Giuseppe, P. and Salvatore, S. 2011. “A performance-based adaptive method-
ology for the seismic evaluation of multi-span simply supported deck bridges. ” Bull Earthq
Eng , 9(5):1463–98.
if
[7] Shoushtari, E, Saiidi, Saiid M., Itani A. and Mohamed, M.. 2021. “Seismic performance of a
two-span steel girder bridge with ABC connections”. Engineering Structures, 241,
[8] CEN. EN 1990. Eurocode – Basis of structural design. CEN 2013. Brussels.
[9] EN 12390: Testing hardened concrete. CEN, Brussels.
[10] EN 13791: Assessment of in situ compressive strength in structures and precast concrete
components. CEN 2021. Brussels.
[11] D.M. 17/01/2018. Aggiornamento delle «Norme tecniche per le costruzioni». Rome, Italy:
Italian Ministry of Infrastructures and Transportation; 2018 [in Italian].
[12] Circolare 21/01/2019 n. 7 C.S.LL.PP. Istruzioni per l’applicazione del D.M. 17/01/2018. [in
Italian].
[13] CEN. EN 1992-1-1. Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures – Part 1-1: General rules and
rules for buildings. Brussels, Belgium: Comité Européen de Normalisation; 2004.

High performance-fibre reinforced concrete as a high
b
performance and cost-effective solution for precast
concrete bridges
if
Rafael Ruiz, Leonardo Todisco and Hugo Corres
Universidad Politécnica de Madrid,
Profesor Aranguren, Madrid 28040, Spain
Abstract
This paper presents the application of a taylor-made High-Performance-Fibre Reinforced Concrete
(HPFRC) to the design and construction of simply-supported precast girders of road bridges. The con-
ceived structural system consists of two HPFRC segmental externally prestressed U-girders, completed
with a conventional reinforced concrete deck. Two design requirements have been defined for HPFRC
alternatives: first, a concrete characteristic compressive strength of 100 MPa and, second, the removal
of the conventional shear reinforcement, which requires a nominal characteristic flexural strength at the
ultimate limit state (fR3k) of 12 MPa. The mix design contains 80 kg/m3 of 60 mm-long fibres. In addi-
tion, to rely on the fibre shear contribution, any weak plane potentially formed during construction must
be avoided. To study this effect, an experimental campaign consisting of the construction of internally-
vibrated vertical walls with cold joints was carried out. From these walls, several samples were ex-
tracted and tested. Finally, motivation and research significance of an on-going experimental campaign
of eight HPFRC precast I-beams is described.
1 Introduction
Walraven et al. [1] proved that an HPFRC can reach a post-cracking hardening behavior under bending
tests showing smeared cracking. This behaviour might allow the replacement of conventional shear
reinforcement with fibres [2]. Furthermore, the same fibres can control the development of crack open-
ing, possibly also replacing conventional longitudinal reinforcement. Another advantage of the HPFRC
is the reduced porosity of its matrix, which provides higher durability to aggressive ambient conditions.
The goal of this research is to develop a cost-effective HPFRC-based structural solution for the con-
struction of girders for road bridges.
Figure 1 presents the proposed design, which consists of two externally prestressed segmental U-
girders of HPFRC, completed with a conventional RC C30/37 deck. Figure 1 (a) shows the bridge cross
section, while Figure 1 (b) illustrates the longitudinal view of the girder, focusing on the disposition of
the prestressing tendons. This U-girder solution for a 60 m-span is based on the following requirements:
i) a concrete characteristic compressive strength (fck) of 100 MPa,and ii) a concrete characteristic no-
minal flexural strength at Ultimate Limit State (fR3k) of 12 MPa. This last requirement is needed to
remove the shear reinforcement.
The tailored mix design has been developed together by authors and the ACCIONA Material La-
boratory to meet these requirements. Figure 2 compares different representative mixes from the scien-
tific literature. Specifically, the first mix corresponds to a conventional fibre reinforced concrete (FRC)
[3], the second to the HPFRC of this research, the third to the self-compacting HPFRC of Walraven et
al. [4], and the fourth to an ultra high-performance fibre reinforced concrete (UHPFRC) of López et al.
[5]. It can be observed that the developed HPFRC cannot be classified as either a FRC or a UHPFRC.
Furthermore, it also presents differences compared to the HPFRC of Walraven et al. as it uses a two
times bigger maximum aggregate. The particularities of this tailor-made HPFRC require to test not only
as a material but also at the structural level to fully understand its behaviour.

14 th
Fig. 1
if b
High performance-fibre reinforced concrete precast concrete bridge solution: (a) cross-sec-
tion, and (b) side view (half girder).
Fig. 2 Comparison of typical fibre-reinforced concretes mix components.
Moreover, the appearance of weak planes for constructability reasons must be avoided. To repro-
duce this effect in the laboratory, two mock-up wall specimens are casted in order to simulate the U-
girder webs. Furthermore, during the design of the U-girder alternative presented, different shear for-
mulations specifically proposed for fibre-reinforced concretes were applied. The fact that no shear for-
mulation completely fits with the U-girder characteristics motivated an on-going experimental cam-
paign where the behaviour of 8 critical-shear-prestressed beams withouts stirrups is investigated.
Definitely, the overall goal of this research is to demonstrate the feasibility of HPFRC U-beam solutions
to replace the use of conventional concrete.
2 Material characterization
In this section, the tailor-made coarse aggregate HPFRC mix is compared and contextualized with other
concrete mixes published in the technical literature.
This High
document may not be copied or distributed without prior permission from fib.
performance-fibre reinforced concrete as a high performance and cost-effective solution for precast
concrete bridges
In Figure 3, the vertical axis of the top subplots shows the mean concrete compressive strength (fcm),
while the one from the bottom subplots indicates the mean average residual post-cracking strengths
b
(fRm). The horizontal axes of treat different aspects directly related to the cementitious matrix: Figure 3
(a) cement content, Figure 3 (b) water/cement (w/c), and Figure 3 (c) maximum aggregate size (Dmax).
Each gray circle represents a mix collected from the literature, while the mixes developed in this study
are marked with red circles. As additional information, the circle size indicates the binder contents. It
if
is worth mentioning that the concrete developed in this reseatch has fcm higher than 120 MPa with just
500 kg/m3 and 50 kg/m3 of binder. This is related to its Dmax=12 mm, which also implies an intermediate
value of the w/c ratio (0.30).
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 3 Relation between the compressive strength (top) and the nominal flexural strength (bottom)
with respect: (a) cement content, (b) water-to-cement ratio, and (c) maximum diameter of
the coarse fraction of the aggregate.
Next Figure 4 focuses on the characteristics related to steel fibres. The same color code as in Figure 3
applies, while the circle size now represents the fibre content. Specifically, Figure 4 (a) treats the length
of the fibre (lf), while Figure 4 (b) refers to its tensile strength (σf). Longer fibres confer ductility,
furthermore, are more suitable with coarser aggregates. Since fR3k is related to a crack opening of 2.5
mm, high ductility is desirable. Therefore, long steel fibers 4D of 60 mm length are added at a volume
fraction of 1% (80 kg/m3) and with a σf=2200 MPa.
(a) (b)
Fig. 4 Relation between the compressive strength (top) and the nominal flexural strength (bottom)
with respect: (a) fibre length, and (b) tensile strength of the fibres. The size of the dots
indicates the fibre content.
As mentioned before, the two main requirements for the mix were: fck>100 MPa and fR3k>12MPa.
Compressive strength results were based on EN-12390-3 [6], while the flexural strength was obtained
using the EN-14651 [7]. Figure 5 (a) combines the compressive strength results at different ages of the
14 th
concrete. Figure 5 (b) plots the crack opening displazement (CMOD) versus the nominal flexural
stresses (σN). The compression requirement was satisfied, presenting a fck=120 MPa. In addition, the
b
rapid development of compressive strength will allow the transfer of the prestressing force of the pro-
posed structural solution earlier than in common practice.
Moreover, fR1k and fR3k, which can be checked in Figure 5 (b) at a CMOD equal to 0.5 and 2.5 mm,
is equal to 9.66 and 12.01 MPa, therefore also this requirement was fulfilled. According to MC2010
if
the HPFRC can be classified as a C120/140 9d.
Fig. 5 Hardened mechanical properties of developed HPFRC: (a) compressive strength develop-
ment at early ages, and (b) flexural strength according to EN-14651 tests at 28 days.
The concrete spreading diameter was used to classify the workability of the HPFRC. It is obtained by
the flow table test according to EN-12350-5 [8]. Figure 6 (a) shows a drawing of the testing apparatus
and Figure 6 (b) how the HPFRC spread; with a diameter of 600 mm, the HPFRC is classified as an F5
[9], which is associated with good workability [9]. Furthermore, no signals of segregation are observed,
and a shape similar to a circle also indicates a good fresh behaviour of the mixture.
(a) (b)
Fig. 6 Workability assessment according to the Flow table test EN 12350-5: (a) drawing of the
flow table test machine, and (b) HPFRC spreading.
3 Structural elements
3.1 Constructivality aspects

The performance of structural elements made of fibre reinforced concretes is strongly affected by the
orientation and distribution of the fibres [10]. In turn, these depend mainly on the direction of the cast-
ing, the position of the planes between the concrete pours, the waiting time between the pours, and the
type of vibration, if any [11]. The strong relationship between construction conditions and structural
performance requires the construction of mock-ups [3]. To replicate the U-girder webs, two walls were
This High
concrete bridges
cast with HPFRC in the laboratory. Figure 7 shows the geometry of the two panels. The same thickness
of 150 mm was kept as the webs of the U-girders. Additionally, four concrete batches were used for
b
each of them. The discontinuity planes between concrete layers were marked with dashed lines, red
when there was a waiting time between the concrete pouring of each layer, and blue when it was con-
tinuous. The waiting time was fixed at 90 minutes as a conclusion of a previous experimental campaign.
Furthermore, 6ϕ16 fiberglass bars were disposed with a 50 mm spacing at the bottom part of the panels,
if
as illustrated in Figure 7 right. These bars were included to simulate the typical arrangement of the
strands and to study how the concrete behaves, how the fibers distribute, and to detect potential ob-
struction due to the high content of long fibers together with the coarse aggregates.
Firstly, several aspects can be learned during the casting of the elements. It was detected that the
concrete must be vibrated to flow from the container to the formwork due to its high viscosity. Once
the HPFRC was in the formwork, an internal vibrator was used to level each pour. During the pouring
of the upper heights, the vibrator was introduced lower than the discontinuity planes, with the intention
of creating continuity of fibres along these planes. The goal of improving the ease of movement of the
mix was defined after this experience.
After hardening, several samples were extracted from the panels. Figure 7 illustrates the location
of 24 prismatic samples (150x150x600 mm) in 3 directions (vertical in orange, diagonal in green, and
horizontal in purple). Those that are crossed by a discontinuity plane are lighter than the others. The 3
point bending test results obtained from these samples according to EN-14651 [7] will give insights
into the distribution and orientation of the fibers and will allow evaluation of the distribution coefficient
of the fibres. In addition, the yellow bottom samples are planned to be analysed by a CT scan to obtain
the distribution of fibers and aggregates.
Fig. 7 Mock-up panels: left, location of the samples extracted and righ, side view of the panels
and detail of the glass-fibre bars.
3.2 Experimental campaign on critical shear of prestressed HPFRC beams without

stirrups
One of the main goals of the U-girder design was to eliminate conventional stirrups. To achieve this,
different shear formulations were applied to the U-girder developed in this research. First, the Model
Code 2010 [12] main proposal Equation 7.7-5 and the Simplified Modified Compression Field Theory
(SMCFT) at the comments, Equation 7.7-7, were applied. The first formulation relates the fibre contri-
bution to the longitudinal passive reinforcement ratio; hence, it is null for unbonded U-girder beams.
The second considers separately the contribution of concrete and fibre shear. Furthermore, the average
compression level of the U-girder is 20 MPa, so it would be beneficial for the shear check if this variable
is considered in the formulation. The SMCFT allows to consider the stress state by performing a sec-
tional analysis and obtaining the normal strain at the middle of the level arm. It can be used to calculate
the inclination of the strut and to affect the concrete contribution by the factor accounting for strain
effect and member size. The new Model Code 2020 [13] provides the SMCFT as the main shear for-
mulation with a new coefficient included in the reductor coefficient for the concrete contribution.

14th
Furthermore, the new Eurocode 2 draft includes fibre-reinforced concrete (Annex L [14]). Its shear
formulation threatens separately the concrete and fiber contribution but does not consider the compres-
b
sion stress of the section under analysis.
All these formulations aimed at evaluate the shear strength may be applied to the girder developed
in this research; results show a relevant disagreement between the design shear strength as high as 40%
between the SMCFT Model Code formulations compared to the new Eurocode 2 [15]. Therefore, an
if
experimental campaign was defined to obtain the ultimate shear load of eight precast HPFRC girders.
Six of them are with variable prestressing level and variable longitudinal reinforcement ratio (U12,
B12, U7, B7, U5, and B5), and two of them with only passive reinforcement (NP) as reference beams.
The ultimate shear load (Vu) was estimated by the four different formulations described previously.
According to the EC2 formulation all the beams will present similar shear failure loads, with a maxi-
mum difference between them of 3%. As an example, the EC2 formulation stimates the same Vu for
the B12 and B5. On the contrary, the MC20 formulation results in a Vu 40% higher for the B12 com-
pared to the Vu of the B5. Finally, the difference between the Vu calculated with the EC2 for the B12
is 37% lower than the stimation applying the MC20. Definitely, an experimental campaign is needed.
Figure 8 collects the geometrical definition of the girders to be experimentally tested. They share
the same geometry and test arrangement. The height of the beam is 0.80 m and its web is 0.10 m. The
girder length was defined as 7.00 m to load the beam with 2 hydraulic actuators separated 0.30 m. The
shear-span (a) was set as 2.50 for the ratio a/d to be greater than 3.50. The main shear span is the left
one in Figure 8, where the shear reinforcement is not placed on the web. Two different passive rein-
forcements are defined, T1 (10ϕ) for the bottom flange and T2 (12ϕ) for the web. Nine strands with an
area of 150 mm2 are located on the bottom flange, while two more are located on the upper flange to
avoid cracking before testing.
Fig. 8 Cross-section of the girders of the experimental campaign: (a) side view of the beam and
test disposition, (b) detail of the reinforcement, and (c) top view of the girder.
The variables of the experimental campaign are the compression stress (σcp) and the passive reinforce-
ment ratio (ρl). Specifically, three values of the compression stresses are studied: σcp=12.11 MPa,
σcp=7.70 MPa, and σcp=5.50 MPa. Additionally, half of the prestressed girders present an unbonded
condition between the strands and the concrete (U), while the other is bonded (B). Figure 9 illustrates
in blue the bonded length and in orange the unbonded one.
Construction of these girders will take place at a precast factory. Hence, a 36-m prestressing bed
will allow the prestressing beams to be casted simultaneously. The location of the strands at the cross
section must be the same. Moreover, some strands are not bonded in any section of some girders and
will not have any effect on them. This can be observed for U5 and B5. Figure 9 shows that the strands

This High
concrete bridges
are bonded at the mid-span to avoid a flexural failure and to ensure a shear one. Specifically, the girders
are designed to present a critical bending load 50% higher than their critical shear load.
b
The different levels of prestressing will also create different crack patterns for each girder. For U12
and B12, almost no bending crack should be observed. On the contrary, the critical shear crack of the
U5 and B5 is expected to be a propatated bending crack. The crack pattern will be monitored with
Digital Image Correlation (DIC) to relate the crack opening to the shear strength of the member up to
if
failure.
Fig. 9 Variations in the longitudinal prestressing profile.
4 Conclusions
This paper presented a cost-effective solution of two HPFRC segmental externally prestressed U-gird-
ers, completed with a conventional reinforced concrete deck. The taylor-made HPFRC found compared
with FRC and UHPFRC mixes collected in the scientific literature. The design compressive strength
requirement was satisfied thanks to a high strength cementitious matrix. Furthermore, the nominal char-
acteristic flexural strength at the ultimate limit state was also fulfilled by the addition of 80 kg/m3 of 60
mm-long fibres. Finally, the workability was tested by the flow table test and the HPFRC was classified
as a F5.
An experimental campaign consisting of two HPFRC walls was described to characterize the dis-
tribution and orientation of the fibres within the webs of the U-girders, and to analyse potential con-
struction issues. Special attention will be given to the analysis of the relation between the orientation
and the flexural strength.
Moreover, because of the large disagreement in terms of shear strength according to several expres-
sions, an experimental campaign is planned. It is bases on 8 critical shear prestressed HPFRC beams
without stirrups. The main parameters of the experimental campaign were the compressive stress and
the longitudinal reinforcement ratio.
Definitely, this study aimed at demonstrating the feasibility of using HPFRC U-girder for road
bridges, as a cost-effective alternative to beams made of standard reinforced concrete.

14th
Acknowledgements
b
This research has been funded by a research program between ACCIONA and the Fundación Agustín
de Betancourt at the Univesidad Politécnica de Madrid. The authors strongly acknowledge this funding
as well as the technical support to carry out this research.
References
if
[1] J. C. Walraven, “High performance fiber reinforced concrete: Progress in knowledge and
design codes,” Mater. Struct. Constr., vol. 42, no. 9, pp. 1247–1260, 2009.
[2] F. Minelli and G. A. Plizzari, “On the effectiveness of steel fibers as shear reinforcement,”
ACI Struct. J., vol. 110, no. 3, pp. 379–389, May 2013.
[3] P. Martinelli, M. Colombo, P. Pujadas Álvarez, A. de la Fuente Antequera, S. H. Pialarissi
Cavalaro, and M. Di Prisco, “Characterization tests for predicting the mechanical
performance of SFRC floors: identification of fibre distribution and orientation effects,”
Mater. Struct., vol. 54, no. 3, pp. 1–13, Feb. 2021.
[4] J. Walraven, D. Droogné, S. Grünewald, L. Taerwe, B. Cotovanu, and J. Rovers, “Self-
compacting high-performance fiber concrete for foundations: Part 1 -experimental
verification and design considerations,” Struct. Concr., no. July, pp. 1–15, 2021.
[5] J. Á. López, P. Serna, J. Navarro-Gregori, and E. Camacho, “An inverse analysis method
based on deflection to curvature transformation to determine the tensile properties of
UHPFRC,” Mater. Struct. Constr., vol. 48, no. 11, pp. 3703–3718, Nov. 2015.
[6] P. de C. y de hormigón AEN/CTN 127, “UNE-EN 12390-3.”
[7] P. de C. y de hormigón AEN/CTN 127, “UNE-EN 14651:2007+A1,” Norma española,
2008.
[8] P. de C. y de hormigón AEN/CTN 127, “UNE-EN 12350.”
[9] CEN: European Committee for Standardization, EN 206-1 - Hormigón Especificaciones,
prestaciones, producción y conformidad. London, UK, 2018.
[10] E. V. Sarmiento, M. R. Geiker, and T. Kanstad, “Influence of fibre distribution and
orientation on the flexural behaviour of beams cast from flowable hybrid polymer-steel
FRC,” Constr. Build. Mater., vol. 109, pp. 166–176, 2016.
[11] M. G. Alberti, A. Enfedaque, and J. C. Gálvez, “A review on the assessment and prediction
of the orientation and distribution of fibres for concrete,” Compos. Part B Eng., vol. 151, pp.
274–290, 2018.
[12] Fedération internationale du béton (Fib), “Model Code for Concrete Structures 2010.”
Lausanne, Switzerland, p. 430, 2012.
[13] Fedération internationale du béton (Fib), Model Code for Concrete Structures 2020 (Draft).
Lausanne, Switzerland, 2020.
[14] CEN: European Committee for Standardization, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures -
Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buldings (Draft). 2020.
[15] R. Ruiz, L. Todisco, and H. Corres, “Conceptual design of HPFRC and UHPFRC road girder
bridges,” in International fib Symposium - Conceptual Design of Structures 2021, 2021.

Robustness analysis of reinforced concrete structures:
b
design issues
Elena Miceli and Paolo Castaldo
if
Department of Structural, Building and Geotechnical Engineering
Abstract
The goal of this work is to evaluate the structural robustness of a reinforced concrete building, designed
in a highly seismic area, in order to define some improvements of the design criteria. In particular, a
five-storey and four-span 2D frame designed according to Italian and European code rules, also ac-
counting for the seismic design, is presented. Some modifications are considered in terms of continuity
of longitudinal bars in order to investigate effects on the structural robustness. Those applied modifica-
tions are then checked to respect the ultimate limit state and seismic capacity-design verifications. Then,
using the finite element software Atena 2D, displacement-controlled pushdown analyses are performed.
By studying the resulting force-displacement capacity curves, the capability of the structure to show a
from a robustness view point is analysed.
1 Introduction
In the last decades, structural robustness has become a topic of international interest since the occur-
rence of terrible events that has interested many parts of the world: for example, the gas explosion in
the Ronan Point Tower (London, 16 May 1968), the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building terrorist attacks
(Oklahoma, 19 April 1995) or the World Trade Center attacks (New York, 11 September 2001). Struc-
tural robustness regards the ability of a structure to avoid a collapse disproportionate with respect to the
initial cause of a local damage [1]. In this respect, many have been the efforts within the scientific
community to develop prescriptive approaches or guidelines able to identify the risks to which the
structure are subjected and avoid disproportionate collapses [2]-[10]. The safety evaluation is indeed
one of the main issues for engineers and Authorities [11]-[12].
However, the issue of identifying best-practises approaches both for new and existing structures is
yet a challenge. Many studies have focused on the understanding of the influence of different parame-
ters in the structural behaviour from a robustness viewpoint. For instance, the influence of longitudinal
reinforcement and stirrup spacing on blast resistance of reinforced concrete structures is studied in [13];
the advantages of considering the effects of transverse element and thus to include the three-dimension-
ality in the model is evaluated in [14]; the comparison between different building heights is analysed
in [15]; the influence of rebar ratio and beam height for reinforced concrete frames with specially
shaped columns is deepened in [16]. Furthermore, other studies have focused on the effects of seismic
design on the structural robustness [17]-[19].
The goal of this work is to evaluate the structural robustness of a reinforced concrete building de-
signed in a highly seismic area, with the purpose of improving its structural behaviour against a base-
column removal scenario. For this reason, two different frames have been considered, equal in all the
geometrical characteristics excluding the beams height: one frame having all the beam of 50 cm and
another of 60 cm. In addition, different configuration in terms of longitudinal reinforcement have been
studied. Then, each structural configuration has been modelled in a finite element software and dis-
placement-controlled pushdown analyses have been performed, by imposing a vertical increasing
downward displacement in the point of column removal and evaluating the resistance force in the same
point. The results in terms of force-displacement curves (i.e., capacity curves) have been studied in
order to verify the effectiveness of the modifications with respect to the initial structural design.
2 Structural robustness for reinforced concrete frames and column loss scenario
The concept of structural robustness is often explained with the phenomenon of progressive collapse or
disproportionate collapse, which stands for a failure caused by a local damage (e.g., a column removal)

14 th
which propagates with a chain reaction mechanism in a disproportionate manner [1],[20]-[21]. In par-
ticular, the phenomenon of a column loss, caused for instance by a gas explosion or a vehicle impact,
b
is a highly non-linear phenomenon since it involves large displacements. Thus, to model the structural
response in case of column loss, static non-linear analyses are effective tools to include both geomet-
rical and material non-linearities of reinforced concrete structures.
The structural behaviour of reinforced concrete frames under column loss scenario is divided in
if
three stages which can be recognised by looking at the results of a pushdown experimental test [22] on
a frame composed by three columns and two spans. The test consists of applying a vertical downward
displacement on the top of column removal (i.e., the central one) and compute the reaction in the same
point. The three stages are the following (Fig. 1):
▪ arching action stage, where the beams are mainly compressed due to the action of the columns
at their ends, resulting in an increase in the stiffness and load carrying capacity. This stage ends
with formation of plastic hinges.
▪ plastic hinging stage, where plastic hinges propagate at the nodes beam-column and the beams
are in softening due to two effects: the longitudinal reinforcement yielding in tension and the
crushing of concrete in compression. This determines a reduction of the load carrying capacity
of the beam
▪ catenary action stage, where a resistance recovery occurs due to the tensile catenary action of
the reinforcement bars. This stage initiates when large deflections of the centre column are
involved (of the order of the beam cross section height).
It is noteworthy that if the longitudinal reinforcement is not continuous over the beam length, the cate-
nary effect involving the reinforcement does not activate because the beam behaves only in bending
without any membrane action.
a)
b)
c)
Fig. 1 Schematic representation of the three stages of pushdown experimental test: a) arching ac-
tion stage, b) plastic hinging stage, c) catenary action stage [22].
3 Initial design of the 2D reinforced concrete frame and modelling

This work is about a reinforced concrete building designed in a highly seismic area (i.e., L’Aquila,
Abruzzo, Italy) with ductility class A. An internal 5-storey-4-spans frame of this building is considered
for the study. The design follows the current codes: NTC2018 [4] and EC8 for the seismic design [23].
A concrete class C25/30 is used while for the reinforcement a steel of class B450C is adopted. The
frame is regular in elevation and symmetrical.

if b
Fig. 2 Geometrical characteristics of the frame.
The following geometrical characteristics are assumed (Fig. 2): the spans are all equal to 5 meters while
the inter-storey heights of the floors are all equal to 3 meters. To investigate the influence of the beam
height on the structural robustness, two frames are considered: the frame F50 having all the beam cross-
sections of 40x50 cm, and the frame F60 having beam cross-sections of 40x60 cm. All the columns
cross sections have dimensions of 60x60 cm. For the structural detailing in terms of steel reinforcement
(Fig. 3), ϕ18 bars are used for the longitudinal reinforcement of the beams, ϕ20 bars for the columns
and ϕ8 stirrups for both beams and columns. The F50 model has a stirrup spacing of 7.5 cm for the
dissipative area and 15 cm elsewhere, while the F60 model has a stirrup spacing of 10 cm in the dissi-
pative area and 15 cm elsewhere. All the columns have 12ϕ20 longitudinal bars and the shear reinforce-
ment has a spacing of 10 cm everywhere. Nodes beam-column are reinforced with stirrups ϕ8 with step
of 5.
In order to study the structural robustness of the frames, non-linear static analyses have been per-
formed in the finite element (FEM) software ATENA 2D [24]. For the finite elements, four-node quad-
rilateral iso-parametric plane stress finite elements are adopted, with an element size of 0.1m x 0.1m
and an element thickness (in transverse direction) of 60 cm for the columns and 40 cm for the beams.
The reinforcement is modelled as discrete and perfect bond with concrete is assumed. A non-linear
constitutive law for steel is considered, both in tension and in compression, accounting for hardening.
The steel ultimate strain is set equal to 18%. The concrete is modelled as an SBeta Material with local
strain tension softening type to model the tensile behaviour; the Softening Modulus option to include
the non-linear behaviour and a RC (reduction of compressive strength) equal to 0.8 are assumed, as
suggested by the theoretical manual of the software [25]. To consider the reduction of shear stiffness
due to cracking, a variable shear retention factor is considered and the multiaxial state of stress is mod-
elled through the Saatcioglu and Razvi model [26]. Geometrical non-linearities are included. The equa-
tions are solved with a standard Newton-Raphson iterative procedure based on linear approximation.

14th
b
Last floor
F50 and F60
if
Fourth floor
F50 and
third/fourth
floor F60
first/second/t
hird floor
F50 and
second F60
First floor
F60
Fig. 3 Structural detailing of the two frames F50 and F60.
The non-linear pushdown analyses have been performed by modelling the structure without the
central-base column and imposing a downward increasing vertical displacement in the upper point of
the removed column. The vertical displacement is applied in 45 steps of 1.5 cm for the first 10 steps
and 3 cm for the remaining steps, for a total of 1.2 m. At each step the reaction in the same point of
displacement application is computed, up to failure. In Fig. 4 a schematic representation of the dis-
placement-controlled pushdown analysis is presented.
s
Fig. 4 Schematic representation of the applied vertical displacement during the displacement-con-
trolled pushdown analysis.
4 Capacity curve results and continuity in the longitudinal reinforcement
b
In this section the results of the pushdown analyses in terms of capacity curves (i.e., curves displace-
ment-reaction) are illustrated.
4.1 Frames F50 and F60 designed according to code rules
if
At first, the results in terms of capacity curves for the two frames designed according to code rules are
compared. The capacity curve in Fig. 5 illustrates how the peak of the arching behaviour is larger for
the frame F60 than for F50. This is due to the larger internal level arm of the former which results in a
larger resistant bending moment provided by the beam cross-sections. However, the frame F50 shows,
after the softening phase, an increase in resistance indicating the initiating of the catenary stage. This
behaviour is, on the contrary, absent in the model F60, where the curve drops after having reached the
first peak without any recovery in resistance. The two frames fail at an ultimate displacement of 60 cm
for the model F50 and 54 cm for the F60 one, since convergence criteria are not satisfied anymore.
In Fig. 6 the deformed shapes before failure of the two frames are shown. Plastic hinges form where
discontinuity of the longitudinal reinforcement is present (black dots of Fig. 6). This behaviour indicates
formation of concentrated plasticity distant from the nodes beam-column, where, on the contrary, plas-
tic hinges should ideally form according to seismic design (i.e., capacity design criteria). This result
has suggested to apply a continuous longitudinal reinforcement along the entire beam length.
Reaction [kN]
s [mm]
Fig. 5 Capacity curves for the two frames F50 and F60 designed according to code rules.
Fig. 6 Deformed shapes before failure for the frames designed according to code rules: (left) frame
F50; (right) frame F60. Black dots indicate locations of plastic hinges.
4.2 Frames F50 and F60 designed applying continuous reinforcement

In order to obtain an improvement for the structural behaviour of the two frames against column re-
moval, the longitudinal reinforcement has been applied continuously along the two chords of the entire
length of the beams. Indeed, when a column loss scenario occurs, the beams are subjected to a load
configuration that is different from the normal gravitational one. Thus, the distinction between areas
with larger quantity of longitudinal reinforcement (i.e., on the midspan and on the beam ends) and areas
14 th
less reinforced is not suitable. On the contrary, when the bars are arranged in a continuous way, the
column loss activates a tie behaviour of the bars implying the development of catenary effects.
b
The structural detailing of the new frames designed with continuous reinforcement are presented in
Table 1. The application of these modifications has implied new verifications for both ultimate limit
state and capacity design criteria. This has resulted in a change in the shear reinforcement arrangement
but only for the model F60, where the stirrup step for the dissipative area of the beams has been changed
if
from 10 cm to 7.5 cm.
The new frames have been subjected to the displacement-controlled pushdown analysis previously
described. In Fig. 7, it is shown the comparison between the frames initially designed (i.e., according
to Codes) and the ones designed with the new arrangement of the longitudinal bars (i.e., Continuous
reinforcement). The model F50 (Fig. 7 left), does not have any increase in the first peak but shows an
increase in the ultimate displacement and a further recovery in the resistance than in the model designed
according to codes. However, the ultimate resistance does not overcome the initial peak. The ultimate
displacement increases from 60 cm up to 67 cm. Regarding the model F60 (Fig. 7 right), a larger flex-
ural peak is reached due to the increase of the total amount of reinforcement and presents a less pro-
nounced drop in the resistance. However, as already observed in Fig. 5, the drops in the resistance after
the first peak continues up to failure, without any recovery. The ultimate displacement goes from 54
cm to 63 cm. The comparison between the two frames F50 and F60 with continuous reinforcement
allows the conclusion that the model with a lower beam height behaves better from a robustness point
of view since a recovery in resistance is present. For future developments, statistical and probabilistic
analyses should be considered to include the uncertainties from a robustness point of view [27]-[31].
At the same time, further modifications (e.g., symmetrical reinforcement between the two chords of the
beams) should be accounted for to investigate the possibility of initiation of catenary behaviour.
Table 1 Structural detailing for the continuous longitudinal reinforcement.

Floor Chord Number of ϕ18 bars
F50 F60
upper 4 4
roof
lower 3 3
fourth upper 4 4
lower 3 3
third upper 5 4
lower 3 3
second upper 5 5
lower 3 3
first upper 5 5
lower 3 3
Reaction [kN]
Reaction [kN]
s [mm] s [mm]
Fig. 7 Comparison between the frames designed according to code rules and the frames with mod-
ified continuous longitudinal reinforcement: (left) frame F50; (right) frame F60.
5 Conclusions
b
The work has regarded a robustness analysis on two symmetrical and regular in elevation reinforced
concrete frames, equal in all the geometrical characteristics excluding the beam height, assumed of 50
cm for the model indicated as F50 and 60 cm for the model F60. The frames are composed by 5 storey
and 4 spans. The structural robustness has been evaluated against a central-base column removal sce-
nario. The two frames have been modelled in a finite element software and subjected to displacement-
if
controlled pushdown analyses, consisting of modelling the frame without the central-base column and
applying a downward vertical displacement in the point of column removal. The results have shown
how the discontinuity in the sections of the beam closer to the nodes, in terms of longitudinal reinforce-
ment, leads to problems of formation of plastic hinges in different sections than the ideal ones, stress
concentrations and consequent failure at the level of the longitudinal reinforcement. This has suggested
to apply a continuous arrangement of the longitudinal bars in the entire length of the beams and subject
these new frames to displacement-controlled pushdown analyses. Results in terms of displacement-
reaction curves have shown an improvement in the structural behaviour, more marked for the frame
with lower beam height, demonstrating how this parameter should be accounted when considering the
structural robustness in case of column loss. However, no catenary effects are registered in the two
models suggesting to consider further improvements in the design.
Acknowledgements
This work is part of the collaborative activity developed by the authors within the framework of “The
International Federation for Structural Concrete fib” since 2018 – Action Group “Robustness”.
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Experimental investigation of the influence of stirrup
b
spacing on the shear capacity of reinforced concrete
beams
if
Frederik Autrup1, Henrik Brøner Jørgensen1 and Linh Cao Hoang2
1 Department of Technology and Innovation,
University of Southern Denmark,
Campusvej 55, 5230 Odensen M, Denmark
2 Department of Civil & Mechanical Engineering,

Technical University of Denmark,
Anker Engelunds Vej 1, Kgs. Lyngby 2800, Denmark
Abstract
The literature shows contradictory results on the effect of small amounts of shear reinforcement on the
shear capacity of reinforced concrete beams. In some cases, small amounts of shear reinforcement are
shown to increase the shear capacity, while in others the shear capacity is not affected when compared
to similar beams without shear reinforcement. Indicating that other important design parameters need
to be investigated.
This paper presents the experimental results of 14 shear tests designed to investigate the influence of
the stirrup spacing on the shear capacity of RC beams. In these tests, the stirrup spacing is varied while
the shear reinforcement ratio is constant, obtained by varying the width of the beam and the diameter
of the stirrups.
The investigation shows that a smaller spacing and diameter of the stirrups increase the shear capacity.
1 Introduction
The minimum shear reinforcement ratio, 𝜌𝑤,𝑚𝑖𝑛 , and the maximum stirrup spacing, 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 is introduced
in the current design standards [1]-[3] to prevent a brittle shear failure, where shear cracking immedi-
ately induces shear failure[2]-[4]. Many of our existing structures do, however, not comply with these
requirements and it is therefore not always possible to include the shear reinforcement when evaluating
the shear capacity. In a recent experimental campaign by the authors of this paper, it was shown, that
even small amounts of shear reinforcement can increase the ductility of the failure by increasing the
crack development needed to induce shear failure [5]. Indicating, that even small amounts of shear
reinforcement adequately control the crack development and might safely be included when evaluating
the shear capacity. However, the experimental campaign also showed that the shear capacity was sim-
ilar for beams without shear reinforcement and beams with a shear reinforcement ratio, 𝜌𝑤 , below the
minimum shear reinforcement ratio [5], [6], similar to other results reported in the literature [7].
Whereas, other experimental results have shown that the shear capacity increases for beams with a shear
reinforcement ratio below 𝜌𝑤,𝑚𝑖𝑛 , when compared to an identical beam without shear reinforcement
[8], [9]. The contradictory experimental findings indicate that other important design parameters, such
as the diameter and the spacing of the stirrups might govern the influence of the shear reinforcement
on the shear capacity for beams with small amounts of shear reinforcement.
Therefore, the present experimental programme investigates the influence of the diameter and the
spacing of the stirrups on the shear capacity and shear behaviour of reinforced concrete beams with
small amounts of shear reinforcement. The influence of these design parameters is investigated by
maintaining a constant shear reinforcement ratio while varying the stirrup spacing, obtained by either
varying the diameter of the stirrups or the beam width.
The experimental results show that the shear capacity for beams with identical shear reinforcement
ratios increases significantly when the spacing and the diameter of the stirrups are decreased. Additio-
nally, the estimation of the shear force transferred by the shear reinforcement showed that more closely

14 th
spaced and smaller stirrups results in a larger utilization of the shear reinforcement, even though, similar
shear cracks developed in the compared beams.
b
2 Experimental programme
In the following, the experimental programme and the test setup are presented. The experimental pro-
if
gramme consisted of 7 beams subjected to a 3-point bending test setup with the point load applied at
the mid-span.
2.1 Test setup

Fig. 1 shows the test setup and details of the beams. Each beam was designed with 3 equally long shear
spans, shear span A, a middle shear span and shear span B. This design enabled two shear tests from
each beam. Initially, shear span A and the middle shear span were placed between the two supports and
the first shear test was performed. Subsequently, the beam was relocated and shear span B and the
middle shear span were placed between the two supports for the second shear test. This design enabled
14 shear tests from the 7 beams.
Fig. 1 Test setup and details of the geometry and the reinforcement layout.
The load on the beams was applied from a displacement-controlled hydraulic actuator with a displace-
ment rate of 0.5 mm/min. The beams were placed on the supports through two 6 mm Teflon plates, a
20 X 100 mm steel plate, and a ø40 mm round steel bar, to ensure zero horizontal and rotational re-
straints. Additionally, the load on the beams were applied through a load cell with a conical/spherical
steel bearing, a 20 X 100 mm steel plate and two 6 mm Teflon plates to ensure zero horizontal and
rotational restraints. Full-field displacement measurements of the surface of the specimens were per-
formed by applying a three-dimensional DIC system. Here, two 12M cameras with a resolution of 4096
X 3092 pixels and the ARAMIS Professional 2018 software were applied. The image acquisition rate
of the cameras was 1 Hz.
2.2 Specimens and material properties

Table 1 shows the geometrical and material parameters of the specimens and the tested shear capacities.
In the experimental programme, the stirrup spacing, s, was varied, while the shear reinforcement ratio,
𝜌𝑤 , was constant. This was obtained by varying either the width of the beam, 𝑏, or the diameter of the
stirrups, ϕw. Additionally, the concrete strength was varied, for both beams with and without shear
reinforcement.

ThisExperimental
document investigation
may not beof copied or distributed without prior permission from fib.
the influence of stirrup spacing on the shear capacity of reinforced concrete beams
Table 1 Geometry of specimens, material data and tested shear capacities.
b
b ϕw s ϕl ρw fc Vu Concrete mixture
Specimen
[mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [%] [MPa] [kN] [-]
B.1.A 200 6 450 2ϕ26.5 0.06 40.8 113.7 2
if
B.1.B 200 8 450 2ϕ26.5 0.11 40.8 158.0 2
B.2.A 400 6 225 4ϕ26.5 0.06 41.6 222.6 2
B.2.B 400 8 225 4ϕ26.5 0.11 41.6 311.4 2
B.3.A 500 6 180 5ϕ26.5 0.06 41.4 267.0 2
B.3.B 500 8 180 5ϕ26.5 0.11 41.4 349.5 2
B.4.A 300 6 169 3ϕ26.5 0.11 40.3 248.0 2
B.4.B 300 10 469 3ϕ26.5 0.11 40.3 184.8 2
B.5.A 300 8 192 3ϕ26.5 0.17 39.7 303.3 2
B.5.B 300 6 108 3ϕ26.5 0.17 39.7 314.9 2
B.6.A 300 6 187.5 3ϕ26.5 0.10 18.6 -a 1
B.6.B 300 - - 3ϕ26.5 - 18.6 123.2 1
B.7.A 300 6 187.5 3ϕ26.5 0.10 55.5 254.0 3
B.7.B 300 - - 3ϕ26.5 - 55.5 158.7 3
a Specimen who failed in the middle shear span.
Note: The uniaxial concrete compressive strength 𝑓𝑐 is based on the test of 100x200 mm cylinders
and multiplied with a correction factor of 0.97 to obtain the equivalent strength of 150x300 mm
cylinders [10]. The concrete mixture number denotes the different concrete mixtures according
to Table 3.
All beams were designed with a shear span to effective depth ratio of a/d=3.4, a ratio between the
effective beam depth and height of d/h=0.88 and a longitudinal tensile reinforcement ratio, ρl, of 1.25
%. The tensile reinforcement consisted of ø26.5 mm reinforcing bars, with the amount scaled according
to the beam width, to ensure a constant flexural reinforcement ratio. Additionally, as tensile reinforce-
ment, high strength reinforcement with a yield stress of fy=1000 MPa was used. In the compression
zone, two ø16 mm longitudinal reinforcing bars were placed with an average tested yield strength of
𝑓𝑦=585 MPa. Table 2 shows the mechanical properties of the shear and flexural reinforcement. To
ensure shear failure in shear span A and B, the shear reinforcement in the middle shear span was in-
creased by a factor of 1.5 compared to shear span A and B. Additionally, a minimum shear reinforce-
ment ratio in the middle shear span was introduced, determined according to the minimum shear rein-
forcement ratio, 𝜌𝑤,𝑚𝑖𝑛 , according to Eurocode 2 [1] and fib Model Code 2010 [2].
Table 2 Average tested mechanical properties of the shear and longitudinal reinforcement.
Shear reinforcement Tensile reinforcement
ϕw/l [mm] 6 8 10 26.5
fy [MPa] 520 503 529 1000
Es [GPa] 192 196 199 206
fu [MPa] 628 578 609 1116
𝜀𝑠0 [%] 8.4 9.7 7.9 7.2
𝜀𝑠𝑢 [%] 10.8 15.9 14.6 9.8
Note: 𝜀𝑠0 denotes the strain at the ultimate stress and 𝜀𝑠𝑢 denotes the maximum strain before rup-
ture.
14 th
b
The concrete mixture for the beams consisted of three different concrete recipes, resulting in concrete
strengths, fc, varied from 18.6 to 55.5 MPa, all with a maximum aggregate size of 𝑑𝑔 =16 mm. Table 3
shows details of the composition of the different concrete mixtures. While casting each beam, 4 con-
crete cylinders were cast with the concrete from the same batch. Subsequently, both the cylinders and
if
the beams were wrapped in plastic and stored together inside the laboratory until testing. The uniaxial
compressive strength of the concrete cylinders was tested on the same day as the associated beam. The
average tested concrete compressive strength of each beam is shown in Table 1.
Table 3 Composition of the concrete [kg/m3]

Concrete mixture 1 2 3
Sand (0-4 mm) 835 840 536
Fine aggregates (4-8 mm) 248a 241b 264b
Coarse aggregates (8-16 mm) 749a 755b 807b
Plasticizer 1.28 1.94 2.62
Superplasticizer 0.64 0 2.62
Water 166 188 174
Cement 159 320 510
Fly ash 70 0 0
w/c 0.86 0.59 0.34
a Gravel aggregates
b Granite aggregates
3 Experimental results and analytical investigation

In the following, the test results are presented and analysed to evaluate the influence of the stirrup
spacing on the shear capacity. The analysis is conducted by evaluating shear transferred by the shear
reinforcement by applying the well-known Tension Chord Model [11].
3.1 Tested shear capacities

Table 1 shows the tested shear capacities. Fig. 2 (a) shows the tested shear capacities for varying spacing
of the stirrups when varying the diameter of the stirrups (to keep the shear reinforcement ratio constant).
Notice, that some of the tested shear capacities of identical beams (i.e. identical geometrical and mate-
rial parameters) presented in the papers [5], [6] by the authors of this paper are included in the figures.
From Fig. 2 (a) it is observed that as the spacing and the diameter of the stirrups decrease the shear
capacity increases by up to 34%. Fig. 2 (b) shows the tested shear capacities for varying spacing of the
stirrups when varying the width of the beam. From the figure, it is noted that the shear capacity is almost
constant for varying stirrup spacing and beam width. Fig. 2 (c) shows the tested shear capacities for
beams with and without shear reinforcement for varying concrete compressive strength. From the fig-
ure, it appears that as the concrete strength increases, the shear capacity of both beams with and without
shear reinforcement increases. However, this increase in shear capacity is more severe for beams with
shear reinforcement.

ThisExperimental
if b
Fig. 2 Tested shear capacities for varying (a) spacing of the stirrups induced by varying the diam-
eter of the stirrups, (b) spacing of the stirrups induced by varying the width of the beam and
(c) concrete strength.
3.2 Shear contribution from the shear reinforcement

The shear contribution from the shear reinforcement is determined from the measured crack opening in
the direction of the stirrups by the DIC measurements and by applying the well-known Tension Chord
Model (TCM) [11]. According to the TCM, a rigid-perfectly plastic bond-slip relation is assumed, with
the bond stress, 𝜏𝑏0 , before yielding and the reduced bond stress, 𝜏𝑏1 , after yielding (see Fig. 3 (a)),
expressed as:
𝜏𝑏 = 𝜏𝑏0 = 2𝑓𝑐𝑡 for 𝜎𝑠 ≤ 𝑓𝑦 and 𝜏𝑏 = 𝜏𝑏1 = 𝑓𝑐𝑡 for 𝜎𝑠 > 𝑓𝑦 (1)
2/3
where 𝑓𝑐𝑡 is the tensile strength of the concrete, expressed as 𝑓𝑐𝑡 = 0.3𝑓𝑐 for 𝑓𝑐 < 50 MPa ac-
cording to [2]. Comparison of this simple bond-slip behaviour with measurements of the reinforcement
strains along embedded reinforcement by applying fibre optical measurements has shown good agree-
ment [12]. For the reinforcement, a tri-linear stress-strain relation is adapted (see Fig. 3 (b)). From a
measured crack opening in the direction of the stirrups, the tensile stress in the reinforcement is obtained
when the integration of the reinforcement strains along the length where bond stresses develop equals
the measured crack opening (see Fig. 3 (d)), expressed as :
𝑥1
𝑤𝑐𝑟 = ∫ 𝜀𝑠 𝑑𝑥 (2)
𝑥1 −𝑥0
Note that in this paper the influence of the concrete strain and the influence of secondary cracks
developing along the stirrups has been neglected. From a comparison with tensile tests, this approach
has been shown to fairly well predict the imposed tensile stress in the reinforcement from a measured
crack opening [5], [6].
Fig. 3 Estimated shear contribution from the shear reinforcement (a) assumed rigid-perfectly plas-
tic bond stress-slip relation according to the TCM [11], adapted stress-strain relation of the
shear reinforcement, (c) resulting tensile stress-crack opening relation and (d) details of the
measurements and assumed stress-strain distribution of the shear reinforcement.
The shear force transferred by the shear reinforcement is then obtained as:

14th
𝑛𝑤
𝑉𝑠 = ∑ 𝜎𝑠,𝑖 ∙ 𝐴𝑠𝑤 (2)
b
𝑖=1
where 𝜎𝑠,𝑖 is the tensile stress in stirrup i, 𝑛𝑤 is the total number of stirrups activated by the critical
shear crack and 𝐴𝑠𝑤 is the cross-sectional area of the stirrups. Note that the stirrups intersected by the
horizontal delamination part of the critical shear crack are not included. Along this horizontal delami-
if
nation part, the stirrups contribute to the shear transferring mechanism of dowel action [13].
3.3 Analysis of selected tests

In the following, 3 representative tests with an identical shear reinforcement ratio (B.4.A, B.4.B and
B.44.08.30.1.B, where the last is from [5], [6]) are analysed to investigate why the shear capacity in-
creases as the spacing and the diameter of the stirrups decrease. Fig. 4 shows the measured principal
tensile strain from the DIC measurements at the ultimate load for the 3 selected tests. From the figure,
it is observed that beam B.4.A only activates one stirrup at the ultimate load, while beam B.44.08.30.1.B
activates 2 and beam B.4.B activates 6. Additionally, it can be noted that a similar shear crack develops
for all three beams, which only for beams B.4.A and B.44.08.30.1.B evolves into the critical shear
crack. While, for beam B.4.B another shear crack develops further away and merges with the former
shear crack and evolves to the critical shear crack, enabling the activation of two additional stirrups.
Fig. 4 Measurements of the principal tensile strain at the ultimate load, Vu, for beams where the
spacing and the diameter of the stirrups were varied and the shear reinforcement, 𝜌𝑤 =
0.11 %.
Fig. 5 shows the measured load-displacement relation and the estimated shear contribution from the
shear reinforcement for the 3 selected tests. Here, the contribution from the shear reinforcement is es-
timated from the measured crack opening in the direction of the shear reinforcement from the shear
tests and by applying the TCM according to Eq. 2. From the figure, it is observed that the shear contri-
bution from the shear reinforcement increases as the spacing and the diameter of the stirrups decreases.
Where for beam B.4.A the ratio between the shear contribution from the shear reinforcement and the
ultimate load, 𝑉𝑠 /𝑉𝑢 , is 50%, while for beam B.44.08.30.1.B it is 52% and increases to 73% for beam
B.4.B., showing a larger utilization of the shear reinforcement as the spacing and the diameter of the
stirrups are decreased. Based on the estimate of the contribution from the shear reinforcement, the angle
ThisExperimental
𝜃 according to the truss model from EC 2 [1] can be estimated. For beam B.4.A and B.44.08.30.1.B
𝜃 = 36.7°, while for beam B.4.B 𝜃 = 21.2°, which is almost identical to the maximum limit in EC 2
b
(21.8°). Note, that beam B.44.08.30.1.B full fills all the requirements for the shear reinforcement ac-
cording to EC 2.
if
Fig. 5 Load-displacement curves and estimated shear contribution from the shear reinforcement.
4 Conclusion
This paper presents the experimental results of 14 shear tests designed to investigate the influence of
the stirrup spacing on the shear capacity of reinforced concrete beams with small amounts of shear
reinforcement. Additionally, the well-known Tension Chord Model is applied to estimate the shear
contribution from the shear reinforcement of a few representative tests. Based on these results, the main
conclusions can be summarised as follows:
• The shear capacity increased by up to 34% when decreasing the spacing and the diameter
of the stirrups for beams with an identical shear reinforcement ratio.

• The shear capacity was almost constant when decreasing the spacing of the stirrups and
increasing the width of the beam for beams with an identical shear reinforcement ratio.
• The shear capacity increased when increasing the concrete compressive strength for both
beams with and without shear reinforcement. However, for beams with shear reinforce-
ment, the increase was more severe compared to identical beams without shear reinforce-
ment.
• Estimates of the shear contribution from the shear reinforcement showed that smaller and
more closely spaced stirrups increase the utilization of the shear reinforcement signifi-
cantly.
Acknowledgements
The experimental work was conducted with the help of BSc Robert Tøste Lomholdt Jespersen and BSc
Kasper Lund Rasmussen. The project is financially supported by the Rambøll foundation. The authors
gratefully acknowledge these contributions.
References
[1] EN 1992-1-1-2004, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures – Part 1-1: General rules and
rules for buildings.
[2] fib Model Code for Concrete Structures. 2010. Fédération Internationale du Béton (fib).
Lausanne. Switzerland.
[3] ACI 318-19. 2019. Building code requirements for structural concrete. American Concrete In-
stitute.
[4] Yoon, Y. S., Cook, W. D., and Mitchell, D. 1996. “Minimum shear reinforcement in normal,
medium, and high-strength concrete beams“. ACI Structural Journal 93(5) 576–584.
14th
[5] Autrup, Frederik, Jørgensen, Henrik B., and Hoang, Linh C.. 2022. “The influence of small
amounts of shear reinforcement on the shear-transferring mechanisms in RC beams: An analy-
b
sis based on refined experimental measurements.“ Structural Concrete (currently being revie-
wed).
[6] Autrup, Frederik, Jørgensen, Henrik B., and Hoang, Linh C.. 2021. “Experimental Investigation
of the Shear Capacity of RC Beams with Very Small Amounts of Shear Reinforcement“. Pro-
if
ceedings of the fib Symposium 2021, New Trends for Eco-Efficiency and Performance. 169
1668–1677.
[7] Tue, N. V., Ehmann, R., Betschoga, C., and Tung, N. D.. 2019. “Einfluss geringer Querkraft-
bewehrung auf die Querkrafttragfähigkeit von Stahlbetonbalken unterschiedlicher M/V-Kom-
binationen.“ (in German). Beton- und Stahlbetonbau. 114(4), 217-230.
[8] Yoon, Y. S., Cook, W. D., and Mitchell, D.. 1996. “Minimum Shear Reinforcement in Normal,
Medium, and High-Strength Concrete Beams. “ ACI Structural Journal Title no. 93-S54: 576-
584.
[9] Campana, S., Ruiz, M. F., Anastasi, A., and Muttoni, A.. 2013. “Analysis of shear-transfer
actions on one-way RC members based on measured cracking pattern and failure kinematics.
“ Magazine of Concrete Research 65(6) 386-404.
[10] Nielsen, M. P.. 2005. Concrete 1 part 2. 2nd ed.. Technical University of Denmark. (in Danish)
[11] Marti, P., Alvarez, M., Kaufmann, W., and Sigrist, V.. 1998. “Tension Chord Model for Struc-
tural Concrete.“ Structural Engineering International 8:4 287-298.
[12] Cantone, Raffaele, Ruiz, Miguel F., and Muttoni, Aurelio. 2021. “A detailed view on the rebar-
to-concrete interaction based on refined measurement techniques.“ Engineering Structures 226
111332.
[13] Baumann, T., and Rüsch, H.. 1970. “Versuche zum Studium der Verdübelungswirkung der
Beigezugbewehrung eines Stahlbetonbalkens. “ Deutscher Ausschuss Für Stahlbeton Heft 210.

Shear tests on reinforced concrete beams focused on
b
the transition of beams with and without shear
reinforcement
if
Christoph Betschoga1, Daniel Gheorghiu1, Sebastian Rosenhahn2, Josef Heg-
ger2 and Tue Nguyen Viet1
1 Institute of Structural Concrete, Graz University of Technology,
Lessingstraße 25, 8010 Graz, Austria
2 Institute of Structural Concrete, RWTH Aachen University,

Mies-van-der-Rohe-Str. 1, 52074 Aachen, Germany
Abstract
This paper presents an experimental study on the shear resistance of reinforced concrete beams (RC
beams) with low or even no shear reinforcement. In contrast to conventional 3- or 4-point bending tests
this study includes also tests under different loading and support conditions. A total of 9 RC beams,
consisting of 4 single span beams under concentrated loads (4-point bending tests) and 5 cantilever
beams under distributed loads will be presented. The shear reinforcement ratio was varied in the range
of 0 - 2.1 times the required minimum shear reinforcement (ρw,min) according to EC2. The different
shear reinforcement ratios were realized with closed stirrups of different diameters between 6 -12 mm
but fixed stirrup spacing. The results show significant differences in the shear resistance between com-
parable RC beams with different loading and support conditions, especially for beams with low shear
reinforcement. Compared to the cantilever beams under distributed loads the increase in shear re-
sistance of the single span beams under concentrated loads was significantly smaller for shear rein-
forcement ratios around or below ρw,min. However, when the shear reinforcement was increased the test
results indicate that the loading and support conditions become less important. The crack pattern was
recorded by hand for all beams. A comparison between the test results and the predictions according to
some codes of practice e.g., EC2 and MC10, is also provided.
1 Introduction
It is generally understood that shear reinforcement increases the shear resistance of reinforced concrete
members when more than a minimal required amount of shear reinforcement is provided. This effect is
due to a changed failure mode as the crack pattern and shear bearing mechanisms significantly differ
between members with and without shear reinforcement. Exemplarily, according to EC2 [1] the shear
failure of RC beams without shear reinforcement is characterized by the formation of a single critical
shear crack, while for beams with sufficient shear reinforcement a strut and tie model with variable
inclination is introduced.
To distinguish between members with and without shear reinforcement, most design provisions
determine the minimal shear reinforcement solely as a function of material parameters. In EC2 and
ModelCode 2010 [2] Eq. (1) is given for the required minimum shear reinforcement
√𝑓ck
𝜌w,min = 0,08 ⋅ (1)
𝑓yk
where the minimum shear reinforcement ρw,min should at least guarantee that the failure doesn’t
occur immediately after the formation of the critical shear crack as it is the case for beams without shear
reinforcement.
Recent investigations have shown that the shear resistance of RC beams without shear reinforce-
ment is significantly influenced by the static system and loading configuration [3-7]. In addition, Tue
& al. [8] have shown that this also holds true for members with low amounts of shear reinforcement.
These insights may lead to the next question of whether the definition of minimum shear reinforce-
ment solely by material parameters is sufficient or not.

14 th
On the one hand, current provisions for minimum shear reinforcement do not distinguish between
different static systems and loadings. On the other hand, most design provisions use either modified
b
strut and tie models or a compression field analysis to predict the shear resistance of members with
shear reinforcement – which are both not always applicable. In detail, both approaches intrinsically
require a unified shear-crack pattern in the shear span which is often not reported for beams with shear
reinforcement corresponding approximately to the minimum shear reinforcement [8, 9]. This creates
if
the need for further experimental investigations and theoretical developments to accurately describe the
shear behavior of members with low amounts of shear reinforcement. This paper gives first insights of
an ongoing systematic study on the shear resistance of beams with low shear reinforcement with special
attention to the influence of different support and loading conditions.
2 Experimental program
2.1 Specimens
This paper presents an experimental study on the shear resistance of RC beams with low or even without
shear reinforcement. The presented beams consist of 4 single span beams under concentrated loads (4-
point flexural tests) and 5 cantilever beams under distributed loads. The dimensions of the cross-sec-
tions are uniform for all specimens with a width of 300 mm and a height of 750 mm, whereby the
arrangement of the flexural reinforcement results in an effective depth of approximately 683 mm.
Through the two investigated combinations of support conditions and loading, different combina-
tions between flexural moment and shear force occur at the critical shear crack - see Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 Test specimens and position of displacement sensors; all dimensions are in mm
For the flexural reinforcement, high-strength steel bars grade SAS950 with a nominal characteristic
strength of 950 MPa are used. The flexural reinforcement ratio was 2.1 % for all beams. To utilize the
high strength flexural reinforcement and prevent flexural failure, a decent amount of reinforcement in
the compression zone was used (4Ø32, SAS500). For shear reinforcement, normal strength steel bars
(B500, fy,m=550 MPa) with a diameter of 6, 8, 10 and 12 mm are used. The stirrup spacing in the region
of failure is kept constant at 400 mm for all specimens to prevent potential effects on the crack devel-
opment and shear resistance induced by narrower stirrup spacing [8]. With the given stirrup spacing
and diameter, the ratio of the shear reinforcement to the minimum shear reinforcement (ρw/ρw,min) is
given as 0.5, 0.9, 1.5 and 2.1.
For each of the simply supported beams, up to 2 shear failures can be produced in one test as each
beam contains two shear spans (one on the left (side a) and one on the right side (side b)).
The specimens are cast at different dates but with the same concrete mixtures with a target com-
pressive strength of 37 MPa. The concrete was produced using cement CEM II/A-S 52.5N and basalt
with a maximum aggregate size of 16 mm. The cement content was 340 kg/m³ with a water-cement
ratio of 0.58. The compressive strength is obtained using cylinders with h/d = 150/75 mm at the day of
each test.
Table 1 summarizes the key data of the experimental campaign.

Table 1 Specimen details
b
fc b d ρl dsw s ρw/ρw,min
Test
Mpa mm mm % mm mm -
SV01a 42.2 300 683 2.1 - - 0.0
SV01b 42.2 300 683 2.1 8 400 0.9
if
Simple Beams
SV02a 42.8 300 683 2.1 - - 0.0
SV02b 42.8 300 683 2.1 10 400 1.5
SV04a 40.8 300 683 2.1 6 400 0.5
SV04b 40.8 300 683 2.1 10 400 1.5
SV05 43.1 300 683 2.1 12 400 2.1
SV22 48.8 300 683 2.1 - - 0.0
Cantilever
SV23 48.5 300 683 2.1 6 400 0.5

SV25 47.3 300 683 2.1 8 400 0.9
SV27 48.7 300 683 2.1 10 400 1.5
SV29 44.0 300 683 2.1 12 400 2.1
2.2 Test configuration

The load under the test frame is generated by a hydraulic jack with a capacity of 2.0 MN and build up
by a displacement-control. The loading speed is adjusted in a way that each test lasted for approximately
2 hours until failure. The uniformly distributed loads are applied using a fire hose filled with water, like
in previously conducted studies [6, 8].
To obtain two shear tests on each simply supported beam, external shear strengthening elements in
form of flat steel shells are arranged in the shear span without or with lower amounts of stirrups prior
to the beginning of the test. These strengthening elements should only be activated after the shear failure
has occurred and then enable a load increase until failure of the shear span on the opposite side occurs.
The following variables were measured:

- Machine load
- Displacement
- Crack pattern at diverse load levels
The load applied at the central jack is recorded by a compatible load cell (MTS 661.31F-01). The
deflections were recorded by means of extensometers (WA200) placed at the mid-span and the end of
the distributed loads of the cantilever beams Fig. 2.
Fig. 2 Cantilever shear test conducted at TU-Graz
14th
2.3 Test results

Key experimental results are summarized in Table 2. These include the maximum machine load Pmax
b
and the ratio between the maximum moment in the shear span and the calculated cross-sectional mo-
ment resistance Mmax/MU. Also shown are the total shear force at the support Vexp and the shear force
at the distance d to the support Vexp,d. The total shear force accounts for the self-weight of the specimen
and the weight of the loading arrangement VG. Specimen SV01 – SV05 are the simple supported beams,
if
specimen SV22 – SV29 the cantilever beams.
Table 2 Test results

ρw/ρw,min Pmax VG Vexp Vexp,d Mmax/Mu
Test
- kN kN kN kN -
SV01a 0.0 447.94 18.84 242.82 238.97 0.20
SV01b 0.9 569.89 18.84 303.79 299.94 0.26
Simple Beam
SV02a 0.0 527.52 18.84 282.60 278.76 0.24

SV02b 1.5 892.81 18.84 465.25 461.40 0.40
SV04a 0.5 423.04 18.84 230.36 226.52 0.19
SV04b 1.5 629.12 18.84 333.40 329.56 0.28
SV05 2.1 1098.68 18.84 568.18 564.34 0.50
SV22 0.0 330.94 26.12 357.06 296.68 0.27
Cantilever
SV23 0.5 499.90 26.12 526.02 436.77 0.40

SV25 0.9 678.09 26.12 704.21 584.51 0.54
SV27 1.5 719.91 26.12 746.03 619.19 0.57
SV29 2.1 815.37 26.12 841.49 698.34 0.65
All specimens failed in shear (Mmax/Mu<1.0). The load-deflection curves are shown in Fig. 3 and
do not consider the dead weight. All beams, except SV04, have no failure announcement, as the stiff-
ness of the beams stayed almost constant after the cracking moment was exceeded. In the beams SV01,
SV02 and SV04 it was possible to get two shear tests because of the external strengthening elements.
Fig. 3 Load-displacement curves of the presented specimens

3 Discussion of test results
b
3.1 Crack pattern and failure location
The crack patterns were recorded by hand and are shown in Fig. 4. The location of the shear crack
leading to failure is indicated by the given distance to the support. Because the form and inclinations
of the shear cracks in the specimens differ due to system and loading configurations as well as present
if
shear reinforcement ratios, the point representing the crack location was chosen at which the shear crack
reached the center of the beam, as suggested by Reineck & al. [10].
The shear failure in the simple supported beams with a stirrup ratio below ρw,min is very similar to
the crack pattern of beams without shear reinforcement. The shear failure is still characterized by the
formation of a single critical shear crack, originating from the outermost flexural crack in a region with
low flexural moment. This was also reported by Tue & al. [8] and Resende & al. [9] in previous studies.
However, for higher shear reinforcement ratios several distinct shear cracks started to form and the
failure location changed to regions with higher flexural moments in SV04 (χ=1.5) and SV02 (χ=1.5).
The shear failure in the cantilever beam without shear reinforcement (SV22) originated from the
outermost flexural crack with an atypical large distance from the support (2.1d), resembling the crack
pattern of the simply supported beams. Given the geometry of the beam the shear force in this region
is just about 65 % of the shear force at the support. However, a failure in a region with low moment
and shear force may be explained with the critical shear band theory [5]. The crack pattern of cantilever
SV23 with χ=0.5 is very similar to the crack pattern of SV22. The shear failure originated from a very
flat shear crack at a distance of 2.5d from the support but with a significantly higher load. The failure
in the cantilevers with higher amounts of shear reinforcement took place in the vicinity of the support
(approx. 0.9-1.0d) in the high flexural moment and shear force region as expected.
3.2 Shear resistance for different ratios of stirrups depending on the loading and
support conditions
Even though the tested specimens have comparable cross-sectional parameters, the shear capacity dif-
fers depending on the given boundary conditions. In the tested simple supported beams, shear rein-
forcement ratios below the minimum requirements did not affect the shear capacity significantly. The
results coincide with prior findings [8, 9] for simply supported beams with low amounts of shear rein-
forcement.
In contrast, the cantilevers showed noticeable influences of low amounts of stirrups on the shear
resistance when compared to tests on simply supported beams subjected to point loads. With the shear
reinforcement ratios of 0.5ρw,min and 0.9ρw,min the shear resistance could be increased by approximately
47 % and 97 %, respectively when compared to the cantilever without shear reinforcement.
Fig. 5 shows the shear resistance with respect to the shear reinforcement ratio for all tested beams.
To account for possible direct load transmission in the vicinity of the support, the shear resistance is
given at a distance d from the support which reflects the control section of most design provisions. For
the cantilever beams, the shear capacity can be evenly increased for shear reinforcement ratios in range
of 0 to 2.1. As a result, the simple supported beam subjected to point load yields significantly lower
shear capacity as the cantilever counterpart for low shear reinforcement. However, for high ratios of
shear reinforcement the differences in shear resistance vanish. This may indicate that the support and
loading conditions become less important for higher shear reinforcement ratios.
14th
if b
Fig. 4 Crack pattern following shear failure of the tested beams
Fig. 5 Shear force at distance d from the support of the tested beams

3.3 Comparison with predicted shear resistance
b
The experimental results are compared with the predictions according to EC2-NA D [11] and fib
MC2010. Table 3 summarizes the comparisons with respect to static system and loading configuration.
The calculated value in Vexp/Vpred is the ratio of mean values for all specimens in one class and code
of practice.
if
Table 3 Comparison with codes of practice
Simply supported Beams Cantilever Beams
SV-01 to SV-05 SV-22 to SV-29
Model
Vexp/Vpred σ CoV (%) Vexp/Vpred σ CoV (%)
EC 2 1.29 0.17 13.48 1.97 0.52 26.31
MC 2010 1.13 0.20 17.79 1.73 0.53 30.44
The comparisons show that both models well predict the shear resistances of simply supported
beams subjected to point loads (specimens SV-01 to SV-05). For the model included in EC2-NA D, the
comparison yields the ratio of mean values and the standard deviation of 1.29 and 0.17, respectively.
Good agreements are also obtained for these tests by the equations included in fib MC 2010.
Comparing the shear resistance of the cantilever beams with the prediction of EC2-NA D and fib
MC2010 yields rather conservative results with a ratio of mean values of 1.97 and 1.73 respectively.
This especially holds true for cantilevers SV23 and SV24 as the shear reinforcement is lower than the
minimum shear reinforcement required according to Eq. (1) and is therefore not considered calculating
the shear resistance.
4 Conclusion
In this paper, the first results of an ongoing experimental study on the shear resistance of reinforced
concrete beams with low or even no shear reinforcement (0.0-2.1ρw,min) and different static systems as
well as loading configurations are presented. The test results indicate considerable effects of the support
and loading conditions on the crack development and shear resistance of comparable RC beams with
low amounts of shear reinforcement.

In the traditional shear tests (simply supported beams under concentrated loads) the shear resistance
could not be significantly increased for shear reinforcement ratios below the required minimum shear
reinforcement. On the contrary, the increase of shear resistance of cantilever beams under distributed
loads is evenly distributed across all reinforcement ratios. Subsequently, this results in strong differ-
ences in shear resistance between different beam types with identical cross-sections and low amounts
of shear reinforcement. The test results further indicate that the influence of the loading and support
conditions becomes less important for higher shear reinforcement ratios.
The observed effect is very beneficial for evaluating the shear resistance of existing concrete struc-
tures, especially for bridges as the encountered amount of shear reinforcement is often very low. The
further systematic investigations of this effect are of major importance for a secured quantification of
the shear resistance of different beam types and will be conducted in the ongoing research project.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express their gratitude to the Austrian Science Fund (FWF) and the German
research foundation (DFG) for making this research possible. The authors also thank the Laboratory
for Structural Engineering of the TU Graz (LKI) for conducting the tests.
References
[1] CEN, 2010. Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete Structures – Part 1-1: General rules for buildings
(EN 1992-1-1). Brussels. European Committee for Standardization.
[2] fib, 2013. Model Code for Concrete Structures 2010. Lausanne: International Federation for
Structural Concrete.
14th
[3] Adam, V.; Classen, M.; Hillebrand, M.; Hegger, J., 2019: Shear in continuous slab segments
without shear reinforcement under distributed loads. In: Proceedings of the 2019 fib Sympo-
b
sium. fib Symposium 2019 in Krakow, Poland, S. 1771–1778.
[4] Classen, Ma., 2020: Shear Crack Propagation Theory (SCPT) – The mechanical solution to the
riddle of shear in RC members without shear reinforcement. In: Engineering Structures 210.
DOI: 10.1016/j.engstruct.2020.110207.
if
[5] Tung, N. D. & Tue, N. V., 2016. A new approach to shear design of slender reinforced concrete
members without transverse reinforcement. Engineering Structure, Volume 107, pp. 180-
194.
[6] Tung, N. D. & Tue, N. V., 2016. Effect of support conditions and load arrangement on the shear
response of reinforced concrete beams without transverse reinforcement. Engineering Struc-
tures, Volume 111, pp. 370-382.
[7] Cavagnis, F., Fernandez Ruiz, M. & Muttoni, A., 2018. A mechanical model or failures in shear
of members without transverse reinforcement based on development of a critical shear crack.
Engineering Structures, Volume 157, pp. 300-315.
[8] Tue, N. V., Ehmann, R., Betschoga, C & Tung, N. D., 2019. Effect of low amounts of shear
reinforcement on the shear resistance of reinforced concrete beams with different M/V-combi-
nations. Beton- und Stahlbetonbau, 114, pp. 217-230.
[9] Resende, T., Shehata, L. & Shehata, I., 2016. Shear strength of self-compacting concrete beams
with small stirrups ratios. Structural Concrete, 17(1), pp. 3-10.
[10] Reineck, K.-H., Kuchma, D. A. & Fitik, B., 2012. Extended data bank for verification of the
shear design of concrete members with and without stirrups (in German: Erweiterte Daten-
banken zur Überprüfung der Querkraftbemessung für Konstruktionsbetonbauteile mit und ohne
Bügel). DAfStb Heft 597 Berlin: Beuth Verlag GmbH Berlin-Wien-Zürich.
[11] DIN EN 1992, 2013: National Annex – Nationally determined parameters - Eurocode 2: Design
of concrete structures – Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings

Shear tests on continuous reinforced concrete beams
b
with variable M/V ratios
Daniel Gheorghiu, Yolcu Sever, Christoph Betschoga and Tue Nguyen Viet
if
Institute of Structural Concrete,
Graz University of Technology,
Lessingstraße 25, Graz (8010), Austria
Abstract
This paper presents an experimental and numerical investigation on the shear behavior of continuous
beams with low amounts of shear reinforcement. A total of five rectangular two-span reinforced
concrete beams subjected to uniform loads were tested. The shear reinforcement was arranged such
that shear failure occurred in the main span. The reaction at the end of the short span was varied for
every specimen to obtain different M/V-ratios in the main span. Significant differences in the shear
capacity and location of failure have been observed. Using experimental results for calibration, a
numerical model was designed to expand the investigation. The experimental and numerical observa-
tions show that the shear capacity is not just a cross-sectional property but rather influenced by the
structural system including loading and support conditions. This behavior however cannot be consid-
ered with the current valid design codes e.g. EC 2.
1 Introduction
It is commonly used at present, to derive the shear strength of reinforced concrete beams using equa-
tions predominantly based on experimental data such as the European Euro Code 2 or the fib Model
Code 2010 ,. The shear strength derived using these codes is calibrated using a gathered experimental
data set of mostly simply supported beams which are subjected to point loads.
Previous research shows that the shear capacity is influenced by boundary conditions such as
loading and support conditions. Hence, for continuous beams, the mentioned equations above might
not predict the shear strength precisely. In continuous beams multiple different shear spans separated
by the point of inflection (POI) of the bending moment or the intermediate support may occur. As a
consequence, the location of the critical shear crack (CSC) is not preliminary defined. Depending on
the loading conditions and the position of the POI, the CSC might occur at the intermediate support or
next to the POI. These effects were observed in several previous test series, e.g. - .
Fig. 1 shows a continuous system and the shear strength according to EC2, while the shear slen-
derness was derived using the recommendation in via λ = max{a1;a2}/d with a1 = 0.25∙l1 and a2 = l2.
According to , a necessary cracked length, here lcr,min, is required for the CSC to occur. However, the
cracked length also depends on the location of the POI and thus on the load configuration. If the POI
moves closer to the intermediate support, it may happen that no CSC can form in-between (at control
section 1) and failure due to shear shifts to the section of positive bending moment into control sec-
tion 2. Since the shear force is now limited to the shear strength at control section 2, the shear force at
control section 1 is much higher due to the natural shear force distribution of the continuous beam.
1.60
relative shear strength
1.00
control section 1
control section 2
0.40
4 3 2 1
shear slenderness: λ = a2/d
Fig. 1 Continuous Beam, sectional forces and relative shear strength according to EC2

14 th
2 Experimental investigation
b
2.1 Specimens
In this series of tests, a total of five continuous beams (SV56, SV57, SV62, SV63 and SV64) were
tested. To simulate the sectional force distribution in continuous beams, a combination of a distribut-
ed load in-between the supports and a point load at the end of the cantilever was applied. The focus in
if
this series of tests was to control the development of the critical shear-crack via the applied negative
moment (through the variation of the M/V ratio). The dimensions of the tested beams were b x h x l =
30 x 75 x 1285 cm with an effective depth d = 69.9 cm.
Fig. 2 Test specimens, all dimensions in mm

To minimize the influence of the longitudinal reinforcement, the rebar arrangement was identical for
the top and bottom of the cross-section. High-strength 32 mm diameter rebars SAS 950 with a charac-
teristic yield-strength of 950 MPa were used to prevent bending failure. For every specimen, the
longitudinal reinforcement ratio was kept constant. Two shear-reinforcement ratios with normal
strength steel (fy = 550 MPa) were considered. While the stirrup spacing was kept constant at s = 400
mm the diameter was varied with dsw = 8 mm for SV56 and SV57 and dsw = 6 mm for SV62, SV63
and SV64.
To localize shear-failure at cross-section B, cross-section A and C had highly increased shear-
reinforcement ratios. The specimens were cast at different dates but with the same concrete mixture
with a target strength C30/37. The concrete was produced using cement CEM II/A-S 52.5N and basalt
with a maximum aggregate size of 16 mm. The cement content was 340 kg/m³ with a water-cement
ratio of 0.58. The compressive strength was obtained using cylinders with h/d = 150/75 mm at each
day of the test.
Table 1 - Specimen details

fck b d ρl dsw s ρw/ρw,min
Test
MPa mm mm % mm mm -
SV56 48.26 300 699 1.54 8 400 0.96
SV57 51.25 300 699 1.54 8 400 0.96
SV62 47.90 300 699 1.54 6 400 0.54
SV63 46.69 300 699 1.54 6 400 0.54
SV64 46.44 300 699 1.54 6 400 0.54
Table 1 summarizes the key experimental data. To determine ρw/ρw,min the minimum value of the
required shear reinforcement ratio was derived using the formula according to EC2 using the target
concrete strength of a C30/37 with fck = 30 MPa:
√fck
ρw,min = 0.08 ∙ (1)
fyk

2.2 Test configuration
b
The test configuration is illustrated in Fig. 3. Tests are carried out on simulated continuous beams, a
simple beam with a cantilever, separated by an intermediate support. The load under the test frame is
generated by a hydraulic jack with a capacity of 2.0 MN and carried out by a displacement-controlled
actuator. The loading speed is adjusted so that each test lasted for approximately 2 hours until failure.
The uniformly distributed loads are applied using fire hose filled with water, similarly used previous-
if
ly by Leonhardt and Walther.
To obtain the negative bending moment at the intermediate support, the cantilever was loaded via
a manual hydraulic jack. For the experimental investigation, the ratio M neg/Mpos (positive to negative
bending moment) was set to -1.81. Using this ratio, the inner field of a continuous beam is simulated.
In addition, a degree of restraint was considered by 100, 66 and 33 % times M neg/Mpos. Using a factor
of restraint, a variation of the M/V-ratio was carried out.
Fig. 3 Experimental setup; Left: Distributed load application; Right: Manual hydraulic jack
Fig. 4 shows the arrangement of the measuring equipment. During load application, the following
data were recorded:
- applied Load by the machine and manual hydraulic jack
- deflection
- strain
- crack pattern for various load steps
- photogrammetry of the assumed critical shear crack location
Fig. 4 Arrangement of the measuring equipment for the case of SV56
3 Test results
Key experimental results are summarized in Table 2. These include the maximum load Pmax (main
loading frame), the maximum load Fmax (hydraulic jack) and the targeted degree of restraint (DOR).
Shear slenderness was derived according to for both segments, separated by the point of inflection
(POI), λ1 for negative, λ2 for positive bending moment. The bending moment ratio for maximum
experimental load to the cross-sectional resistance is given as Mmax/MU. Also shown is the applied
(V’exp,d) and the total shear force (Vexp,d) at distance “d”. Last one includes the corresponding shear
force due to deadweight. For all specimen excluding SV64, shear failure occurred near the support.
For SV64 failure occurred in proximity of the point of inflection.
14 th
Table 2 - Test results

ρw/ρw,min DOR λ1 λ2
b
Pmax Fmax Gd V'exp,d Vexp,d Mmax/Mu
Test
- kN kN % - - kN kN kN -
SV56 0.96 548.58 226.84 100 3.21 2.41 23.74 301.00 324.74 0.30
SV57 0.96 823.17 263.01 66 2.51 2.59 23.74 428.02 451.76 0.34
if
SV62 0.54 429.12 177.41 100 3.21 2.41 23.74 235.44 259.18 0.23
SV63 0.54 506.58 161.92 66 2.51 2.59 23.74 263.42 287.16 0.21
SV64* 0.54 664.50 127.69 33 1.51 2.84 17.78 241.62 259.40 0.28
*Shear failure occurred in proximity to the point of inflection (POI); Eval. at distance “d” to the POI.
Fig. 5 shows the load-displacement plots for all tested specimens as well as numerical results for
which we will continue in the chapter of the numerical investigation. A brittle shear failure by means
of the formation of a single critical shear crack was observed. The evaluation of the shear force was
carried out at distance “d” to the support and for SV64 also at distance “d” to the POI since failure
occurred in the section of positive bending moment next to the POI. The experimental results show
that the shear capacity is clearly influenced by the applied M/V ratio as well as by the location of the
POI. For both test series, reducing the ratio of restraint, the shear capacity could be raised. This was
also observed in and .
-500 -500
SV56 SV57 -428 Legend:
Shearforce at dist. d in kN
DOR 100 % DOR 66 %

-375 -375 FEA shear failure
FEA -301
-250 -250 POI point of inflection
FEA finite element analysis

-125 -125
DOR degree if restrain
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
-500 -500 -500

SV62 SV63 SV64
Shearforce at dist. d in kN
DOR 100 % DOR 66 % DOR 33 %

-375 -375 -375
-317
FEA
FEA -263 FEA
-241
-250 -235 -250 -250
-125 -125 -125
0 0 0 POI
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
defl. at midspan in mm defl. at midspan in mm defl. at mitdpsan in mm
Fig. 5 Load-displacement plots of presented specimens
4.1 Failure mode and location

Fig. 6 shows the crack patterns at failure of the presented specimens. The crack patterns were record-
ed by hand. The location of the shear crack leading to failure is indicated by the distance to the sup-
port or the point of inflection. Because the form and inclination of the shear crack differs from speci-
men to specimen due to system and loading conditions and shear reinforcement ratio, the section
representing the failure location is indicated at which the critical shear crack crosses the center of the
beam, similar to that suggested by Reineck & al. (2012) .

For restraint ratios of 100 % and 66 %, the critical shear crack occurred at an approximate dis-
tance “d” to the support and was observed for both reinforcement configurations. For a degree of
b
restraint of 33 % the critical shear crack moved into the section with positive bending moment. In this
section, the critical shear crack occurred at distance “d” to the point of inflection.
In the tested continuous beams, the crack location of the critical shear crack is clearly influenced
by the applied M/V ratio.
if
DOR Degree of restrain
Fig. 6 Crack pattern at shear failure of the tested beams
5 Numerical investigations
5.1 Numerical model

The influence of the M/V ratio on the shear capacity is further investigated via nonlinear finite ele-
ment analysis. For the analysis, the FEA program ATENA 2D was used. The concrete beam was
modelled using 2D-Shell elements, rebars and stirrups were implemented discrete as truss elements,
while fixed bond was assumed. For concrete Elements, the ATENA Constitutive Model
“CC3DNonLinCementitious2” was used. Flexural and shear reinforcement is designed using a biline-
ar constitutive law with a strength of 950 MPa and 550 MPa, respectively. Using experimental data,
the numerical model, shown in Fig. 7, was verified and the comparison is shown in Fig. 5.
14th
if b
Fig. 7 2D Shell Modell and boundary conditions
The experimental results in Fig. 5 indicate, that with lower degrees of restraint (DOR), the shear
capacity can be increased significantly. This, however, was also observed in and . To point out the
transition of the shear capacity, the frame of the numerical study includes a variation of the shear
slenderness evaluated for the section between the point of inflection and the intermediate support.
Variation is carried out in range of λ = a2/d = 4 ÷ 1 and corresponds to a DOR of 100 to 10 %. Fur-
ther, the numerical investigation was used to carry out to a parametric study on the material parame-
ters such as concrete strength and flexural and shear reinforcement ratio.
5.2 Numerical results

As a reference, a RC beam is considered with dimensions according to Fig. 7. In addition, the variable
parameters are set to ρl = 1.00 % and ρw = 0.00 ‰ (no shear reinforcement). Fig. 8 shows the results
of the nonlinear finite element calculation and a comparison to the shear strength according to EC2
with the sub-condition mentioned in the introduction. The FE calculation yields a significant increase
of the shear strength for λ ≤ 2.30. A reason for this might be a combination of a direct load transfer
across the zone without flexural cracks at the point of inflection and arching action. This is shown in
Fig. 8 for λ = 2.30 and clearly visible for λ = 2.04 via the compression trajectories. Experimental
investigations on continuous beams by Hegger et. al. yielded similar results . For a shear slenderness
λ < 2.04 the shear capacity is limited by control section 2. Additionaly, as the point of inflection
moves closer to the support, the residual shear force in-between the point of inflection and the support
is getting smaller which lowers the effect of the direct load transfer.
450 control section 1, FEM

control section 1, EC2
control section 2, FEM
control section 2, EC2
Shear strength in kN
300
150
Failure at Failure at
control section 1 control section 2
0
4 3 2 1
shear slenderness: λ = a2/d
Fig. 8 shear strength for different shear slendernesses; Failure mechanism and stress trajectories
To point this out as a structural property, material parameters such as the shear- and flexural rein-
forcement ratios are varied within an extended numerical investigation. The results are shown in Fig.
9 as the shear strength at failure, evaluated at distance “d” to the intermediate support. Black marked
values are the reference values as shown in Fig. 8 and the red line is used as guidance for a shear
slenderness of λ = 3.00 resp. a degree of restraint of 100 % which is usally the case for design in
practice.
As mentioned before, the maxium shear strength was achieved for values of the shear slenderness
in range of λ = 2.30 ÷ 1.75 followed by the formation of a direct load transfer to the support. If we
look at Fig. 9 (left hand side), the threshold value for the shear slenderness so that direct load transfer
can take place, depends on the flexural reinforcement ratio. Increasing the flexural reinforcement ratio

will require a lower shear slenderness for direct load transfer to occur. For ρl = 1.50 %, direct load
transfer occurred for λ = 2.04, but for ρl = 1.00 % and ρl = 0.50 % already at λ = 2.30.
b
Regarding additional shear reinforcement, Fig. 9 (right hand side), the abrupt increase of the shear
strength due to direct load transfer and arch action gets smoothed out.
600
ρl in % ρw = 0.00 ‰ ρw in ‰
if
control section 2
0.50 ρl in % 0.00 0.47 0.84
failure at
1.00
shear strength in kN
450 1.00
1.50
1.50
300
150
0
3.00
2.85
2.69
2.49
2.28
2.04
1.75
1.44
1.09
0.70
3.00
2.85
2.69
2.49
2.28
2.04
1.75
1.44
1.09
0.70
shear slenderness λ = a2/d shear slenderness λ = a2/d
Fig. 9 Shear strength for different shear slendernesses; variation of the shear- and flexural
reinforcement ratio
6 Conclusion
In this paper, an experimental and numerical investigation on the shear resistance of continuous
reinforced concrete beams with low amounts of shear reinforcement is presented. The focus of the
investigation was the influence of the applied M/V ratio on the shear capacity. The test results yield
considerable effects of the point of inflection of the bending moment on the crack development and
shear resistance of the tested beams.
Experimental investigations show that, depending on the location of the point of inflection, the
location of the critical shear crack could be controlled and also the shear capacity.
These experimental results were verified by a numerical investigation for a predefined interval of
M/V ratios and similar observation could be achieved. However, the mentioned increase of the shear
strength is limited by a certain range of M/V ratios respectively distances of the point of inflection to
the intermediate support. Higher shear strength was achieved by direct load transfer through the un-
cracked section in proximinty of the point of inflection. However, if the distance between the point of
inflection and the intermediate support becomes smaller, the residual load also becomes smaller.
Hence, direct load transfer action will also reduce. In addition, the location of the critical shear crack
shifts its position from the secton of negative, to the section of possitive flexural moment.
References
[1] ON EN 1992-1-1:2004. Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures - Part 1-1: General
rules and rules for buildings, 2004.
[2] Fèdèration International du Bèton (fib), Model Code 2010, Ernst & Sohn, 2012.
[3] K.-H. Reineck, D. A. Kuchma and B. Fitik, “Erweiterte Datenbanken zur Überprüfung
der Querkraftbemessung für Konstruktionsbauteile mit und ohne Bügel,” DaFStb-Heft
597, 08 2012.
[4] N. V. Tue, R. Ehmann und N. Duc Tung, „Schubversuche an Stahlbetonbalken unter-
schiedlicher M/V-Kombinationen,“ Beton- und Stahlbetonbau, 2015.
[5] N. V. Tue, R. Ehmann, C. Betschoga und N. Duc Tung, „Schubversuche an simulierten
Durchlaufbalken ohne Querkraftbewehrung,“ Beton- und Stahlbetonbau, 2016.
[6] A. M. Lopez, P. F. M. Sosa and J. L. B. Senach, “Experimental study of shear strength in
continuous reinforced concrete beams with and without shear reinforcement,” Enginee-
ring Structures, 02 July 2020.
[7] V. Adam, M. Hillebrand, M. Classen and J. Hegger, “Shear in Continous Slab Segments
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withour Shear Reinforcement under Distriuted Loads,” in fib Symposium 2019, 2019.
b
[8] M. S. Islam, H. J. Pam and A. K. H. Kwan, “Shear capacity of high-strength concrete
beams with their point of inflection within the shear span,” Proceedings of The Instituti-
on of Civil Engineers: Structures And Buildings, pp. 91 - 99, 1998.
[9] N. V. Tue, W. Theiler and D. T. N. Tung, “Schubverhalten von Biegebauteilen ohne
if
Querkraftbewehrung,” Beton- und Stahlbetonbau, 2014.
[10] F. Leonhardt and R. Walther, “Schubversuche an einfeldrigen Stahlbetonbalken mit und
ohne Schubbewehrung,” DafStb Heft 151, 1962.
[11] K. Reissen, M. Classen and J. Hegger, “Shear in reinforced concrete slabs - Experimental
investigations in the effective shear width of one-way slabs under concentrated loads and
with different degrees of rotational restraint,” Structural Concrete, 2018.
[12] J. Hegger, J. Bielak, J. Schöneberg and M. Classen, “Shear capacity of continuous slabs
wird CFRP reinforcement,” Construction and Building Materials, 04 01 2022.

Probabilistic robustness assessment of precast
b
reinforced concrete buildings
Martina Scalvenzi1, Simone Ravasini2, Emanuele Brunesi3 and Fulvio Parisi1
if
1 Department of Structures for Engineering and Architecture, University of Naples Federico
II, Via Claudio 21, 80125 Naples, Italy
2 Department of Engineering and Architecture, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze
181/A, 43124 Parma, Italy
3 European Centre for Training and Research in Earthquake Engineering, Via Ferrata 1,
27100 Pavia, Italy
Abstract
The growing interest in progressive collapse of structures after several catastrophic events led to an
increase in the number of experimental tests on precast concrete (PC) buildings, allowing numerical
models to be calibrated also on that structural typology. The goal of this study is to assess the progres-
sive collapse fragility of both substandard and earthquake-resistant PC buildings subjected to major
column-loss scenarios. The effects of different beam-column connections, seismic detailing, and pe-
ripheral tying reinforcement designed according to current robustness-oriented guidelines is investi-
gated. Analysis results outline a great impact of beam-column connections on progressive collapse re-
sistance, allowing the identification of the worst scenarios where tying systems need to be implemented.
Introduction
Natural and man-made disasters often produce the collapse of multiple structural members at the
ground floor of buildings, which may trigger a progressive collapse of the structure. Some iconic dis-
asters, such as the collapse of the Ronan Point building (London, 1968) [1], the Murrah Federal Build-
ing (Oklahoma City, 1995) [2], and the World Trade Center (New York, 2001) [3], highlighted the
huge consequences of progressive collapse in terms of loss of life and property, significantly increasing
the interest of the research community, structural engineers, facility managers and stakeholders in this
topic [4]. Most of the research in recent years has been oriented toward cast-in-situ RC structures,
achieving an in-depth understanding of resisting mechanisms under column loss. As highlighted by
Ravasini et al. [6], a considerable lack of knowledge deals with precast concrete (PC) structures. The
investigation of the effect of different types of beam-column joints and floor systems was conducted
through few experimental/numerical studies [7]-[12]. In other studies, improvements of joints were
proposed in order to achieve higher levels of progressive collapse resistance for two-dimensional PC
frames [13]. In Europe, the guidelines published related to the robustness-oriented design of PC build-
ings are: the fib Bulletin 63 [15], fib Bulletin 43 [16] and CNR-DT 214/2018 [17]. The former document
provides principles for mitigation of progressive collapse risk, while the latter is focused on structural
detailing. Nonetheless, no specifications on joint design for earthquake resistance and robustness are
available yet. This study aims at investigating the progressive collapse fragility of both substandard and
earthquake-resistant PC buildings subjected to major column-loss scenarios. Structural robustness is
probabilistically assessed through a fragility analysis procedure, using three-dimensional fiber-based
finite element models with nonlinear links simulating connections and large-displacement incremental
dynamic analysis. The effects of different beam-column connections, seismic detailing, and peripheral
tying reinforcement designed according to current robustness-oriented guidelines is investigated.
1 Characteristics of case-study structures
1.1 Geometric and material properties

Two classes of low-rise, commercial, European PC buildings were investigated in this study:

14th
• Substandard existing buildings designed to sustain only gravity loads, in which the beam-col-
umn connection resistance relies only on frictional behaviour of their interface.
b
• Earthquake-resistant buildings, in which the beam-column connection resistance relies on fric-
tional behaviour and threaded dowels.
In addition, the presence of tying reinforcement was considered, designing ties according to current
robustness-oriented guidelines. The mean value, the coefficient of variation (CoV) of structural mate-
if
rials and the references used to obtain those statistics are summarized in Table 1. According to previous
studies [6], a three-storey PC building with both primary and secondary beams, as well as one-way
floor slabs oriented along the short span direction, was considered. The building plan consisted of six
bays in the x-direction and three bays in the y-direction (Fig. 1 (left)), whereas the inter-storey height
was set to 3.3 m at the first floor and 3.6 m at upper floors (Fig. 1 (right)). Columns were characterized
by a square cross section (600×600 mm2 in size); beams had a rectangular cross section (500×700 mm2
in size) at the first two floor levels and a square cross section at third floor were (500×500 mm2 in size).
Both structural elements were equipped with 22-mm longitudinal reinforcing bars and 12-mm stirrups
with 60 mm spacing.
In order to evaluate the progressive collapse resistance of the structure, three column removal sce-
narios were selected, by varying the location of the removed element at ground floor (Fig. 1 (left)). The
gravity loads were applied on the structure according to the accidental load combination as for UFC
guidelines [26], as follows:
Qbd = 1.2 DL + 0.5 LL (1)
in which DL and LL are the dead and live loads, respectively. The design gravity loads resulted equal
to 9.68 kN/m2 and 5.28 kN/m2 at the first two levels and at the third floor, respectively.
Table 1 Mechanical properties of materials and beam-column connections

Building Class Item Property Mean CoV Reference
Concrete fc 36.00 MPa 15%
322.50 MPa
fy 8% [18][21]
Reinforcing steel [21]
Gravity-load εsu 29.30% 12%
designed μ 0.2 –
Beam-column dry K0 2 kN/mm –
connection [22]
Vf 6 kN –
Δf 3 mm –
Concrete fc 59.75 MPa 15%
Earthquake- fy 490.30 MPa 5%
resistant Reinforcing steel [23]-[25]
εsu 25.90% 13%
Dowel steel fy,d 580.00 MPa 5%

if b
Fig. 1 Geometry of case-study structure: plan and elevation view (dimensions in mm) and iden-
tification of column removal scenarios
1.2 Types of beam-column connections

The beam-column connection was considered as a typological variable to assess its influence on pro-
gressive collapse resistance of PC buildings. Three different connections were considered, as follows:
• Type 1 (T1): Frictional beam-column connection with bearing pad, representative of existing
substandard PC buildings (Fig.2 (left))
• Type 2 (T2): Beam-column connection with threaded steel dowels, representative of those
used in seismically-designed PC buildings (Fig.2 (right))
• Type 3 (T3): Beam-column connection with dowels and tying reinforcement to provide in-
tegrity and continuity between precast members (Fig.3 (left))
A previous study [6] demonstrated that tie force (TF) demand calculations using current codes and
analytical methods provided a considerable scatter. In this study, the TF demand was evaluated through
a simplified two-span beam model (Fig.3 (right)), where force equilibrium in the catenary stage under
equivalent gravity load P is solved according to the following equation:
P P
T=  (2)
2sen 2
In such an equation, ϑ = tan–1(δ/L) is the beam chord rotation achieved in the catenary stage. According
to recent studies [27]-[34], ϑ = 0.2 rad was usually adopted to design tying reinforcement in beam
systems. The magnitude of P is based on the tributary floor area of the removed column, according to
the building layout. The tying reinforcement was sized according to different column removal scenar-
ios: 3 ϕ30 and 5 ϕ32 were used for the edge/corner and interior removal scenario, respectively.
Fig. 2 Beam-column connections: Type 1 and Type 2

14 th
if b
Fig. 3 Beam-column connections: Type 3 and simplified structural model to design tying rein-
forcement.
2 Modelling assumptions and definition of performance limit states

The structure was modelled through the FE code Seismostruct [34] and nonlinear time history analyses
(NLTHAs) were carried out under threat-independent, sudden, column loss scenarios. Each cross sec-
tion of structural element was discretised in 200 fibres; the nonlinear constitutive model by Mander et
al. [35] and bilinear model were used to describe concrete and steel behaviuor, respectively.
The progressive collapse capacity was assessed through incremental dynamic analysis, a set of non-
linear time history analyses under incremental design gravity load and corresponding inertia masses,
using a load factor α. The beam-column connections were modelled through nonlinear link elements,
in which the mechanical nonlinearity was assigned through shear (V) – displacement (Δ) and moment
(M) – rotation (θ) relationships. Specifically, the following relationships were assumed: (i) in case of
T1 connection, the V – Δ relation was based on frictional properties discussed above and zero flexural
resistance according to assumption of pinned connection; (ii) in case of T2 connection, the V – Δ relation
was based on the resistance of threaded dowel and M – θ relation with positive and negative resisting
moments calculated via equations presented in previous studies [37]-0; and (iii) in case of T3 connec-
tion, the V – Δ and M – θ relations similar to T2 while a truss element connecting nodes of column and
beam was considered to model the tying reinforcement, with bilinear stress–strain law for steel. Subse-
quently, Performance Limit States (PLSs) related to increasing damage levels after a column loss event
were defined. Different sets of PLSs were assumed for the case-study buildings, depending on their
type of connection. Regarding the substandard existing PC buildings, a single collapse PLS was con-
sidered and associated with the loss of beam support at the location of column corbels. Three PLSs
were assumed in case of earthquake-resistant PC buildings with T2 connection, as follows:
• PLS1 (slight damage): dowel yielding associated with the achievement of yield shear force
VRdy;
• PLS2 (near collapse): dowel rupture associated with the achievement of ultimate shear force
VRd;
• PLS3 (collapse): loss of beam support associated with the achievement of ultimate lateral dis-
placement ΔRd.
In case of T3 connection, the following PLSs were considered:
• PLS1 (slight damage): tying yielding associated with achievement of yield tie force Ty;
• PLS2 (moderate damage): dowel yielding associated with the achievement of yield shear VRdy;
• PLS3 (near collapse/collapse): the first achievement of one of the failure modes: (i) tie fracture;
(ii) excessive deformation associated with an ultimate chord rotation θu = 0.2 rad; (iii) impact
of vertically oscillating beams on ground or underlying floor, associated with a vertical dis-
placement equal to inter-storey height; and (iv) loss of beam support.
3 Progressive collapse analysis

The progressive collapse assessment consisted of a single NLTHA performed with a given intensity of
gravity loads or an IDA, that is, a series of NLTHAs performed with an incremental intensity of gravity
loads. In a first stage, NLTHAs were carried out on the model with mean properties, in order to evaluate
the achievement of each PLS by varying the column removal scenario. Analysis results were collected
in terms of vertical displacement δ of the beam-column joint located on top of the removed column,
which was then converted into chord rotation. Each NLTHA was performed by assigning a load factor
b
α to gravity loads and inertia masses, subsequently recording the time history of vertical displacements.
The results collected in Table 2 outline that the loss of beam support was reached at very low levels of
gravity loads (2%) for the substandard PC building under every column loss scenario considered. This
led to the consideration that T1 connection is not able to avoid progressive collapse of substandard PC
if
buildings when a single column fails.
In the other cases, a sequential occurrence of PLS1 and PLS2 was found and PLS3 was reached
under the same gravity loads of PLS2. The edge and internal column loss scenarios were characterised
by lower levels of gravity load capacity, indicating that those scenarios were more critical than that
located in the building corner. The use of tying reinforcement had a beneficial impact leading to an
increase in beam-column connection resistance, which in turn resulted into a higher load redistribution
capacity compared to other connection types. An overview on the sensitivity of progressive collapse
capacity to the location of the removed column is provided by IDA curves in Fig. 4. A trilinear shape
was found in case of T2 connection (Fig.4 (left)), underlining the sequence of performance limit states
and their corresponding values of load factor and chord rotation. The IDA curves related to T3 connec-
tion (Fig.4 (right)) shows that the interaction between frictional resistance of bearing pads, shear-flex-
ural resistance associated with dowels, and tensile resistance of steel ties results in a more nonlinearity,
particularly in case of corner scenario.
Table 2 Achievement of PLSs under different column removal scenarios and beam-column connec-
tion type
PLS PLS1 PLS2 PLS3
Connection
T1 T2 T3 T1 T2 T3 T1 T2 T3
type
Corner 80% 100% 230% 100% 230%
Edge 2% 2% 20% 2% 30% 130% 2% 30% 130%
Internal 30% 15% 60% 15% 60%
100 300
Corner Scenario Corner Scenario
90 Edge Scenario Edge Scenario
250 Internal Scenario
80 Internal Scenario
70
200
60
α [%]
α [%]
50 150
40
100
30
20 50
10
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
θ [%] θ [%]
Fig. 4 IDA curves under varying column removal scenarios: T2 connection and T3 connection
4 Fragility analysis
Structural analysis of models with mean properties produced the following outcomes: (i) the substand-
ard building was not able to prevent progressive collapse; (ii) the seismic detailing and horizontal ties
within were not able to produce a sufficient level of robustness under internal column loss; and (iii) the
internal column loss was the most critical scenario. It is also noteworthy that external columns of build-
ings may be more exposed to hazardous events than their internal counterparts, so that the progressive
collapse fragility analysis was carried out under the assumption of edge column loss.
In order to propagate the effect of uncertainties in capacity model properties, which were treated as
random variables (RVs), Monte Carlo simulation was implemented by assuming Lognormal distribu-
tions and statistics reported in Table 1. Four RVs were considered:

14 th
• concrete compressive strength, fc;

•
b
yield strength of steel reinforcement, fy;
• yield strength of steel dowel, fyd;
• ultimate strain of reinforcing steel, εsu.
The output of this analysis was collected in terms of IDA and fragility curves for the two PC build-
if
ings (with T2 and T3), shown in Fig. 5 and 6.
As regards the earthquake-resistant building with T2 connection, PLS1 was reached in early anal-
ysis stages corresponding to α ≈ 2%, as remarked by an initial low slope till θ ≈ 10%. Fracture of steel
dowels (PLS2) occurred in a range of α between 25% and 40% corresponding to θ ≈ 16%, followed by
the support loss (PLS3). The fragility curves show that the PLS1 is characterized by a jump function
due to the occurrence of dowel yielding at the same value of load multiplier. The PLS2 and PLS3
occurred sequentially, outlining that the achievement of steel dowel fracture (due to absence of lateral
load resistance) was soon followed by the loss of support.
The occurrence of performance limit states was not evident on the earthquake-resistant building
with T3 connection. The PLS1 was reached at early stage corresponding to α ≈ 2% and θ ≈ 5%. The
other two PLSs occurred sequentially, with PLS2 related to the achievement of yield displacement ΔRdy
and yield force VRdy of steel dowel. PLS3 was related to the achievement of the chord rotation limit
equal to 0.2. It was evident that the lowest dispersion of fragility curves was associated with T3 con-
nection, rather than T2 connection.
50 100
50 100
90 PLS1
45 PLS2
PLS1
[%][%]
45 90
80 PLS3
40 PLS2
80
70 PLS3
i|IM=im]
40
35
70
i|IM=im]
35 60
30
α [%]
60
50
30
α [%]
25
P[EDP>edp
50
40
25
20
P[EDP>edp
40
30
20
15 30
20
15
10 20
10
10
5 10
0
5
0 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
0 0 5 10 15 20 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
0 5 θ 10
[%] 15 20 α [%]
θ [%] α [%]
Fig.5 IDA curves under varying
(a) column removal scenarios: T2 connection
(b)
(a) (b)
100
140 PLS1
100
90
140 PLS2
[%][%]
PLS1
120 90
80 PLS3
PLS2
i|IM=im]
120 80 PLS3
100 70
i|IM=im]
100 70
60
α [%]
80 60
50
α [%]
P[EDP>edp
80
60 50
40
P[EDP>edp
60 40
30
40
40 30
20
20 20
10
20
0 10
0
0 0 5 10 15 20 0 0 50 100 150 200 250
0 5 θ [%]
10 15 20 0 50 100α
[%] 150 200 250
θ [%] α [%]
(c) (d)
Fig. 6 IDA curves under varying
(c) column removal scenarios: T3 connection
(d)
5 Conclusions
This study has dealt with the investigation of typical European precast concrete frame buildings through
a mean-centred, IDA-based assessment procedure, followed by progressive collapse fragility analysis.
The aim was to investigate the influence of beam-column connections, seismic detailing and peripheral
tying reinforcement on progressive collapse capacity of existing PC buildings. Progressive collapse
analysis on case-study structures with mean material properties was carried out under three column-
removal scenarios in order to identify the worst scenario for probabilistic simulation. Then, progressive
collapse fragility analysis was performed to propagate the uncertainty in material properties of beam-
column connections in case of edge column loss. Analysis results outlined that beam-column connec-
tions play an important role in resisting gravity loads after column loss. The progressive collapse ca-
pacity of the PC buildings progressively increased, moving from the structure designed only to gravity

loads to the structure designed for earthquake resistance with the different connections. The tying rein-
forcement in PC beams had a beneficial effect, leading to a considerable increase in progressive col-
b
lapse capacity. In addition, ties limited the dispersion of fragility curves corresponding to moderate
damage and collapse, which ranged approximately from 0.05 to 0.11 over all buildings. The outcomes
of this study provide a quantitative basis for future developments on progressive collapse risk and mit-
igation of existing PC buildings, which often suffer catastrophic collapses even under local damage to
if
a single or few components.
Acknowledgements
This study was developed in the framework of INSIST which was funded by Campania Region.
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Failure and limit states of precast concrete joints
b
under low cycle shear
Edom Zewdie and Koichi Maekawa
if
Department of Civil Engineering,
Yokohama National University,
79-5 Tokiwadai, Hodogaya ward, Kanagawa, Yokohama, 240-8501, Japan
Abstract
Performance of joint under shear is a crucial factor in assessing longevity of jointed reinforced concrete
structures. Different distresses on jointed concrete structures have exposed concrete damages of both
joint planes and connected members. Experimental investigation of interfacial behaviour with different
bar arrangements, confinement conditions and effect of rubber lapped reinforcement bar are briefly
reviewed. Shear transfer mechanism of flat joint is investigated under cyclic shear loading. All the
specimens confirmed an existence of stress transfer from reinforcement bar to concrete which led to a
bond/splitting failure. Simulation verification using nonlinear finite element analysis code is provided
as well.
1 Introduction - problem statement

Shear transfer across joints is important for evaluating structural performance. Structural joints serve
as critical shear transfer zones. Local discontinuities in structural members are inevitable in some struc-
tures like precast concrete structures, concrete pavements, and phased construction works. Joint distress
observed on connected precast concrete panels or jointed concrete structures shows a localized crack
and deterioration of concrete. This concrete crack and deterioration interrupts serviceability, reduces
load carrying capacity and inturupt joint performances.
In analysis of precast reinforced concrete structures load transfer mechanism of joint interfaces is a
contribution of mechanical interlock and adhesive bonding and bending resistance of reinforcement
bars (steel connectors) [1], [2]. Each mechanisms listed above can coexist and are interdependent. In-
teractions depend on the quality of bond, number of reinforcing bars crossing the interface, property of
concrete and strength of concrete [3]. Overall contribution of all mechanisms cannot be determined by
simple superimposition of individual actions.
Designers maintain serviceability and ultimate limit state criteria under varied loading conditions
by keeping stresses and strains of constituent materials within the limit and hence ensuring sudden
collapse or brittle failures. Investigation of embedded deformed bar in concrete is core for understand-
ing of behavior of reinforcing bars in structural concrete and are basis of finite element (FE) simulation.
Joint interfacial behaviours can contribute significantly to assessment and understanding the remaining
life of the structure. Performance and structural health of reinforced concrete (RC) structures has shown
to depend on loading condition such as its histories and direction, material properties and geometrical
orientations.
2.1 Specimen design

In this study, seven specimens with different cross-section property are considered. They are labelled
as Beam 1 to Beam 7 as shown in Table 1. Each specimen has equal length of 1500mm. Schematic
diagram of the specimen and their cross sections property are shown in Fig. 1. Specimens are divided
into three concrete parts by creating two flat joints at length of 600mm and 900mm. The reinforcement
bar/s passes all the way through the total length of the specimen. Two flat joints are created by con-
ducting phased concrete casting. Concrete material property and bar sizes used for each beam are shown
in Table 1. For all the specimens except Beam 2, deformed bar is used. For Beam 2 plain bar is used.
Characteristic yield strength of 16mm diameter bar is 400MPa and 13mm diameter bar is 385MPa.
Concrete volumetric mix proportion of 1:1.58:1.94 was used. The maximum coarse aggregate size
ranges from 15 to 20mm. Water to cement ratio of 0.43 was adopted. To construct flat joints, concrete
14th
casting was done first to center unit of specimen which is of 300mm length. Steel formwork and side
wood panels are used to create smooth joint faces. Teflon sheets are inserted at the position of the two
b
flat joints as shown in Fig. 2. These Teflon sheets nullify frictional stress transfer at the joint faces.
Subsequent casting is done to the left unit and right unit of the specimen by using Teflon sheet as
separator and wooden panels at the left and right end of the specimen. Membrane wet curing was con-
ducted for all specimens. In Fig. 1, Beam 1 and Beam 2 are specimens made with same cross-section
if
property and diffrent bar type. Beam 3 and Beam 4 are sections with varied cross-sectional sizes, bar
diameter, and bar orientation. Beam 5 and Beam 6 are beams with different confinement conditions.
Beam 5 is actively confined with direct contact of stirrups and longitudinal bars. Beam 6 is passively
confined where no direct contact of stirrups and longitudinal bars exist. Beam 7 was prepared by in-
serting lapping a rubber over the reinforcement bar. This lapping of reinforcement bar is done by using
1mm thick rubber. Its lapping of ten layers was done.
Fig. 1 Test specimen dimensions, section sizes and bar arrangements.
Table 1 Bar size details and contrete material property of the specimens.
Longitudnal
fck left unit fck center fck right Stirrup diameter
Specimen bar diameter
[MPa] unit [Mpa] unit [MPa] [mm]
[mm]
Beam 1 29 37 29 16 -
Beam 2 39 36 39 16 -
Beam 3 37 57 37 13 -
Beam 4 45 57 43 16 -
Beam 5 49 57 43 13 8
Beam 6 48 57 48 16 8
Beam 7 42 57 42 16 -
2.2 Experiment setup and loading

A cyclic shear load was applied to the centre unit of the specimens while left unit and right units were
supported by steel plates of 150 mm width as shown in Fig. 2. At supports direct contact between the
steel plate and concrete was avoided by inserting Teflon sheets. Displacement transducers are used for
measuring vertical joint deflection. Gap sensors are placed at the position of flat joints to check joint
This document may not be copied orFailure
distributed without prior permission from fib.
and limit states of precast concrete joints under low cycle shear
opening and closure. Strain gauges measuring strains of bar and concrete were used. Strain gauges were
placed on both at the top and bottom surfaces of the reinforcing bar. Strain gauges were at a distance
b
2D, 5D and 10D from the flat joints on both left unit and right unit of the specimen. ‘D’ denotes dimeter
of the bar. In the central unit strain gauges were placed at 2D from the left and the right joints and at
the midspan of the centre unit. For 13mm diameter bars, strain gauges at 5D are omitted in order not to
fully eliminate bond. Concrete strain gauges were place at the specimen’s top surface of the left and
if
right sections. These concrete stain gauges were placed close to the flat joints and position of the rein-
forcing bars.
Shear capacity of the Beam 1 under service condition was computed. A variable load with stepped
increment was applied. Cyclic shear loading is applied by manual control of load application. Cyclic
shear loading is adopted while testing specimens Beam 1 to Beam 6. These was achieved by manually
controlling the load speed gauge of the universal testing machine. For specimen Beam 7 static loading
is adopted. Loading direction is perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the beam. This vertical loading
is resisted by the two steel support plates. The applied vertical loading and the resisting force at the
support produce shear stress at the joints. During the loading process minimum and maximum loading
were controlled by setting load values for both loading and unloading situations. Experimental data
were automatically acquired from the computer.
Fig. 2 Experiment set up with Teflon sheet to avoid frictional shear transfer.
3 Extended multi-dimensional crack models for RC joints

Joint interfaces element together with 3-dimentional FE solid elements have been widely used to assess
structural performances of structural RC including full and half precast structures. This model is built
in considering two major assumptions of concrete, i.e., no bond cracking along reinforcement bars and
no splitting crack under and above bars. This means that the joint element’s mechanistic modelling is
not affected by the mechanics of the adjacent solid concrete, which is also independent on the connected
joint elements. Deterioration of concrete structures shown in Fig. 3 (left) reveals that sole joint interface
models are inadequate in addressing such problems. The coexisting and interlinked behaviours of
shear/dowel forces and pull-out of bars are responsible for joint distresses that could not be computed
by adopting joint interface elements alone. This technical limitation called for attention to adopt a dif-
ferent method to be consistent with existing RC in practice, that is 3-dimentional joint elements merged
into 3-dimentional solids Fig. 3 (right). In this study, RC constitutive model of non-orthogonal multi-
directional cracks in 6-directions incorporated is applied as the platform to meet the challenge [4], [5].
This model is originally used together with shear transfer, tension softening/stiffing and concrete elas-
tic- plastic-fracturing models. To incorporate shear bifurcation of masonry structures or soft rock foun-
dations, the platform model has been extended [5], [6]. Masonry with mortar joints shows crack either
in joints or on the brick members. In this model, three directional crack planes to masonry joints and
the rest of three was addressed to masonry blocks and bricks [6]. The kinetics of the fixed directional

14 th
joint planes is driven by the normal and shear stresses perpendicular to and along planes [6]. This model
is adopted for structures with flat interfaces created by consequent casting. The interface joint element
b
is replaced with thin layers of 3-dimentional solid ones. Timoshenko beam element is implemented for
the reinforcing bars.
By adopting these models to challenge the existing joint deterioration problems, subsequent dete-
rioration of joints and surrounding concrete can be captured. In joint interface models, local shear slip
if
is trivial due to the continuity of reinforcing bars, differential slip of two joints cannot be obtained in
such a consideration. On the contrary as shown in Fig. 3 (right), local discontinuities and joint slips at
are addressed by adopting the extended muti directional crack models. These are further validated by
the experiments considered in the later parts.
Fig. 3 Joint interface models and 3-dimentional multi-directional crack models applied to 3-di-
mentional volume to joint planes.
4 Results and discussions
4.1 Results
The failure mode observed on the unconfined specimens is shown in Fig. 4 (left). This roughly covers
failures observed on Beam 1, Beam 3, and Beam 4. Under continual cyclic shear load application, first
cracks were found to appear at front face of the centre unit. On some specimens first crack appears at
the top face of the centre unit. Again, another crack propagation is observed at top face of either left
unit or right unit of the specimen. This visible longitudinal crack at the top face of the left or right side
of the specimen progresses up to the total length of the specimen. After these longitudinal cracks
spreads over on both left unit and right unit of the specimen, the specimen fails to carry any more load.
This marks a complete failure for these specimens.
Like unconfined section, confined sections first cracks were found at front face of the center unit
of the specimen. Under continual cyclic shear load application crack propagation of the confined sec-
tions showed a localized failure Fig. 4 (right). Failure mode of Beam 5 (active confinement) and Beam
6 (passive confinement) are addressed. This localized failure is concentrated at the center unit of the
specimen and close to the flat joints on both left and right side. In Beam 5, progression of cyclic load
application resulted highly localized concrete fractures attributed to the deformation of the active spirals
in Fig. 4 (right). Beam 6 showed crushing of concrete within the confined concrete section. For Beam
6, under large deflection splitting at the top face of the right section is observed. This top longitudinal
crack effected pealing of the cover concrete on the side of the specimen Fig. 4 (right).
Crack propagation for Beam 2 section (plain bar) is shown on Fig 5 (left). First crack propagation
started at the center unit front side of the specimen. Unlike all the other specimens discussed above, in
this section crack was only on the right side of the center unit. In addition, with progression of the cyclic
load it is shown in Fig. 5 (left) that right side of the specimen exhibited inclined crack at the front face
of the right part.
Beam 7, section with rubber lapped reinforcement bar was tested for static loading. In this experi-
ment, specimen it was observed that center unit of the specimen showed no crack for vertical deflection

of 25mm. Loading was not stooped until the specimen progressed a longitudinal crack on the left part.
Finally, Beam 7 demonstrated reinforcement bar pullout from the left end of the section.
b
For all the specimens’ gap opeining at the joint face is insignificant but showed a significant vertical
relative displacement (δ).
if
Fig. 4 Failure mode of confined and unconfined sections under cyclic shear load.
Fig. 5 Failure of Beam 2 under cyclic shear load and Failure of Beam 7 under static load respec-
tively.
4.2 Discussions
Load deflection curve for all the specimens except Beam 2 showed that the joint property exhibits
perfect elastic-plasticity curve until failure of the specimens. In the load deflection curve shown in Fig.
6 for both analysis and experiment. Permanent damage is accumulated in the joints under cyclic load
application. In Fig. 6 sharp deflection jumps marks significant plasticization of the section. Plastic in-
crement is not constant, variable plastic increment is observed as number of repetitions of cyclic load
increases. Different Load versus deflection results is obtained for all the specimens. It is found that the
total number of repetitive cyclic shear a section can with stand depends on the maximum load value,
bar arrangement, bar size, confinement condition, and concrete material property.
Presence of bar lugs has created different shear load transfer across interface. These bar lugs are
known to be responsible for formation of conical stresses/ diagonal compression struts on the surround-
ing concrete. Diagonal compression struts are resolved into tangential component denoted by bond
stresses and radial components as confining stresses [4]. Bond stresses are known to create secondary
crack near the lugs. Application of shear loading has direct consequence in significantly degrading
conical bond stresses. This bond deterioration results formation of secondary crack near the lugs of the
bar. Shear loading on the tested specimens resulted bond deterioration due to bearing stress transfer
from the bar to surrounding concrete. When a bar embedded in concrete undergoes bond deterioration,
14th
two things are expected to occur. Bond deteroration due to crushing of mortat near the lugs or formation
of secondary bond crack near the cracks.
if b
Fig. 6 Load deflection diagram for specified specimen under variable amplitude loading.
Fig. 7 Slip of the specimens under cyclic shear loading.
Fig. 8 Cumulative strain of the reinforcement bar according to the strain gauge reading.
Experiments of varied bar size, arrangement, cross section, and confinement conditions show different
fatigue performances. Using Miner’s linear damage rule for variable amplitude loading, cumulative
b
damage (vertical slip) experienced due to cyclic shear is computed. Fig. 7 shows that fatigue life (num-
ber of cycle) versus joint vertical slip (δ) for all the specimens. At 1mm of joint slip most of the damage
is attributed to bond deterioration between the bar and concrete near the joints. Crack formation within
this phase can be hard to capture with naked eyes. The steel strain gauge reading at 2D from the joint
if
face is shown in Fig. 8. Even though these readings are below the yield strain value of steel for joint
slip of 1mm, this strain gauge reading does not only represent steel strain but also relative displacement
of bar from concrete.
After the section undergoes bond deterioration, the joint performs as defect intolerant section. Fig.
6 shows plasticity of the section increases more as the as the cyclic loading progreses, indicating the
section to be defect intolerant. In either type of bond deterioration, i.e secondary bond crack formation
or cushing of mortar, specimens exibhits large plasticity. After the 1mm joint slip, the bar produces
more crack propagation or more crushing of concrete. The sections slip and the additional cyclic load
applied are responsible for producing additional plasticity. Indicating that joint slip produces a second
order effect to the joint first and then progresses to the sutface of left unit and right units. Load trans-
ferred from the bar to the concrete is no more resisted by the bond action, marking the initiation of bond
failure.
This can be clearly seen on the center unit of the specimen in Fig. 9. As explained earlier visible
crack first appear on the center unit of the specimen. Fig. 9 clearly shows that this crack originates from
the bar face and progresses to the front part of the center unit. The supported side of the left unit and
right unit joint face exhibits significant bond deterioration due to crushing of concrete near the bar (Fig.
9). The extent of concrete deterioration around the bar depends on the concrete property. In Fig. 9 crack
and concrete deteroration for plain bar and deformed bar proved to be different. For plain bars concrete
crushing under the bar leads to joint failure and extends to specimen collapse. For deformed bars, split-
ting of concrete occurs due to subsequent concrete deterioration which leads to formation of smooth
curvature. During cyclic shear application the curved bar starts to create a tensile stress at the top and
bottom of the section. These further increases plasticity in the section and finally occurrence of splitting
can be observed on the left unit and right unit.
Fig. 9 Examined ioint failures at the center unit, left unit and right unit of the specimen under
cyclic shear loading.
Hence as Fig. 7 indicates, joint displacement of 0.5mm is recommended as serviceability limit state
criteria for high and low cycle loading for design and maintenance. Recommended ultimate limit state
criterion is set as 0.9mm. Importantly, this makes joint displacement as governing criteria for mainte-
nance and assess the remining life of the structure.
Effect of rubber lapping (Beam 7) is represented as shown in Fig. 5 (right). Due to the presence of
soft layer between concrete and reinforcement bar, bond within this region is eliminated. Beam 7 has
shown to allow significant joint slip before showing any concrete deterioration. Increment in joint slip
will lead to formation of smoother curvature near the joint face. Under large joint slip, curved reinfor-
cement bar will lean against the inner top section. These bending of the bar creates inner contact for
both top and bottom concrete sections. As shown in Fig. 5 (right), contact points of the bar and concrete
develop compression stress, thus consequently creates tensile stress for the surface of the left unit. These
14 th
phenomena furher facilitales bar pullout. Finally leading to spliting of the left unit. Although higher
deflection is recorded due to the presence of soft layer around the bar, rubber lapping improves the
b
overall performance of joints by significantly retarding concrete deterioration. Under suitable condi-
tions it shows a good prospect of being applied to joints to significantly enhance fatigue performance
under cyclic shear loading.
if
5 Conclusion
Precast joint was investigated under cyclic shear and the following concluding remarks were obtained.
▪ Confinement of concrete around steel bars plays a vital role in the fatigue performance.
▪ Plain bars joint failure is attributed to crushing of concrete below the bar. This alters fatigue be-
haviour of the section under cyclic shear load.
▪ Rubber lapping can prompt higher joint performance of a cross section by allowing significant
joint slip with no concrete deterioration.
▪ Joint failure indicates that second order effect progressing within the section leading to instablity
and failure.
▪ Damage rate of the section is crutial for evalution of fatigue performance of precast joints. Damage
rate of the specimens showed different behaviour depending on confinement, bar arrgment and
size and concrete propery.
▪ Joint displacement can be set as a criterion to check or assess performance of precast units. Limit
state criteria regarding the joint displacement at interface is proposed to ensure serviceability and
ultimate limits to avoid collapse due to subsequent dynamic impacts.
Acknowledgements
The authors heartfelt gratitude for Prof. Akira Hosoda in support of reviewing and Dr. Nguyen Huu
Quoc Hung who assisted to produce the discretization of analysis domains for the experiments of the
joints. The first author appreciates Monbukakusho (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and
Technology of The Japanese Government) for granting scholarship.
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[6] Yamanoi, Yuto, and Koichi Maekawa. 2020. “Shear Bifurcation and Gravelization of Low-
Strength Concrete.” Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology 18:767–77.

Optimised Strut and Tie Models for Reinforced
b
Concrete Structures Subjected to Several Limit States
Jeff Larsen, Peter Noe Poulsen, John Forbes Olesen and Linh Cao Hoang
if
Department of Civil and Mechanical Engineering,
Technical University of Denmark,
Brovej, Kgs. Lyngby (2800), Denmark
Abstract
A structural designer needs to ensure adequate performance in both SLS and ULS. Thus when optimis-
ing structures, both limit states should be considered simultaneously. For ULS, effective material opti-
misation exists within FELA, which applies a convex solver. For SLS, an iterative procedure utilising
a tangential stiffness matrix is established to solve this also using a convex solver.
As an initial step toward optimising solid RC structures, the method is implemented by finding optimal
strut and tie models subjected to simultaneous SLS and ULS requirements. Practical and verifiable
models were found for simple structures. Large structures were also solved, resulting in an initial design
point for more practical solutions.
1 Introduction
When designing a structure, the designer needs to consider several limit states to ensure adequate safety
and serviceability. The two most common limit states are the Ultimate Limit State (ULS) and the Ser-
viceability Limit State (SLS). Many design tools exist to help the designer, e.g. visualise stress distri-
butions or minimise material usage. However, most of these design tools only consider one of the limit
states at a time. In ULS, effective design tools exist, for example, the Finite Element Limit Analysis
(FELA) [1]. Through material optimisation, these design tools find optimal designs. As the feasible set
of FELA is convex, the global minimum can be found directly through a convex solver. The effective
convex solver makes it possible to find optimal solutions for largescale problems.
For calculations in SLS, there is a lack of commonly used tools for optimisation. The most common
is Topology Optimisation, which is originally based upon a linear elastic material model [2]. Topology
optimisation is thus not capable of modelling concrete cracking as this leads to a nonlinear behaviour.
Furthermore, there is an absence of design methods that include both ULS and SLS requirements where
cracking of concrete is considered.
Thus, a design tool capable of considering the elastic requirements in SLS and the nonlinear behav-
iour of yielding in ULS is needed. As convex solvers are commonly used in FELA, a method for sim-
ultaneous SLS and ULS optimisation using a convex solver is preferable. However, approximations are
needed to use the convex solver. The simplest convex approximation is a linear approximation given
by, e.g. Taylor expansion [3].
To develop this tool for solid concrete structures, the chosen first step is creating a method to opti-
mise bar elements. When utilising bar elements to represent the stress distribution in reinforced concrete
structures, it is often called a strut and tie model.
2 Constitutive Model
To represent the behaviour of reinforced concrete, a numerical approximation is introduced, where
different behaviours are assumed in SLS and ULS. For both limit states, the stiffness of concrete in
tension and reinforcement in compression is omitted.
For ULS behaviour, an elastoplastic material behaviour is assumed, while for SLS, a purely elastic
material behaviour is assumed. These material models are illustrated in Fig. 1 (left) and Fig. 1 (right)
for ULS and SLS behaviour, respectively.

14 th
if b
Fig. 1 Stress-strain relationships for ULS load cases (left) and SLS load cases (right). Figures are
not to scale.
Here 𝐸𝑐 , 𝐸𝑠 , 𝐻𝑐 , 𝐻𝑠 , and 𝑓𝑐 , 𝑓𝑦 are the Young’s modulus, hardening stiffness and yield strength of the
reinforcement and concrete, respectively. The quantities 𝜀𝑚𝑖𝑛 and 𝜀𝑚𝑎𝑥 are the limits on the strains,
corresponding to the ultimate compressive strength of concrete and ultimate tensile strength of rein-
forcement, respectively, for ULS. For SLS, the limits 𝜀𝑚𝑖𝑛 and 𝜀𝑚𝑎𝑥 are taken as – 𝑓𝑐 /2𝐸𝑐 and 𝑓𝑦 /2𝐸𝑠 ,
respectively. This limit on stresses limits the compressive stress to the linear regime and is seen as a
limit on crack width. This is an approximation and is thus a simplified SLS criterion. In Table 1, the
material parameters used corresponding to the two limit states are presented.
Table 1 Material parameters for both SLS and ULS. Values correspond to those found in [4].
Variable Dimension SLS ULS
 min [%] -0.0515 -0.35
 max [%] 0.125 5
Ec [GPa] 34
Es [GPa] 210
Hc [MPa] 6.63
Hs [MPa] 410
fy [MPa] 500
fc [MPa] 35
3 Initial Values
An initial guess of the material layout is needed, along with the displacements for all load cases for the
given material layout. Due to the non-convexity of the problem, the initial guess has to be good, so as
to limit local solutions far from optimum. Furthermore, the displacements should be calculated based
on the nonlinear material behaviour presented in Fig. 1.
The initial material layout is determined with Finite Element Limit Analysis (FELA), utilising ma-
terial optimisation with a rigid-perfectly plastic behaviour. FELA is less restrictive than the elastic and
elastoplastic behaviour assumed in Fig. 1; thus, to ensure feasibility, the limits on the strains in FELA
are chosen as 95% of the values given in Table 1. Furthermore, a uniformly distributed material is added
to the structure, corresponding to 0.1 % of the largest area provided by FELA, to increase the stability
of the numerical solver, as areas close to zero results in numerically large displacements, which impacts
the feasibility of the optimiser.
For the initial material layout, the displacements of the structure are determined for all load cases
through the principle of minimum potential energy [5], which states that of all compatible displacement
b
fields, the one that minimises the potential energy is in stable equilibrium. The principle can be used
by formulating an optimisation problem, in which the potential energy of a structure is minimised sub-
jected to limits on the strains.
The potential energy can be determined by adding the potential energy due to internal and external
if
forces:
pot = E pot + E pot
E tot int ext
(1)
The potential energy for an element, due to the internal forces can be calculated by integrating the
potential energy density, 𝑃 ′ , over the domain Ω, which can be calculated as the area under the stress-
strain curve, given by four triangular contributions and two rectangular.
 e P ' de = 12 Ec Ac , e Le ( l−,e ) 2 + 12 H c Ac ,e Le ( h−,e ) 2 + Ac ,e Le f c h−, e
(2)
+ 12 Es As , e Le ( l+, e )2 + 12 H s As ,e Le ( h+,e )2 + As ,e Le f y h+, e
where 𝐴𝑐,𝑒 is the cross-sectional area of the concrete of element 𝑒, 𝐴𝑠,𝑒 is the reinforcements cross-
+ +
sectional area and 𝐿𝑒 is the length of the element. 𝜀𝑙,𝑒 and 𝜀ℎ,𝑒 are the linear elastic and hardening part
− −
of the positive part of the strain in an element and 𝜀𝑙,𝑒 and 𝜀ℎ,𝑒 are the negative, with the total strains
defined as
 e = Bve =  l ,e + +  h,e + −  l ,e − −  h,e − (3)
Here 𝐁 is the strain interpolation matrix, and 𝐯𝑒 is the local elementwise displacements vector. Further-
+ + − −
more, the definition of the strains is given such that 𝜀𝑙,𝑒 , 𝜀ℎ,𝑒 , 𝜀𝑙,𝑒 , 𝜀ℎ,𝑒 ≥ 0, and for SLS calculations
− +
𝜀ℎ,𝑒 = 𝜀ℎ,𝑒 = 0 . For the point in which potential energy is minimised, it is guaranteed that
+ + − −
(𝜀𝑙,𝑒 + 𝜀ℎ,𝑒 )(𝜀𝑙,𝑒 + 𝜀ℎ,𝑒 ) = 0, as if it was not, the potential energy would be higher for equilibrium to
occur. The internal potential energy can be written as a second-order equation given as:
1
 e =  P ' de = xe• Qe xe + ce• x e (4)
e 2
where
 Ec Ac , e Le 0 0 0    c,l , e   0 
 0 H c Ac ,e Le 0 0    c, h,e   A L f 
ce = 
c,e e c 
Qe =  , xe =  , (5)
 0 0 Es As ,e Le 0    s ,l , e   0 
     
 0 0 0 H s As , e Le   s , h, e   As ,e Le f y 
As 𝐐𝑒 is diagonal with positive entries, it is a positive definite matrix, which means that the second-
order equation in (4) is convex. The external potential energy is calculated based on the work done by
external forces through the displacements:
ext
E pot = −  Fi ui = − R • V (6)
where 𝑹 is the external force vector. This results in the Second Order Cone Program (SOCP) given
bellow:
nel
min.  (
e =1
e ) − R• V
s.t. H (E A ) = R (7)
Be v e =  +
l ,e + +
h,e − −
l ,e −  −
h,e e  {1, 2,..., nel }
1 •
xe Q e xe + ce • x e −  e  0 e  {1, 2,..., nel }
2
where 𝐇 is the equilibrium matrix, 𝐄 and 𝐀 are the generalised stiffness vector and area vector of the
element, and the symbol denotes elementwise multiplication.
14 th
Note that the inequality in the last constraint is necessary for the system to be convex. However,
the inequality becomes an equality for the solution at minimum potential energy. Furthermore, mini-
b
mum potential energy should ensure equilibrium; however, the equilibrium constraint is added to ex-
plicit guarantee equilibrium for better stability of the material optimisation algorithm.
4 Material Optimisation
if
For an optimal strut and tie model, minimal material usage for a given load is needed. This can be found
by solving a material optimisation problem, where the objective is to minimise the weighted sum of the
concrete and reinforcement volume. The problem is subjected to equilibrium constraints and limits on
the maximum allowable strains, corresponding to the curves represented in Fig. 1. With an initial ma-
terial layout of concrete and reinforcement, along with a displacement field in equilibrium, the equilib-
rium constraint can be formulated by stating that the change of design variables should not change the
nodal forces.
When introducing a change in concrete or reinforcement area, the displacements for the system in
equilibrium will change. Thus, a way of stating the change of nodal forces as a function of the displace-
ments and the concrete and reinforcement cross-sectional area is needed. The change of nodal forces
due to a change of displacements can be found through a tangential stiffness matrix. The tangential
stiffness matrix utilises the well-known stiffness matrix for bar elements.
 1 0 −1 0 
 
Et At  0 0 0 0 
kt = (8)
Le  −1 0 1 0 
 
 0 0 0 0
where 𝐸𝑡 is the tangential stiffness, whose value depends on the stress level (see Fig. 1). 𝐴𝑡 is the cor-
responding area defined as 𝐴𝑠,𝑒 when the bar is in tension and 𝐴𝑐,𝑒 when in compression. The change
of nodal forces due to a change of area can be determined based on the current nodal force jacobian
matrix. This optimisation problem is stated in (9):
nel
 L (A
As , e )
fy
min. e c,e + fc
e =1
(9)
Q Q
s.t. K t V + A c + A s = R − Q
 Ac  As
 min   e   max e {1, 2,..., nel }
Here 𝐐 is the nodal force vector. This is a linear approximation of a nonlinear problem; thus, the ap-
proximations are only valid for small changes in variables. Therefore, a Sequential Convex Program
method is utilised to solve the material optimisation, solving a series of approximations, including a
trust-region method.
The trust region works by limiting the range of the design variables to a region around the initial
point.
|| x ||  (10)
where 𝐱 holds the design variables, 𝜌 is the trust-region radius and || ⋅ || is a norm, chosen as the infin-
ity norm. A method for updating the trust-region is implemented as a variation of the methods suggested
by [6] and [7]. The trust region is increased by 1.1 for successful steps and reduced by 1/2 for rejected
steps, as suggested in [7]. A pseudo algorithm is presented in Fig. 2.

if b
Fig. 2 Pseudo algorithm for finding the optimised strut and tie model for reinforced concrete.
5 Results
The presented method is applied to different structures. At first, a simple example of a deep beam is
analysed, followed by a multi-storey shear wall subjected to multiple load cases and criteria in both
SLS and ULS.
5.1 Example 1
The first example is a deep beam subjected to a single point load in the quarter-point. The structure is
presented in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3 First example – deep beam.
The dimensions and the load for the given load case are presented in Table 3.
Table 3 Load case for example 1.

a b P Limit state
5m 10 m 200 kN ULS
The beam is discretised with a coarse mesh, as seen in Fig. 4 (left), where each node in the model is
connected to every other node. The optimised strut and tie model for the given mesh is presented in
Fig. 4 (right).
14th
if b
Fig. 4 Ground structure (left) and optimised structure (right) for the first example with a coarse
mesh. For the optimised structure, only elements with a capacity of more than 0.1% of the
maximum capacity are shown.
This coarse mesh results in a simple strut and tie model, which can be verified by hand. It should be
noted that only bars with a capacity of more than 0.1 % of the largest bar are plotted in the figure.
Furthermore, overlapping bars can exist in the model, which can explain the change in thickness of the
reinforcement at the bottom of the figure. This is thus not a final strut and tie model, however, this
should be seen as a tool for the initial design of the strut and tie model. Investigations into the geomet-
rical possibilities of the strut and ties and the nodes are not discussed further in this paper.
An additional load is placed on the same structure at the three-quarter point. Furthermore, a finer
mesh is utilised. The two load cases are presented in Table 3.
Table 3 Load cases for example 1 with two loads.

Load Case L1 L2 Limit state
1 200 kN 0 ULS
2 0 200 kN ULS
The ground structure is presented in Fig. 5 (left), while the optimised structure is seen in Fig. 5 (right).
Fig. 5 Ground structure (left) and optimised structure (right) for the first example with a fine mesh
and two load cases. For the optimised structure, only elements with a capacity of more than
0.1% of the maximum capacity are shown.
From the optimised structure, it can be seen that when subjected to two load cases, some bars are being
used as struts for one load case and ties for another, resulting in a model where bars have both rein-
forcement and concrete areas, in the figure denoted “Mix”. Furthermore, the optimised structure is more
complex than the one seen when only one load case has to be carried. This more complex model would
be rather difficult to utilise, as the model needs bending of the reinforcement, which can be expensive.
Thus, as stated earlier, this model should be a starting point for a more practical model.
b
5.2 Example 2
The second example is a multi-storey shear wall, as seen in Fig. 6 (left), subject to four different load
cases presented in Table 4.
if
Table 4 Load cases for example 2.
Load Case q1 q2 p Limit state
1 20 kN/m 0 30 kN/m ULS

2 0 20 kN/m 30 kN/m ULS
3 13.3 kN/m 0 30 kN/m SLS
4 0 13.3 kN/m 30 kN/m SLS
The shear wall consists of five storeys, each with a width and height of 5 m, along with an opening with
a width of 1 m and a height of 3 m.
Fig. 6 Second example of multi-storey shear wall. Loads and structure (left), mesh (middle) and
optimised distribution (right). For the optimised structure, only elements with a capacity of
more than 0.1% of the maximum capacity are shown.
The optimised model given in Fig. 6 (right) is a rather complex strut and tie model, which a designer
would not be able to find by hand calculation. From the figure, it can be seen that an almost perfectly
symmetrical solution is found for symmetrical loading, which is expected. Local minima can explain
the minor inconsistencies. The model primarily carries the load through large bars at the structure’s
14 th
left- and rightmost parts, along with cross stiffeners above the door openings. This model would prob-
ably be too complex to be built. However, it indicates the overall stress distribution of the structure,
b
giving insight to the designer.
6 Discussion
if
The proposed method generally produces optimised strut and tie models for even very complex struc-
tures. As the problem is non-convex, this method would not always lead to a global minimum and may
be highly dependent on the initial starting point. It is thus suggested to find an initial guess that is as
close to the optimal solution as possible. Overall optimised strut and tie models were found for these
combined SLS and ULS criteria and show the possibility of including both limit states in a single opti-
misation algorithm. The material model and limit criteria are simplified, and the method is thus not yet
applicable as an accurate design tool. However, this is only an initial step towards a fully developed
method that includes all SLS and ULS criteria.
The strut and tie models found through this method become complex as the number of elements
increases and often produce Michell-like structures. Thus post-processing is needed, where simpler
models are constructed based upon these optimised models. Furthermore, the nodes of strut and tie
models should be further investigated to ensure geometrically possible strut and tie models.
In general, the method converges. However, to ensure the feasibility of the linearised model, small
steps were needed, which in turn resulted in slow convergence. As nodes with only bars connected to
them with small cross-sectional areas can result in large displacements, this could affect the stability of
the solver and explain the need for small step sizes. This problem could be solved by introducing a
minimum cross-sectional area of all bars, corresponding to the actual minimum thickness of the struc-
ture and minimum degree of reinforcement. However, the minimum cross-sectional area must be cho-
sen carefully to represent reality effectively. Another way to mitigate this behaviour would be to expand
the method to membrane elements, resulting in more precise modelling of reality, where the minimum
thickness and reinforcement degree are easily converted from reality to model.
7 Conclusion
This paper suggests a Sequential Convex Program to solve material optimisation with a nonlinear ma-
terial model. A linearised model is solved in each iteration, where the equilibrium constraint is formu-
lated through a tangential stiffness matrix.
The suggested method solved both small and large scale structures subjected to both SLS and ULS
requirements. For the small scale problems, simple and verifiable structures were achieved. More com-
plex structures were found for large-scale problems, which can be used as an initial point for a designer.
For the large scale structures, some numerical issues were observed, which were deemed due to large
displacements of nodes, in which all elements connected were very small with regards to cross-sectional
area. Suggestions for alleviating these problems were presented.
References
[1] Andersen, Mads E. M., Peter N. Poulsen and John F. Olesen. 2022. “Partially mixed lower
bound constant stress tetrahedral element for Finite Element Limit Analysis“, Computers &
Structures 258:106672. Accessed April 19, 2022. Doi:10.1016/j.compstruc.2021.106672
[2] Xia, Yi, Matthijs Langelaar and Max Hendriks. 2020.” A critical evaluation of topology opti-
misation results for strut‐and‐tie modeling of reinforced concrete”, Computer-Aided Civil and
Infrastructure Engineering 35. DOI: 10.1111/mice.12537
[3] Boyd, Stephen and Lieven Vandenberghe. 2004. Convex Optimisation. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. Doi:10.1017/CBO9780511804441
[4] European Committee for Standardization. 2005. EN 1992-1-1 Eurocode 2: Design of concrete
structures - Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings. CEN
[5] Vestergaard, Daniel, Kasper P. Larsen, Linh C. Hoang, Peter N. Poulsen and Bent Feddersen.
2021. “Design-oriented elasto-plastic analysis of reinforced concrete structures with in-plane
forces applying convex optimisation “, Structural Concrete 22. DOI: 10.1002/suco.202100302
[6] Nocedal, Jorge, and Stephen J. Wright. 2006. Numerical Optimisation, Springer
[7] Duchi, John. 2018. Sequential Convex Programming. Stanford University. https://web.stan-
ford.edu/class/ee364b/lectures/seq_notes.pdf
Effect of load path bifurcation on the behavior of
b
reinforced concrete beams
Péter Pál Ther and István Sajtos
if
Department of Mechanics, Materials and Structures,
Budapest University of Technology and Economics,
Műegyetem rkp. 3., Budapest 1111, Hungary
Abstract
Practical experience shows that the final failure mode of RC beams is asymmetric even in a symmetric
experimental setup. This is due to the strain-softening behavior of concrete, which leads to the bifurca-
tion of the symmetrical load path.
The paper aims to analyze the effect of the failure mode of RC beams without shear reinforcement on
the load-bearing capacity and deformational ability (i.e. displacement and rotation). We used ATENA,
a nonlinear finite element software to examine the effect of beam size, reinforcement ratio, and fracture
energy on the failure mode, load-bearing capacity, and deformational ability of RC beams.
The paper also compares experimental and numerical results and explains how the numerical model-
ling technique may lead to incorrect results.
1 Introduction
It is a general custom and even material testing standards recommend that experimental specimens of
reinforced concrete (RC) beams be symmetric and loaded symmetrically in laboratory experiments.
Typically, three-point or four-point bending beams are used for experiments. The nonsymmetric failure
mode of these RC beams is a general experience. However, this is not emphasized and not thought to
be necessary to consider when the results are analyzed.
The RC beam is symmetric, i.e., axially symmetric if its stiffness (reinforcement and cross-section),
supports and loading arrangement are axially symmetric. The failure mode of the beam is symmetric,
i.e., axially symmetric if the deflection of the beam and the final crack pattern, in geometry and crack
opening, are axially symmetric. The failure mode of the beam is nonsymmetric if the deflection of the
beam and the final crack pattern, in geometry and/or crack opening, are not axially symmetric. How-
ever, the beam and loading are axially symmetric. This kind of failure mode changing may be under-
stood as load path bifurcation. However, the bifurcation here is not due to geometrical nonlinearity but
to cracking and concrete damage, i.e., energy dissipation due to material damage. Therefore, the possi-
bility of bifurcation and the equilibrium state of the load path cannot be analyzed as the elastic buckling
structures.
Since they are important from a practical point of view, there are many experimental results of RC
beams without shear reinforcement in the literature. The shear problems of RC beams are actively re-
searched even today [7], [8], [11]. Many parameters influence the load-bearing capacity, deformational
ability, and even the failure mode of these beams. We believe that the most important finding of the
past decade is that bending and shear resistance are not independent [8], [11]. Finding the phenomena
and parameters that have the most pronounced effect on the RC beam behavior is not straightforward
due to the variable interaction between different parameters [8]. The paper concentrates on the failure
mode as a final observable state which is the consequence of all possible effects for concrete and rein-
forced concrete.
As a next step, the crack pattern of failed beams is examined. In most cases, the crack pattern is
nonsymmetric for three or four-point bending specimens, i.e., the crack pattern itself or the crack open-
ing is nonsymmetric. However, the used loading system is axially symmetric. These are characteristics
of past and recent experiments and are easy to find in papers with photos of failed beams [5], [6], [9].
Some articles also give a detailed description of the failure modes indicating whether it was symmetric
or nonsymmetric [4]. Reference [3] reported experiments on rock beams where the possibility of load
path bifurcation was found. Only one of the load paths was detected in a simple, natural way. However,
a unique testing setup was used to measure the other load path.
14 th This document may not be copied or distributed without prior permission from fib.
This observable, load path bifurcation phenomenon has a theoretical basis for strain-softening ma-
terial and structural behavior for concrete, reinforced concrete, and rock structures. Reference [2] ex-
b
amined a simple statically indeterminate four-point bending beam with softening plastic hinges. The
article suggests that there is a possibility of load path bifurcation, that is, the initial symmetric deflection
changes to nonsymmetric, which leads to failure. However, the symmetric load path would allow the
load to increase. It is important to remark that according to [2], the possibility of load path bifurcation
if
and the failing load path depend on the stiffness of the plastic hinge softening part.
Reference [3] conducted three and four-point bending experiments on granite beams. The authors
found evidence of load path bifurcation for four-point bending beams, measuring both the symmetric
and nonsymmetric load paths. The symmetric load path was measured on a specially prepared specimen
with enforced axially symmetric deformation. The three-point bending specimen did not show load
path bifurcation as the failure mode is always symmetric in the case of brittle rock material, i.e., failure
is due to bending and the crack always develops at the axis of symmetry. It was also experimentally
and theoretically shown that the post-peak beam behavior is significantly influenced by the beam ge-
ometry, changing the stable behavior to unstable by the geometry for the displacement-controlled case.
Reference [1] examined the same problem based on thermodynamic theorems, which must be used
for inelastic structures to examine their equilibrium state. The authors also proved the possibility of
load path bifurcation and the changing of symmetric to nonsymmetric failure modes.
Our research aims to numerically examine the load path bifurcation phenomenon for RC beams
without shear reinforcement. In this context, the shear failure of the beam may be understood as load
path bifurcation. Perhaps this view gives a deeper understanding on the bending-shear interaction of
RC beams.
The paper shows numerical results supporting the existence of the bifurcation, comparing them to
experimental findings. We analyze the effect of beam size, longitudinal reinforcement ratio, and con-
crete fracture energy on the load-bearing capacity and the failure mode of RC beams without shear
reinforcement, considering the possibility of load path bifurcation. We also explain how the numerical
modeling technique may provide incorrect results enforcing symmetrical deformation, although a non-
symmetrical one corresponds to the real, experimentally observable case.
2 Bifurcation of the load path

Load path bifurcation of elastic structures due to geometric nonlinearity, i.e., buckling, is a well-known
and profoundly studied phenomenon. The above-described load path bifurcation of RC beams is due to
cracking and concrete damage without geometrical nonlinearity. Therefore, the reason for the RC beam
bifurcation is the energy dissipation during the loading due to material nonlinearity.
It is hard to measure or see this bifurcation in experiments, for only one load path is observable,
which can physically occur. However, the deformation at failure shows that something interesting hap-
pens if the symmetric structure fails in nonsymmetric way.
Theoretically, it is not easy to analyze the problem because it does not have a potential function
like the elastic buckling problems [1], [2]. The equilibrium state of the load path point, or the load path
bifurcation point, can be examined based on the theory of thermodynamics [1].
2.1 Stability of load path at the bifurcation

From a thermodynamics point of view, our RC beam with the loading apparatus is an isothermal system
(temperature 𝑇 = const.) for a specific loading state when the loading process is slow. According to
([1], p.676) theorem: “For inelastic (irreversible) structures, there can be two or infinitely many bifur-
cation branches that consist of stable states and have directions that are infinitely close to each other.”
Only one of these is observable in an experiment.
The stable load path occurs in an experiment for a single variable load, under displacement control
1
−(Δ𝑆)𝑖𝑛 = 𝛿 2 𝒲 𝛼 = 𝛿𝐹 𝛼 ∙ 𝛿𝑒 = min (1)
2 𝛼
where (Δ𝑆)𝑖𝑛 is the internal entropy change, which is equal to the second-order work 𝛿 2 𝒲 𝛼 , and
𝛿𝐹 𝛼 is the load change at a specific loading state due to a change of displacement 𝛿𝑒.

This document may not be copiedEffect
or distributed without prior permission from fib.
of load path bifurcation on the behavior of reinforced concrete beams
The stable load path occurs in an experiment for a single variable load, under load control
1
b
(Δ𝑆)𝑖𝑛 = 𝛿 2 𝒲 ∗ 𝛼 = 𝛿𝐹 ∙ 𝛿𝑒 𝛼 = max (2)
2 𝛼
where (Δ𝑆)𝑖𝑛 is the internal entropy change, which is equal to the second-order complementary
work 𝛿 2 𝒲 ∗ 𝛼 , and 𝛿𝑒 𝛼 is the change of displacement at a specific loading state due to a change of load
𝛿𝐹. The different possibilities of bifurcation can be seen in Fig. 1, considering the options of the sym-
if
metric and nonsymmetric load paths. The load path occurs for which condition (1) or (2) is satisfied.
Fig. 1 Different possibilities of bifurcation, and condition (1) or (2); (s – symmetric /red/ load
path; n – nonsymmetric /blue/ load path)
2.2 How to follow the load paths numerically?

We used the materially nonlinear finite element method, ATENA software [12], to analyze the RC
beams from a different point of view. The developed model defines, together with the actual behavior
of the beam, which load path is the result of the calculation. One model lets the beam move freely either
in symmetric or in the nonsymmetric state, see Fig. 2 (middle), using a statically determinate loading
bridge beam. Whichever state can occur, that is the stable load path. The other model enforces a defor-
mation state, i.e., symmetric deformation, making equal deflection for the loading points, Fig. 2 (left),
then the symmetric load path corresponding to the enforced state is the result. These two models were
used to detect both equilibrium paths. It is a remark that stable load path parts are followed only from
the displacement control point of view. This is why the unstable snap-back part will not be shown in
the figures.
Fig. 2 Symmetric enforced (left) and freely deformed (middle) loading of the beam and its cross-
section (right), (e – prescribed displacement; F, F1, F2 – forces developed for e; φ – loading
bridge rotation developed for e).
3 Examination of RC beams
The failure of RC beams without shear reinforcement is either due to bending moment or shear force;
otherwise, their combination causes the failure. Bending failure occurs when the critical crack is nearly
vertical, while the critical crack is inclined in the case of shear failure. This nomenclature is used in the
paper, although we know that there are more detailed classification possibilities. However, we differ-
entiate failure modes considering the symmetry of the failure. Failure modes include symmetric and
nonsymmetric failure, as well as bending and shear failure, see Fig. 3.
We performed numerical experiments using ATENA, a nonlinear finite element software [12] to
examine the effect of the beam size, reinforcement ratio, and concrete fracture energy. The results were
partly compared to experimental ones found in the literature [4], [9]; otherwise, they were only numer-
ical experiments. In the case of experiments, the only unknown parameter was the concrete fracture
energy (𝐺𝐹 ). It was estimated according to the RILEM recommendation [10], which considers the effect
of aggregate size on the fracture energy with the help of maximum aggregate size (𝑑𝑔,𝑚𝑎𝑥 ). In each
case, we determined not only the load-deflection diagram of the RC beam but also the type of failure
mode, considering the possibility of load path bifurcation.
14th This document may not be copied or distributed without prior permission from fib.
b
Fig. 3 Type of failure modes from left to right: symmetric bending failure (M-s), nonsymmetric
bending failure (M-n), symmetric shear failure (V-s), and nonsymmetric shear failure
if
(V-n).
3.1 The effect of size

We analyzed the effect of size on the beam behavior using shear-slenderness, i.e., shear span to depth
ratio, [6], [8] as a geometrical parameter. Shear-slenderness also considers the type of loading through
the shear span, 𝑎 = 𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 ⁄𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 .
The numerical experiments were executed on the four-point bending experimental specimens of
[4]. The beams have constant effective span, leff = 1800 mm, rectangular cross-sections with
b = 120 mm width, h = 250 mm height, and d = 220 mm effective depth. The shear-slenderness for the
tests was variable; see Table 1. The geometry and the numerical experiment setup are shown in Fig. 2.
The material parameters of the beams, together with the maximum aggregate size, are in Table 2.
Table 1 Shear span (a) and shear-slenderness (a/d) parameters of the S2 – S5 RC beams of [4]
Specimen S2 S3 S4 S5
a [mm] 750 600 550 500
a/d 3,4 2,7 2,3 2,5
Table 2 Material parameters of the S2 – S5 RC beams of [4]

Concrete Steel
fcm [MPa] ftm [MPa] Ec [GPa] dg, max [mm] GF [N/m] fy [MPa] Es [GPa]  [%]
32,7 3,34 37,7 16 68,9 453 210 1,69
According to [4], the failure of the beams (S2, S3, S5) were nonsymmetric shear failures (V-n), see
Fig. 3 right, except for the one (S4) with 𝑎⁄𝑑 = 2.3, which had symmetric shear failure (V-s), see
Fig. 3 middle right.
According to the numerical results, the beam failure modes for enforced symmetric deformations
were symmetric (V-s) and the freely deformed beam model showed a nonsymmetric failure mode
(V-n).
Both the numerical and the experimental results are shown on the left of Fig. 4.; where the loading
force is the load-bearing capacity of the beam, 𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑡 , and the shear force is the ultimate shear force
(𝑉𝑢𝑙𝑡 = 𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑡 ⁄2). It is clear that the nonsymmetric experimental results are very close to the nonsym-
metric numerical results.
It is notable that the expected increment of the ultimate shear force between 2.5 (S5) and 2.3 (S4)
a/d, according to [6], is smaller than shown in the experimental results. The numerical results rather
agree with [6]. The question is: what explains this difference? Keeping all the measured material pa-
rameters [4] except one, the fracture energy, which was estimated, may change the numerical results.
Fracture energy is sensitive to an unintentional change, e.g., curing and compaction conditions.
Since all the material parameters are known except one, the only way to change the numerical result
is to change the fracture energy of the concrete. A pair of simulations have been made with a 220%
increased GF value (170 N/m). The results of the two numerical models can be seen in Fig. 4 (left),
under the experimental result with dashed outline shapes (a triangle: V-n; and a circle: V-s). The incre-
ment of the fracture energy increased the ultimate shear force. The numerical results are closer to the
experimental ones. However, it is interesting to observe that the load-bearing capacity for symmetric
and nonsymmetric failure modes are nearly the same, numerically predicting the possibility of the ex-
perimentally found symmetric failure mode.

The trends of the experimental and numerical curves are the same, whereas the failure modes and
the resistance values of the beams are highly similar. All these mean that the effect of shear-slenderness
b
(i.e. the size of the beam) can be investigated with numerical experiments. But the choice of the suitable
calculation model and loading method is essential (enforced symmetric or free deformations) because
the difference between the results of the two models can be considerable in some specific cases. This
difference in load-bearing capacity and failure mode is also affected by the change of fracture energy,
if
as Fig. 4 (left) shows.
Fig. 4 Effect of shear-slenderness (left) and fracture energy (right) on the load-bearing capacity.
3.2 The effect of fracture energy

We analyzed the effect of fracture energy (𝐺𝐹 ) and maximum aggregate size (𝑑𝑔,𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) on beam behav-
ior, comparing the numerical results to experiments [9]. It is important to analyze the effect of aggregate
size because it influences the fracture energy. If different maximum aggregate sizes make the same
concrete grade, the fracture energy is different, leading to different failure loads and failure modes.
The numerical test was for a three-point bending experiment [9] with the constant effective span,
leff = 1000 mm, where the beams had a rectangular cross-section with b = 100 mm width, h = 141 mm
height, and d = 126 mm effective depth. The shear-slenderness of the beams is a/d = 4.0. The material
parameters of the experiment [9] can be found in Table 3.
While in the case of four-point bending tests, we can easily make the enforced deformation sym-
metric, for the three-point bending tests, we used only the free deformation model, which resulted in
mostly nonsymmetric failure mode; however, the symmetric failure mode also occurred.
Table 3 Material parameters for beams of [9]

Concrete Steel
fcm [MPa] ftm [MPa] Ec [GPa] dg, max [mm] GF [N/m] fy [MPa] Es [GPa]  [%]
16,5 1,25 25,4 8 35,5
0,71
22,1 1,75 28,0 16 52,5 607,1 203 or
1,07
21,9 1,74 27,9 32 100,5
The experiment [9] had two variables: reinforcement ratio (𝜌) and maximum aggregate size (𝑑𝑔,𝑚𝑎𝑥 ,
which influences the fracture energy). The other parameters of the beams were mostly the same, and
all of them were in nearly the same concrete class. The fracture energy was calculated with the RILEM
recommendation [10].
The combination of the variables results in six kinds of beams. Three beams were tested from each
type in the experimental program. According to the numerical calculation, the two beams with
𝑑𝑔,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 16 and 32 mm maximum aggregate size and 𝜌 = 0,71% reinforcement ratio have symmetric
bending, M-s failure (Fig. 3), while the other four beams show nonsymmetric shear, V-n failure. In the
14th This document may not be copied or distributed without prior permission from fib.
experiments, all the beams had nonsymmetric shear, V-n failure, except for the beam with
𝑑𝑔,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 16 mm and 𝜌 = 0.71%. It had symmetric bending, M-s failure.
b
These results can be seen in Fig. 4 (right), where the force means the ultimate loading force, Fult.
The match of the numerical and test results is reasonably good considering the failure modes and the
tendencies of the numerical and experimental results. The numerical results can be improved by better
fracture energy estimation.
if
The three notable conclusions according to both the experimental and numerical results are: i) the
fracture energy has a large influence on the load-bearing capacity of the beam in case of shear failure;
ii) the fracture energy has smaller influence in case of bending failure, but that depends on the specimen
sizes and other material parameters as well. That means the influence of fracture energy is variable; iii)
the same concrete grade with different maximum aggregate size may result in different failure modes
and load-bearing capacity by the fracture energy change.
3.3 The effect of reinforcement ratio (parameter study)

A parameter study was performed on a four-point bending beam with the constant effective span,
leff = 2400 mm, where the beams had a rectangular cross-section with b = 120 mm width, h = 200 mm
height, and d = 150 mm effective depth. The shear span was a = 800 mm, which gives an a/d = 5.3
shear-slenderness.
The material parameters of the parameter study are in Table 4. The variable of the parameter study
was the reinforcement ratio, which changed between 𝜌 = 0,94 % and 𝜌 = 2,12 %.
Table 4 Material parameters of the parameter study

Concrete Steel
fcm [MPa] ftm [Mpa] Ec [Gpa] dg, max [mm] GF [N/m] fy [Mpa] Es [Gpa]  [%]
30,0 2,0 32,0 8 50,4 453 210 variable
Fig. 5 Effect of reinforcement ratio on load-bearing capacity (left) and an enlarged part (right).
The numerical results can be seen in Fig. 5, which shows how the reinforcement ratio changes the load-
bearing capacity and the failure mode. On the left, all results are depicted, while on the right, a smaller
part is enlarged where the results are more complex. A dash dotted line separates the shear and the
bending failure cases, Fig. 5 (right). The bending failure results are almost along a straight line and the
shear failure results too. However, in the vicinity of the intersection of these two lines (dashed circle),
the numerical results are very sensitive. It requires further research to investigate the reasons of this
sensitivity. In this area, the freely deformed loading can have higher resistance, while outside of this
region, the freely deformed loading shows lower resistance. Interestingly, the enforced symmetric and
free deformation loading pair in almost every case gives the same failure mode. Sometimes the failure
modes are different, e.g., the 𝜌 = 1,62%, where the failure of the freely deformed loading is M-s and
the symmetric deformed loading is V-n.

In most cases, the enforced symmetric deformation results in symmetric failure and the free defor-
mation loading results in nonsymmetric failure. But for other cases, the free deformation loading can
b
result in symmetric failure. However, the enforced symmetric deformation may lead to nonsymmetric
failure in some cases.
The other important parameter the load path bifurcation influences, is the deformational ability of
the RC beam. Fig. 6 (left column) shows that the two calculation models result in the same resistance;
if
however, the deformation ability is smaller in the case of nonsymmetric failure. For another case, in
Fig. 6 (right column), both the load-bearing capacity and the deformational ability are smaller in the
case of nonsymmetric failure.
Fig. 6 Bifurcation of four-point bending beams, ρ = 1,28% (left column), ρ = 1,63% (right column)
reinforcement ratio. (F, e and φ are found in Fig. 2)

14 th This document may not be copied or distributed without prior permission from fib.
4 Discussion and conclusions
b
Based on the presented results, it can be concluded that the shear-slenderness, the fracture energy, and
the reinforcement ratio have a considerable effect on the resistance of an RC beam without shear rein-
forcement. The other material and geometrical parameters also influence the effect of these parameters.
The comparison of the symmetric and nonsymmetric failure mode shows that the loading setup can
affect the numerical test results, namely the failure mode, the resistance, and deformation ability of the
if
RC beams.
Further research is needed on the area where the shear failure is changing to bending failure because
of the numerical sensitivity. Another future direction of the study can be examining the effect of the
bond slip between the concrete and the reinforcement.
The effect of fracture energy has been presented in a case study. The results pointed out that the
same concrete grade with different maximum aggregate sizes may result in different failure modes and
load-bearing capacities by the fracture energy change.
It has been shown that four-point bending tests indicate nonsymmetric failure in most cases. There-
fore, it is highly advisable not to use the symmetry of these structures during the numerical validation
processes to avoid the non-occurring parts of the load paths. As the load path bifurcation can have a
considerable effect on the failure mode and the deformation ability of a beam, it is recommended to use
free deformation loading setups not just for laboratory experiments but numerical tests as well.
Acknowledgement
The research was supported by the National Research, Development, and Innovation Fund of Hungary
under Grant TKP2021-NVA-02. It is highly appreciated and acknowledged.
References
[1] Bazant, Z.P. and Cedolin, L. 1991. Stability of structures. Elastic, inelastic, fracture and dam-
age theories. New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
[2] Maier, G. and Zavelani, A. and Dotrepe, J.C. 1973. “Equilibrium branching due to flexural
softening.” Journal of the Engineering Mechanics Division 99:897–901.
[3] Biolzi, L. and Labuz, J.F. 1993. “Global instability and bifurcation in beams composed of rock-
like material” International Journal of Solids and Structures 30:359–370.

[4] Słowik, M. and Nowicki, T. 2012. “The analysis of diagonal crack propagation in concrete
beams” Computational Material Science 52:261–267.
[5] Leonhardt, F. and Walther, R. 1964. The Stuttgart shear tests, 1961. Contribution to the treat-
ment of the problems of shear in reinforced concrete construction. London: Cement and Con-
crete Association.
[6] Kani, G.N.J. 1964. “The riddle of shear failure and its solution.” Journal of the American Con-
crete Institute 61:441–467.
[7] Bentz, E.C., Vecchio, F.J. and Collins M.P. 2006. “Simplified modified compression field the-
ory for calculating shear strength of reinforced concrete elements.” ACI Struct Journal
103:614–624.
[8] Fernández Ruiz, M. and Mutoni, A. and Sagastea, J. 2015. “Shear strength of concrete members
without transverse reinforcement: A mechanical approach to consistently account for size and
strain effects.” Engineering Structures 99:360–372.
[9] Vajk, R. and Sajtos, I. 2015. “The effect of aggregate size on the behaviour of beams without
shear reinforcement” Concrete Structures 16:24–30.
[10] Karihaloo, B.L. 1995. Fracture mechanics and structural concrete. Harlow: Longman
[11] ed. Beverly, P. 2013. fib Model code for concrete structures 2010. Berlin: Ernst & Sohn
[12] Cervenka, V. and Jendele, L. and Cervenka, J. 2020. ATENA Program Documentation. Prague:
Červenka Consulting s.r.o.

Asymmetrical loading of reinforced concrete deep
b
beams monitored with full field-of-view digital image
correlation
if
Dhanushka K. Palipana and Giorgio T. Proestos
Department of Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering,
North Carolina State University,
915 Partners Way, Raleigh (27695-7908), NC, USA
Abstract
Reinforced concrete deep beams are common structural elements found in buildings and bridges. They
are often shear critical and subjected to asymmetrical loading conditions. This paper presents experi-
mental results from three large-scale, deep beam tests subjected to asymmetric loading, monitored using
full field-of-view Digital Image Correlation (DIC) throughout loading. The paper also presents an anal-
ysis of the member behaviour and crack behaviour. The results show that the failure shear span of
asymmetrically loaded deep beams is influenced by both the shear span-to-depth ratio and the loading
configuration. It was observed that having larger crack widths does not necessarily mean the member
will fail on that shear crack or shear span.
1 Introduction
Reinforced concrete deep beams, such as transfer girders and hammerhead piers, are common structural
elements found in buildings and bridges. These structural members are often shear critical and subjected
to asymmetric loading conditions as a result of architectural requirements, geometrical constraints or
lateral loads that may act on structures (see Fig. 1). While asymmetrical loading conditions are common
in practice, there are limited large-scale experiments that explore these effects in the literature [1], [2].
Fig. 1 Asymmetrically loaded hammerhead pier and transfer girders.
This paper presents recent experimental results from three large-scale, shear-critical deep beam tests
subjected to asymmetric, monotonic loading. The experiments explore the influence of loading config-
uration and shear span-to-depth ratio on member response. The loading configurations examined in-
clude: an offset load applied to a loading plate that is symmetrically placed in the centre of a beam and
a load applied at the centre of the loading plate that is offset from the centre of the beam. The shear-
span-to-depth ratios explored range from 1.8 to 2.5. The deformations of the members were monitored
using full field-of-view Digital Image Correlation (DIC) equipment throughout loading [3]. The paper
presents an analysis of the member behaviour and crack behaviour using the detailed DIC data. The
crack patterns observed are compared with the crack patterns generated using the Automated Crack
Detection and Measurement (ACDM) tool [4]. The crack widths obtained using the ACDM tool are
used to investigate the variation of crack widths of the critical crack at mid-height of the beam through-
out loading.
14 th
b
This paper presents three asymmetrically loaded large-scale reinforced concrete deep beam experi-
ments, CCR4-CCR6, monitored with full field of view, three-dimensional DIC equipment. The exper-
iments were conducted at North Carolina State University as a part of a larger research program ex-
ploring the response of deep beams. The beams were simply supported and measured 4877×1105×305
mm. The effective depth of the specimens was 909 mm. The specimens contained nine #9 bars as bot-
if
tom longitudinal reinforcement and two #9 bars as top longitudinal reinforcement. The transverse rein-
forcement, #3 stirrups, were spaced at 330 mm, giving a transverse reinforcement ratio of 0.141%. The
#9 bars had a measured yield stress of 601 MPa and the #3 bars had a measured yield stress of 494
MPa. For CCR4 and CCR6, the loading was applied 203 mm and 127 mm offset from the centres of
loading plates that were symmetrically arranged on the beam, respectively (see Fig. 2a). In CCR5, the
loading plate was offset 318 mm from the centre of the beam and the load was centred on the plate (see
Fig. 2b).
Fig. 2 a) Geometrical and reinforcement details of CCR4 and CCR6. b) Geometrical and rein-
forcement details of CCR5 [dimensions in mm].
On the west face of the specimens, the full deformation field of the specimens throughout loading was
captured using three-dimensional DIC (see Fig. 3). A speckle pattern with a speckle size of approxi-
mately 2.5 mm was applied on the specimens and was monitored using three stereo systems to ensure
sufficient resolution of the displacement data. Subset size, step size and filter size used to post-process
DIC data were 17-29, 2-7 and 7-15 respectively. These parameters gave approximately half a million
virtual strain gauges on the specimen surface. The DIC analysis software combines the displacement
fields and strain fields of the three systems using a built-in multi-view registration algorithm.
Fig. 3 Collecting deformation data using DIC equipment on the west face of a typical specimen.
A monotonically increasing load was applied to the specimens until failure was reached. With initial
loading, flexural cracks occurred on the flexural tension side of the beam beneath the applied load. As
the load increased, the flexural cracks widened, and shear cracks formed in the region between the
support plate and the loading plate. As the applied load increased, shear cracks extended and widened.
Ultimately all three specimens failed in shear. During the testing, load stages were conducted at which
point the loading was halted and decreased by approximately 10% for safety, the specimen was ap-
proached, cracks were marked on the east face of the specimen, crack widths were measured using
crack comparator gauges and high-resolution photos were taken.

ThisAsymmetrical
documentloading
may not be copied or distributed without prior permission from fib.
of reinforced concrete deep beams monitored with full field-of-view digital image correlation
The concrete strengths (fc’), shear span-to-depth ratios on the north (a1/d) and the south (a2/d) shear
spans, loading plate sizes (lb1), peak applied loads, failure shear span and shear in the failure shear span
b
are given in Table 1.
Table 1 Summary of test specimen properties and peak loads.
if
Specimen fc’ a1/d a2/d lb1 Failure Peak applied Peak shear
(MPa) (North) (South) (mm) shear span load (kN) in failure
span (kN)
CCR4 37.8 1.80 2.25 914 North 2333 1296
CCR5 41.5 1.80 2.50 610 South 1765 739
CCR6 39.3 2.11 2.39 914 North 1816 964
3 Experimental results
This section presents the experimental load versus displacement data and principal strains obtained
using DIC. The crack patterns and crack widths on the west face of the specimens obtained using DIC
data and the Automated Crack Detection and Measurement (ACDM) tool are presented. These crack
patterns are compared with the crack patterns observed on the east face of the specimen. The crack
widths obtained using the ACDM tool are used to investigate the change in crack widths throughout
loading.
3.1 Load versus displacement response

Figure 4 shows the load-deformation response of the members tested. The displacements are measured
at the flexural tension side of the beam beneath the loading point. CCR4 had a stiffer response than
CCR5 and CCR6, which had a similar load versus displacement response. It should be noted that alt-
hough CCR5 and CCR6 had a similar load versus displacement response, they had different shear span-
to-depth (a/d) and lb1 values. All three specimens had approximately the same displacement at the peak
load, about 10 mm. The results indicate that members with different a/d ratios and lb1 sizes, along with
the specific loading configuration and crack geometry can result in different members exhibiting similar
load-deformation responses [5]-[7]. This observation is important to demonstrate that these different
factors aught be considered when examining the response or conducting assessments of deep beams.
Some of these phenomena and a discussion of the load carrying mechanisms will be discussed in further
detail in section 3.3. Furthermore, for CCR4 and CCR6, which had loading asymmetrically applied on
the symmetrically arranged loading plate, the shorter shear span was the critical shear span that failed.
However, in CCR5, where the load was symmetrically applied on the asymmetrically arranged loading
plate, the longer shear span failed (see Table 1).
Fig. 4 Load versus displacement measured on the flexural tension side of the beam beneath the
loading point for CCR4-CCR6.
14th
The member strength increased for decreasing shear span-to-depth ratios in the failure spans. That is,
the total applied load reached by CCR5, CCR6 and CCR4 before failure was 1765 kN, 1816 kN and
b
2333 kN, respectively. These members had shear-span-to-depth ratios in the failure spans of 2.50, 2.11
and 1.80, respectively. This indicates that the strength of the specimens increases with decreasing shear
span-to-depth ratio in the failure span. This trend is observed even though the concrete strengths, coin-
cidentally, decrease slightly for the specimens with decreasing shear-span-to-depth ratios. The experi-
if
mental results also show that the lowest peak load is associated with the specimen that has the small
loading plate size. As has been identified by others in the literature, this suggests that the response of
deep members is influenced by the effective loading plate size [2].
3.2 Principal tensile and compressive strain data

Figure 5 shows the principal tensile strains (left) and principal compressive strains (right) obtained for
CCR4-CCR6. The high strain regions in the principal tensile strain plots indicate the location and shape
of the cracks. When the load is applied asymmetrically, the crack patterns also become asymmetrical
and more closely align with the centroid of the applied load location. Figure 5 also shows diagrams of
the principal compressive strains at peak load. The high compressive strain regions in the figure show
the load transfer paths, commonly known as struts. The black diagonal lines extending from near the
edge of the loading plate to the supports indicate the approximate location of the centre line of the struts.
The struts in the longer shear spans are more inclined than those in the shorter shear spans. The principal
compressive strain maps also show the high compressive strains observed under the loading plate. They
also show that the strain distribution is not uniform and is concentrated near the edges of the loading
plate. These observations are consistent with observations from prior studies [2]. Additionally, the
strain diagrams show that, at the peak load, the region under the loading plate on the failure shear span
had considerably larger strains than the non-failure shear span. The struts observed in the principal
compressive strain data can be interpreted as being consistent with what may be predicted from strut-
and-tie models.
Fig. 5 Principal tensile strains (left) and principal compressive strains (right) at the peak load for
CCR4-CCR6.
3.3 Crack data throughout loading

Member crack patterns are often used in the assessment and evaluation of reinforced concrete deep
beams and are therefore important to examine [5]-[7]. The crack patterns observed at failure on the east
face of the specimens are shown in Fig. 6 (left). The crack patterns on the west face of the specimens
can also be obtained using the DIC data. To accomplish this, the open-source MATLAB tool called the
ThisAsymmetrical
documentloading
Automated Crack Detection and Measurement (ACDM) tool, developed elsewhere [4] is used. The
ACDM identifies the high tensile strain regions in the DIC data using two-dimensional image pro-
b
cessing and a user-defined threshold value. The detected high strain regions are then thinned to obtain
crack lines, see Fig. 7. The crack patterns obtained for the three stereo systems are combined to generate
the full crack patterns at the peak load. See Fig. 6 (right). The crack patterns on the east face and west
face of the specimens agree well.
if
Fig. 6 Crack patterns on the east face after failure (left) and crack patterns on the west face at the
peak load obtained using ACDM (right) for CCR4-CCR6.
Figure 6 (right) also shows, in blue, the identified critical cracks on both shear spans. The critical crack
for each shear span of the deep beam is defined as the crack that extends from the inner edge of the
support plate to near the edge of the load plate [8]. This crack often has the largest crack widths. The
crack widths are typically small at the top of the crack near the flexural compression region, largest at
mid-height and smaller near the bottom of the beam, as a result of the crack control from the longitudi-
nal reinforcement [5], [7].
Fig. 7 Crack information using ACDM for CCR5 middle system. a) DIC data obtained using three
stereo DIC systems for CCR5. b) Detected cracks using the ACDM.

14th
In addition to being able to provide the crack patterns, the ACDM tool can provide crack kinematics
from the DIC data. The ACDM considers the opposite faces of the crack segments to be two rigid
b
bodies and calculates crack kinematics using the displacements of the two rigid bodies. This approach
and concept are also used and described elsewhere with success [5], [7], [9] and [10]. The crack widths
obtained using the ACDM tool were used to investigate the change in crack widths of the critical crack
throughout loading, see Fig. 8. The critical crack widths at the mid-height of the beam for each span
if
are plotted against the total load and the shear force in each shear span. The dark blue line indicates the
crack widths for the failure shear span and the light green line indicates the crack widths for the non-
failure shear span. Figure 8 (top) shows the variation of the crack width with shear force resisted by
that shear span. As can be seen, the crack widths increase approximately linearly with the shear force
for the location examined. For specimen CCR4, the shear cracks that occur at mid-height of the beam
initiate at different shear forces in each span but appear to widen at approximately the same rate for
increasing increments of shear force. For specimen CCR5, the shear cracks develop at approximately
the same shear force but widen at different rates with respect to shear force. A similar response is
observed for CCR6. Additionally, the north shear span of CCR4 and CCR5 have the same a1/d ratio;
when these specimens are compared, it can be observed that the shear cracks measured at mid-height
have different widths for the same shear force in the span. This demonstrates that the widths of the
critical crack in each shear span depend not only on shear force but also on the other parameters asso-
ciated with that shear span, such as the crack geometry, loading plate size and loading configuration.
Figure 8 (bottom) shows the same crack widths but plotted with respect to the total load applied on
the specimen. For both CCR4 and CCR5, larger crack widths were observed on the non-failure shear
span at mid-height. For CCR6 larger crack widths were observed on the failure shear span at mid-
height. This indicates that having larger crack widths does not necessarily mean that the member will
fail on that shear crack or shear span. This observation is significant because it demonstrates that, for
asymmetrically loaded members, determining the critical shear span that will lead to failure, solely
based on the magnitude of the crack widths, may yield poor structural assessments.
Fig. 8 Crack width versus shear force (top) and crack width versus total load (bottom) for CCR4-
CCR6.
The critical loading zone (CLZ) is the highly compressed uncracked region near the loading plate above
the critical crack that is capable of transmitting significant shear forces [5]-[8]. The CLZ extends ap-
proximately a distance of one-half of the effective loading plate width, lb1e, into the shear span [8]. To
estimate the effective loading plate width, lb1e, from the experimental data, first, the identified critical
ThisAsymmetrical
documentloading
crack was approximated by a straight line that extends from the inner edge of the support plate to the
tip of the critical crack. This line was then extended vertically to intersect the loading plate, see red line
b
in Fig. 6 (right). The value for lb1e was measured from the edge of the loading plate to the intersection
point of the red line and the loading plate. The measured magnitudes of lb1e show that the large loading
plate size results in larger lb1e values when compared to members with smaller loading plates. It can
also be seen that, for all three beams, the failure shear span is associated with the shear span that has
if
the smallest CLZ, see Fig. 6 (right). However, the amount of shear that can be carried in the CLZ for a
particular shear span, needs to be considered in conjunction with other factors that influence deep beam
response, such as the loading plate size, shear-span-to-depth ratio, crack angle and crack shape. These
factors need to be considered simultaneously when estimating the response or conducting assessments
of shear critical deep beams.
4 Conclusions
This paper investigates the behaviour of three (CCR4-CCR6) large-scale, shear critical, asymmetrically
loaded reinforced concrete deep beams monitored with full field of view Digital Image Correlation
(DIC) equipment throughout loading. Different shear span-to-depth ratios and loading plate sizes were
examined. For CCR4 and CCR6, the load plate was centred on the beam and the load was offset from
the centre line of the member. For CCR5, the loading plate was offset from the centre of the beam and
the load was applied in the centre of the plate. These loading arrangements resulted in different shear
span-to-depth ratios (a/d) and crack angles on the two shear spans of each specimen.
The paper presented the load versus displacement response of the specimens determined using DIC
data. The data showed that the strength and the stiffness of asymmetrically loaded deep beams depend
on the combined effect of the a/d ratio, the loading plate size (lb1), loading configuration and the specific
crack geometry of the critical cracks. The experimental data also shows that the strength of the speci-
mens increases with decreasing shear span-to-depth ratio in the critical shear span. The paper presented
the principal tensile and compressive strain diagrams obtained at the peak load for the three specimens.
The principal strain diagrams obtained using DIC data were used to identify the crack patterns and the
compression struts in the members.
Finally, the crack patterns on the west face of the specimen at the peak load generated using the
Automated Crack Detection and Measurement (ACDM) tool were examined. These crack diagrams
showed good agreement with the crack patterns on the east face of the specimen. The crack width versus
shear force response of the critical cracks at the mid-height of the beam shows that the crack widths in
a particular shear span depend on the shear-span-specific parameters such as the crack geometry, a/d
ratio, magnitude of lb1 and loading configuration. The experiments also indicate that having larger crack
widths does not necessarily indicate the member will fail on that shear crack or shear span. Finally, the
results also show that the effective loading plate size in a shear span has an influence on the shear
strength and member response.
While this paper examines the response of three deep beam experiments in detail, additional exper-
imental results exploring other variables and corroborating this data, have been presented elsewhere
[11].
References
[1] Proestos, Giorgio T., Bentz, Evan C., and Collins, Michael P. 2018. “Maximum Shear Capacity
of Reinforced Concrete Members.” ACI Structural Journal 115: 1463-73.
[2] Proestos, Giorgio T., Palipana, Dhanushka K., and Mihaylov Boyan I. 2018. “Evaluating the
shear resistance of deep beams loaded or supported by wide elements.” ACI Structural Journal
226: 111368.
[3] Sutton, Michael A., Orteu, Jean-José, and Schreier, Hubert. 2009. Image Correlation for Shape,
Motion and Deformation Measurements. Basic Concepts, Theory and Applications. Springer.
[4] Gheri, Nichola, Mata-Falcón, Jaime, and Kaufmann, Walter. 2020. “Automated crack detection
and measurement based on digital image correlation.” Construction and Building Materials
256: 1-14.
[5] Palipana, Dhanushka K., Trandafir, Alexandru N., Mihaylov, Boyan I., and Proestos, Giorgio
T. 2021. “Quantification of Shear Transfer Mechanisms of Reinforced Concrete Deep Beams.”
fib Symposium 2021, Lisbon, Portugal, June 14-16.

14th
[6] Trandafir, Alexandru N., Palipana, Dhanushka K., Proestos, Giorgio T, and Mihaylov, Boyan
I. 2022. “Framework for Crack-based Assessment of Existing Lightly Reinforced Concrete
b
Deep Beams.” ACI Structural Journal 119: 255-66.
[7] Palipana, Dhanushka K., Trandafir, Alexandru N., Mihaylov, Boyan I., and Proestos, Giorgio
T. 2022. “Framework for Quantification of Shear Transfer Mechanisms from Deep Beam Ex-
periments.” ACI Structural Journal 119:53-65.
if
[8] Mihaylov, Boyan I., Bentz, Evan C., and Collins, Michael P. 2013. “Two-Parameter Kinematic
Theory for Shear Behavior of Deep Beams.” ACI Structural Journal 110: 501-9.
[9] Campana, Stefano, Fernández Ruiz, Miguel, Anastasi, Andrea, and Muttoni, Aurelio. 2013.
“Analysis of shear-transfer actions on one-way RC members based on measured cracking pat-
tern and failure kinematics.” Magazine of Concrete Research 65: 368-404.
[10] Langer, Mathias. 2019. “Evaluation of Load-Bearing Mechanisms in Coupling Beams and
Shear Walls based on DIC Measurements.” M.Sc. thesis, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium.
[11] Palipana, Dhanushka K., and Proestos, Giorgio T. 2022. “LARGE-SCALE SHEAR CRITICAL
REINFORCED CONCRETE DEEP BEAM EXPERIMENTS MONITORED WITH FULL
FIELD OF VIEW DIGITAL IMAGE CORRELATION EQUIPMENT.” 26th International
Conference on Structural Mechanics in Reactor Technology, Berlin/Potsdam, Germany, July
10-15.

Flexural performance of Ultra High Performance
b
Concrete slabs under simultaneous environmental and
mechanical loading
if
Salam Al-Obaidi, Simone Dicembre, Marco Davolio, Marco Del Galdo, France-
sco Lo Monte, and Liberato Ferrara
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Politecnico di Milano,
Piazza Leonardo Da Vinci 32, Milano 20133, Italy
Abstract
Residual tensile strength, controlled crack propagation with small cracks at the ultimate loading condi-
tion and null cracks at service condition are the main mechanical characteristics of Ultra High Perfor-
mance Concrete (UHPC) elements. The experimental part of this study aims to understand the flexural
behaviour of UHPC slabs (1.5 m × 0.6 m and 0.6 m × 0.6 m, both with 30 mm thickness). Three mixes
have been implemented, including crystalline admixture as self-healing stimulator and either alumina
nanofibers or cellulose nanocrystals. The service life of the slabs and a UHPC structure has been pre-
dicted by implementing durability parameters in the sectional analysis. This study provides useful out-
puts for the characterisation and structural design of UHPC materials and structural components with-
out reinforcing bars, also considering the durability performance.
1 Introduction
Steel fibers are added to the concrete to improve its tensile behaviour and provide ductility to ensure
the adequate structural performance required by the intended application. Fiber Reinforced Concrete
(FRC) and Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC) are the main two types of concrete with (steel)
fibers that have been dominating most of the structural applications, which have been extensively de-
veloped in the last two decades. Moreover, UHPC has an additional feature, being able to spread an
otherwise localized damage into multiple thin opened and tightly spaced cracks, which, together with
its dense matrix microstructure, can provide excellent durability performance in both the cracked and
uncracked state. The high tensile capacity and ductility of UHPC, together with its superior durability,
pushed the designers to reduce the concrete cover and, consequently, the thickness of the section, thus
diminishing the consumption of concrete compared to ordinary reinforced concrete. In fact, conven-
tional reinforced concrete with normal strength has failed to meet the modern requirements of tough-
ness, strength, and durability [1]. On the other hand, with a minimum compressive strength of 100MPa,
and tremendous toughness after cracking load, UHPC features efficient properties which can be ex-
ploited in novel design and construction of modern structures. In some applications where only mini-
mum reinforcement is required, the steel fibers can totally or partially replace the rebar reinforcements,
thus reducing the labour cost and time, counterbalancing the high initial cost of the UHPC materials.
The concept of UHPC has completely emerged in 1994 when De Larrard [2] optimized the mixture
concept of UHPC to obtain compressive strength higher than 150MPa. The performance was superiorly
improved by high packing density, which also resulted in low porosity and hence lower permeability
[3], [4]. Further optimizations have been done by replacing the coarse aggregates by fine sand, and
replacing the cement by supplementary cementitious materials, reducing water content, and adding high
range water reducers [3]. The promising performance of the UHPC materials in terms of mechanical
and durability aspects further encouraged the designers and engineers to use these materials with only
steel fibers as reinforcements. However, this step is introducing new challenges which deal with stand-
ardization. Before adopting the new materials in real applications, multi-level checking and experi-
ments are required to fulfil its applicability and constructability for the intended purpose. In this aspect,
the European commission has funded, in 2017 and in the framework of the Horizon 2020 Research and
Innovation Programme, the research project ReSHEALience (GA 760824), which aims, among its ob-
jectives, to “engineer” and enhance the durability of ultra high performance fiber reinforced cement
14 th
based materials also by incorporating micro- and nano-scale constituents, namely crystalline admix-
tures, alumina nano-fibers and cellulose nano-crystals, and to formulate and validate a methodology for
b
durability-based design of UHPC structures [5]. Within the same framework, six structural concept
pilots have been utilised with the proposed material to prove its efficiency and provide the proof of
concept. Among these six pilots, the water basin pilot built in one of the geothermal Enel Green Power
plants (EGP) is the focus of this study. The basin has been designed with three different compartments,
if
each measuring 7.0 m × 7.5 m in plan and 1.5 m high, consisting of different materials and/or different
structural concepts. The 100 mm thick walls of the first compartment are made of ordinary reinforced
concrete. The second compartment has 60 mm cast-in-place UHPC walls. The third compartment was
designed with a different structural concept, where 30 mm thick UHPC precast slabs, 1.6 m × 1.5 m,
are connected and stiffened, to form the wall, by cast-in-place UHPC 200 mm side square columns.
Since the pilot serves as a basin to collect and store the geothermal water up to 1.3 m service level,
implementing the UHPC materials in such application was meant to test and verify the durability and
strength of the material. During the construction of the pilot, additional square slabs which work as
two-way slab system, and rectangular ones that work as one-way slab system, were cast. These samples
were brought to Politecnico di Milano to perform dedicated structural capacity and durability investi-
gations. This study is dedicated to investigating the flexural behaviour of the UHPC slabs. The square
slabs are meant to simulate the wall of the third compartment and have been casted with the three UHPC
mixes as above, containing a crystalline admixture as promoter of the autogenous self-healing and one
of the two nano-constituents, either alumina nano-fibers or cellulose nano-crystals. On the other hand,
the rectangular slabs, casted with the mix containing nanocellulose, are meant to simulate the walls of
the second compartment. First, a non-destructive monitoring of the actual fiber dispersion was per-
formed. Then a suitable setup was developed to test the slabs, simulating the hydrostatic loading con-
dition experienced by the compartment walls, with a distributed line load positioned at 1/3 of the slab
height, as the resultant of the hydrostatic pressure. A Digital Image Correlation (DIC) measurement
was also implemented in the flexural tests to capture and monitor the strain field and crack propagation
during the test. Finally, based on the failure mode and the developed yield lines, an analytical model to
predict the failure mode and strength capacity was developed. An experimentally calibrated constitutive
law, function of the time of exposure to aggressive (geothermal) water was also employed to simulate
the evolution of the flexural performance of the slabs in the intended structural service scenarios.
2 Materials
2.1 Materials composition and properties
The same materials that have been used in the construction of the real scale EGP pilot were used to
produce the slabs tested in this study. All the materials provide similar capacity in terms of compressive
and tensile strength, and durability aspects [6]. In all mixes the steel fibers (Azichem Ready Mesh 200®)
were used, the same fibers used in the overall experimental activities of the ReSHEALience project as
reinforcement of the UHPCs. The steel fibers are straight and smooth with brass coating; the geomet-
rical and mechanical properties are indicated in Fig. 1 and Table 1; the properties of cement and im-
planted slag are reported in Table 2. The mix proportions of each employed UHPC mix are provided in
Table 3.
Fig. 1 Steel fiber geometry on the left, and tensile-strain relationship on the right.

loading
Table 1 Steel fiber properties
b
Diameter df Length Aspect ratio Density Yield Ultimate Elastic
(mm) lf (mm) (df/lf) (g/cm3) tensile str. tensile str. modulus
(MPa) (MPa) (GPa)
0.22 20 90.9 4.9 2250 3066 165
if
Table 2 Chemical composition of the employed cement and slag (LOI: loss on ignition @1000°C).
Oxide CaO SiO2 Al2O3 MgO SO3 Fe2O3 TiO2 Mn2O3 K2O Na2O Other LOI
(wt.%)
PC 59.7 19.5 4.9 3.3 3.4 3.5 0.2 0.1 0.8 0.2 0.4 2.5
BFS 39.2 38.9 10.2 6.4 1.3 0.4 0.6 0.3 0.5 0.8 0.3 1.2
Table 3 Ultra High Durability Concrete (UHDC) mix components and their proportions.
Constituents XA-CA XA-CA+ANF XA-CA+CNC
CEM I 52,5 R (kg/m3) 600 600 600
Slag (kg/m3) 500 500 500
Water (litre/m3) 200 200 200
Steel fibers Azichem Readymesh 200® (kg/m3) 120 120 120
Sand 0–2 mm (kg/m3) 982 982 982
Superplasticizer Glenium ACE 300® (litre/m3) 33 33 33
Crystalline Admixture Penetron Admix® (kg/m3) 4.8 4.8 4.8
Alumina nano-fibers NAFEN® * (kg/m3) - 0.25 -
Cellulose nano-crystal Navitas® * (kg/m3) - - 0.15
*% by weight of cement
2.2 Mechanical and durability properties of the materials

All the employed UHPCs exhibited strain hardening behaviour in direct tension and deflection harden-
ing in bending (4-point bending tests) as shown in Fig. 2. In order to implement the durability and the
time dependent constitutive parameters in the analysis of the slabs, thin beams (100 mm wide x 500
mm long x 30 mm thick) have been immersed, under sustained load, into geothermal water, and tested
at 1, 2, 3, and 6 months’ time intervals. The exposure-time affected constitutive laws, obtained through
the inverse analysis procedure reported in [7], and used later in the sectional analysis of each case, are
shown in Fig. 3.
Fig. 2 Mechanical properties of the materials, direct tensile (left) and 4PB flexural (right) tests.
Salam Al-Obaidi, Simone Dicembre, Marco Davolio, Marco Del Galdo, Francesco Lo Monte, and Liberato 115
Ferrara
14 th
if b
Fig. 3 Constitutive laws derived from 4PB test of the thin beams subjected to sustained load and
geothermal water simultaneously.
3 Description of the real structure

The UHPC materials, whose mechanical properties were provided in the previous section, have been
used to design and construct the EGP pilot, whose dimensions and description are shown in Fig. 4, as
also described in the introduction of this paper. The main focuses of the current study are the second
compartment, labelled with blue, and the third compartment, labelled with green for precast panels, and
magenta for cast in place stiffening columns. The analyses at ultimate and serviceability limit states of
the basin have been already presented and discussed in [8]. It is worth noting that for the 60 mm thick
UHPC walls the governing yield line mechanism is the global scheme marked in blue (Fig. 4, right),
while for the 30 mm panels the governing yield line mechanism is the local failure of individual slabs.
The same mechanisms have been observed for the lab specimens, as hereafter detailed, where the wall
of the second basin has the same failure mechanism as the long slab, and the panel of the third basin
shared the same failure mechanism of the small slabs tested in the lab.
Fig. 4 The real structure basin; the corresponding materials and dimensions (left), and the govern-
ing yield line mechanism (right).
4 Description of the laboratory scale specimens

As stated previously, during the construction of the pilot some additional slabs have been casted with
different materials to represent the third compartment, and with only XA-CA+CNC to represent the
second compartment. All slabs have thickness of 30 mm; the dimensions of the slabs that represent the
third compartment are 600 mm × 600 mm and 1500 mm × 600 mm for the second compartment. The
load setup used in the test was meant to represent the loading and boundary conditions of the walls in
the real structure: for this reason, the tested slab mock-ups were clamped along three edges, leaving the
loading
top edge free, and a line load was applied at 1/3 from the bottom of the slabs, representing the resultant
of the hydrostatic pressure experienced by the basin walls. Six LVDTs were mounted at the back of the
b
slab to capture the displacement (Fig. 5), and the front side was white painted and prepared with black
dots to perform the DIC measurements. The load-displacement curves, shown in Fig. 5 with associated
DIC patterns, highlight the evolution of the cracks as the load increases from zero to cracking load;
then, when the yield lines are localised and the failure mechanism is defined, the curves display a de-
if
scending branch. These yield line mechanisms were used in modelling procedure to predict the load-
displacement curves of the slab as described in the next section.
Fig. 5 Load-displacement curves of the tested slabs with DIC measurements, and load setup
sketch: rectangular (left) and square slab results (right).
5 Numerical analysis
Since the failure mechanisms of all the members are governed by ductile behaviour, yield line theory
can be utilised in the modelling of the performed tests [9]. To proceed with the modelling and obtain
the strength capacity of the slabs, a kinematically admissible yield line mechanism needs to be assumed
first (Fig. 6), simultaneously using the sectional analysis in Fig. 7 (left) and establishing the equilibrium
between the compression and the tension forces across the slab thickness. Finally, the principle of vir-
tual works is applied by the external work induced via the applied load and the internal resistance char-
acterized by the resistant bending moment working along the same yield lines. To derive the resisting
moment vs. crack opening/curvature relationship, a unit area of UHPC under pure bending is consid-
ered. As localized cracks developed by the yielded hinge monotonically increase, the steel fibers bridg-
ing the crack resist the tensile forces by the residual bond stress. This residual stress depends on the
alignment of the steel fibers as well as on their distribution. The tensile behaviour of the UHPC used in
this study has been identified by [6], where different specimens and modelling techniques were used to
derive the stress-COD curve. Since the slabs investigated in the current study have been casted hori-
zontally, ensuring the strain hardening owing to the homogeneous fibers’ distribution and random ori-
entation, the strain hardening response could be implemented in the cracked sectional analysis. The
resistant moment of the section per unit of width (kNm/m) vs. the curvature of the cross section is
shown in Fig. 7 (right). This relationship has been implemented in the yield line analysis as above.
Ferrara
14 th
6 Time dependent analysis
b
In order to predict the time dependent behaviour of the tested slabs, the constitutive laws described in
section 2.2 (as affected by simultaneous degradation and self-healing effects) were used in the numer-
ical model. The proposed durability assessment-based design methodology in Fig. 9 was used to up-
grade the durability performance from sectional level to element level, where six months data have
been implemented in the analysis algorithm. The results reported in Fig. 10 show how the performance
if
of the slabs evolves as the exposure time increases from 1 month to 6 months. Nonetheless, after the
second month the rate of healing is decreased but still higher than the first month. The same procedure
has been applied on the real structure scale, where the model has been applied on the second and third
compartment of the basin as shown in Fig. 11.
Fig. 6 Illustration of the governing yield line mechanism for the long and short slabs.
Fig. 7 Sectional analysis of the UHPC section (left), and moment-curvature relationship (right).
Fig. 8 Numerical vs. experimental comparison: rectangular (left) and square (right) results.

loading
if b
Fig. 9 Durability assessment-based design methodology as proposed in the current study.
Fig. 10 Evolution of the slab performance as the exposure time increases from 1 to 6 months: long
slab behaviour (left), and small slabs behaviour (right).
Fig. 11 Evolution of the pilot wall performance as the exposure time increases from 1 to 6 months:
second basin wall behaviour (left), and third basin wall behaviour (right).
7 Discussion and conclusions

In the framework of the ReSHEALience project, the main objective was to contribute to the develop-
ment of a durability-based design methodology to design and predict the service life of UHPC struc-
tures. Several investigations have been carried out to thoroughly understand the mechanical and dura-
bility parameters of the UHDC materials and elements. An extensive experimental campaign was con-
ducted to link the durability with the evolution of the constitutive mechanical performance of the
UHPC. To this purpose, inverse analysis was applied on the stress vs. crack opening results obtained
by testing, in four-point bending and at different exposure times, beams that underwent exposure to
aggressive environment under simultaneous sustained loads. Numerical analysis of the flexural behav-
iour of the slabs was performed, employing the constitutive laws derived as explained above, through
yield line approach based on the experimentally detected failure mechanisms of UHPC square (two
way) and rectangular (one way) slabs. The results of durability assessment-based design methodology
proved the superior performance of the UHDC elements, where substantial stability, if not moderate
increase, of the mechanical performance in terms of stiffness and ultimate capacity of the element has
been predicted, as compared to time zero stage. This is believed to be due to cracking-healing phenom-
ena, which can also effectively counteract any possible degradation phenomena of the matrix and of
the fiber reinforcement related to the aggressive exposure scenarios. However, the third, and sixth
Ferrara
14th
month exposure performances reveal a decrease in the recovery, where the ultimate load and stiffness
are returning to the same ones as the time zero performance, as a possible consequence of the effect of
b
creep since the beam specimens have been under sustained loads and exposure simultaneously. The
same analysis has been applied on the real case structure, the 7.0 m long and 1.5 m high UHPC wall
and the 1.5 m ×1.4 m UHPC slabs. The overall project framework presented in this paper has to be
intended as a pioneer study in moving towards performance-based durability-design approach for
if
UHPC structures, also pushing forward the possibility for a widespread use of this category of materials
in new structural concepts conceived to exploit at the best their performance even in extremely aggres-
sive scenarios.
Acknowledgements
The activity described in this paper has been performed in the framework of the project “Rethinking
coastal defence and Green-energy Service infrastructures through enHancEd-durAbiLity high-perfor-
mance cement-based materials-ReSHEALience”, funded by the European Union Horizon 2020 re-
search and innovation program under GA No 760824. The kind help of Mr. Daniele Spinelli, technician
of the Laboratory for Testing Materials Buildings and Structures (LPMSC), Politecnico di Milano, in
performing the experimental tests is also gratefully acknowledged.
References
[1] Nogueira, C.G., and Leonel, E.D. 2013. “Probabilistic models applied to safety assessment of
reinforced concrete structures subjected to chloride ingress.” Eng. Fail. Anal. 31:76-89.
[2] De Larrard, F., and Sedran, T. 1994. “Optimization of ultra-high-performance concrete by the
use of a packing model.” Cem. Concr. Res. 24:997-1009.
[3] Lee, N.K., Koh, K.T., Park, S.H., and Ryu, G.S. 2017. “Microstructural investigation of calcium
aluminate cement-based ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) exposed to high tempera-
tures.” Cem. Concr. Res. 102:109-118.
[4] Liew, J.Y.R., Xiong, M., and Xiong, D. 2016. “Design of Concrete Filled Tubular Beam-col-
umns with High Strength Steel and Concrete.” Structures 1.
[5] Cuenca, E., Criado, M., Gimenez, M., Alonso, M.C., and Ferrara, L. 2022. “Durability of ultra-
high performance fiber reinforced cementitious composites exposed to chemically aggressive

environments: up-grading to ultra-high durability concrete through nano-constituents.” ASCE
J. Mater. Civ. Eng. In press.
[6] Lo Monte, F., and Ferrara, L. 2020. “Tensile behaviour identification in Ultra-High Perfor-
mance Fibre Reinforced Cementitious Composites: indirect tension tests and back analysis of
flexural test results.” Mater. Struct. Constr. 53:1-12.
[7] López, J.A., Serna, P., Navarro-Gregori, J., and Coll, H. 2016. “A simplified five-point inverse
analysis method to determine the tensile properties of UHPFRC from unnotched four-point
bending tests.” Compos. Part B Eng. 91:189-204.
[8] Al-Obaidi, S., Bamonte, P., Animato, F., Lo Monte, F., Mazzantini, I., Luchini, M., Scalari, S.,
and Ferrara, L. 2021. “Innovative Design Concept of Cooling Water Tanks/Basins in Geother-
mal Power Plants Using Ultra-High-Performance Fiber-Reinforced Concrete with Enhanced
Durability.” Sustain. 13:9826.
[9] Ferrara, L., Cremonesi, M., Faifer, M., Toscani, S., Sorelli, L., Baril, M.-A., Réthoré, J., Baby,
F., Toutlemonde, F., and Bernardi, S. 2017. “Structural elements made with highly flowable
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survey of fiber dispersion with failure modes.” Eng. Struct. 133:151-171.

Non-linear analyses of slender RC members: on the
b
assessment of global factors for safety verification
Elena Miceli, Guglielmo Amendola, Costanza Anerdi, Diego Gino and Luca
Giordano
if
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Strutturale, Edile e Geotecnica (DISEG),
Abstract
The aim of thi study is to present an overview and a comparison of the methods finalised to derive
global safety factors for non-linear analysis of slender RC members. In detail, a set of 40 experimental
results on reinforced concrete columns is illustrated and described in its main aspects. Several non-
linear numerical models have been realized using fiber approach as modelling hypothesis. Then, proper
proabilstic models have been defined with the aim to include geometric, material and model uncertain-
ties to perform a probabilistic analysis in terms of global resistance. Successively, the outcomes from
the probabilistic analysis are used to define the global safy factors for safety verifications of slender RC
members. Finally, different methods are compared highliting the corresponding differences and limits.
1 Introduction
The use non-linear analysis (NLAs) is becoming widely employed to assess the actual safety level of
both new and existing structures and infrastructures [1]-[12] . With this aim, several approaches denoted
as “safety formats” have been developed for NLAs purposes in the last 10-15 years [13]-[14]. These
safety formats grounds on the assumptions introduced by the global resistance format [14] and permits
to determine the design value of structural resistance Rd of a reinforced concrete (RC) structure or
member according to following expression:
Rnum,mean
Rd = (1)
 Rg
with: Rnum,mean = mean value of structural resistance evaluated using NLA; γRg = global safety factor
inclusive of effects of aleatory (i.e., materials and geometriy) and epistemic uncertainties (i.e., uncer-
tainty related to the numerical representation, i.e., model) on structural resistance [15]-[17]. Whithin
the framework of global resistance format [14], the structural resistance is intended as the resistance of
the structure against the actions concurrent in the relevant combination [14]. Then, it should not be
confused with cross sectional resistance of members that composes the structure (e.g., beams, columns)
but refers to the global structural response of the RC system.
The present investigation is devoted to compare several philosophies to determine the global safety
factor γRg. The example of application to the case of RC slender members is considered. As first step, a
group of 40 experimental outcomes of compression test on RC columns described according to the
literature [3]. The experimental tests sets have been numerically modelled using non-linear numerical
(NLN) approach adopting efficient modelling assumptions to solve the specific problem [3]. The herein
adopted software is the platform OpenSees [18]. As second step, the probabilistic distribution of struc-
tural resistance have been assessed by means of probabilistic investigation including aleatory and epis-
temic uncertainties [3],[19]. The Latin Hypercube Sampling (LHS) technique has been used to deter-
mine the different sampling sest of main random variables for each column. The outcomes from the
probabilistic simulations allows to assess the effectiveness of three methods (denoted as method I, II
and III) to estimate γRg (i.e., global safety factor) in agreement to predetermined safety levels. The
discussion of the results turns out to be useful to compare and select the best method to derive global
safety factors withing the new generation of design codes that are will approach the scheduling in the
next years [20]-[21].
14 th
2 Methods for evaluation of global safety factors
b
The evaluation of the global safety factor γRg can be performed according to the following three meth-
ods:
- Method I: the Method I is implemented by [14] and splits the partial safety factors relating to alea-
tory γR and model uncertainties (i.e., epistemic) γRd. The γRg can be estimated according to following
relationships:
if
 R g =  Rd   R (2)
where:
 R = exp( R tVR ) (3)
exp( 'R  tV )
 Rd = (4)

In the Eqs. (2-4) VR denotes the coefficient of variation of structural resistance descending from the
probabilistic investigation sampling from the aleatoric uncertainties random variables only; μϑ is
the bias factor or mean value of the random variable related to model uncertainty; Vϑ is the coeffi-
cient of variation of the random variable related to model uncertainty; αR, α’R denotes the fisrt order
reliability method coefficents differentiated for dominant and non-dominant variables, respectively
set to 0.8 and 0.32 [22]; βt denotes the target value of the reliability index [14], [23]. In Eq.(3-4),
Both the partial safety factors γR and γRd are evaluated according to lognormal probabilistic model
[8].
- Method II: the Method II allows to determine γRg in agreement to the hypothesis of lognormal dis-
tribution of structural resistance as shown in the next:
exp( R  tVRg )
 Rg = (5)

In the Eq.(5) the term VRg represents the coefficient of variation of structural resistance including
both the effect of uncertainties of aleatory and epistemic (i.e., model) nature. In line to [24], the
value of VRg can be obtained as:
VRg = (VR ) + (V )
2 2
(6)
- Method III: the Method III consist in the evaluation of the global safety factor γRg using always the
Eq.(5). In this case, the coefficient of variation of structural resistance VRg is derived from the out-
comes of the probabilistic investigation inclusive of the main sources of uncertainties (i.e, aleatory
and epistemic). For instance, this method is more general and can be considered as the one of ref-
erence for comparison and discussion.
As final observation, the Eq.(1) can be applied using as Rnum, mean the result of numerical simulation
performed adopting mean values (i.e. experimental) of material and geometrical properties [19]. With
this assumption Rnum, mean turns out to be equal to the value of Rnum, exp .
3 Experimental test sets and definition of NLN models for slender RC columns
With the aim to compare the mentioned above approaches, the experimenta tests sets collected by [16]
are herein considered. The results relates to compression tests of 40 reinforced concrete columns [26]-
[35] which have been realized with different slenderness, material and geometric properties as well as
reinforcement arrangements. The features of the selected database are in line with the limits of applica-
bility of [14], [21]. In the Figure 1 representation of the static scheme and modelling hyphoteses for the
RC columns are reported [3]. The definition of the numerical models of the mentioned above structural
members have been performed using the Opensees [18] platform. The fiber finite element with force-
based formulation have been adopted [18]. The modelling hypotheses herein adopted are able to reduce
the unecertainty related to the definition of the numerical model (i.e., model uncertainty) in line to [3].
The numerical models are able to take into account both materials and geometry non-linearities as well
as confinement on core concrete provided by shear reinforcements [36] and potential buckling of main
reinforcements in compression [37]. The outcome of the numerical simulations are the ultimate axial
force levels achieved in correspondace of the last load step with appropriate numerical convergence
[3]. The procedure for application of loads is defined in agreement to experimental reports including
the dead weight of the RC columns. In the Table 1 is reported the summary of the structural resistance

related to the experimental outcomes Rexp and the associated outcome Rnum, exp obtained performing
numerical simulation using experimental values of geometrical and material properties.
b
Table 1 Experimental test sets and numerical results in function of slenderness [3].
Slenderness λ Rnum, exp Rexp
Exp. test Spec.
[-] [kN] [kN]
if
2L20-30 694.3 750.0
2L20-60 736.4 700.0
2L8-120R 1152.7 1092.0
B 15
4L8-30 1032.9 1100.0
4L20-120 830.7 900.0
4L8-120R 1319.5 1247.0
C000 A 560.6 559.6
17
C020 328.5 327.3
B020 B 52 263.7 271.5
RL300 56 423.3 474.3
A-17-0.25 48 1367.4 1181.4
C-31.7-0.25 94 280.1 333.4
3.3 B 856.4 782.6
59
5.1 810.8 735.5
4.1 88 391.7 367.7
N30-10.5-C0-3-30 16.6 16.6 (280)*
C 68
H60-10.5-C0-1-30 17.9 17.2 (412)*
III 347.3 343.2
74
Va 680.7 684.5
2 83 236.8 235.4
I A 104 258.0 264.8
VI 106 363.2 392.3
15 136 560.3 549.2
3 137 563.4 666.9
8 83 236.8 235.4
9 205.9 205.9
B 135
12 112.2 112.8
6 137 227.6 225.6
24D-2 D 104 192.8 198.4
15E-2 A 139 129.3 161.0
S28 49.9 44.0
167
S30 B 53.4 48.0
S25 200 42.3 36.0

5 78.7 72.7
208
6 82.3 72.2
17A 225 37.1 31.9
20 A 39.8 37.9
243
18 39.8 33.9
8 274 31.0 31.9
20 15 32.3 29.9
* axial load located to the reinforced concrete column
Fig. 1 Representation of the experimental tests configuration and scheme related to numerical
modelling hypotheses of the 40 RC columns [3].
14 th
4 Probabilistic simulation of structural response
b
The numerical models established in line to the Section 3 have been usefull to perform the probabilistic
investigation of the structural resistance of the herein considered RC columns. The Table 2 reports the
set of assumptions related to the modelling of the main random variables associated to material, geo-
metric and model uncertainties (i.e., aleatory and epistemic) in line to [3],[19].
if
Table 2 Summary of the probabilistic assumptions for the main random variables [19] and for model
uncertainty [3].
Coefficient of variation Statistical correlation with
Random variable PDF Mean value
[-] other random variables
fc
LN Experimental value 0.15 -
[MPa]
fy fu (0.75),
LN Experimental value 0.05
[MPa] εu(-0.45)
fu fy (0.75),
LN Experimental value 0.05
[MPa] εu(-0.60)
Es
LN 210000 0.03 -
[MPa]
εu fy (-0.45),
LN 0.075 0.09
[-] fu (-0.60)
Concrete cover (C)
N 0 5 -
Yc=C-Cexp [mm]
Cross section (b)
N 0 ≤ 0.003bexp≤ 3 4+0.006 bexp ≤ 10 -
Yb=b-bexp [mm]
Cross section (h)
N 0 ≤ 0.003hexp≤ 3 4+0.006 hexp ≤ 10 -
Yh=h-hexp [mm]
Column length (L)
N 0 ≤ 0.003Lexp ≤ 3 4+0.006 Lexp ≤ 10 -
YL=L-Lexp[mm]
Eccentricity of axial load e
N Experimental value Lexp/1000 -
[mm]
Model uncertainty ϑ
LN 1.01 0.07 -
λ≤150
Model uncertainty ϑ LN 0.91 0.03 -

λ>150
The probabilistic analysis has been carried out adopting the sampling method denoted as “Latin Hyper-
cube” [13], [38] realizing 100 sampled numerical models for each one of the 40 RC columns (Table 1).
With the aim to compare the different methods to assess global safety factors two groups of proba-
bilistic analyses have been carried out. In the detail, the following resistance random variables have
been considered:
- Group A: Rnum = Rnum ( fc , f y , fu , E s ,  u , YC , Yb , Yh , e ) (7)
- Group B: g
Rnum =   Rnum ( fc , f y , fu , E s ,  u , YC , Yb , Yh , e ) (8)
With the mentioned above approach, the Group A relates to probabilistic simulation of structural re-
sistance performed considering the aleatory uncertainties only, while, the Group B includes also the
epistemic ones. The Eq.(8) is in agreement with the [19] with reference to the evaluation and inclusion
within the analyses of model uncertainties.
The results of the probabilistic simulations are showed in the Figure 2. In detail, the value of δ is
the ratio between mean value of structural resistance descending from probabilistic simulation (i.e., μ)
and the Rnum,exp obtained using experimental values of material and geometric properties to perform the
numerical simulation (Figure 2(a)).
The summary of the results in terms of coefficient of variation of structural resistance V R and VgR
estimated with reference to probabilistic simulations of Group A and B, respectively, is reported in
Figure 2(b). The value of the coefficient of variation of structural resistance is significantly affected by
the uncertainty related to geometric characteristics for slenderness values higher than 75. The influence
of the epistemic part of the uncertainty (i.e., model) to global statistical variability is more relevant for
slenderness values lower that 150. This is consequence of the assumptios per formed in Table 2 and by
[3].

if b
Fig. 2 Outcomes from probabilistic investigation of structural resistance related to the considere
40 RC columns in terms of ratio δ (a) and coefficient of variation V (b) concerning Group
A and B.
The evaluation of the statistical parameters related to Figure 2 have been performed determining the
maximum likelihood estimators (MLE) [39] adopting the lognormal probabilistic model to represent
the resistance random variables related to probabilistic simulations of Group A and B.
a) b) 2L20-30
2L20-30 Foster & Attard
Foster & Attard 1997
1997 λ = 15.0
λ = 15.0 (Lognormal) MLEs:
PDF [-]
(Lognormal) Rnum,mena= 627.0kN

MLEs: VR= 0.136
P [-]
μR= 627.0kN
VR= 0.136
Rnum/μR [-] ln(Rnum)[-]
c) 2L20-30
d) 2L20-30
Foster & Attard
Foster & Attard
1997 1997
λ = 15.0
λ = 15.0
(Lognormal)
(Lognormal)
PDF [-]
MLEs: MLEs:
μgR=636.9 kN
μgR=636.9 kN
P [-]
VRg=0.159
VRg=0.159
Rgnum/μgR [-] ln(Rgnum)[-]

Fig. 3 Representation of the frequency histograms and lognormal fitting distributions a) and c);
probabilistic plot b) and d) for one of the columns listed in Table 1 with reference to results
of Group A and Group B probabilistic simulations.
5 Discussion of the results

In this section, the discussion and comparison of the Method I, II and III usefil to assess the safety
factor γgR is reported. With the aim to perform the comparison, the herein assumed target level of
reliability is in line with [14],[23],[40]. A reference period equal to 50 years and consequence class 2
are considered and, as a result, the target value of reliability index can be assumed equal to βt=3.8
[14],[23],[40].
Concerning the Method I, the evaluation of the partial factor γR in line to Eq.(3) have been per-
formed using the values of VR (i.e., coefficient of variation of structural resistence) obtained from
Group A probabilistic simulation. Concerning the value of γRd (i.e., model uncertainty safety factor),
14 th
the Eq.(4) has been applied accordin to statistical assumption of Table 2. With this approach, the global
safety factor γgR can be derive according to Eq.(2). This method allow to separate the aleatoric uncer-
b
tainties from the epistemic ones and assumes constant values of FORM factors [14],[22]. According to
[14], the aleatory uncertainties are considered as dominant random variables whereas the epistemic
ones are considered as non-dominant with reference to their contribution to overall probability of fai-
lure. The Method II allow to directly estimate γgR and the related coefficient of variation VgR performing
if
simplied assumptions concerning aleatoric and epistemic uncertainties as described in Section 2. The
Method III is related to complete probabilistic simulation of structural resistance including aleatory and
epistemic uncertainties. The outcomes of application of Method I are reported in Figure 5(a). The Figure
5(b) illustrates the comparison between the Method I, II and III. It can be recognised that the Method I
is the safer one and this justify its adoption by [14]. The Method III, that derives from comprensive
probabilistic analysis of structural resistance provides, in general, lower values of γgR if compared with
Method I and II. The Method II provides intermediate results between the Method I and Method III
preserving a suffient amont of extra-safety with respect to Method III.
Fig. 5 Results from the determination of global safety factor γRg according to the Method I (a);
Comparison between γRg derived with Method I, II and III .
6 Conclusions
This investigation concerns the comparison of three methods for evaluation of global safety factors for
non-linear numerical analysis of RC columns having relevant slenderness. First of all, a group of 40
experimental tests related to RC columns has been adopted respectfull of limits of applicability of Eu-
rocodes. The modelling approach for non-linear analysis have been established according to assump-
tions able to minimize the uncertainty related to the definition of the numerical model (i.e., model un-
certainty). The non-linear numerical models have been adopted to perform two different gropus of
probabilistic analysis considering aleatoric (Group A) and both aleatoric and epistemic uncertainty
(Group B) using the Latin Hypercube Sampling. The outcomes of the probabilistic investigation have
been useful to compare three approaches (Method I, II, III) to determine the global safety factor γgR
related to the 40 RC columns.Tthe Method I is the safer one as it ground on the assumption of fixed
values for FORM factors differentiating between dominant (aleatoric) and non-dominant (epistemic)
variables. The Method II proposes intermediate results with respect to Method I and III having the same
input variable as required by Method I. The Method II seems to be the most convenient to be imple-
mented in drafting of next generation of design codes.
Acknowledgements
This work is part of the collaborative activity developed by the authors within the framework of the
Commission 3 – Task Group 3.1: “Reliability and safety evaluation: full-probabilistic and semi-proba-
bilistic methods for existing structures” of the International Federation for Structural Concrete (fib).
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Numerical study on the behaviour of an innovative
b
concrete dry joint: Investigations under shear loading
Agemar Manny1, Robert Renz2, Albert Albers2, Lothar Stempniewski1 and Ale-
xander Stark1
if
1 Institute of Concrete Structures and Building Materials (IMB) – Dept. Concrete Structures,
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology,
Gotthard-Franz-Strasse 3, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
2 IPEK - Institute of Product Engineering,

Karlsruhe Institute of Technology
Kaiserstrasse 10, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
Abstract
The savings in time and resources by fast erection as well as possibilities to disassemble and flexible
conversion of buildings motivate the increasing demand for modular construction. The rapid and pre-
cise joining of precast concrete components is essential to benefit from the advantages of the modular
construction method. To establish load-carrying joints, a shear connection is adapted from carpentry
resulting in a concrete mortise in conjunction with a steel tenon. In this paper, results of numerical
investigations on the structural behaviour of the developed joint under shear loading are presented. The
form of the tenon is investigated in two-dimensional simulations. To ensure high manufacturing accu-
racies and full-surface contact between the steel tenon and the concrete mortise, 3d-printed plastic
moulds are used. Hence, in this first step, the conceptual functionality of the developed dry joint is
shown.
1 Introduction
The demand for more economical construction methods than the erection of monolithic structures re-
quires research of new methods in the building industry; from fabrication to transport as well as assem-
bly and erection followed by non-destructive disassembly and flexible re-erection. To achieve ad-
vantages in all these domains, structures must be divided into smaller substructures. The so-called
“modular construction” encourages in particular the industrial production of prefabricated concrete el-
ements. Various research projects are currently investigating design and construction, fabrication and
production of modular structures and merging data into digital models to provide sustainable, quality-
assured buildings with shorter construction times and lower costs [1]–[7]. By dividing structures into
individual modules and segments, in order to automate production steps and benefit of economies of
scale, the load-bearing behaviour of the assembled structures changes. The segmentation of structures
results in the occurrence of joints, which form a critical point primarily in the assembly, the load transfer
between bearing segments and the durability of the entire structure [8]. The development of tolerance
concepts and new connection techniques is necessary to ensure that the advantages of modular con-
struction can be utilised. In addition, a design concept for joints subjected to transverse shear loads
must be developed that allows the design of shear connections. At first, it is necessary to investigate
how new types of connections must be designed in order to ensure that the aims of modular construction
can be achieved. In particular, the development of standardised interfaces, necessary connections be-
tween at least two modules or segments, is of key importance for the realisation of modular systems
[9]. In this article, the questions are addressed which requirements and functions arise for a standardised
interface and how these can be designed and manufactured.
14 th
2 Conceptual design of the shear joint
b
In the construction industry, various forms of joints exist through which shear forces are transmitted.
In segmental bridge construction, the load-bearing capacity of joints is mainly based on the applied
normal stress due to post-tensioning. As shown in Figure 1(a) and (b), joints with shear keys and finely
profiled joint geometries are used. Due to the mechanical interlocking of keys, higher shear capacities
of the joint can be achieved compared to smoothly abutted surfaces.
if
Equation (1) describes the characteristic shear stress resistance by an interlocked joint. The friction
component is determined by the coefficient of friction μ and the applied normal stress σn. In addition,
the profiling contributes to the load-bearing capacity and is generally defined by a specific form coef-
ficient f to describe the geometry of the profiled joint as well as the characteristic concrete compressive
strength fck. In general, the normal stress is limited to avoid compressive failure or mixed fracture.
𝜈𝐹 = 𝜇 ⋅ 𝜎𝑛 + 𝑓 ⋅ 𝑓𝑐𝑘 (1)
As described in [10], [11], a joint consisting of a single shear key (e.g. Figure 1(a)) can lead to large
gapping cracks under shear stress. Therefore a uniform interlocking over the height of the components
in the direction of shear is preferable. However, if a joint consists of multiple shear keys, manufacturing
tolerances play a decisive role. In general, they depend on the selected manufacturing process. In bridge
construction, segments are usually manufactured using the match-cast method to avoid deviations. A
process in which concrete is cast against the surface of an existing segment when manufacturing a new
section.
In [11], the failure of shear keys due to manufacturing inaccuracies and the resulting influence on
the load-bearing capacity of connections depending on the normal stress is numerically investigated.
When a gap occurs between shear keys, they cannot fully participate in the shear force transmission,
resulting in a reduced shear capacity. It was determined that a gap width of more than 0.05 mm reduces
the load-bearing capacity of shear joints made of normal concrete. The match-cast method is not di-
rectly applicable to building construction due to its complexity and the alignments of structural com-
ponents in the three-dimensional space. Nevertheless, fine profiled joints are researched for adoption
to building construction (e.g. [12]).
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Fig. 1 Shear joints in segmental construction: (a) Single shear key and (b) Multiple shear key
joints primarily used in bridge construction, (c) Shear dowel/connector or bolts used in
building construction, (d) Proposed design, exploded view drawing (based on [13])
Typical connections in building construction are shear force dowels/connectors and bolts or screwed
connections according to Figure 1(c), which are partially irreversible. Especially when connecting ceil-
ing elements, they offer the advantage of transmitting high shear forces over a small cross-section. The
use of these connectors is usually repeated over a certain width.
The development of a new joint type in concrete construction aims at combining the assets of in-
terlocked joints used in bridge construction with the advantages of conventional joints in building con-
struction. The main field of application is structural members (beams, columns) for primary load trans-

fer in frame structures. As shown in Figure 1(d), a loose mortise and tenon joint is adapted from car-
pentry and applied to concrete construction. The connection has two main tasks: (1) centring the abutted
b
concrete components to avoid large deviations in position when assembling a structure and (2) trans-
mitting forces mainly perpendicular to the assembly direction.
In order to allow a centring of segments by the so-called connecting element, a conical form of the
element is preferable. With high dimensional accuracy of concrete mortise and steel tenon, little tech-
if
nical effort is required to ensure precise assembly of the concrete components. The use of a double-
symmetrical connector also provides more flexibility of the segments when assembling a structure. A
system consisting of multiple connectors requires manufacturing tolerances of less than 1/20 mm to
ensure an undisturbed transmission of shear forces across all installed connectors, which can only be
assured with a major technical effort in production. Therefore, a connection with only one connector is
preferred.
To ensure a surface contact between the concrete mortise and the connecting element for the shear
force transmission into both directions of the post-tensioned segments, and especially to avoid punctual
stress concentrations, a connector with a round cross-sectional form is to be preferred. In order to ensure
a sufficient torsional capacity of the connection and to avoid rotation of the segments along the longi-
tudinal axis during assembly and under load, an oval cross-section is suitable. If the tenon has signifi-
cantly higher mechanical material characteristics than the surrounding concrete components, its failure
can be at first excluded form the design. Figure 1(d) on the right, shows an exploded view drawing of
the described joint.
3 Numerical investigations
Numerical simulations on a two-dimensional section from a beam joint form the basis for determining
the shear behaviour of the described joint. The aim of the numerical investigations is to define the
influence of the embedment depth and the size of the cone angle on the shear capacity and the failure
modes.
3.1 Model set-up

A parameterised model of the connection is generated to simulate shear tests at constant normal stress
utilizing the finite-element analysis package Abaqus (2021). A quasi-static analysis with Abaqus/Ex-
plicit is chosen for the two-dimensional problem involving non-linear behaviour of concrete in both,
compression and tension, as well as contact. 4-node bilinear plane stress elements (CPS4R) are assigned
to the model. The mesh for all parts and all contact pairs included in the simulations is defined with an
element size of 5 mm.
For the tenon made of steel, the alloy 42CrMo4 is chosen to prevent plastic deformation or even
failure of the tenon. The uniaxial tensile and compressive yield stress, the Young’s modulus and Pois-
son’s ratio of the alloy are assumed to be 800 MPa, 200 GPa and 0.3, respectively. For the definition
of the concrete material, the concrete damage plasticity (CDP) model is chosen, with the general pa-
rameters implemented into Abaqus given in Table 1. The material behaviour of C50/60 commercial
normal concrete is adopted from [14]–[16]; the modulus of elasticity is defined to be 37.0 GPa.
A ‘hard’ contact for the normal behaviour with a tangential friction penalty according to the Cou-
lomb friction model is used for the definition of all interfaces. The coefficient of friction µ for the
assumed smooth concrete interfaces is chosen to 0.65 based on [11], [17]. A friction penalty equal to
0.4 is assumed for the tangential concrete-to-steel contact.
The simulation of the joint is divided into two consecutive quasi-static analysis steps: (1) applica-
tion of a normal stress σn of 2 MPa to describe a pre- or post-tensioning force or the dead weight and
(2) application of an increasing shear displacement to obtain the shear behaviour as well as the ultimate
shear capacity dependent of the defined normal stress.
Table 1 General parameters for CDP model in Abaqus
Dilation angle ψ Flow potential eccentricity e fb0/fc0 Kc Viscosity parameter μ
35° 0.1 1.16 0.667 0
14th
As shown in Figure 2(a), the numerical set-up includes two concrete specimens and a steel tenon as
well as supported steel plates to describe the boundary conditions. The right segment remains unsup-
b
ported in the direction of the applied displacement u. The vertical displacement is applied on the top
surface of the right segment over a width of 100 mm. Shear is not applied directly into the joint but
with an offset d, the distance between the joint and the position of the minimal vertical failure plane
(equal to the embedment depth). This offset is necessary because the direct application of the shear
if
force into the joint in combination with the normal force results in a biaxial compressive stress state in
the right segment above and the left segment below the tenon, leading to an overestimation of the actual
shear capacity. However, if shear is applied with an offset, the actual load-bearing capacity is more
accurately determined. In order to avoid a rotation of the left concrete specimen, it is supported on both
sides in vertical direction. The shear capacity results from the sum of the vertical support forces of the
left specimen.
(a) (b)
Fig. 2 (a) Numerical shear set-up and (b) Description of the dimensions
3.2 Parameter study and results

In a parameter study, 80 randomly generated geometries of the tenon are investigated in order to deter-
mine the influence of the form on the load-bearing capacity and the failure modes. According to Fig-
ure 2(a), a generated form, which is also referred to as individual I, is always defined by a straight
contact surface between mortise and tenon. Because of the chosen double symmetry of the tenon, a
straight line as for instance shown in the coordinate system in Figure 2(a) can describe the geometry of
each individual. For a simple representation of the geometry, the tenon is only visualised by the de-
scribed straight line (compare Figure 3).
The embedment depth of the tenon is limited to the range between 10 and 100 mm and the height
between 10 and 160 mm (respectively half of the height between 5 and 80 mm) for the parameter study
to allow the remaining areas of the concrete cross-section to be used for the placement of tendons and
reinforcement.
Figure 3(a) shows the result of the 20 highest-ranking individuals (top 20) in shear capacity from
the numerical simulations. The relative load-bearing capacity of the connections is shown in a black-
to-white coloured distribution. The relative value 1.0 (black) describes the highest, 0.0 (white) the low-
est ultimate shear capacity of the upper quarter of this so-called population.
Regarding the geometry, it can be determined that all individuals of the top 20 have a height h1
between 30 and 70 mm. The height h2 at the end of the connector is in the range of 7 to 43 mm. The
embedment depth for the top 20 ranges between 25 and 67 mm. The angle of inclination α (compare
Figure 2(b)) of the top 20 tenons is between 2.5 and 53.0°.
As the joint can slide open due to large angles even under post-tensioning forces, the maximum angle
of inclination for the connector to remain in the mortise must be determined. Equation (2) gives the
angle of inclination to prevent the joint from sliding open in the untensioned state under shear.
tan(𝛼) < 𝜇 (1)
For the chosen coefficient of friction µ equal to 0.40, an angle of 22° is obtained. If a larger angle is
used, there is no positional reliability of abutted segments in the construction state without normal

forces. An applied normal stress opposes the down force caused by shear. In the top 20, sliding can be
observed in one case with a chosen normal stress of 2 MPa.
if b
(a) (b)
Fig. 3 (a) Relative shear capacity of 20 highest-ranking individuals (1.0, black, highest; 0.0, white,
lowest) and (b) Three individuals (I1, I2, I3) chosen for further investigations
In general, 4 types of failure of the joint can be observed in the simulated geometries: (1) sliding of the
joint without failure of the concrete, (2) compressive failure of the concrete in the contact area of the
tenon, (3) shear failure of the concrete by exceeding the tensile strength, (4) mixed failure of compres-
sion and shear failure of the concrete (combination of (2) and (3)).
The load-bearing capacity of the 80 investigated joints ranges between 1,210 kN/m and 381 kN/m
(top 20: between 1,210 kN/m and 982 kN/m). An automated evaluation of the geometries with regard
to the damage type is complex. Therefore, the evaluation of the damage types of the top 20 is done
manually. In one case, the joint slides open without failure of the concrete, in two cases compressive
failure of the concrete occurs, in five cases mixed fracture behaviour can be observed, while in the
remaining 12 cases shear failure of the component due to exceeding the tensile strength of the concrete
can be determined.
Three geometries are chosen from the top 20 to be analysed in detail. Figure 4(a) shows the contact
pressure over the true contact length between concrete mortise and steel tenon at the ultimate shear
capacity of the three joints.
It can be noted that for tenon I1 with the highest load-bearing capacity of 1,186 kN/m, a large
contact stress at the end of the connector occurs and the compressive strength of the concrete is reached.
At a shear force of approx. 791 kN, a flattening of the curve can be observed in the shear behaviour
(fig. 4(b)). The contact pressure exceeding the concrete compressive strength in the area of the joint
causes the flattening. As the joint is subjected to further shear, a stress redistribution takes place, which
leads to progressive damage until the end of the tenon is reached, as can be seen in the contact stress
distribution in Figure 4(a). Consequently, this connection does not fail by exceeding the tensile strength
of concrete due to shear. Although the absolute load-bearing capacity of the connection is almost 1200
kN/m, significant damage to the concrete begins at approx. 760 kN. To avoid brittle failure in service,
the use of a connector with a short embedment depth is not recommended.
Individual I2, with a smaller angle of inclination and a greater embedment depth than I1, has a load-
bearing capacity of 987 kN/m. As displayed in Figure 4(a), a drop in the contact pressure over the true
length of the component can be observed at the end of the connector between 35 and 43 mm. In this
area, a mixed failure occurs. Since the concrete compressive strength is exceeded at the end of the
tenon, a minimal stress redistribution takes place, which almost simultaneously leads to shear cracking
and tensile failure.
Tenon I3 shows similar shear behaviour, with a more uniform stress curve than the other two indi-
viduals considered and the contact stress increasing in the direction of the joint plane of the concrete
components (Figure 4(a)). The failure mode of the joint can be determined as shear failure with tensile
cracking. The load capacity of this joint is 982 kN/m.
14 th
if b
(a) (b)
Fig. 4 Individuals I1, I2, I3: (a) Shear force vs displacement and (b) Contact pressure vs true con-
tact length between concrete mortise and steel tenon at the ultimate shear capacity
4 Discussion
The numerical simulations show that there is a correlation between the geometric properties of the
connector and the shear capacity as well as the failure mode of the post-tensioned joint. In principle, it
can be stated that in all the calculations in which shear cracks occurred, the shear load capacity is
achieved with a greater deformation as the embedment depth of the connecting element increases. The
connectors with smaller embedment depths create stiffer connections, while compression and mixed
failures occur. Abrupt failure should be avoided. A more ductile connection can be achieved in cases
of shear failure with tensile cracking by using reinforcement. Here, no complex reinforcement, is re-
quired to ensure ductile behaviour of the mortise and tenon joint, which is necessary, for shear keys of
segmental bridge constructions. Since the abutting surfaces of the concrete components are flat, mini-
mal adjustment of existing formwork for beams and columns is required. By utilising 3D-printed
moulds made of plastic, the mortise in the concrete components can be manufactures with high preci-
sion. First investigations and measurements of concrete components produced with 3D-printed moulds
have shown that manufacturing tolerances of less than 0.150 mm are possible as shown in Figure 6(a).
By further developing precise formwork or other manufacturing techniques (e.g. drilling, milling of
mortises for connectors), production processes as well as tolerance concepts, connections can be fabri-
cated that show minimal deviations. As a result, connections having a high stiffness under shear loading
can be created, facilitating the achievement of the stated goals of modular construction.
Figure 5 compares the numerically determined load-deformation relationship of the individual I3
with the shear behaviour of a concrete joint with a single shear key (compare Figure 1(a)). According
to [18] the trapezoidal shear key has heights h1 of 100 mm, h2 of 50 mm and an embedment depth d of
35 mm. The failure mode determined here is shear failure of the shear key with vertical tensile cracking.
It can be stated that the unreinforced connection with a steel tenon has a similar load-bearing capacity
as the connection with pure concrete interlocking. This finding shows that the use of loose flexible
connectors promotes new opportunities in modular construction, with the same shear capacity as con-
ventional connections.
Fig. 5 Concrete shear key, concrete mortise and steel tenon shear joint: Shear force vs displace-
ment
The tenon shown in Figure 6(a) is to be investigated further. Although it does not have the highest shear
capacity of the two-dimensional connections investigated, it ensures good centring of the butted con-
crete components due to its conical form. In this way, a precise connection can be ensured without
additional technical effort purely by applying a post-tensioning force on aligned segments in the state
of construction.
if b
(a) (b)
Fig. 6 (a) Geometry of the joint (dimensions in [mm]), (b) Manufacturing inaccuracies of the con-
crete mortise using 3d-printed moulds (blue: -0.15 mm, red: 0.15 mm deviation, linear gradient)
5 Conclusions
This paper presents a numerical study on the behaviour of a designed concrete mortise and steel tenon
dry joint for constructions consisting of precast concrete segments.
Based on the conceptual design thoughts and 80 numerical calculations with randomly distributed ge-
ometry, the following conclusions can be drawn:
1. The use of double-conical connectors ensures shear force transmission between components
and precise centring of segments by post-tensioning. Modular structures can thus be erected
without great technical effort.
2. A high load-bearing capacity of the connection (top 20) is achieved in the range of the heights
h1 from 30 to 70 mm, h2 from 7 to 43 mm as well as the embedment depth d from 25 to 67
mm for the chosen concrete cross-section. In principle, a large embedment depth is recom-
mended. Limit values for inclination angles are to be defined depending on the normal stress
and the application purpose.
3. Connectors with a small embedment depth or a true contact length will show compressive or
mixed failure under shear. Failure of the concrete in tension due to shear is preferable. Duc-
tility of the connection can be ensured by reinforcement.

4. The numerical investigations on connections have shown that precast concrete elements can
be joined by a tenon and similar load-bearing capacities can be achieved as with keyed con-
crete elements known from segmental bridge construction.
The investigated connections were numerically simulated under shear loading. As there is usually
no direct shear loading, the load-bearing capacity of the connection must be determined under combined
loading. By expending to three-dimensional models and the use of an evaluation function, connectors
can be developed that can transfer all required loads (shear, bending, torsion) as well as combinations
at different normal stresses. For the further development of the connection using multi-objective opti-
misation, it should be taken into account that a minimum embedment depth is generally recommended
for shear connections in building construction. For example, according to DIBt [19], only shear dowels
with a minimum embedment depth of 5 times the dowel diameter are approved.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge funding by the German Research Foundation DFG for the project
‘Intelligent modularization for scalable concrete construction by adaptation of the methods for modular
construction development’ (grant number 423942547) within the priority program SPP 2187 ‘Adaptive
modularized constructions made in a flux: precise and rapid building’.
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Validation of bond models for the crack width
b
estimation based on detailed measurements
Enrique Corres and Aurelio Muttoni
if
School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering, ENAC
École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, EPFL
Abstract
Crack formation and development in reinforced concrete structures is a complex mechanism affected
by a large number of factors. Typically, the estimation of the crack width as a function of the reinforce-
ment stress state is based on simplified assumptions concerning the rebar-to-concrete interaction. In
this paper, the results of concrete ties and pull-out tests instrumented with Fibre-Optic Measurements
and Digital Image Correlation are used to review current code formulations. The results indicate that
the assumption of average bond strength could be improved and adjusted based on visible deteriorations
on the concrete surface. More refined models could be beneficial to establish a better correlation be-
tween crack width and stress in the reinforcement.
1 Introduction
Cracks are commonly found in existing concrete structures. They appear in reinforced concrete struc-
tures when the tensile strength of the concrete is reached, at which point the crack opens, leading to a
stress redistribution between the concrete and the reinforcement bars. The transmission of the forces
between the two materials occurs by means of the bond forces at their interface [1]. The crack width is
the result of the relative displacements of the two materials or slip (δsc), which is equal to the difference
between the displacement of the bar (δs) and the concrete (δc), as illustrated in Fig. 1a. The strain dis-
tributions in the concrete and the bar in the region affected by the crack are related to the bond forces.
The characterization of the interface response is challenging due to the complexity of the physical phe-
nomena and the large number of factors affecting it. At local level, the bar slip and the internal cracking
of the concrete are directly related to the bond stresses at the interface [2]. In ribbed bars, the force
transmission occurs mostly through the ribs (see Fig. 1a), leading to high stress concentrations at the
lugs [3]. The force introduction at the ribs also causes the development of conical cracks around the
longitudinal axis of the bar [4]. Near the crack face, these cracks can cause a cone-shaped concrete
breakout reducing the bond capacity [5], [6].
The crack width formulation proposed in Eurocode 2 (EC2:2004) [7] and fib Model Code 2010
(MC2010) [1] are based on the product of the crack spacing by the difference between the average
strain in the reinforcement and the average strain in the concrete. The previously explained phenomena
are accounted for by assuming an average bond strength and a rigid-plastic bond stress-slip distribution
[8]. MC2010 specifies the average bond strength (τbms) in the calculation of the length over which slip
between concrete and steel occurs (ls,max). The proposed values for the average bond strength are 1.8fctm
for short term loading and 1.35fctm for other types of loading. EC2:2004 does not explicitly mention the
bond average strength in the proposed crack spacing (sr,max) formulation. Considering that the maximum
crack spacing corresponds to two times ls,max and given the analogy between both expressions, the av-
erage bond strength can be estimated to be 1.47fctm for high-bond bars under pure tension.
Cantone et al. [3] evaluated the response of reinforced concrete ties under cyclic loading. Fig. 1b
shows the crack pattern observed by Digital Image Correlation (DIC) on the surface of the element, the
distribution of axial stresses (σs) and the distribution of bond stresses (τb) along the reinforcement bar
obtained from Fibre Optical Measurements (FOM) for five load levels on the loading part of the 6 th
cycle. On the right side of crack E, the DIC displacement field indicates the presence of a longitudinal
crack parallel to the bar (splitting crack) starting in the first cycles. The bond stress distribution shows
lower bond stresses on the right side of the crack within the region affected by the longitudinal crack.
Fig. 1c shows the average bond stress (τb,avg) measured between the crack location and the respective
points with zero slip at each side of crack E. The average bond stress for the right side (affected by the
14 th
crack) show lower values (~20%) than the left side. For the maximum loads of the cycle, the average
bond stresses were slightly higher than the code estimations. The effect of longitudinal cracks on the
b
bond response is known and several models have been proposed to account for it [9]. The experimental
results are typically obtained from test setups that aim at representing the structural conditions and, in
many cases, the crack width or crack kinematics are imposed.
if
Fig. 1 Tensile tests: (a) scheme of the relative slip; and results from specimen TC04 [3]: (b) crack
pattern, axial and bond stress distribution; and (c) average bond stresses at both sides of
crack E as a function of the test duration.
The aim of this paper is to characterize the crack development around ribbed bars to establish a corre-
lation between the visible cracking state on the surface of concrete specimens and the local bond stresses
activated along the bonded length. For this purpose, the experimental results from pull-out tests are
used. The conditions of a bar under pull-out differ from those of a concrete tie in tension, as the un-
loaded end of the bar can slip. Nevertheless, this type of tests is common to investigate rebar-to-concrete
interaction and provide a visible surface to compare the measurements at the concrete surface and near
the bar, suitable to verify some of the model assumptions.
An experimental programme of pull-out tests was conducted in the Structural Concrete Laboratory of
the École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (Switzerland) to investigate the effects of the cracks
visible on the concrete surface on the rebar-to-concrete interaction.
2.1 Specimens and test set-up

The results presented in this paper include four pull-out tests of series PC01 to evaluate the effect of
the casting conditions and the type of failure in the stress distribution along the anchorage length. Fur-
thermore, experimental results of test series CM11 by Moccia et al. [10] are included in this paper.
The tested reinforcement bars had a nominal diameter of ϕ=20 mm and an anchorage length of 10ϕ.
The bars were cast inside a prismatic concrete element with a cross section of 0.2 x 0.4 m2. The bars
were placed horizontally at the top and bottom face of the formwork with a clear cover (c) of 1ϕ and
3ϕ. The bonded length of 10ϕ corresponds to the width of the tested concrete block (without debonded
lengths). The B500B steel ribbed bars had different rib geometries: bars from series CM11 had ribs
with two lugs (type Tempcore), and bars from series PC01 were coiled bars with four lugs. Bars of
series CM11 were placed with the lugs oriented towards the top and bottom of the formwork to max-
imize the spalling effect. The main parameters of the specimens including the compressive strength of
the concrete at the time of the test (fcm), anchorage capacity (Fu) and relative rib area index (fR) [2] are
indicated in Table 1. Results for specimen CM1132 are not considered because a splitting crack gener-
ated during the test of a previous specimen had reached the bar, reducing the anchorage capacity.
Table 1 Main parameters of pull–out tests and anchorage capacity.

ϕ [mm]
b
Specimen c/ϕ [-] Casting fcm [MPa] Fu [kN] fR [-] Rib type
CM1124 top 94.7
3
CM1132 bottom -
20 42.3 0.074
CM1120 top 64.0
1
if
CM1128 bottom 70.8
PC0101 top 40.6 93.7
3
PC0103 bottom 39.5 115.1
20 0.079
PC0106 top 39.5 76.3
1
PC0108 bottom 39.5 87.9
The test set-up is shown in Fig. 2a, it is analogous to the one used by Moccia et al. [10]. A steel frame
was used to avoid the application of the reaction force in the vicinity of the bar at the crack face, thus
preventing any influence on the development of concrete cone breakouts. Two Linear Variable Dis-
placement Transformers (LVDT) were used to measure the slip at the unloaded end of the bar.
For the specimens of series CM11, both the concrete surface parallel to the rebar and the face per-
pendicular to the bar at the loaded end were followed with DIC. For series PC01, the displacement field
of the concrete surface parallel to the tested bar was measured using DIC. A black speckle pattern of
points of approximatively 1.5 mm was applied on the specimen. The software VIC 3D 8 was used to
perform the analysis. The strains in the reinforcement were measured every 0.65 mm with 125 μm
polyamide fibres and an interrogator Odisi-B by Luna Innovations. The fibres were installed in a grove
2 mm deep at the opposite faces of the rebar (closest and furthest points from the concrete surface).
2.2 Experimental results

Specimens with a cover of 1ϕ failed by spalling of the concrete cover whereas specimens with a cover
of 3ϕ displayed a splitting induced pull-out failure. In both cases, a splitting crack parallel to the bar
started developing from the loaded end of the bar and propagated towards the unloaded end. A crack in
the same location was already visible during the demoulding of the specimens with a cover of 1ϕ located
in the top of the formwork due to plastic settlement [11]. The failure modes are represented in Fig. 2b.
Fig. 2c shows the relationship between the average bond stress over the bonded length and the slip
at the unloaded end of the bar. The results are coherent with the observations of previous studies [2].
The increase of the concrete cover leads to an increase of the anchorage capacity and the positioning of
the bar in the top of the formwork (poor bond conditions, red lines) reduces the bond stresses that can
be activated. Furthermore, for specimens with a cover of 1ϕ, the anchorage capacity of bars with Temp-
core ribs was approximatively 15% lower than the tests with 4 lug bars. This is reasonable because the
rib height was larger and the lugs were positioned in the most unfavourable position, thus the spalling
forces exerted by the bar were larger. This effect was not observed for bars with larger covers.
Fig. 3 presents the results obtained from the detailed measurements for specimen PC0101. Similar
results were observed for the other tested specimens. Fig. 3a shows the crack pattern at the concrete
surface at the maximum load (black) and the cracks that developed in the post-peak phase (blue). The
stress distributions along the rebar at five load stages are represented in Fig. 3b. The stress in the bar is
calculated using the average of the two measured strains on both sides of the bar and assuming an elastic
behaviour (Es = 200 GPa). Bond stresses are calculated from the equilibrium of discrete bar elements
0.65 mm long (spatial resolution of the FOM). The axial and bond stress results have been smoothed
using a moving average filter over a length of 2 rib spacings. The concrete displacement δc is obtained
from the displacement field of the surface of the concrete along the axis of the bar. The bar displacement
δs is calculated from the slip at the unloaded end measured with the LVDT adding the integrated strains
along the bar. The relative slip δsc is the difference between the two values.
The crack width plot considers two types of cracks: spalling cracks (parallel to the bar and approx-
imately parallel to the free concrete surface) and splitting cracks (parallel to the bar and perpendicular
to the free concrete surface), as shown in Fig. 2b. From the DIC data on the concrete surface, the open-
ing of the splitting crack (wsplitting) can be directly measured. The opening of the spalling crack (wspalling)
is assumed to be equal to the out-of-plane displacement of the concrete cover along the bar axis.
The axial stress distribution for low load levels displays a steeper slope near the loaded end indi-
cating the activation of larger bond stresses in that region. This is coherent with the low slips observed
14th
near the unloaded end of the bar. The distributions show similarities with those shown in Fig. 1b. For
larger loads, the stress distribution flattens towards the loaded end of the bar, due to bond deterioration.
b
The bond stress distribution at the peak load shows a complete loss of bond along a length of approxi-
mately 2ϕ and a significant reduction between 2ϕ and 4ϕ. These results are consistent with the obser-
vations on the concrete surface. The concrete cone breakout with a length of approximately 2ϕ lead to
the reduction of the bond in that region. In the section between 2 to 4ϕ, conical cracks reached the
if
concrete surface which, combined with the splitting crack, can reduce the bond strength and the an-
chorage capacity.
The slip plots indicate that the displacements at the concrete surface are negligible compared with
the displacements of the bar when the conical cracks have not propagated through the cover. After the
cracks reach the concrete surface, the displacement distribution shows steps at the crack locations.
The crack opening graphs indicate that both the spalling and the splitting crack widths at the con-
crete surface increase towards the loaded end of the bar. The effect of the cone breakout can be observed
in the variations of the tendencies of the curves. The concrete portions on each side of the splitting
crack are pulled by the bar and rotate in opposite directions in the concrete plane (affecting the splitting
crack width) and out-of-plane (causing a sudden slope change in the spalling crack width).
Fig. 2 Test set-up and results: (a) test set-up; (b) schematic representation of failure modes in pull-
out tests; and (c) average bond stress over the slip at the unloaded end of the bar plots.
Fig. 3 Pull-out test results for specimen PC0101: (a) crack pattern observed from the DIC dis-
placement field on the concrete surface; and (b) distribution along the bonded length of
axial steel stress, bond stress, slip and crack width.

The DIC measurements on the face perpendicular to the bar provide additional information on the
cracking of the concrete and the cone breakout. Fig. 4 shows the crack pattern and the isolines of the
b
out-of-plane displacement (uz) at the maximum load. Due to the shade casted by the bar and to the bar
itself, a region behind the bar could not be monitored, see Fig. 4a. Moreover, the points immediately
neighbouring the bar could not be tracked. Additionally, the out-of-plane displacements along a vertical
cut at the centre of the bar (dash-dotted line parallel to the y axis) are shown for five different load
if
levels.
The crack patterns at peak load (black) show typically three main splitting cracks: one approxima-
tively vertical and two inclined on the sides. For loads close the anchorage capacity, the vertical crack
was observed below the bar (outside the measured region). In some specimens, the vertical splitting
crack has a certain inclination and only one of the lateral cracks develops (specimen CM1124, Fig. 4c).
As it can be seen in Figs. 4b and 4d, the lateral splitting cracks do not always start at the bar quadrants,
which could be caused by a small cone breakout around the first ranges of ribs. However, this effect
could not be measured. After reaching the maximum load, the concrete portions within the cone
breakout mechanism detach from the concrete specimen generating new cracks (blue).
The vertical section plots show differences between the out of plane displacements near the bar and
at the concrete surface. Specimens with a cover of 1ϕ show a clear curvature of the concrete surface.
For loads closer to the failure load, the surface tends to flatten as a consequence of the rigid body
displacement of the concrete portions (Fig. 4c). The difference in the displacement between the end
points can reach values larger than 60% of the slip at the unloaded end at 20% of the anchorage capacity,
and values ranging from 13 to 50% of the slip at the unloaded end at the maximum load. These relative
displacements lead to significant differences between the crack width measured on the surface and the
value at the bar level [12].
Fig. 4 Main results of the pull-out tests of series CM11: (a) 3D schematic view of the crack pat-
terns of specimen CM1120; and out-of-plane displacement isolines and vertical section cuts
for specimens (b) CM1120, (c) CM1124 and (d) CM1128.
3 Result discussion
3.1 Crack measurements on the surface and at the bar

As explained in Section 1, the rebar-to-concrete bond is affected by the internal concrete cracking. The
internal cracks become visible when they propagate through the concrete cover. The experimental re-
sults presented in the previous section show considerable differences between the crack characteristics
14th
on the concrete surface and at the location of the bar. In order to establish a correlation between the
degradations on the visible faces of the specimen and the bond-slip response, the data from series CM11
b
was used to determine the relationship between the values measured on the surface and near the bar. A
schematic representation of the considered region is shown in Fig. 5a.
Concerning the spalling of the cover, it has been observed that the displacements of the concrete
below the observed cracks are negligible and that the concrete portions delimited by the splitting and
if
spalling cracks undergo a rigid body rotation. Consequently, points in the same concrete portion with
the same abscissa undergo similar vertical displacements. The spalling crack width is then considered
approximatively equal to the vertical displacement (uy) of the cover. The results for specimens CM1120,
CM1124 and CM1128 are represented in Fig. 5b. For each specimen, the out-of-plane displacements
of all the points within the bar width are represented as a function of the slip at the unloaded end of the
bar (δend). The average value is indicated as a solid line (dotted lines indicate missing experimental
data). The results show similar displacements for the considered specimens.
Fig. 5 Crack opening measurements from series CM11: (a) schematic representation of the ob-
served mechanism; (b) spalling crack width over the slip at the unloaded end of the bar; and
(c) splitting crack width at the bar surface (solid line), the concrete surface (dash-dotted
line) and estimated value (dashed line) over the unloaded end slip.
Based on the same assumptions, the variation of the crack width at the bar position (Δwsplitting) can be
estimated from the rotation of each side (θ), and the distance from the point on the surface and the
position at the bar (d) using Eq. 1.
wsplitting = dleftleft − drightright (1)
Fig. 5c shows the evolution of the splitting crack near the surface of the element (dash-dotted lines),
near the bar location (solid line) obtained from the DIC data, and the estimate of the width at the bar
level. The rotations of each block were calculated from the displacement field using one point on the
side of the crack and a second point located at a distance equal to the clear cover of the bar. The speci-
mens with smaller cover display lower values, which is consistent with the fact that the load reached at
the anchorage capacity is lower. For all specimens, the estimated values at the bar position are similar
to the measured values. For specimen CM1124, the estimation follows the measured values until the
slip at the unloaded end reaches 0.7 mm. The two values differ for larger slips due to the appearance of
a crack at the right of the main splitting crack (Fig. 4c).
The results indicate that this approach can be pertinent to estimate the crack width at the bar. It must
be noted that the crack widths can be comparable to the slip at the unloaded end even for low values of
the force.
3.2 Crack kinematics along the bonded length and bond stress reduction
Using the approach presented in the previous section, the evolution of the spalling and splitting cracks
at the bar can be estimated from the displacement field on the concrete surface. The rotations on the
surface can be determined from the out-of-plane displacements of a point near the crack and another at
a distance equal to the clear cover.
The results included in Fig. 6 correspond to specimen PC0101. The resulting crack kinematics as a
function of the relative slip (δsc) are shown in Fig. 6a for bar sections located at distances of 1, 3, 5, 7
and 9ϕ from the loaded end. The measured spalling crack widths (solid line) are larger for points closer
to the loaded end of the bar, in particular for the points within the concrete cone breakout. The values
for the splitting crack width at the bar (dashed line) are larger at the centre of the specimen. This is
b
caused by the in-plane rotation of the concrete blocks which tends to close the splitting crack near the
start of the conical cracks. The estimated values are smaller than those shown in Fig. 5. This is probably
caused by the rib positioning being less favourable for specimens of series CM11 and by the fact that
the largest crack openings are found near the loaded end of the bar (see Fig. 3b).
if
Fig. 6b shows the measured local bond-slip relationships at the aforementioned bar locations (solid
lines) and the local bond-slip relationship proposed in MC2010 for the conditions of specimen PC0101,
unconfined splitting failure and poor bond conditions (grey solid line). The experimental results show
a stiffer response than the code proposal. These results agree with other experimental data obtained
with FOM [13]. The behaviour in the region affected by the cone breakout mechanism display a smaller
peak bond stress and a brittle failure. Outside the cone breakout, the bond stresses reach larger values
and have a post-peak response similar to the code proposal for pull-out failure.
Brantschen et al. [9] proposed a model to calculate the reduction of the bond strength accounting
for the effect of a crack parallel to the bar. The reduction factor is assumed to be proportional to the
loss of contact surface of an idealised rib (with height hR and rib flank inclination αR) perpendicular to
the bar longitudinal axis according to Eq. (2); where: w is the crack opening, fR is the bond index and
κf is a proportionality factor. The crack opening causes an additional slip (Δδsc) as per Eq. (2).
b 1 w
= ;  sc = cot  R  hR cot  R (2)
 b0 f w 2
1+
fR 
Considering the MC2010 local bond-slip law for pull-out failure in good bond conditions (grey dashed
line) as reference value, the model was applied calculating the reduction factor with an equivalent crack
width corresponding to the orthogonal addition of the splitting and spalling crack components. The
results are presented in Fig. 6b with dashed lines. The points within the cone breakout region have been
omitted, as the assumption of the reference bond slip law is not realistic in that region. The results of
the model capture the trends of the experimental data and the peak values, considering the local effects
and scatter typically found in bond-related results.
Fig. 6c shows a comparison between the reduction of the contact surface (Ac) with respect with the
initial value (Ac0) for different angles, β (representing variable ratios of spalling and splitting crack
widths). An angle of 90º corresponds to a single horizontal crack, whereas an angle of 45º represents
the case where two orthogonal cracks open simultaneously. It can be observed that the latter case is
much more unfavourable. The contact is lost for a non-dimensional crack width of approximately w/hR
= 2 compared with 8 for the case of 90º.
Fig. 6 Local results for specimen PC0101: (a) measured splitting and spalling crack widths as a
function of the local slip; (b) local bond-slip relationships; and (c) rib contact surface re-
duction for different crack kinematics.
4 Conclusion and outlook

This paper presents the results of an experimental and analytical investigation to establish a relationship
between the effect of visible crack patterns on the surface of concrete specimens and the bond stress

14th
distribution along the reinforcement bars to refine the bond assumptions for the crack width calcula-
tions. Results from pull-out tests accounting for different parameters are included. The main findings
b
are summarized below:
1. Experimental results indicate that the proposed average bond strength considered in current
code crack formulations may not be accurate in cases where longitudinal splitting cracks par-
allel to the bar can be observed.
if
2. The experimental local bond-slip relationships obtained from pull-out tests within the region
of the specimen not affected by the concrete cone breakout differ considerably from the cor-
respondent relationships for splitting failure proposed in MC2010. The measured responses
follow the trend of the proposed relationship for pull-out failure in good casting conditions
with smaller peak stresses and a stiffer response in the pre-peak branch.
3. The local bond stresses measured at different bar locations can be explained and quantified
based on the opening of two sets of cracks parallel to the bar: spalling cracks (approximately
parallel to the free concrete surface) and splitting cracks (perpendicular to the free concrete
surface).
The objective of this project is to establish a better correlation between crack width and reinforcement
stresses. The improvements in the last years in DIC and FOM show the potential of these tools to
provide new insights on the rebar-to-concrete interaction and, in particular, the bond stress develop-
ment. Future research will focus on the local bond-slip relationships and the average bond strength
values for different types of rib geometries and structural elements (concrete ties and beams) with a
particular focus on serviceability conditions.
Acknowledgements
Authors acknowledge the financial support by the Swiss Federal Roads Authority, project AGB‐2019‐
007.
References
[1] FIB. 2013. fib Model Code for Concrete Structures 2010. Berlin: Ernst & Sohn.
[2] FIB. 2000. fib bulletin 10: Bond of reinforcement in concrete. Lausanne: International Federa-
tion of Structural Concrete
[3] Cantone R., Fernández Ruiz M., and Muttoni A. 2020. “A detailed view on the rebar–to–con-
crete interaction based on refined measurement techniques.” Engineering Structures 226:19.
[4] Goto Y. 1971. “Cracks Formed in Concrete around Deformed Tension Bars.” ACI Journal
68:244-251.
[5] Kreller H. 1989. “Zum nichtlinearen Trag- und Verformungsverhalten von Stahlbetonstabtrag-
werken unter Last- und Zwangeinwirkung.” PhD diss. Institut für Werkstoffe im Bauwesen
Universität Stuttgart.
[6] CEB. 1993. CEB-FIP Model Code 1990. London: Thomas Telford.
[7] European Committee for Standardization (CEN). 2004. Eurocode 2. Design of concrete struc-
tures-Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings. Brussels: CEN.
[8] Marti P., Alvarez M., Kaufmann W., and Sigrist V. 1998. “Tension chord model for structural
concrete.” Structural Engineering International 8/4:287-298.
[9] Brantschen F., Faria D. M. V., Fernández Ruiz M., and Muttoni A. 2016. “Bond Behaviour of
Straight, Hooked, U-Shaped and Headed Bars in Cracked Concrete.” Structural Concrete 17/5:
799-810.
[10] Moccia F., Fernández Ruiz M., and Muttoni A. 2021. “Spalling of concrete cover induced by
reinforcement.” Engineering Structures 237:1-19.
[11] Moccia F., Fernández Ruiz M., Metelli M., Muttoni A., and Plizzari G. 2021. “Casting position
effects on bond performance of reinforcement bars.” Structural Concrete 22/3:1612-1632.
[12] Borosnyói A., and Snóbli I. 2010. “Crack width variation within the concrete cover of rein-
forced concrete members.” Epitoanyag, Journal of Silicate Based and Composite Materials
62/3:70-74.
[13] Bado M. F., Casas J.-R., and Kaklauskas G. 2021. “Distributed Sensing (DOFS) in Reinforced
Concrete members for reinforcement strain monitoring, crack detection and bond-slip calcula-
tion.” Engineering Structures 226:1-13.

Moment redistribution and strain localisation in two-
b
span concrete slab strips reinforced with low strain
hardening steel
if
Nathalie Reckinger, Karel Thoma and Walter Kaufmann
Institute of Structural Engineering
ETH Zurich
Stefano-Franscini-Platz 5, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
Abstract
Structural engineering design rules given in modern standards are often based on the lower-bound the-
orem of the Theory of Plasticity. Hence, they rely on a sufficient deformation capacity of the structure
and its components. This paper presents preliminary results of a test series of three two-span continuous
slab strips reinforced with bars whose stress-strain characteristic exhibits a large ultimate strain, but
hardly any strain hardening over a major part of the inelastic range. While the lack of strain hardening
causes a pronounced strain localisation, the large ultimate strain of the reinforcing bars enables consid-
erable ultimate deflections. Moment redistributions from the intermediate support section to the span
are observed while the plastic hinge at the support softens.
1 Introduction
The lower-bound theorem of limit analysis [1] [2] applies the Theory of Plasticity in structural engi-
neering, and it is the basis of many international design code provisions. The theorem states that a safe
design results from any solution that satisfies equilibrium and static boundary conditions without in-
fringing the yield condition. Therefore, initial self-equilibrated stress states caused by staged construc-
tion, hydration heat, temperature changes or imposed deformations may be neglected as long as a suf-
ficient deformation capacity is provided. This is crucial for design because it is nearly impossible to
reliably estimate these initial stress states in real structures [3], [4].
Strictly speaking, the lower-bound theorem of limit analysis assumes perfectly plastic material be-
haviour. It may however be applied to materials failing at a finite ultimate strain provided that they
have sufficient deformation capacity to achieve the required stress redistributions. For reinforced con-
crete, the applicability was researched by conducting large-scale experimental campaigns in the 1960s
(e.g. at ETH Zurich [5]), which resulted in structural design rules, concerning e.g. the ductility class of
the reinforcing steel and the admissible depth of the compression zone, as included in modern design
codes.
However, the characteristics of reinforcing steel have changed over time, making it questionable
whether modern reinforced concrete provides the same level of ductility as the concrete structures tested
in the 1960s. For example, low ductile reinforcing steels commonly used in Europe in the 1990s caused
a reduced rotation capacity [6], [7]. More recently, new reinforcement materials, such as carbon, glass
or basalt fibre reinforced polymers, are entering the construction market.
2 Problem statement
A series of tests on two-span continuous slab strips, including conventional reinforcing bars with var-
ying ductility as well as different types of non-metallic reinforcement, is currently conducted at the
Lucerne University of Applied Sciences and Arts in collaboration with ETH Zurich in order to investi-
gate the ability to reach the ultimate limit state according to limit analysis, i.e., the formation of plastic
hinges over the support as well as in the span. In some of the tests initial stress states are applied before
loading.
This paper presents preliminary results of three specimens reinforced with stainless steel bars ex-
hibiting a low Young’s Modulus, hardly any strain hardening over the main part of the inelastic range,
but a large ultimate strain of over 200 ‰. The paper addresses possible bending moment redistributions
in the slab strips, influenced positively by the high ultimate strain but adversely by the lack of harden-
ing, and discusses observed strain localisations.
14 th
b
The experimental series consists of bending experiments on three slab strips with two spans. The di-
mensions of the slab strips and the test set-up are similar to that of [6] and are shown in Fig. 1 (a). The
three slab strips were produced equally and subjected to different loading scenarios. Specimen S1 was
tested without intentionally inducing an initial stress state. The specimens S2 and S3 were subjected to
self-equilibrated initial stress states with positive and negative bending moments at the intermediate
if
support, respectively, before the loads Q were applied.
3.1 Dimensions and reinforcement

The specimens were 12.6 m long with a span of 6.0 m and a rectangular cross-section of 0.24 m by 1.00
m. The main tensile reinforcement consisted of 6 Ø14 mm stainless steel bars in the first and fourth
layers, except above the intermediate support, where the reinforcement in the fourth layer consisted of
6 Ø16 mm (Fig. 1 (b) and (c)). The clear concrete cover was 25 mm. Stirrups Ø12 mm were placed at
both edges of the specimens, and the reinforcing bars of the first layer were spliced with 0.6 m overlap
at the intermediate support. In the transverse direction (second and third layers), reinforcement
Ø10@200 mm was provided.
Fig. 1 (a) Dimensions and static system; (b) Reinforcement layout in plan view; (c) Cross-sections
3.2 Materials
The main tensile reinforcement consisted of austenitic-ferritic (duplex) stainless reinforcing bars of
grade 1.4482 according to EN 10088-1 [8]. The material, exhibiting no distinct yield plateau, has a high
tensile strength, a low Young’s Modulus and a large ultimate strain. Young’s Modulus was obtained
by fitting a straight line between stress bounds of 50 and 500 MPa, and the yield stress was determined
at 2 ‰ residual strain (Fig. 2 and Table 1); note that due to the highly non-linear behaviour in the elastic
range, significantly different yield stresses may result if other stress bounds are used. The properties of
the concrete are summarised in Table 2.
Fig. 2 (a) Stress-strain diagram of the reinforcing bars; (b) Determination of Young’s Modulus

Moment redistribution and strain localisation in two-span concrete slab strips reinforced with low strain hardening steel
Table 1 Average material properties of the reinforcing steel
b
Dimension Ø 14 mm bars Ø 16 mm bars
2
Yield stress fym [MPa] 738 765
Ultimate stress fum 1 [MPa] 882 > 875 3
if
1
fum/fym [-] 1.20 > 1.14 3
Yield strain εym 2 [‰] 7.6 7.6
Ultimate strain εum 1 [‰] 210 > 254 3
Young’s mod. Esm 2
[GPa] 132 136
1
Number of tested bars: 1
2 Number of testes bars: 2
3 The bar was unloaded and tested again a month later. The value from the first test is used.
Table 2 Average material properties of the concrete and coefficient of variation

Dimension S1 (3 samples) S2 (3 samples) S3 (3 samples)
Concrete age [d] 42 49 55
Compr. strength fcm [MPa] 44.5 (± 4.6%) 43.8 (± 2.9 %) 43.8 (± 2.0 %)
Tens. strength fctm [MPa] 3.2 (± 7.3 %) 3.4 (± 5.2 %) 3.2 (± 7.9 %)
Young’s mod. Ecm [GPa] 30.2 (± 4.6%) 30.9 (± 0.9 %) 30.7 (± 4.4%)
3.3 Test set-up and measuring concept

The specimens were supported on six short pin-headed supports, two at each support location (Fig. 1),
and during the test, two vertical loads were introduced per span.
The vertical and horizontal displacement were measured with Linear Variable Displacement Trans-
ducers (LVDT) at several locations (Fig. 3). Load cells measured the force Q generated by the actuators
and the support reactions R. Several reinforcing bars were instrumented with Distributed Fibre-Optical
Sensing (DFOS) using glass fibres glued inside grooves carved along the bar axis to measure the local
steel strains quasi-continuously [9]. One lateral surface of the specimens was speckled to measure
strains and crack widths and kinematics with full-field 2D Digital Image Correlation (DIC) [10].
The preliminary results presented in this paper rely mainly on the load and displacement measure-
ments, whereas single measurements from DFOS and DIC are used to emphasise certain findings.
Fig. 3 Half slab strip with test set-up (symmetric) and measuring systems (in blue).
3.4 Test procedure

Before starting the experiment, each specimen was supported by scaffolding (Fig. 4 (a)). The measuring
instruments were zeroed and the scaffolding was removed to activate the self-weight.
In the test of Specimen S1 the actuators subsequently increased the load Q. Specimen S2 had been
set up inclined (Fig. 4 (a)). After removing the scaffolding, one of the outer supports was slowly low-
ered by |2δD| = 190 mm until a strain εs = 0.0026, corresponding to approximately half the yield stress
(Fig. 2 (b)) was measured with the fibre optic sensors in the top reinforcement at support D (Fig 4 (b)).
Specimen S3 had been set up higher than Specimen S1 (Fig. 4 (a)). After removing the scaffolding, the
intermediate support was slowly lowered by δD = 115 mm until the strain εs = 0.0026 was reached in
the bottom reinforcement at the intermediate support D (Fig, 4 (b)).
14 th
if b
Fig. 4 Imposed initial stress states of slab strips S1 to S3. (a) State “0” before the start of the
experiment; (b) State before application of the load Q; (c) Initial bending moment line ex-
cluding self-weight.
Fig. 4 (c) shows the theoretical bending moment lines before the load Q was applied, determined using
the deflection δD and the span L and assuming that the slab strip is fully cracked, with a constant cracked
elastic stiffness EIII over the entire length, thus neglecting the varying reinforcement ratio.
During the first part of the experiment, the loads Q were increased in 15 kN intervals until the
reinforcement yielded above the intermediate support. Subsequently, the deflection wC was increased
in intervals of 10 mm. After each interval, the loading was suspended for 2 min to allow stress relaxa-
tion. The deflection was increased until the maximum possible deformation in the test set-up was
reached (S1 and S2) or until failure (S3).
4 Experimental findings
The following section presents some preliminary experimental findings, focused on load-displacement
behaviour, moment redistributions with respect to the elastic solution and observations on strain local-
isation. The detailed evaluation of the data concerning, e.g., steel stresses, crack patterns and kinemat-
ics, and plastic hinge rotations, is ongoing and will be followed by analyses using mechanical models,
e.g., elastic-plastic analysis with a rigid-perfectly plastic hinge characteristic [11].
Fig. 5 Deflection profiles at increasing load Q.
4.1 Load-displacement behaviour and bending moment redistribution

Fig. 5 shows deflection profiles at increasing load Q in the three experiments. The load-displacement
curves are presented in Fig. 6 (a), where the plotted load values are the average of the measurements at
all four load applications (i.e., excluding self-weight). The plotted displacements are the average values
of the symmetric sections (B, F) and (C, E), respectively.
Fig. 6 (b) shows the applied load Q, plotted versus the bending moments MX, where X denotes sections
B, C and D. All reaction forces and applied loads were measured during the experiments, which facili-
b
tated the calculation of the bending moments in any section by equilibrium. The dashed lines represent
the theoretical bending moments MX,el, calculated in a linear elastic analysis assuming a constant
cracked bending stiffness EIII along the entire length of the slab strips, i.e.,
114QL 3 D EI II 11gL2
if
M B , el = + + (1)
625 5 L2 200
92QL 9 D EI II 9 gL2
M C , el = + + (2)
625 5 L2 200
180QL 3 D EI II gL2
M D , el = − + − (3)
625 L2 8
where g = self-weight of the slab strip. The initial stress state in the experiments on specimens S2
and S3 is taken into account with the measured displacement δD at the beginning of the experiment
(Fig. 4 (b) and (c)).
Fig. 6 (a) Load-displacement diagrams; (b) Measured bending moment MX, compared to a linear-
elastic calculation MX,el (X = Sections B, C and D, MD and MD,el with reversed sign);
(c) Bending moment redistribution ratio β = 1– MD/MD,el,

14th
The yield moments MBC,y = 134 kNm in sections B and C, and |MD,y| = 180 kNm in section D, were
calculated by formulating equilibrium at a cracked cross-section and assuming linear elastic material
b
behaviour. The reinforcing bars were assumed to yield at the mean yield stress fym and strain εym (Table
1), and a secant Young’s Modulus Es,sec = fym / εym was used. The yield moment is thus:
 x
M y = bd  ym Es , sec  d − 
 
(
with x = d n22 + 2n − n ) (4)
if
3
where ρ = As/(bd) = reinforcement ratio, d = static depth and n = Es,sec / Ecm = modular ratio. The
theoretical load at the onset of yielding Qy,el is obtained by setting MD,el (obtained from Eq. (3)) equal
to MD,y for Specimens S1 and S2. In the case of Specimen S3, the theoretical calculation predicts yield-
ing to occur first in section B; accordingly Qy,el is obtained by setting MB,el = MBC,y.
Fig. 6 (c) illustrates the bending moment redistribution ratio β = 1 – MD/MD,el. Due to its definition,
β becomes large for small values of MD,el (at low applied loads Q) and tends to infinity for MD,el = 0.
This occurred in Specimen 3, when the initially positive bending moment reversed sign at Q = 17 kN.
Specimen S1 followed the theoretical linear elastic relationship between applied load and bending
moments closely up to the theoretical yield load Qy,el = 87 kN, see Fig. 6 (b). This behaviour essentially
corresponds to a vertical Q-β curve (with β = 0) in Fig. 6 (c); the observed bending moments deviated
from this line particularly at low load levels, since the bending moment at the beginning of the experi-
ment did not match the linear elastic value. When the applied load was increased above approximately
110 kN, the measured bending moment in section D decreased markedly while the load Q kept increas-
ing. Hence, the plastic hinge in D was softening, despite that the slightly positive slope of the hardening
branch observed in the material tests would have suggested an almost perfectly plastic hinge, i.e., a con-
stant bending moment. While the plastic hinge in D softened, the bending moments in Sections B and
C increased more strongly, i.e., a moment redistribution towards the span allowed a hardening load-
displacement behaviour of the system despite the softening hinge in D. The test was stopped when the
deflections reached the capacity of the test set-up, at a maximum deflection of 214 mm (Fig. 5).
Similarly to Specimen S1, Specimen S2 followed the theoretical linear elastic load-bending mo-
ment relation up to the theoretical yield load Qy,el = 65 kN (Fig. 6 (b)), which is lower than in Specimen
S1 due to the negative bending moment in the initial stress state (Fig. 4 (c)). The softening of the plastic
hinge in D initiated at a load of approximately 100 kN and was less pronounced than in Specimen S1,
while the moment redistribution was more significant due to the earlier onset of yielding. The peak
moment of Specimen S2 was slightly lower compared to Specimen S1, which may be due to variable
material properties of the steel or geometrical imperfections. The experiment was stopped at a maxi-
mum deflection of 175 mm.
Specimen 3 also initially followed the slope predicted by the linear-elastic calculation. At a load of
122 kN, the specimen suddenly failed in shear close to the intermediate support. Failure occurred after
reaching the theoretical yield moment under a load Qy,el = 101 kN in Section B. The theoretical yield
moment MD,y in Section D was also reached, with a similar peak bending moment in the intermediate
support section as in Specimen S2, even though no significant moment redistribution is observed. This
is explained by the low estimate of the yield stress (Fig. 2 (b)) which leads to low yield moments MBC,y
and MD,y. The shear failure – which occurred despite that the experiments were designed to fail in bend-
ing – was likely favoured by bending cracks formed at the lower edge of the specimen during the low-
ering of the intermediate support.
4.2 Strain Distributions

Fig. 7 illustrates the steel strain distributions at selected loads Q, along with the yield strain εym of
the reinforcing steel; note that due to the absence of a yield plateau, the latter is a nominal value. Strains
above the yield strain were observed in the reinforcing bars in the span and above the intermediate
support in all three specimens, such that it can be assumed that both the span and the support region
yielded at the time of failure and the ultimate limit state according to limit analysis, i.e., the formation
of plastic hinges over the support as well as in the span, was reached.
Fig. 8 shows the region around the intermediate support shortly before unloading (S1 and S2) or
failure (S3). In Specimens S1 and S2 strains localised pronouncedly in a single crack above the inter-
mediate support, see also Fig. 7. According to the material characterisation (Fig. 2), the reinforcing
steel behaves nearly perfectly plastic beyond a strain of approximately 12 ‰, i.e., once this value is
reached, strains indeed localise the corresponding section under constant stress.

A plastic hinge of a certain length containing several cracks, with plastic strains in the reinforcement
along its extension, can only be achieved if the reinforcing steel exhibits strain hardening: Without
b
strain hardening, the bending moment in the crack at the location of the peak moment cannot increase
and hence, the yield moment cannot be reached in neighbouring cracks where the bending moment is
smaller. Yielding in several adjoining cracks is generally required in order to achieve a sufficient hinge
rotation (as integral of curvatures over several cracks within the plastic hinge length) before the steel
if
ruptures upon reaching the ultimate strain at the location of the peak moment [5], [7]. Generally,
whether a reinforcing bar undergoes plastic strains in several cracks depends mainly on the bending
moment gradient and the gradient (i.e., amount of strain hardening) of the stress-strain relationship of
the reinforcing steel [7]. The observation that a single crack provides most of the plastic deformation
in Specimens S1 and S2 coincides with the low strain hardening of the stainless steel, which is actually
close to zero. While strain localisation in one crack would usually drastically decrease the deformation
capacity of a structure, significant vertical displacements were still observed in the Specimens S1 and
S2 (Fig. 5), presumably thanks to the large ultimate strain of the reinforcement (Fig. 2), which counter-
acts the effect of strain localisation by enabling astonishingly large crack widths of over 15 mm (Fig.
8) before steel rupture.
Fig. 7 DFOS measurements at various loads Q. Strains εs,inf in the lower reinforcement layer and
εs,sup in the upper reinforcement layer shown below, resp. above the ε s = 0 axis.
Fig. 8 Maximum crack width at the intermediate support immediately before unloading (S1 and
S2) respectively failure (S3) [mm].

14 th
5 Conclusions
b
The preliminary results of the experimental series show that the specimen without imposed initial stress
state and that with an initially imposed negative bending moment could sustain large deflections of over
175 mm without failing. The specimen with a positive initial bending moment also reached a large
deflection of 100 mm, but failed in shear shortly after the ultimate limit state was reached. The behav-
iour was essentially elastic and no bending moment redistribution was observed.
if
In the two specimens that did not fail, deformations localised in a very wide crack above the inter-
mediate support, and the plastic hinge over the intermediate support exhibited a softening behaviour.
The global load-deformation behaviour remained hardening because bending moments could be redis-
tributed towards the span of the continuous slab strips.
The evaluation of the full-field 2D Digital Image Correlation data and the strains in the reinforcing
bars, measured with Distributed Fibre Optic Sensing, is ongoing and will provide further insight into
the behaviour of the three specimens. The additional data shall help interpret the observed softening in
the plastic hinge and the shear failure of the third experiment.
In the continuation of the project, experiments on similar slab strips with different reinforcement
types, such as other grades of stainless steel, conventional steel reinforcement of ductility classes A, B
and C according to [12], and basalt reinforcing bars, will be carried out. The aim is a better understand-
ing of the ductility of the slab strips as a function on the material characteristics of the reinforcing
materials.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the funding of Leviat AG for the presented experiments and ex-
press their appreciation for the fruitful collaboration with the Institute of Civil Engineering at the Lu-
cerne University of Applied Sciences and Arts. The figures in this paper use perceptually uniform col-
our maps provided by [13].
References
[1] Gvozdev, Alexei A. 1960. “The determination of the value of the collapse load for statically
indeterminate systems undergoing plastic deformation.” International Journal of Mechanical
Sciences 1:322-35.
[2] Drucker, Daniel C., William Prager, and Harvey J. Greenberg. 1952. “Extended limit design
theorems for continuous media.” Quarterly of Applied Mathematics 9:381–89.
[3] Melan, Ernst. 1938. “Zur Plastizität des räumlichen Kontinuums.” Ingenieur-Archiv 9:116–126.
[4] Kaufmann, Walter, and Tena Galkovski. 2019. “Spannungszustand in ungerissenen Betonbau-
ten.” Report, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich.
[5] Bachmann, Hugo. 1967. “Zur plastizitätstheoretischen Berechnung statisch unbestimmter
Stahlbetonbalken.” PhD diss., Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich.
[6] Alvarez, Manuel, Stefan Köppel, and Peter Marti. 2000. “Rotation Capacity of Reinforced Con-
crete Slabs.” ACI Structural Journal 97:235–44. Accessed July 22, 2022. doi: 10.14359/852.
[7] Bachmann, Hugo, and Thomas Wenk. 1998. “Ungenügende Duktilität beim Bewehrungstahl.”
Schweizer Ingenieur und Architekt 116:544–51. Accessed July 22, 2022. doi: 10.3929/ethz-a-
006297306.
[8] European Committee for Standardization. 2014. EN 10088-1 – Part 1: List of stainless steels.
[9] Galkovski, Tena, Yasmin Lemcherreq, Jaime Mata-Falcón, and Walter Kaufmann. 2021. “Fun-
damental Studies on the Use of Distributed Fibre Optical Sensing on Concrete and Reinforcing
Bars” Sensors 21:7643. Accessed July 22, 2022. doi: 10.3390/s21227643.
[10] Gehri, Nicola, Jaime Mata-Falcón, and Walter Kaufmann.2022. “Refined Extraction of Crack
Characteristics in Largescale Concrete Experiments Based on Digital Image Correlation.” Eng.
Structures 251:113486. Accessed July 22, 2022. doi:10.1016/j.engstruct.2021.113486.
[11] Sigrist, Viktor, and Peter Marti. 1994. “Ductility of Structural Concrete: A Contribution.” Paper
presented at the Workshop: Development of EN 1992 in Relation to New Research Results and
to the CEB-FIP Model Code 1990, Prague, October 20–21.
[12] European Committee for Standardization. 2004. EN 1992-1-1 – Design of concrete structures.
[13] Crameri, Fabio. 2018. “Scientific colour maps.” Accessed July 22, 2022. 2018.
http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1243862.

Experimental Investigation of the Anchorage Capacity
b
of Looped Wire Ropes placed in Wall Elements for T-
and L-connections
if
Torkil Veyhe1,2, Henrik B. Joergensen1 and Søren G. Hansen2
1 Department of Technology and Innovation, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej
55, 5230 Odense, Denmark
2 COWI A/S, Vestre Stationsvej 7, 5000 Odense, Denmark
Abstract
Within the last decade, a construction-friendly design principle for connections between wall elements
has been used more and more. It is designed with flexible wire ropes that replace the traditionally used
U-bars. The anchorage of wire ropes in wall element has not been solved. Especially, the anchorage of
wire ropes in T- and L-connections can be very complex. Here, the wire ropes stick out of the side of
the wall element and are bent in the anchorage zone. This paper presents an extensive experimental
programme of 40 specimens on the anchorage capacity of wire ropes anchored in the side of a wall
element. The study shows that some of the specially designed reinforcement increased the anchorage
capacity, while the more traditional reinforcement did not influence the capacity. Furthermore, the pa-
per shows that the failure mechanisms are often found as a concrete cone failure.
1 Introduction
Structural continuity in precast concrete buildings is ensured via connections. The U-bar connection,
among others, has been used to ensure structural continuity for more than 50 years, see, e.g. [1]. A new
connection has been developed where flexible wire ropes replace the U-bars. The so-called looped wire
rope connection has become increasingly popular due to its installation benefits. [2], [3]. For this con-
nection, several models for estimating the capacity have been developed during the last decade, e.g.
[4]-[6]. These models are based on the assumption that the wire rope is sufficiently anchored in the wall
element.
Fig. 1 Illustration of T-connection (left) and L-connection (right)
Recently, the first experimental data on the anchorage capacity of looped wire ropes in precast concrete
elements have been published by the authors [7]. However, these only cover so-called straight connec-
tions where the wall elements are placed in the same plane. The anchorage of wire ropes in wall ele-
ments placed perpendicularly, so-called T- and L-connections, see Figure 1, can be very complex. It
was previously shown that such corner connections could not be made with wire ropes that overlap
from different directions [8]. Therefore, the wire ropes are sticking out of the side of the wall element
and are bent in the anchorage zone to establish a connection where the wire ropes overlap, similar to
the straight connection. To the authors' knowledge, there are no models or experiments available for
the anchorage capacity of looped wire ropes in T- and L-connections. Therefore, this paper experimen-
tally investigates the anchorage capacity and the associated failure mechanisms of looped wire ropes.
The experimental programme includes 40 experiments, 30 T-connections and 10 L-connections. The
experimental programme varies a number of important design parameters.
14 th
b
The experimental programme is designed to test the anchorage capacity of wire ropes in T- and L-
connections where the wire rope is anchored in a concrete specimen that represents a concrete wall
element, Figure 2. The position of the equilibrating supports is determined on the basis of the strut and
tie model that is given ref. [9], see Figure 2 b).
if
Fig. 2 Experimental specimen (left); Strut and tie model and support (right)
The experimental programme consists of 20 pairs of identical specimens in 8 test series. Figure 3 shows
the specimen geometry and the reinforcement configuration.
All specimens have the same basis reinforcement, consisting of Ø8 mm/200 mm in both directions
and on both sides. The bars in the x-direction are closed with Ø8 mm u-bars (leg length = 260 mm),
whilst the bars in the y-direction are bent (leg length = 150 mm). Additionally, the T-connections have
four extra Ø8 mm bars on the topside. Besides the basis reinforcement, additional reinforcement in
variating sizes is added to the specimens to study their influence on the anchorage capacity. For the T-
connections, the additional reinforcement consists of a hat-shaped rebar close to the wire rope (marked
with blue in Figure 3), two locking bars in the y-direction placed inside the bending of the hat rebar
(marked with green) and a longitudinal rebar in the x-direction placed next to the wire rope (red).
For the L-connections extra two u-bars are placed along the edge close to the wire rope (orange).
All reinforcement is placed to satisfy a cover of 30 mm.
The dimensions of all additional/variating reinforcement are given in Table 1 and 2, together with other
variating design parameters. The variated design parameter is written with bold text in the table.
Fig. 3 Specimen and reinforcement configuration. All dimensions are given in mm
2.1 Material properties

Table 3 shows the average material properties of the steel and concrete used in the specimens. The
concrete compressive strength was tested with a minimum of three cylinders each day of testing. The
age of the concrete was between 30 to 37 days on the day of testing. The maximum aggregate size was
16 mm. The concrete compressive strength was found from a 100x200 mm cylinder and converted to a

connections
standard cylinder of 150x300 mm by a factor of 0.97 [10]. No significant increase in the concrete com-
pressive strength was found during the testing period, and the average concrete compressive strength is
b
therefore used in the further analysis.
The material properties of the reinforcement and looped wire ropes are determined experimentally
by testing six ribbed reinforcement bars and looped wire ropes in each size, respectively.
if
Table 1 Specimen dimension and variating parameters for T-connections
Test series ID Wire ϕhat ϕlong Lhor/Lver Lsup.t/Lsup.b Fexp
[mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [kN]
*
0.1 Ø12 6 - 100/100 200/200 61.8/71.2
1,2,3,4,5,6,7
0.2* Ø8 6 - 100/100 200/200 52.8/58.3
1.1 Ø12 - - 100/100 200/200 56.5/55.4
1
1.2 Ø12 10 - 100/100 200/200 67.6/72.5
2.1.1 Ø12 6 6 100/100 200/200 67.5/65.7
2 2.1.2 Ø8 6 6 100/100 200/200 48.1/51.1
2.2 Ø12 6 10 100/100 200/200 66.0/65.7
3.1.1 Ø12 6 - 60/100 200/200 41.9/35.1
3 3.1.2 Ø8 6 - 60/100 200/200 32.2/41.3
3.2 Ø12 6 - 140/100 200/200 77.1/69.2
4.1 Ø12 6 - 100/100 300/100 93.0/92.6
4
4.2 Ø12 6 - 100/100 100/300 60.1/65.9
5.1 Ø12 6 - 100/60 200/200 47.7/51.7
5
5.2 Ø12 6 - 100/140 200/200 67.2/67.8
6 6.1* Ø12 6 - 100/100 200/200 59.6/56.4
*Specimen 6.1 is identical to specimen 0 but has a ϕ
lock = 8 mm locking bar
Table 2 Specimen dimension and variating parameters for L-connections

Test series ID Wire ϕubar Ledge Lhor/ver Lsup Fexp
[mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [kN]

0.1 Ø12 - 470 100/100 200/200 61.8/71.2
1,2,3,4,5,6,7
0.2 Ø8 - 470 100/100 200/200 52.8/58.3
7 1.1.1 Ø12 6 75 100/100 200/200 40.9/52.5
1.1.2.1 Ø12 6 150 100/100 200/200 44.3/45.9
7,8
1.1.2.2 Ø8 6 150 100/100 200/200 43.5/43.6
1.1.2.3 Ø12 - 150 100/100 200/200 49.1/47.6
8
1.1.2.4 Ø12 10 150 100/100 200/200 51.7/47.8
Table 3 Material properties of reinforcement, wire ropes and concrete

Description ϕ [mm] fy [MPa] E [GPa] fu [MPa]
Reinforcement bar 6 553 196 672
Looped wire rope 8 132 69 [kN]*
Looped wire rope 12 193 [kN]*
Concrete 20.1**
*Ultimate capacity of looped wire rope tested about a Ø50mm dowel, i.e. double cross-sectional area
**Average tested concrete compressive strength 𝑓 corresponding to a 150x300 mm cylinder.
c
2.2 Test setup and instrumentation

Figure 4 illustrates the test setup. The wire rope is attached to a deformation-controlled hydraulic actu-
ator via a steel block to allow free rotation. The specimens are placed on top of the UNP400 profiles.
A 60x200x8 mm steel plate is placed as supports on the specimen; on top of the supports, a 100x60x6
mm RHS profile is placed and connects the support to the test setup. The RHS profiles are clamped
14 th
around the UNP400 profile with M16 bolts and nuts. The two RHS profiles crossing each other on the
top of the specimen are connected with a splint to prevent horizontal movement. On each side of the
b
specimen, two linear variable differential transformers (LVDT) are placed to measure the displace-
ments. They are attached to the wire rope (the steel block) with a steel bar.
The tests were deformation-controlled with a rate of 0.75 mm/min before peak load and 1.5 mm/min
after. Digital image correlation (DIC) is used to measure the 3D surface deformation with two cameras
if
with a resolution of 4092x3092 pixels and an acquisition rate of 1Hz. A stochastic pattern is painted on
the specimen's surface to ensure high accuracy.
Fig. 4 Illustration of the test setup
The experimental results are presented in the following section. First, the anchorage capacity is pre-
sented, and the influence of the varied parameters is studied. Secondary, the load-displacement curves
and the observed failure mechanisms are studied.
3.1 Capacity
The capacity is given as the maximum force during the experiments. Table 1 and 2 lists the capacities
while they are plotted in Figure 5. Generally, black and grey dots indicate whether the embedded wire
rope diameter is 8 or 12 mm.
From Figure 5, it appears that increasing the hat reinforcement diameter (ϕhat ), the horizontal an-
chorage length of the wire rope (𝐿hor ) and the vertical anchorage length of the wire rope (𝐿ver ) (Figure
5 a), c), e)) is leading to an increased capacity. Furthermore, Figure 5 d) shows that decreasing the
distance to the bottom support (𝐿sup.b ) from 200 to 100 mm also increases the capacity. The diameter
of the longitudinal reinforcement (ϕlong ) and the diameter of the u-bar (ϕubar ) (Figure 5 b), h)) does
not affect the capacity, while the introduction of a locking bar (ϕlock ) (Figure 5 f)) slightly decreases
the capacity. Furthermore, T-connections have generally a higher capacity compared to L-connections
with 𝐿edge = 75-150 mm (Figure 5 g)). Finally, it can also be seen that the specimens with wire ropes
with 8 mm diameter have a lower capacity than corresponding specimens with wire ropes of 12 mm
diameter.
3.2 Load-displacement curves

Figure 6 shows the load-displacement curves for each test series; one representative curve is shown for
each pair of identical specimens. The data is obtained from two LVDTs placed on each side of the
specimen, see Figure 4; mean values are employed.
In all cases, cracks appear just before peak load. The load-displacement curves have a linear re-
sponse until peak load, with similar stiffness. In general, wire ropes with a diameter of 8 mm tend to
have a lower capacity and more brittle post-peak response than the specimens with a 12 mm wire rope.
Figure 6 a) to f) shows the load-displacement curves for the test series relating to T-connections.
Each test series varies only one parameter, given in each sub-figure and Table 1. In general, the pre-
peak stiffnesses are very similar; however, a slight increase in the pre-peak stiffness is observed with a
longitudinal reinforcement diameter of 10 mm, and slightly softer pre-peak stiffness is observed when
a locking bar is used.

connections
100
Fexp [kN] 0ϕ(II)
w = 12 mm 0ϕ(I)
w = 12 mm
0ϕ(I)
w = 12 mm
ϕw (II)
= 8 mm
b
ϕw(II)
7.1 = 8 mm ϕw (I)
7.1 = 8 mm 7.1
80
60
if
40 ϕhat = 6 [mm]
ϕlong = 0 [mm] ϕhat = 6 [mm] ϕlong = 0 [mm]
𝐿sup = 200/200 [mm/mm] 𝐿sup = 200/200 [mm/mm] 𝐿sup = 200/200 [mm/mm]
20 𝐿hor/ver = 100/100 [mm/mm]
𝐿hor/ver = 100/100 [mm/mm] 𝐿ver = 100 [mm]
ϕhat [mm] ϕlong [mm] Lhor [mm]
0
0 6 10 0 6 10 60 100 140
a) Test series 1 b) Test series 2 c) Test series 3
100
90 Fexp [kN] ϕ
0w(I)= 12 mm 0ϕ(I)
0ϕ(I)
w = 12 mm w = 12 mm
80 ϕ
7.1 = 8 mm
w (II) ϕw(II)
7.1 = 8 mm 7.1
ϕw(II)
= 8 mm
70
60
50
40 ϕhat = 6 [mm]
30 ϕhat = 6 [mm] ϕhat = 6 [mm] ϕlong =0 [mm]
20 ϕlong = 0 [mm] ϕlong = 0 [mm] 𝐿sup = 200/200 [mm/mm]
𝐿hor/ver = 100/100 [mm/mm] 𝐿sup = 200/200 [mm/mm] 𝐿hor/ver = 100/100 [mm/mm]
10 Lsup.t/Lsup.b [mm/mm] Lver [mm]
𝐿hor = 100 [mm] ϕlock[mm]
0
100/300 200/200 300/100 60 100 140 0 8
d) Test series 4 e) Test series 5 f) Test series 6
80
Fexp [kN] 0ϕw
(I)= 12 mm
70 ϕw (II)
7.1 = 8 mm ϕw =(I)12 mm
1.1.2
ϕw = 8(II)
1.1.2.3 mm
60
50
40
30
ϕubar = 6 [mm] 𝐿edge = 150 [mm]
20 𝐿sup = 200/200 [mm/mm] 𝐿sup = 200/200 [mm/mm]
10 𝐿hor/ver = 100/100 [mm/mm] 𝐿hor/ver = 100/100 [mm/mm]
Ledge [mm/mm] ϕubar [mm]
0
75 150 470 0 6 10
g) Test series 7 h) Test series 8
Fig. 5 Anchorage capacity, 𝐹exp versus the variated parameters
Increasing the hat reinforcement diameter (ϕhat ), and the horizontal anchorage length (𝐿hor ) increases
the post-peak plateau; this also applies for a shorter distance to the bottom support (𝐿sup.b ). The post-
peak response is ductile when the horizontal anchorage length is 60 mm. A more ductile behaviour is
observed when the bottom support distance is 100 mm. Increasing the vertical anchorage length (𝐿ver )
does not significantly change the post-peak load level; however, a vertical anchorage length of 140 mm
has a softer local reduction. A locking bar (ϕlock = 8 mm) gives a more ductile post-peak response.
Increasing the longitudinal diameter (ϕlong ) does not significantly affect the post-peak behaviour.
Figure 6 g) and h) shows the load-displacement curves for test series 7 and 8. The specimens go
from a T-connection to an L-connection in Figure 6 g) with a variated edge distance (𝐿edge ) and the u-
bar diameter (ϕubar ) varies in the edge of an L-connection in Figure 6 h). The post-peak plateau is
identical when the edge distance is 75 mm and 470 mm; however, a slight decrease is seen when the
edge distance is 150 mm. While increasing, the u-bar diameter tends to have a softer local reduction.
Also, an increased u-bar diameter tends to give a small reduction in the pre-peak stiffness.

14th
80
Load [kN] ϕhat ID:
= 0 1.1(I)
mm T-connection T-connection
T-connection ϕhat ID:
= 6 0(I)
mm ∗ 8 mm wire rope ∗ 8 mm wire rope
70
b
∗ 8 mm wire rope ϕhat ID: mm ∗
= 6 7.1(I)
ϕhat ID:
= 101.2(II)
[mm]
60 𝐿hor =ID:
603.1(I)
mm
𝐿hor =ID:
603.1.1(II)
mm ∗
50 𝐿hor =ID:
1000(I)
[mm]
ID: 7.1(I)
𝐿hor = 100 mm ∗
40 ID: 3.2(I)
𝐿hor = 140 [mm]
if
30 ϕlong =
ID:0 0(II)
mm
ϕlong = mm ∗
ID:0 7.1(I)
20 ϕlong =
ID:6 2.1(II)
mm
ϕlong ID62.1.1(II)
= mm ∗
ID: 2.2(II)
10 ϕlong = 10 [mm]
Displacement [mm] Displacement [mm] Displacement [mm]
0
0 3 6 9 12 15 0 3 6 9 12 15 0 3 6 9 12 15
a) Test series 1 b) Test series 2 c) Test series 3
120
Load [kN] 𝐿sup.t /𝐿sup.b = 300/100 mm
ID: 4.1(II)
𝐿sup.t /𝐿sup.b = 200/200 mm
ID: 0(II) 𝐿ver ID:
= 605.1(I)
mm T-connection ϕlockID:
= 00(I)
mm
𝐿sup.t /𝐿sup.b = 200/200 mm ∗
ID: 7.1(I) T-connection
100 𝐿sup.t /𝐿sup.b = 100/300 [mm] ∗ 8 mm wire rope 𝐿ver ID: 0(I)mm
= 100 ∗ 8 mm wire rope ϕlockID: mm ∗
= 07.1(I)
ID: 4.2(I)
T-connection 𝐿ver ID: mm ∗
7.1(I)
= 100 ϕlock = 8 [mm]
ID: 6.1(II)
∗ 8 mm wire rope 𝐿ver ID: 5.2(I)
= 140 [mm]
80
60
40
20
Displacement [mm] Displacement [mm] Displacement [mm]
0
0 3 6 9 12 15 0 3 6 9 12 15 0 3 6 9 12 15
d) Test series 4 e) Test series 5 f) Test series 6
80 𝐿edge = 75 mm
Load [kN] ID: 1.1.1(II) ϕ
ID: = 0 mm
ubar1.1.2.1(II)
70 𝐿edge = 150(I)
ID: 1.1.2 mm L-connection
∗8 ∗ ∗ 8 mm wire rope ϕ
ID: = 6 (I)
ubar1.1.2 mm
mm wire rope 𝐿edge = 150 mm
ID: 1.1.2.3(II) ϕ
ID: = 6 mm ∗
ubar1.1.2.3(II)
60 𝐿edge = 470 mm
ID: 0(I) ϕ = 10 [mm]
∗ ID:
ubar1.1.2.2(II)
ID: 7.1(I)
𝐿edge = 470 mm
50
40
30
20
10
Displacement [mm] Displacement [mm]
0
0 3 6 9 12 15 0 3 6 9 12 15
g) Test series 7 h) Test series 8
Fig. 6 Load-displacement curves of test series 1-8
3.3 Failure mechanisms

Figure 7 shows the observed and schematised failure mechanisms. Identical failure mechanisms are
observed for all specimens; A so-called concrete cone failure combined with crushing at the tip of the
wires rope's bending. Here, a cone-like piece with its tip at the wire rope's bending is pulled out of the
specimen, see Figure 7 c), and d). A circular-shaped failure is seen on the surface, which is only inter-
rupted by the bottom support and the edge in the case of an L-connection, see Figure 7 a), b) and d).
From Figure 7 c), it can be observed that the failure surface is asymmetric. It is flatter and convex
towards the top support (marked "1" in Figure 7), whilst towards the bottom support (marked "2"), the
failure surface is steeper and almost straight.
Furthermore, the cone undergoes an almost vertical translatory movement combined with a clock-
wise rotation. Local crushing is observed at the cone tip in wire rope's bending can be observed as well.
The varied parameters influence the extent of the crushed area.
In Figure 7 b), a crack can be observed across the element, starting to the right of the support (2),
through the centre, where the wire rope is, and further down to the left of the support (1). The crack is
observed in all elements, both T- and L-connections. Figure 7 d) illustrates the schematised crack.

connections
if b
a) Fully developed b) Cleaned failure surface c) Failure mechanisms cut open
d) Schematised failure mechanism.

T-connection (left) and L-con-
nection (right)
Fig. 7 Observed and schematised failure mechanism
4 Discussion
The experiments showed that the diameter of the hat rebar (Øhat ), the vertical and horizontal anchorage
length (Lver, Lhor) and the distance to the top support (Lsup.t) had a positive influence on the capacity.
Whilst the diameter of the longitudinal rebar and the u-bar (Ølong , Øubar ) had no influence, and the
locking (Ølock ) even had a negative influence. Additionally, it was found that the anchorage capacity
for the L-connections (small Ledge) was significantly lower than the T-connection (large Ledge). These
findings can be understood by studying the observed failure mechanism, see Figure 7 d).
As the cone movement is almost vertical, vertical reinforcement will contribute significantly to the
capacity, whilst the contribution from the horizontal reinforcement is neglectable. This explains why
the hat rebar (Øhat ) has a positive influence whilst the diameter of the longitudinal rebar and the u-bar
(Ølong , Øubar ) has no influence. It should be mentioned, that if the u-bar had been placed closer to the
wire rope, the failure surface would have mobilised the vertical part of the u-bar, and its influence is
expected to increase significantly. However, the failure mechanism cannot explain why the locking bar
has a negative influence. This may be due to statistical coincidence.
As the height of the failure mechanism is determined by the position of the wire rope bending, the
horizontal anchorage length (Lhor) has logically a positive influence. Whilst the positive influence of
the vertical anchorage (Lver) length is less direct. The positive influence of Lver indicates that a local
failure in front of the ferrule affects the cone failure. Figure 7 c) may support this hypothesis with severe
cracking in the zone around the ferrule. The further the ferrule is from the cone failure; the larger force
is needed to mobilise the failure in front of the ferrule, affecting the overall anchorage capacity. Con-
sequently, it is expected that the positive influence of Lver may plateau.
The positive influence of the distance to the top support (Lsup.t) may be found in the asymmetry
of the failure mechanism. Due to the wire rope bending, the cone tip is shifted towards the bottom
support, and consequently, the failure surface is steeper towards the bottom support. Therefore, moving
the wire rope closer to the bottom support (increasing Lsup.t) will force the failure surface towards the
bottom support to become even steeper, leading to a higher capacity.
That a shorter edge distance (Ledge) leads to a lower anchorage capacity follows logically Figure
7 d), where it is seen that the element edge cuts the failure mechanism for the L-connection (small
Ledge) without mobilising the vertical part of the u-bar. Although that the average anchorage capacity
of the experiments with Ledge=75 mm and Ledge=150 mm is approximately the same, the experiments
with Ledge=75 mm showed a large variation between the two identical tests and indicates that the
vertical part of the u-bar may be mobilised in the experiments where Ledge=75 mm. The load-displace-
ment curves support this; see Figure 6 g), where the specimen with Ledge=75 mm has a ductile post-
14 th
peak response whilst the post-peak response is more brittle when Ledge=150 mm. The observed varia-
tion of 28% between identical test specimens with Ledge=75 mm, see Figure 5 g). A small variation of
b
this failure mechanism, Figure 7 d), can provide a considerable variation of the capacity if it mobilises
the u-bar.
Finally, the experiments showed that the specimens with 12 mm wire ropes had a higher capacity
than the corresponding specimens with 8 mm wire ropes. Here, the explanation may be found in the
if
compression failure in the cone tip. The smaller wire ropes transfer large compressive stresses to the
concrete in the wire rope bending than a larger wire rope subjected to the same load.
5 Conclusion
This paper presents an extensive experimental programme of 40 specimens on the anchorage capacity
of wire ropes. The experimental programme varied several design parameters to investigate their influ-
ence on the anchorage capacity. The experiments showed the following:
• In all experiments, the same failure mechanism was observed; a cone-like piece with its tip at the
wire rope's bending is pulled out combined with local crushing at the cone tip.
• Increasing the diameter of the hat reinforcement (Øhat), horizontal anchorage length (𝐿hor), vertical
anchorage length (𝐿ver), edge distance (𝐿edge) and distance to top support (𝐿sup.t) lead to an in-
creased anchorage capacity.
• The diameter of the longitudinal rebar and locking bar (Ølong, Ølock) had no influence on the an-
chorage capacity.
• The diameter of the u-bar (Øubar) only influenced the capacity if the wire rope were placed close
to the u-bar.
• Specimens with 12 mm wire ropes had a higher capacity than those with 8 mm wire ropes.
Acknowledgements
The experimental work was carried out with the help from BSc. Sofie Andersen Hjortshøj and BSc.
Steen Nedergaard Lillebro Hansen. The project is financially supported by the COWI foundation,
COWI A/S and Innovation Fund Denmark. CRH Concrete A/S, delivered Ø8 mm looped wire ropes to
the experiments. The authors gratefully acknowledge these valuable contributions.
References
[1] Tassios, T. P. and Tsoukantas, S. G., Serviceability and ultimate limit states of large panel
connections under static and dynamic loading. RILEM-CEB-CIB Symposium on mechanical
and insulating properties of joints of precast reinforced concrete elements, Proceedings, 1978.
[2] Bachmann H. and Steinle A., "Precast concrete structures," p. 272, Ernst and Sohn, 2011.
[3] Kintscher M., "The VS® system : A success story achieved through consistent further
development," Betonwerk+ Fertigteil-Technik, 73(8), 2007.
[4] Joergensen H. B., "Strength of Loop Connections between Precast Concrete Elements: Part I:
U-bar Connections Loaded in Combined Tension and Bending -Part II: Wire Loop Connections
Loaded in Shear," PhD Thesis, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark, 2014.
[5] Joergensen H. B., Hoang L. C., and Hagsten L. G., "Strength of precast concrete shear joints
reinforced with high-strength wire ropes," Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Struct. Build., vol. 170, no. 3,
2017, doi: 10.1680/jstbu.16.00096.
[6] Joergensen H. B., Hoang L. C., and Hagsten L. G., "BEF Bulletin No 2-Juni 2016 Wirebokse i
elementsamlinger,", Danish Association for Precast Concrete Elements, 2016.
[7] Veyhe, T., Joergensen H. B., and Hansen, S. G.," Experimental Investigation of the Anchorage
Capacity of Looped Wire Ropes in Precast Concrete Element Connections," fib symposium
Oslo, Proceedings, 2022.
[8] Joergensen, H.B., Bryndum, T., Larsen, M. and Hoang, L. C." Load Carrying Capacity of Shear
Wall T-Connections Reinforced with High Strength Wire Ropes". Proceedings og the fib
Symposium 2016, Cape Town, 2017
[9] Nielsen, M. P., and Hansenm L. Z., "Wiresløjfer i dansk elementbyggeri," Technical report,
Technical Univeristy of Denmark, 2003.
[10] Nielsen M. P., Beton 1-del 1, 2nd ed. Lyngby, DTU of Denmark, 2005.

b
Conrad Pelka, Sven Wroblewski and Steffen Marx
Institute of Concrete Structures,
if
Technische Universität Dresden,
August-Bebel-Straße 30/30a, 01219 Dresden, Germany
Abstract
Due to the increasing age of arch bridges in DB Netz AG's network, a general approach must be devel-
oped to maintain these historic structures. On the basis of the systematically recorded damages of ex-
isting structures, a fundamental renovation is to be carried out on arch bridges and a track slab shall be
constructed. For a long-lasting construction period, the filling or backfilling must be adjusted depending
on the shape of the arch. On this basis, a comprehensive application module is being developed in a
guideline of Deutsche Bahn (German Railway). In addition to the technical parameters contained
therein, this design guideline will also address the issues regarding CO2 savings, preservation of the
building culture and economic efficiency.
1 Introduction
For more than 100 years, historic arch bridges have been one of the most important types of railway
bridges in Germany. Around a quarter of the entire bridges of Deutsche Bahn were built with this cul-
turally characteristic type of construction [1], [2]. Arch bridges are subjected to ageing as other bridge
types. The condition of arch bridges can be recorded and evaluated by means of targeted structural
diagnostics. Hence, recalcultions can be carried out based on the here obtained building material pa-
rameters. Based on the modulus of elasticity, transverse strain index, weight and friction angle of the
backfill, the overall stability of the arch can be determined in relation to its shape. Furthermore, coc-
nering possible improvement solutions in the backfill area can be achieved. With these results, a durable
structure can be reactivated. In the scope of the research project "Roadway troughs on arch bridges",
the DB Netz AG, in cooperation with the TU Dresden as a scientific partner, is further developing the
retrofitting of existing arch bridges. The technologies to construct such carriageway slab systems or
back seals have been known for many years. However, there are a great diversity of implementation
variants in the Deutsche Bahn network [3]. The aim of this work is to standardize the verification of
arch bridges of different arch shapes on the basis of historical experience on backfill stiffness. The aim
of this study is to develop a target-oriented approach to the general rehabilitation of railroad vault
bridges in Germany, in which the use of resources is controlled/reduced and closure periods are re-
duced, since new construction products can be matched to the historic building fabric in a target-ori-
ented manner. At the same time, a responsible and economical approach can be taken.
2 The future of railway arch bridges
Currently, Deutsche Bahn owns approximately 6000 historic railway arch bridges. Figure 1 shows the
distribution of this type of construction in the individual regions of Deutsche Bahn. It is clear that RB
Südost (Southeast), with approx. 1266 arch bridges, has the most bridges of this type in operation. If
we now take a look at the next 10 years of the Performance and Financing Agreement III (LuFV III),
it becomes clear that 213 arch bridges in Germany to be rehabilitated, see also Fig. 1 on the left side.
Most bridge structures are to be expected in the RB South. These structures are due for general reno-
vation because leaking joints/sealing and the ageing and flushing out of building materials often lead
to a reduction in load-bearing capacity and a restriction in serviceabilityParagraph formats
14th
if b
Fig. 1 Distribution of all vault bridges throughout Germany and distribution of vault bridges to be
rehabilitated by 2030
In addition to the technical details, the CO2 balance and the protection of historical monuments with
the preservation of cultural assets are increasingly becoming the focus of project work. By removing
the damaged/soaked backfill area and replacing it with concrete, the existing resource can continue to
be used through the above-mentioned fundamental renovations in contrast to new construction. A max-
imum of structural parts to be preserved emerges and the new reinforced concrete carriageway slab can
be integrated into the existing structure in terms of design. In order to achieve harmony in this respect,
the topics of environmental protection, monument preservation, political, social aspects and economic
factors are to be dealt with in a separate design guideline. In recent years, a deconstruction with a new
construction, e.g. with a supporting structure in lateral position and subsequent insertion, was often
chosen, see Fig 2. Vaults, which were mostly not listed, were thus completely replaced by full renova-
tions
Fig. 2 Removal of a historic arched bridge and replacement with a reinforced concrete frame struc-
ture
As [5] has clearly shown us, historic arch bridges still have an enormous residual load-bearing capacity
despite an advanced age and a partially damaged structure. Based on these findings, an effective partial
renewal should be investigated in future arch bridge projects under certain aspects. In the course of a
classification and comparison of geometric characteristics, the approx. 6000 vault bridges of the
Deutsche Bahn were examined, see Fig. 3. Most vault bridges (approx. 4825) have a vault arch with a

clear width of a maximum of ten metres. The oldest Deutsche Bahn arch bridge still in operation, dating
from 1838, is also included here, also shown in Chapter 4
Fig. 3
if b
Distribution of single and multi-arched vaults in relation to a clear span of less than and
equal to 10[m] and greater than 10 [m]
Arch forms, their influences and renovation concepts
Based on the large number of vaults with an arch and against the background that these are very often
to be replaced by new reinforced concrete structures, the focus of the evaluation is placed on such a
bridge geometry.
3.1 Influence of moisture on the arch

The most frequent damage to historic vaults is due to moisture penetration. Although the wetness is
mostly caused by seepage water and capillary action, a certain hydrostatic pressure builds up on the
vault over time. The effect of moisture inevitably leads to sooting of the vault and even to a progressive
wearing down of the building materials and flushing out in the joints. This undesirable condition is
undoubtedly recognisable on the inside (intrados) of the vault by water plumes, water drop formation,
joint washouts, cracks and stalactites. The reason lies almost exclusively in the outdated and destroyed
or incorrectly or incompletely installed seals.
3.2 Influence of railway traffic on vaults

As a result of the rolling railway loads acting on it, the aforementioned degree of damage to the load-
bearing vault structure is driven forward in accordance with the prevailing load concentration by com-
pressive swelling stress in the arch or residual cross-section and friction on the contacting crack edges.
3.3 Influence of backfill on arches and their shapes

Based on literature research and own investigations, it is shown that the quality of the backfill material
has an influence on the load-bearing effect of the vault. If the backfill material consists of load-bearing
loose rock, a stabilising earth pressure on the vault can arise due to the effective shear angle in addition
to the load-distributing effect. If the backfill is made of shear-resistant material, e.g. concrete, the load
distribution angle increases compared to the loose rock and even a shear-resistant horizontal support is
created. This improves the load-bearing capacity of the bridge structure. The backfill above the arch is
basically used to overcome the height differences between the carriageway and the arch ridge and to
transfer the vertical loads into the arch structure. In classical design, the contribution to the absorption
and transmission of a supporting horizontal load has usually been neglected. Gago, Alfaiate and Lamas
14th
[6] were able to show through their modelling that the dead weight of the fill leads to a lower horizontal
bearing force on the vault damper and thus also for the abutments to a lower horizontal displace-
b
ment/load. There is still a discussion about the conditions under which a load-bearing contribution can
be attributed to the backfill. The extent to which an effective passive earth pressure can be built up for
the very low displacements of arch bridges requires further investigation. Andersson [7] was able to
make the statement that the modulus of elasticity in the backfill area has an influence on the load-
if
bearing capacity by means of FE modelling using the various calculation methods for the static record-
ing of arch bridges, from canting theory to fracture mechanics. Through the work of Kerr and O'Fla-
herty [8], structural improvements in the vault spine (concrete compression blocks without shear-re-
sistant bond) could increase the horizontal support in the transom area by up to 25%. Smith, Gilbert and
Callaway [9] have investigated the load-distributing effect of horizontal earth pressure. They conclude
that for an arch backfilled with cohesionless soil, the contribution of load distribution and passive earth
pressure resistance are comparable. The contribution of the dead weight of the backfill is much smaller.
Gilbert [10] also investigated the influence of backfill on load transfer by using different backfill ma-
terials. As a result, she was able to show that a backfill of crushed limestone is clearly more load-
bearing and produces less support displacement than a backfill of clay. Franck [11] was able to show
through FE investigations that the load-bearing capacity of the backfill increases approximately linearly
with an increase in the modulus of elasticity (200-1000 N/mm²). In addition to the evaluations of the
modulus of elasticity, she was also able to analyse the influence of the backfill. With backfill heights
of 1 m to 5 m, she was able to show that a large backfill led to a decrease in the tensile stresses in the
vault when the dead weight was evaluated in combination with the live load. In UIC Code 778-3 [12]
many different components of the backfill influence are analysed. Five typical forces that lead to the
failure of the arch as a four-bar system are discussed, see Fig. 4.
(i)
load-distributing effect (stabilising).
(ii)
dead weight on the loaded side (de-
stabilising)
(iii)
active horizontal earth pressure on

the loaded side (destabilising)
(iv)
Dead weight on the unloaded side
(stabilising)
(v)
passive horizontal earth pressure on
the unloaded side (stabilising)
Fig. 4 Distribution of single and multi-arched vaults in relation to a clear span of less than and
equal to 10[m] and greater than 10 [m] [12]
The contact situation between the arch and the backfill was not investigated in such detail and the results
differ. Nevertheless, several authors agree that detachment can be excluded due to the system and
should also be excluded numerically on this basis. [7, 13, 14] The essential question is whether the
backfill can act in conjunction with the supporting structure of the bridge: Here the location of the seal
plays a role. If the existing arch support structure is sufficient, the waterproofing membranes can be
placed on the arch spines. A waterproofing of the back can be carried out, i.e. if load-bearing reserves
from the backfill are to be activated nevertheless, then this can only be done via a detached considera-
tion for a rather weak arch structure of the backfill (without bonding with the main load-bearing struc-
ture). If line loads are to be increased subsequently, it is recommended to install a statically effective
roadway slab with a seal bonded to the top on a historical vault structure. Underneath the seal, load-
bearing systems are created that not only participate in the load distribution but also in a contribution
to the load-bearing capacity within the framework of the given building material and composite behav-
iour.

3.4 Arch shapes in relation to different backfillings

For this study, certain literature statements could be confirmed. Using a finite element analysis in An-
b
sys with non-linear material, tests were carried out on a vault with an arch, as a one-metre wide bridge
structure cut out with different backfill stiffnesses. Furthermore, three different vault shapes were in-
vestigated with a pitch height to clear width ratio of 0.1, 0.3 and 0.5. The geometry of the vault bridge
consists of an arc with overlying backfill and a final deck backfill and terminating deck. The model
if
was created in ANSYS [16], see Fig. 5.
Fig. 5 Geometry [m]
On the point of whether or not there is sufficient backfill, a decisive finding was obtained for circular
vaults. If there is no backfill, the vertical displacements in the apex increase by up to 50%. If the vault
becomes flatter and flatter, the increase in the elastic modulus (constrained modulus) in the backfill
area no longer plays a major role. However, all types of vault perceive an overfill height with increased
elastic modulus in the backfill area as positive in the displacement of the vault apex.
In a detailed consideration of the respective vault shapes in relation to the backfill height and dif-
ferent shear parameters, it can be clearly seen that for a flat arch, the influence of no backfill with a low
shear parameter on the deformation is 25% higher than for an existing backfill with a high shear pa-
rameter, Fig. 6a). The more circular a vault, the less it is positively supported in its vertical crest de-
flection by an existing backfill with a high shear parameter as you can seen in Fig. 6c
Fig. 6 Segmental arch with different f/l plotted against crest deflection to differential backfill stiff-
nesses: a) f/l = 0.1, b) f/l = 0.3, c) f/l = 0.5

14 th
4 Fundamental rehabilitation of the backfill with the construction of a reinforced

concrete roadway trough using the example of the rail overpass B6 in Korn-
b
heim
This structure is a success story for the longevity of historic vaults in the Deutsche Bahn network.
Built in 1838, this structure has lasted 184 years and is in good structural condition, see Fig. 7
if
Fig. 7 Railway overpass B6 in Kornheim [J. Monka]
The installation of the reinforced concrete carriageway trough in 1966, as can be seen in Fig. 8, created
a new level of protection against moisture penetration that has endured to this day and has a service life
of over 50 years, see Fig. 8
Fig. 8 Cross-section of the EÜ B6 with histroic carriageway trough from 1966 [J. Monka]
Particularly interesting is the graded backfilling with concretes of different strengths. In the area with
the most loads from railway traffic, the concrete with the highest strength was also used. In the area
where the overburden in the superstructure increases, the strength of the backfill concrete decreases.
Transverse and longitudinal slopes in the trough system ensure drainage far behind the abutment back-
walls. The integrated cap system for the protection and safety space was made of water-impermeable
concrete. This specification was also later adopted in the carriageway trough guideline of 1979 [15]. A
frictional bond could be created by means of bars that were inserted from the carriageway trough into
the existing structure. These were executed in the edge areas of the existing end walls as well as across
the entire width in the crown. Above the trough construction, a PVC sealing membrane was applied,
which was covered with a 5cm protective concrete layer, on which a standard superstructure was placed
(rail, ballast and sleeper with a height of at least 70cm). Here too, in addition to a trough formation,
cohesion measures such as grouting and injections for structural stability were carried out at the same
time, see Fig. 9. Due to the measures of the last decades, a satisfactory overall condition could be
b
achieved on the basis of the current appraisals with the issue of a condition class 2 (classification of
damage to the bridge structure from ZK1 to ZK4 that can be attributed to a visual appraisal every 6
years).
if
Fig. 9 Longitudinal section of the EÜ B6 with two different viewing sections. On the left, the
different backfill stiffnesses. On the right, the reinforcement drawing with anchoring of the
in-situ concrete carriageway slab
5 Conclusion and outlook

The aim of the joint research projects of DB Netz AG and TU Dresden is to promote the potential of
carriageway troughs on arch bridges. In accordance with the chronologically grown requirements, the
differentiated carriageway trough construction methods with the associated deformation and damage
patterns, the findings of the past are to be evaluated or optimised in such a way that a carriageway slab
module of RIL 804 [5], which is as user-friendly as possible, is to be developed and introduced. Another
aspect is to standardise as far as possible the technical parameters of pavement slab installation with
optimisation of the backfill situation. The preservation of existing structures can be promoted with
certain verifications, which can nowadays be carried out by means of simple FE evaluations with ma-
terial parameters, in decisive structural areas, such as the deformation investigation of the vault apex as
a function of the backfill stiffness on the vault ridge. In this way, the use of resources can be con-
trolled/reduced, and lockout periods can be reduced, since new types of construction products can be
matched to the historic building fabric in a targeted manner. At the same time, a responsible and eco-
nomical approach can be taken. Due to the elimination of many vaulted arches with an opening and a
clear width of less than or equal to 10 [m], an adjustment of the current verification of load-bearing
capacity must also be specified.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank Deutsche Bahn AG for supporting and promoting the development of a
track trough module to extend the applicable guidelines. Thanks also go to Mr. Tobias Gestrich who
collected and evaluated valuable information on the backfill stiffness of arch bridges during his diploma
thesis.
References
[1] Naraniecki, H.; Marx, S. Zustandsentwicklung und -prognose von Eisenbahnbrücken. In: Bei-
träge zur 7. DAfStb-Jahrestagung mit 60. Forschungskolloquium. 2019, S. 103-118.
[2] Marx, S.; Köppel, M.; Müller, J. Denkmalgeschützte Eisenbahnbrücken – Weiterbauen als Op-
tion zwischen Erhalt und Verlust in: Froschauer, E.-M.; Lorenz, W.; Rellensmann, L. [Hrsg.]
Vom Wert des Weiterbauens: Konstruktive Lösungen und kulturgeschichtliche Zusammen-
hänge. Birkhäuser 2020, S. 97–108
[3] Mölter, T. M.; Pfeifer, R. H.; Fiedler, M. Handbuch Eisenbahnbrücken: Planung, Bau, Instand-
haltung, Brückensysteme. 2. Aufl. Bingen Hamburg: PMC Media House GmbH, 2017

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[4] Deutsche Bahn AG [Hrsg.] (21.06.2021) Eisenbahnbrücken (und sonstige Ingenieurbauwerke)

planen, bauen und instand halten: Richtlinie 804. Karlsruhe: DB Services Technische Dienste.
b
[5] Schacht, G.; Piehler, J.; Müller, J.Z.A.; Marx, S.: Belastungsversuche an der historischen Ge-
wölbebrücke über die Aller bei Verden. Bautechnik 94 2, 2017, S.125-130
[6] António Sousa Gago, Jorge Alfaiate und António Lamas. “The effect of the in_ll in
arched structures: Analytical and numerical modelling”. In: Engineering Structures 33.5
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(Mai 2011), S. 1450–1458. DOI: 10.1016/j.engstruct.2010.12.037.
[7] Andreas Andersson. “Capacity assessment of arch bridges with back_ll : Case of theold Årsta
railway bridge”. QC 20110426. Diss. KTH, Structural Design und Bridges,2011, S. x, 249.
[8] Thomas Kerr und Tomás O’Flaherty. “A Numerical Analysis of Stone Masonry Arch Bridges
and Structural Backing”. In: Civil Engineering Research in Ireland (2020).
[9] Colin C. Smith, Matthew Gilbert und Phillip A. Callaway. “Geotechnical issues in theanalysis
of masonry arch bridges”. In: Proc. 4th Int. Arch Bridges Conf. Barcelona, 2004,S. 343–352.
[10] Matthew Gilbert u. a. “Small and large-scale experimental studies of soil-arch interactionin
masonry bridges”. In: ARCH’07 – 5th International Conference on Arch Bridges.Madeira,
2007, S. 381–388.
[11] Stephanie Andrea Franck. “Zum Tragsicherheitsnachweis bestehender Mauerwerksgewölbe-
brücken mittels nichtlinearer Finite-Elemente-Simulationen”. Diss. Leibniz Universität Hanno-
ver – Institut für Massivbau, 2017.
[12] Empfehlungen für die Inspektion, Bewertung und Instandhaltung von Gewölbebrücken aus
Mauerwerk. 2. Ausg., 01.04.2011. Paris: UIC, 2011
[13] T. Ford, Charles Augarde und S. Tuxford. “Modelling masonry arch bridges using commer-
cial_nite element software”. In: 9th International Conference on Civil and StructuralEngineer-
ing Computing. Egmond aan Zee, The Netherlands, Sep. 2003.
[14] Yanyang Zhang. “Advanced nonlinear analysis of masonry arch bridges”. Diss. London: Impe-
rial College London, Faculty of Engineering, Jan. 2015.
[15] Richtlinie für Fahrbahnwannen auf Gewölbebrücken. Deutsche Reichsbahn, Gültig ab 1. Januar
1979 (zurückgezogen)
[16] ANSYS 2020 R2: Ansys Mechanical. ANSYS, Inc. Software. 2020.

Numerical investigation of shear behavior of
b
prestressed concrete beams without stirrups
Yolcu Sever, Christoph Betschoga, Daniel Gheorghiu and Tue Nguyen Viet
if
Institute of Structural Concrete,
Graz University of Technology,
Lessingstraße 25, Graz (8010), Austria
Abstract
Despite comprehensive research over the past decades, the mechanisms of shear failure of RC Beams
are not fully understood. Latest research output on this topic indicates major influence of the structural
system and the type of loading. Based on these results, this paper deals with the influence of normal
compressive stress on the shear capacity of simply supported beams and cantilever beams without
stirrups.
A numerical model, based on experimental investigations, is established. A comprehensive parametric
study is carried out to determine the influences of parameters such as concrete compressive stress (σcp),
shear slenderness (a/d-ratio) and longitudinal reinforcement ratio (ρl) in combination with different
static systems. The results show a significant influence of the compressive stress on the shear capacity.
This, however, varies depending on the static system, the longitudinal reinforcement ratio, and the shear
slenderness of the beams.
1 Introduction
Intensive research has been carried out to understand the failure mechanism on shear of reinforced
concrete (RC) members. It has become apparent that the shear capacity is derived by many different
load bearing mechanisms . Recent studies on this topic have shown that the static system (M/V ratio)
also has a significant influence on the shear capacity of RC-beams –. The influence of the static system
is already considered in some standards e.g., Model Code 2010 , but the Eurocode 2 cannot take this
property into account. Also, the effect of normal compressive stress on the shear capacity of RC-
members without stirrups is taken into account with a constant factor k1 of 0.15 (see Eq. (1))
1
𝑉𝑅𝑑,𝑐 = [𝐶𝑅𝑑,𝑐 · 𝜅 · (100 · 𝜌𝑙 · 𝑓𝑐𝑘 )3 + 𝑘1 · 𝜎𝑐𝑝 ] · 𝑏𝑤 · 𝑑 (1)
The recalculations in of 214 selected prestressed slender beams from the DAfStb database 2015
determined the factor k1 by 0.24. However, at this point it must be mentioned that the 214 beams used
here are eccentric prestressed simply supported beams under point load.
In order to investigate the influence of the compressive stress on the shear capacity and the
dependence on the static system, an additional experimental test program comprising 12 slender beams
(6x simply supported beams and 6x cantilever beams under uniformly distributed load – each static
type has as a reference a non-prestressed beam) was recently carried out at the Graz University of
Technology. The results indicate that the influence of compressive stress σcp on the shear capacity of
RC-beams without stirrups significantly depends on the static system. To validate these experimental
results and investigate the influence of other parameters (shear slenderness a/d-ratio and longitudinal
reinforcement ratio ρl), this paper systematically investigates a parameter study using a non-linear Finite
Element Analysis (FEA).
2 Non-linear Finite Element Analysis (FEA)
2.1 Modelling and calibration of experimental program

The non-linear analysis is performed using the FEA software package “ATENA Science Studio v5.6”
. To allow a realistic prediction of the shear behavior of RC-beams, the material model used must meet
high requirements. In the performed parametric study, the material model “CC3DNonLin-
Cementitious2” implemented in ATENA was used, whose suitability has already been repeatedly
verified –.
14th
To achieve optimal prediction on the load bearing behavior, calibration of the material parameters
was performed in advance. Based on this study, the parameters of the FEA model are selected. The
b
concrete elements are realized using a plane stress state by means of 4-noded linear shell elements with
a size of 3 x 3 cm. The reinforcement, as well as the prestressing strands, are represented by discrete
truss elements. These are assigned a bilinear constitutive law according to the steel grade used. The
bond between concrete and reinforcement is obtained by a program internal bond-slip law (under good
if
bond conditions) . All support or load applications plates are modeled with elastic elements (see Fig.
1).
Fig. 1 (left) Model representation for a simply supported beam under uniformly distributed load
(right) Dimension of the cross section in m
The FE model was verified by recalculating the laboratory tests in . The most important parameters and
the achieved shear capacities in the control section (Vexp,d) of the experimental test program can be
taken from Table 1. For this purpose, the material model was adapted to the concrete parameters known
from the accompanying tests. Deviating from the standard settings, the following settings were used for
all recalculations:
▪ fracture energy exactly according to Hordijk
▪ no rotation of the existing cracks: Fixed Crack = 1
▪ shear transfer between cracks: sf = 15
▪ consideration of fine meshes : Lt,min = 40 mm
Table 1 Specimen details and results of the experimental test program

Test SFT* lstat a/d σcp fcm fctm b d ρl Vexp,d
# # m - MPa MPa MPa cm cm % kN
SV2-N00E,a 2 4.9 3.0 0.00 29.4 2.3 17 40.9 0.73 58.9
SV2-N05E,a 2 4.9 3.0 0.50 29.4 2.3 17 40.9 0.73 56.4
SV2-N05E,b 2 4.9 3.0 0.50 29.4 2.3 17 40.9 0.73 62.6
SV2-N10E,a 2 4.9 3.0 1.00 28.4 2.3 17 40.9 0.73 72.6
Series 1
SV2-N10E,b 2 4.9 3.0 1.00 28.4 2.3 17 40.9 0.73 76.1

SV2-N15E,a 2 4.9 3.0 1.50 29.4 2.3 17 40.9 0.73 73.0
SV5-N00E 3 2.8 3.5 0.00 29.7 2.3 17 40.3 1.61 76.3
SV5-N05E 3 2.8 3.5 0.50 29.7 2.3 17 40.3 1.61 114.7
SV5.1-N15E 3 2.8 3.5 1.50 29.7 2.3 17 40.3 1.61 83.5
SV5.2-N15E 3 2.8 3.5 1.50 29.7 2.3 17 40.3 1.61 96.6
SV2-N15P,a 2 4.9 3.0 1.50 47.6 3.3 17 40.8 0.95 90.1
SV2-N15P,b 2 4.9 3.0 1.50 47.6 3.3 17 40.8 0.95 95.7
Series 2
SV2-N30P,a 2 4.9 3.0 3.00 47.6 3.3 17 40.8 0.95 104.2

SV2-N30P,b 2 4.9 3.0 3.00 47.6 3.3 17 40.8 0.95 105.9
SV5-N15P 3 2.8 3.5 1.50 49.5 3.0 17 40.5 1.64 117.2
SV5-N30P 3 2.8 3.5 3.00 49.5 3.0 17 40.5 1.64 113.9
* SFT …. shear span type
The results of the FE-calculations and a comparison with the results from the laboratory are shown in
Fig. 2. The shear capacity of the externally prestressed beams (Series 1 – NxxE) and that of the

This document may notNumerical
be copied or distributed without prior permission from fib.
investigation of shear behavior of prestressed concrete beams without stirrups
internally prestressed beams (Series 2 – NxxP) from are satisfactorily predicted by the FE model. On
average, the FEA results are 4 % (σ = 6 %) below those from the laboratory.
if b
Fig. 2 Comparison of Experimental from and Finite Element Analysis (FEA) Specimens
In addition, the load-displacement-behavior (Fig. 3,a) as well as the crack patterns and location of
failure (Fig. 3,b) show satisfactory agreement. The FEA model thus realistically captures the behavior
of the test specimens. With this confirmation, the calibrated model can be used for further systematic
calculations of the shear capacity.
Fig. 3 Experimental and FEA; (left) load-displacement-behavior (right) crack pattern
2.2 Parameter study

Within the framework of a parametric study, the influence of compressive stress on the shear capacity
is carried out. Additionally, a set of parameters is set up to investigate interaction of loading and
material parameters. A total of 225 simulations are carried out based on the cross-section from test
series 2 (see Fig. 1,b). The parameters to be investigated are as follows:
Shear slenderness 𝜆 = 𝑎/𝑑 2.60 ÷ 3.50 [-]
Longitudinal reinforcement ratio 𝜌𝑙 = 𝐴𝑠 / (𝑏 ∙ 𝑑) 0.73 ÷ 1.65 %
Compressive stress 𝜎𝑐𝑝 = 𝑁𝐸𝑑 / (𝑏 ∙ 𝑑) 0.00 ÷ 4.50 MN/m²
Static system SFT (shear span type)* 1÷3
*SFT 1….. simply supported beam under point load
*SFT 2….. simply supported beam under uniformly distributed load
*SFT 3….. cantilever beam under uniformly distributed load
To avoid undesirable influences by the concrete properties, all simulations are uniformly based on
a concrete strength class C30/37 at the mean value level and adapted calibration parameters from
14 th
chapter 2.1. The results of the FEA parameter study can be taken from Fig. 4. The results are classified
according to the type of shear span (75 simulations per SFT). A comparison of the ratio of the shear
b
capacity with and without prestressing (χp = VNxx /VN00 ) is shown. Additionally, the nominal increase of
the shear capacity in relation to the respective beam without prestressing is considered in accordance
with EC2: Δ𝜏 = Δ(VNxx,d − VN00,d )/(b ∙ d). Linear regression across all parameters can clearly quantify
the influence of the prestress for both observations. A clear influence of the static system on the increase
if
of the shear capacity due to a compressive stress can be seen. The increase of the shear capacity due to
prestressing is for cantilever beam under uniformly distributed load (SFT-3) over all parameter
combinations lower than for the simply supported beam under point load or under uniformly distributed
load (SFT-1 or SFT-2) with a critical shear cracking in the region of low moment loading. As a result
of the regression analysis performed, following EC2 according to Eq.1, significantly different values
for 𝑘1 ⋅ 𝜎𝑐𝑝 of 0.195𝜎𝑐𝑝 (SFT-2), 0.180𝜎𝑐𝑝 (SFT-1), and 0.125𝜎𝑐𝑝 (SFT-3), are obtained.
Fig. 4 Results of the FE investigation; above: increase of strength relative to beams without
prestressing; below: additional nominal shear capacity (each with regression line)

In Table 2 all results are written according to the parameter configuration of the FE-Study. In addition
to the basic value of the shear capacity in the control section (VN00,d), regression coefficients (gradient
of dashed line C1 and C2) are evaluated analogously to Fig. 4 to account for the prestressing according
to Eq. (2) and (3).
VNxx,d
χp = = 𝐶1 ∙ σ𝑐𝑝 + 1 (2)
VN00,d
-
Δ(VNxx,d − VN00,d )
Δ𝜏 = = 𝐶2 ∙ σ𝑐𝑝 (3)
(b ∙ d)
A look at the shear capacity of the non-prestressed beams (VN00,d) shows that the shear capacity at the
control section according to Eurocode 2 and Model Code 2010 for SFT1-beams is lower compared to
SFT2- and SFT3-beams. Furthermore, it is evident that with a higher slenderness a/d the shear capacity
decreases and with increasing the longitudinal reinforcement ratio ρl the shear capacity increases.
Similar behavior has also already been recorded in various experimental tests, e.g. –. The influence of
compressive stress (C1 ∙ σcp or C2 ∙ σcp) on the shear capacity is also depending on the static system,
longitudinal reinforcement ratio ρl and the shear slenderness a/d. The influence of compressive stress
decreases with higher reinforcement ratio and higher slenderness, especially for simply supported
beams. These influences are captured inter alia by the computational models in , .
b
Table 2 Results of the FE-study; linear regression coefficients per static system, reinforcement ratio
and slenderness (analogous to Fig. 4 and Eq.(2),(3))
ρl
if
a/d SFT1 SFT2 SFT3
[-] in % VN00,i C1 C2 VN00,i C1 C2 VN00,i C1 C2
0.7 65.6 0.219 0.209 68.5 0.227 0.226 85.6 0.095 0.118
0.9 69.4 0.190 0.191 75.4 0.187 0.205 91.5 0.098 0.130
2.6 1.1 70.6 0.205 0.210 77.8 0.196 0.222 94.2 0.116 0.158
1.3 73.4 0.192 0.205 81.0 0.190 0.224 109.1 0.069 0.110
1.6 79.3 0.164 0.189 86.3 0.175 0.219 110.4 0.072 0.115
0.7 61.0 0.222 0.197 69.7 0.197 0.199 83.6 0.094 0.114
0.9 64.2 0.212 0.197 71.9 0.205 0.214 91.5 0.098 0.130
3.0 1.1 68.9 0.188 0.188 80.9 0.163 0.191 95.8 0.091 0.127
1.3 69.9 0.190 0.193 87.7 0.149 0.189 104.3 0.058 0.088
1.6 81.8 0.136 0.161 97.3 0.111 0.157 101.9 0.101 0.150
0.7 62.6 0.176 0.160 67.2 0.202 0.197 75.6 0.116 0.127
0.9 64.3 0.172 0.161 76.8 0.151 0.168 83.3 0.096 0.116
3.5 1.1 68.6 0.148 0.148 78.0 0.162 0.184 90.2 0.100 0.132
1.3 74.3 0.135 0.145 87.5 0.120 0.153 91.8 0.097 0.130
1.6 79.8 0.124 0.143 91.1 0.129 0.171 99.6 0.086 0.125
µ 70.2 0.178 0.180 79.8 0.171 0.195 93.9 0.092 0.125
CoV 0.091 0.176 0.134 0.110 0.199 0.125 0.105 0.172 0.132
The positive effect of prestressing on the shear capacity can be attributed to the altered crack pattern
and strain distribution, and any remaining system load-bearing effect after shear cracking. A necessary
condition for the formation of a critical shear crack is the presence of a pronounced crack pattern with
sufficient flexural crack depth. A compressive force can slow down the crack formation in the shear
span and would thus be favorable for the shear force capacity, but this depends significantly on the
flexural moment and thus on the static system. The influence of a compressive force on the height of
the compression zone for cantilever beams is lower compared to simply supported beams. The reason
for this is the high flexural moment that occurs in the shear span of cantilever beams. This behavior can
also be observed in the crack patterns of the FEA simulation in Fig. 5.
Fig. 5 shows the crack patterns of different static systems (SFT 1-3). Due to the large number of
tests, only the crack patterns for the parameter configuration (a/d = 3.5 & ρl = 0.9 %) are shown. All
other parameter configurations show similar behavior. To better illustrate the influence of the
compressive force NXX (e.g., N30 means σcp = 3.0MPa) on the crack formation, both the crack patterns
after shear failure (Vmax) and the crack patterns at a shear force in the support region of 60kN are shown.
A green dashed line separates the cracked and uncracked region of the beam in case of no-prestress
(N00) at a shear force of 60kN. It can be shown that the uncracked regions extend with the compressive
force. This effect is not as pronounced with the cantilever beams due to the high moment, thus favoring
earlier shear cracking compared to the simply supported beams. Furthermore, a positive shift of the
critical shear crack to the center of the field and thus to the area with lower shear force can be observed
for the simply supported beams. In the case of the cantilever beams, however, the critical shear crack
could hardly be changed.
14 th
Fig. 5
if b
Crack patterns at 60kN and after shear failure (left) simply supported beam under point
load; (center) and (right) simply supported and cantilever beam under uniformly distributed
load
Conclusion
The non-linear Finite Elemente Analyse (FEA) within the scope of this paper and the experiment results
from show that the positive effect of prestressing on the shear capacity also depends on the static system
and the loading type. The influence is higher on simply supported beams compared to cantilever beams.
Furthermore, it was recognized that the influence of centric prestressing is generally lower than that of
eccentrically prestressed beams. Through the FEA results, the factor k1 ⋅ σcp (following EC2) can be
quantified as 0.180σcp (point load) or 0.195σcp (distributed load) for simply supported beams and
0.125σcp for cantilever beams under distributed load.
Recent statistical studies of existing shear databases, indicate a possible increase in the influence
of prestressing from 0.12σcp (current value in EC2) up to about 0.24σcp. These are significantly higher,
especially with respect to cantilever beams, than those results obtained in this work. However, it should
be noted that cantilever beams under uniformly distributed load are severely underrepresented in the
current shear databases. In addition, there is a large number of eccentrically prestressed beams. The
influence of an eccentrically prestressing is generally considered to be more favorable than with a
centric prestressing. These effects should be considered for a safe design.
Furthermore, it can be deduced from the FEA results that both the shear capacity VN00 (without
prestress) and the increase of it by a prestressing VNxx/VN00 depend on the parameters shear slenderness
a/d and longitudinal reinforcement ratio ρl. The shear capacity could be increased by increasing the
longitudinal reinforcement ratio ρl. However, by increasing the shear slenderness a/d, the shear capacity
decreases. Test results in – show similar behavior, for example. The positive effect of a prestressing
VNxx/VN00 decreases with an increase of the shear slenderness a/d as well as with an increase of the
longitudinal reinforcement ratio ρl. These influences are also captured by some computational models,
e. g., .
For further investigation, these findings should be evaluated in an experimental program.

References
b
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Study of tower and fairlead steel-concrete connections
b
of a prestressed concrete spar supporting a 10 MW
floating offshore wind turbine
if
Wichuda Munbua1, Muhammad S. Hasan1, Rodolfo T. Gonçalves2, Chikako
Fujiyama1, Koichi Maekawa1
1 Graduate School of Urban Innovation, Department of Civil Engineering,
Yokohama National University,
79-5 Tokiwadai, Hodogaya-ku, Yokohama 240-8501, Japan
2 Graduate School of Engineering, Department of Systems Innovation,

The University of Tokyo,
7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan
Abstract
This study aims to investigate and design steel-concrete connections of a concrete spar floater support-
ing a 10 MW offshore wind turbine made of precast segments of prestressed concrete. The nonlinear
behavior of the concrete structure excited by the cyclic motions of the wind turbine tower was numer-
ically studied using the finite element code COM3. The maximum forces obtained from the most dom-
inant case of the hydrodynamic motion analyses under operation of the wind turbine were applied to
the finite element model investigating stress-strain distribution. The preliminary steel-concrete connec-
tions were then designed, and prestressing force was determined at the critical area indicated by con-
crete ultimate tensile strain. The analytical results showed the preliminary designed connections and
prestressing force could prevent microcrack generation and propagation at the spar's tower base and
fairlead positions. The designed connections could also prevent the bottom part of the steel tower from
buckling failure and pulling out of concrete due to a large bending moment under the operation of the
wind turbine.
1 Introduction
Japan implemented a new law to promote offshore wind in 2019 to be operated by local and foreign
companies along its coastal waters. However, more than 90% of the majority of Japan’s annual wind
generation potential is located in the deep water requiring the floating platform technology [1]. The
differences among floating concepts are associated with their vertical plane motions [2]. A gravity-
based spar platform exhibits small heave motions owing to its deep draft [3]. Despite the fact that the
deep draft means that this type of platform cannot be installed in shallow water less than 100 m [4], the
simple cylindrical shape of the spar-based concept is technically sufficient to achieve cost savings [5].
In 2012, a half-scale model of a hybrid spar mounted with a 100 kW wind turbine was installed at Goto
Island, Nagasaki Prefecture, Japan [6]; in April 2016, a full-size 2 MW wind turbine was installed at
the same location after the half-scale turbine was removed [7]. The upper and lower parts of both spar
platforms were composed of steel and prestressed concrete, respectively. In 2014, the Fukushima For-
ward Project Phase 2 constructed the 7 MW “Advanced Spar” made from steel. The decreasing fatigue
life due to corrosion is a crucial concern when discussing steel platforms because a marine structure is
susceptible to corrosion that affects its long-term performance and fatigue life [8]. As a result, concrete
materials have been increasingly used to develop marine substructures and floating platforms support-
ing offshore wind turbines owing to their advantageous properties such as high resistance to corrosion,
low material requirements, and low construction costs [9]. Most research to date has studied the use of
reinforced or prestressed concrete [9], [10] but the use of precast segments in prestressed concrete has
not yet been widely investigated. This research aims to investigate and design the steel-concrete con-
nections of a spar concrete floater supporting a 10 MW offshore wind turbine using precast segment
prestressed by a post-tensioning system. The maximum forces under wind turbine operation transferred
from the tower base and mooring lines to the concrete spar were determined from the dominant case
obtained by hydrodynamic motion analyses of previous studies [11],[12]. A finite element (FE) analysis
14 th
was then conducted to observe the nonlinear behaviour of concrete in five study cases as shown in
Table 1. The preliminary connection systems and prestressing force were then designed to prevent stress
b
transfer to the spar floater and prevent crack generation at the critical area indicated by concrete ultimate
tensile strain. The steel-concrete connections of a spar concrete floating platform were effectively
demonstrated in this study.
if
2 Geometry determination of concrete spar floater
A parametric study and hydrodynamic motion analyses were first performed to define the geometry and
verify the behavior under wave action of the proposed spar in the previous study [11],[12]. The main
dimension of the spar was determined using 11 parameters, labeled A to K, as shown in Fig. 1. In these
analyses, the IEA 10-MW RWT [13] was used as the wind turbine reference. Wave conditions from
locations around the Japanese sea were selected and described using the International Ship and Offshore
Structures Congress (ISSC) spectrum [14], as shown in Fig. 2, in which Tp represents the peak period
of the wave spectrum, and Hs represents the significant wave height. Three wave conditions were
examined: operational, storm, and centenary [15]. Three wind conditions applied with irregular waves
in the coupled dynamics analysis were the wind turbine’s cut-in wind speed of 11 m/s, cut-out wind
speed of 25 m/s and typhoon condition of 41.9 m/s. The coupled dynamics analysis of the coupling
model comprising the spar hull, wind turbine, and mooring lines, was evaluated using WAMIT [16] and
OpenFAST [17]. The wave motion analyses and the coupled dynamics analysis results of the proposed
spar floater can be found in more detail [12].
Fig. 1 Main dimensions of spar model [12] Fig. 2 ISSC wave spectrum for the
selected Japanese
environmental conditions [15]
3 Structural Analysis
3.1 FE model and study cases

In this study, the FE code COM3, Concrete Model for 3Dimensional problems, developed by Maekawa
et al. [18], was utilized to conduct nonlinear behavior assessments of the prestressed concrete spar. The
FE model’s mesh size was determined based on the function of each part to ensure the FE analysis
captured the system behavior while minimizing the solution time. The final FE model was composed
of 35,420 elements and 44,029 nodes. The minimum steel mesh size was set to 3.8 x 4.0 x 70 cm to
capture the effects of high-stress localization in these parts; the mesh was set to various larger sizes for
the concrete parts, with a maximum size of 120 x120 x 200 cm. Table 1 shows five study cases of the
FE analysis, and the FE model based on the spar parametric study is shown in Fig. 3.

b
Table 1 The five study cases of FE analysis
Case No. Case Details
A normal reinforced concrete (RC)
if
CS1
with a 0.1% reinforcement ratio
A normal RC with a 1% reinforce-
CS2
ment ratio
Applied a preliminary designed
CS3
tower connection to CS1
Applied a preliminary designed
CS4
mooring connection to CS3
Applied preliminary designed pre-
CS5
stressing force to CS4
Fig. 3 COM3 FE model mesh details
The constitutive models implemented in COM3 were developed for the specific path-dependent non-
linearity of reinforced concrete mainly attributed to cracking, reinforcement plasticity, bond interaction
between concrete and reinforcement [18]. After concrete crack, the stress mechanism becomes aniso-
tropic in the crack direction. The constitutive laws of cracked concrete are presumed to comprise stress
transfer parallel to the crack axis, stress transfer normal to the crack axis and shear transfer along the
crack, which can be derived from a strain developed in the RC element.
3.2 Material properties and structural boundary conditions

The conceptual design developed in this study is based on a normal concrete compressive strength of
41 MPa. The reinforcement ratio was approximated using the initial design estimation considering the
requirements of each part [12]. For the concrete hull, a reinforcement ratio of 0.7% was applied in the
x-direction and y-direction and 1.4% in the z-direction; for fairleads and tower connections, a reinforce-
ment ratio of 0.1% was applied in all directions. The reinforcing bar with a yield strength of 400 MPa
and a tensile strength of 600 MPa was employed in the design. Steel material class S355 with a yield
strength of 355 MPa as defined in the European standard DIN EN 10025-2 [13] was applied to the steel
tower and preliminary designed steel connection systems in the FE model. The diameter of 15 mm of
low-relaxation seven-wire strand class 270, with a tensile strength of 1850 MPa with VSL multi-strand
system class E6-7 [19] was considered to be stressed by an unbonded post-tensioning system in this
design. Three lines of R4 stud diameter of 95 mm and unstretched length of 550 m with each line at an
angle of 120° were applied as mooring lines. The ballast control system was designed considering the
spar installation process comprising both solid ballast (black blast furnace slag with a unit weight of 28
kN/m3) and liquid ballast (seawater with a density of 10.26 kN/m3) [12]. Fairleads connecting the moor-
ing lines were placed above mean sea level (MSL), considered to be restrained in the horizontal direc-
tion. The bottom end of the spar was constrained in the vertical direction to avoid any instability in the
FE analysis under the assigned boundary conditions [12].
3.3 Load conditions

The static loads applied to the concrete FE model were obtained from the most dominant case, men-
tioned in section 2 (three wave conditions perform with three wind conditions), of the coupled dynamics
simulation outputs in the time domain of OpenFAST from the previous study [12]. The results indicated
that a storm condition with a rated wind speed of 11 m/s yielded the highest tower base forces and
mooring forces [12], as presented in Table 2. In the FE analysis, the connection between the steel tower
and concrete spar as well as the fairlead connections were expected to have high potential stress con-
centrations because the forces transferred directly to these locations, causing a large deformation in the
elements. As these connections were located above MSL, hydrodynamic pressure has not been consid-
ered in the present FE analysis [12]. The maximum tower base forces, and mooring tension were there-
fore applied at the bottom of the steel tower and fairlead connections, respectively, as nodal forces with
20-timestep monotonic static loads.
Wichuda Munbua, Muhammad S. Hasan, Rodolfo T. Gonçalves, Chikako Fujiyama and Koichi Maekawa 179
14th
Table 2 Analysis results under the operational and storm conditions
b
Operational Condition Storm Condition
Description
11 [m/s] 25 [m/s] 41.9 [m/s] 11 [m/s] 25 [m/s] 41.9 [m/s]
Fxt [kN] 2994 2046 -1194 3422 3354 -2907
Fyt [kN] -372 -947 111 -722 -1232 262
if
Fzt [kN] -13537 -13480 -13404 -13609 -13568 -13533
Mxt [kN-m] 47661 102025 -10711 80551 128953 -25624
Myt [kN-m] 261274 162804 -178273 305523 -291623 -344843
Mzt [kN-m] 3160 18407 4110 9841 30200 7808
Mooring Tension [kN] 7916 2363 1590 7514 2386 1623
3.4 Stress-strain concentrations of the concrete spar

Study case CS1 is characterized by a normal reinforced concrete (RC) with a 0.1% reinforcement ratio.
Localized stress and strain values without applying any connection systems and prestressing force are
shown in Fig. 4. For a normal concrete, if the strain in concrete is greater than the ultimate concrete
tensile strain (200 ), the microcrack starts to generate due to the material softening [18]. Thus, the
red-highlighted area in Fig. 4(a) represents the critical locations that must be strengthened to control
crack development. Fig. 4(b) presents the principal tensile stress. Although the red zone was higher
than the concrete tensile strength (2.60 MPa), this stress can be transferred by the reinforcing bars
because it remained within the elastic range of the steel material (yield strength of 400 MPa). Fig. 4(c)
shows that the principal compressive stress of concrete was mostly less than the concrete compressive
strength utilized in this study; therefore, the normal concrete with a compressive strength of 41 MPa is
applicable to design the proposed spar.
(a) Maximum principal strain (b) Maximum principal stress (c) Minimum principal stress
Fig. 4 Stress-strain localization of a normal reinforced concrete with a 0.1% reinforcement ratio
(a) Maximum principal strain (b) Maximum principal stress (c) Minimum principal stress
Fig. 5 Stress-strain localization of a normal reinforced concrete with a 1% reinforcement ratio
Study case CS2 is characterized by a normal RC with a 1% reinforcement ratio. In this case, the higher
reinforcement ratio of 1% was applied to the FE model. The results show smaller red area compared to
CS1 as shown in Fig. 5(a) and 5(b). This means tensile strain and tensile stress decreased due to more
steels being implemented. However, the analysis results indicate that the stress-strain concentration still
has a high potential at the steel-concrete connection parts. Thus, it is necessary to design the connection
system and prestressing force at the critical locations shown in the red zone of Fig. 4(a) and 5(a).

3.5 Tower-spar connection, fairleads connection, and prestressed concrete design
b
In study case CS3, a preliminary designed tower connection to the model of normal RC with a 0.1%
reinforcement ratio is applied. In this study case, the steel tower-spar concrete connection was designed
by considering the critical area as mentioned in section 3.4. The preliminary embedded steel ring with
triple rib layers was first utilized, as shown in Fig. 6(a) and the detailed drawings in Fig. 6(b). This
designed connection functions to lower and to limit the concrete tensile strain developing cracks under
if
the tower base. The analysis results showed the pattern of strain distribution changed after implement-
ing the designed steel ring, as presented in Fig. 6(c), when compared to Fig. 4(a) and 5(a). The strain
has now accumulated in high concentrations at the steel ribs and fairleads. The tensile strains of the
critical elements located at the top rib and at the fairlead location were still much greater than the ulti-
mate tensile strain.
(a) Tower connection (b) Detailed drawings [cm] (c) Maximum principal strain
Fig. 6 Preliminary designed tower connection and strain localization after installation
In study case CS4, a preliminary designed mooring connection to the model of normal RC with a 0.1%
reinforcement ratio installing tower connection (CS3) is applied. In this study case, the fairlead region
was then investigated. This area is subjected to large tensile force transferred from mooring lines to the
spar concrete. This force was considered to be resisted by the two layers of steel ring with triple
connection plates shown in Fig. 7 (a) and the detailed drawings presented in Fig. 7(b), rather than by
reinforced concrete. The strain distribution after implementing this preliminary connection is presented
in Fig. 7(c). The result shows the strain at the fairleads is now lower than the limit due to utilizing the
steel material to resist these large tensions. The stains of the critical element at the tower connection
were also significantly reduced compared to Fig. 6(c), which confirmed the applicable designed
mooring connection; however, it was still higher than the concrete ultimate tensile strain. Therefore,
prestressed design is necessary to strengthen this critical area and limit crack development.
(a) Mooring connection (b) Detailed drawings [cm] (c) Maximum principal strain
Fig. 7 Preliminary designed mooring connection and strain localization after installation
In study case CS5, a preliminary designed prestressing force to the model of normal RC with a 0.1%
reinforcement ratio installing both tower connection and mooring connection (CS4) is applied. The
prestressing force was then designed in this study case to limit crack generation and propagation at the
critical area of the red zone presented in Fig. 7(c); thus, the surrounding area of the rib plates of the
tower connection is the area to arrange prestressing tendons and apply prestressing force. The
preliminary prestressing force of 154 kN, initial strain 0.0055, was applied to 7 tendons (total of 1078
kN) utilizing the multi-strand anchorage system mentioned in section 3.2. The profile tendons and
reinforced details of a normal RC with a 0.1% reinforcement ratio employed in FE analysis are shown
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in Fig. 8(a) and 8(b), respectively. The strain distribution after applying prestressing force is shown in
Fig 8(c) where the red-highlighted area is now left only at the top rib.
if b
(a) Profile tendons (b) Reinforced details (c) Maximum principal strain
Fig. 8 Preliminary designed prestressed concrete and strain localization after installation
CS5’s stress-strain relationship in the z-axis, in which the concrete was pre-compressed by prestressed
tendons, and the maximum principal stress-strain relationship of the critical member (number 27837)
are plotted together with those of CS3 and CS4. The analysis results show that the concrete strain is
greatly reduced attributed to applying prestressing force, particularly in the z-axis, as shown in Fig.
9(a), which is now lower than the ultimate tensile strain 200 , and the principal tensile strain is
reduced nearly to the limit, as presented in Fig. 9(b), which is acceptable.
(a) Stress-strain relationship in the z-axis (b) Principal stress-strain relationship

Fig. 9 Stress-strain relationship of a critical element of study cases CS3, CS4 and CS5
3.6 Structural behavior

The inclination of the tower in vertical and horizontal directions subjected to the bending moment of
the wind turbine under operation are presented as the M-ϕ diagram shown in Fig. 10(a) and 10(b).
(a) M- diagram about vertical direction (b) M- diagram about horizontal direction
Fig. 10 M- diagrams in vertical and horizontal directions of the five study cases

In CS1, the tower deformation, represented by , has increased linearly in proportion to the applied
bending moment. Similarly, CS2 shows smaller deformation attributed to a higher reinforcement ratio
b
of 1% was implemented. For CS3, CS4, and CS5, the linear graphs have changed to steep slopes due
to applying the designed connection systems and prestressing forces. It shows much smaller tower de-
formation in both directions compared with CS1 and CS2. Interestingly, the difference in tower defor-
mation between CS3 and CS4 is very small so that the graph almost overlaps with each other, as well
if
as they are near to CS5. This could imply that the preliminary connection systems and prestressed
design successfully prevented the tower from large deformation. Moreover, the examples of structural
displacement of CS1 and CS3 presented in Fig. 11(a) and 11(b) show the connection systems success-
fully prevented the steel tower from buckling failure and pulling out of concrete spar floater due to
large bending moment during wind turbine operation.
(a) CS1’s structural displacement about x-axis (b) CS3’s structural displacement about x-axis
Fig. 11 The example of structural displacements before and after implementing a tower connection
system (scale factor 300)
4 Conclusion
Steel-concrete connections for tower and fairleads for a prestressed concrete spar floater supporting a
10 MW floating offshore wind turbine were demonstrated in this study. Based on the results, the fol-
lowing conclusions were obtained:
▪ The concrete compressive stress was generally lower than the compressive capacity of the nor-
mal strength of 41 MPa concrete applied in this study. Therefore, the normal concrete can be
used to design a spar concrete to realize an economic structure.

▪ The highest stress and strain concentrations were in the steel-concrete connection parts as ex-
pected. A concrete strain that is over the ultimate tensile strain will initiate cracking; this area
is highlighted as the critical area for design prestressing force.
▪ The preliminary design of a steel ring with triple rib layers applied at the tower connection
could change the pattern of dispersal strain distribution under the steel tower by accumulating
at the steel ribs, which is useful for structural design.
▪ The preliminary design of the two layers steel ring with triple connection plates applied for the
fairlead connections successfully resists the large tensile forces transferred from mooring lines
to the proposed concrete spar. It could also prevent these forces from transferring to the critical
zone located around the tower base area, as confirmed by the concrete strain significantly re-
duced in the critical element after implementing this connection type.
▪ The preliminary connection systems and prestressed design have successfully prevented steel
tower from buckling failure and pulling out of concrete due to large bending moment under the
operation of the wind turbine as well as the crack generation and propagation in concrete parts
of the proposed spar.
This study has simplified structural analysis by applying simple bottom fixed boundary condition.
The maximum tower base forces and mooring tension under the wind turbine operation were considered
as monotonic static loads, while hydrodynamic pressure outside the spar surface was not considered. In
the future study, the coupled dynamics of forces attributed to wind, wave, and the wind turbine control
system should be applied to the FE model, as well as perform the fatigue life analysis.
Acknowledegments
The author acknowledges the support of Mr. Bartosz Stachowicz in implementing WAMIT and
OpenFAST as well as Dr. Huu Quoc Hung Nguyen in implementing finite element code COM3. This
study is financially supported by the Kajima Foundation and is part of a concrete floating wind turbine
project organized by the Institute of Advanced Sciences, Yokohama National University, Japan.
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References
b
[1] Insurer Consulting Group Asia. 2020. Asia Offshore Wind Insurance Opportunities. Japan:
MARSH JLT SPECIALTY, Marsh Ltd. http:// https://www.marsh-mbj.com/.
[2] Karimirad, Madjid. 2011. “Stochastic Dynamic Response Analysis of Spar-Type Wind Tur-
bines with Catenary or Taut Mooring Systems.” PhD diss., Norwegian University of Science
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[3] Hopstad, A. L. H., Argyriadis, K., Manjock, A., Goldsmith, J., and Ronold, K. O. 2018. DNV
GL Standard for Floating Wind Turbines. Norway: DNV. https://rules.dnv.com/.
[4] Wenfei, Xue. 2016. “Design, Numerical Modelling and Analysis of a Spar Floater Supporting
the DTU 10MW Wind Turbine.” M.S. thesis, Norwegian University of Science and Technol-
ogy.
[5] Qing, Yu., and Xiaohong Chen. 2012. Floating Wind Turbines Final Report. Texas: American
Bureau of Shipping.
[6] Ishida, S., Kokubun, K., Nimura, T., Utsunomiya, T., Sato, I., and Yoshida, S. 2013. “At-Sea
Experiment of a Hybrid SPAR Type Offshore Wind Turbine.” Volume 8: Ocean Renewable
Energy, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Nantes, France, p. V008T09A035.
[7] Tanaka, K., Sato, I., Utsunomiya, T., and Kakuya, H. 2020. “Validation of Dynamic Response
of a 2-MW Hybrid-Spar Floating Wind Turbine during Typhoon Using Full-Scale Field Data.”
Ocean Engineering, 218, p. 108262.
[8] Bhattacharya, Subhamoy. 2019. Design of Foundations for Offshore Wind Turbines. UK: Uni-
versity of Surrey: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
[9] Mathern, A., von der Haar, C., and Marx, S. 2021. “Concrete Support Structures for Offshore
Wind Turbines: Current Status, Challenges, and Future Trends.” Energies, 14(7), p. 1995.
[10] Oh, S., Inoue, H., and Takahashi, Y. 2020, “Structural Design of a Prestressed-Concrete Spar-
Type Floater for 10 MW Wind Turbines,” Journal of Physics: Conference Series, IOP Publish-
ing, p. 012012.
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2021. “Conceptual Design of a Spar Prestressed Concrete Floating Platform Supported 10 MW
Offshore Wind Turbine.” Poster presented at JWEA 43rd Wind Energy Symposium, Tokyo,
Japan, November 18-19.

[12] Munbua, W., Hasan, M. S., Malta, E. B., Gonçalves, R. T., Fujiyama, C., and Maekawa, K.
2022. “Conceptual Design of a Prestressed Concrete Spar Floater Supporting a 10 MW Off-
shore Wind Turbine.” Paper presented at 41st International Conference on Ocean, Offshore and
Arctic Engineering, Hamburg, Germany, June 5-10.
[13] Bortolotti, P., Tarres, H. C., Dykes, K., Merz, K., Sethuraman, L., Verelst, D., and Zahle, F.
2019. IEA Wind TCP Task 37: Systems Engineering in Wind Energy - WP2.1 Reference Wind
Turbines Technical Report. Reported by NREL. https://www.nrel.gov/publications/.
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and Recommendations to the 23rd ITTC.” Proceedings of the 23rd ITTC, 2, pp. 505–551.
[15] Suzuki, H., Shiohara, H., Schnepf, A., Houtani, H., Carmo, L. H. S., Hirabayashi, S., Haneda,
K., Chujo, T., Nihei, Y., Malta, E. B., and Gonçalves, R. T. 2020. “Wave and Wind Responses
of a Very-Light FOWT with Guy-Wired-Supported Tower: Numerical and Experimental Stud-
ies.” JMSE, 8(11), p. 841.
[16] Lee, C. H., and Newman, J. N. 2013. WAMIT User Manual, Version 7.0. Chestnut Hill, Mas-
sachusetts: WAMIT Inc. https://www.wamit.com/.
[17] Jonkman, J. M., and Buhl, M. L. Jr. 2005. FAST User’s Guide - Updated August 2005.
NREL/TP-500-38230, 15020796.
[18] Maekawa, Koichi., Hajime, Okamura., and Amorn Pimanmas. 2003. Nonlinear Mechanics of
Reinforced Concrete. Florida: CRC Press.
[19] Collins Michael P., and Denis Mitchell. 1997. Prestressed Concrete Structures. New Jersey:
Response Publications.

Experimental study of precast wall connection with
b
high strength wire loops
Dan Miclăușoiu1,2, Gábor-Álmos Sándor2, Horia Constantinescu1, Bogdan
Hegheș1, Mihai Nedelcu1
if
1 Faculty of Civil Engineering, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Romania
2 Consolis, Romania
59-61 Henri Barbusse St, 1st Floor - 400616 - Cluj Napoca - Romania
Abstract
This research program is set up to assess the shear behavior of the vertical connections used for the
assembly of precast shear walls. High strength wire-loop connections seem to be a viable solution to
replace the classic connections with overlapped U-bars and shear keys, as they ease the assembly pro-
cess. Selected results from scientific literature reveal different force shear-slip behaviors: on the one
hand, show ultimate loads associated to low post-cracked stiffnesses and on the other hand, peak loads
equal to the cracking loads associated to linear-elastic behavior.
The present investigation is based on experimental observations of three push-off specimens (with the
same connection layout). The shear stiffness is assessed from the force - shear displacement behavior.
The experimental capacities are compared with the recommended design method described in EN 1992-
1-1.
1 Introduction
Precast concrete shear walls are widely used to provide the needed lateral stability of precast multistory
buildings. The vertical connection type, used to join the precast wall panels together, has an important
impact on the structural response, overall stability and the distribution of internal forces.
High strength wire loops, pre-installed in wire boxes [1], used to replace the classic connections
with overlapped U-bars and shear keys, facilitate the on-site assembly process. Scientific literature pro-
vides good insight for this connection type [2], [3], in terms of a rigid-plastic upper bound model to
estimate the ultimate shear strength, calibrated with experimental results [2]. The current design prac-
tice in Europe is dictated by EN 1992-1-1, chapter 6.2.5 [4], yet it does not provide methods to estimate
the clamping force provided by the wire loops. The clamping force might be estimated using the rigid-
plastic model [2], however, this approach should not be carried out if rupture of the wire ropes is deci-
sive [2].
Besides the shear capacity of the connections, the main motivation for the present work is to assess
the force – shear slip behavior of vertical connections. The design based on linear-elastic Finite Ele-
ments Method provides the possibility to model the stiffness of the connection (e.g., with linear
springs). The use of stiffness values ranging between 0 to 1·107 kN/m/m (stiffness value associated to
monolithic concrete) drastically influence the building response to lateral loads and the distribution of
forces. If the stiffness of the connections is damaged, then the forces redistribution takes place. A linear-
elastic finite element global analysis model cannot estimate this redistribution. The stiffness topic has
been addressed by several researches (e.g. [3]), although, when compared, the results obtained by
Jørgensen [2] and Biswal [3] shows disagreement in terms of post-elastic shear behavior.
The paper starts with the presentation of the test specimens and test set-up. Test results are summa-
rized in the 3rd chapter: cracking loads, failure loads, failure mechanisms and force - shear slip behavior.
Comparisons are carried out with the test results provided by Jørgensen [2] and Biswal [3] next to shear
capacity estimations based on the design code EN 1992-1-1 [4].
2 Experimental Program
Three push-off specimens (with the same connection layout) were tested at Technical University of
Cluj Napoca to assess the stiffness of the connection, observe the failure mechanisms and verify the
applicability of EN 1992-1-1, rel. 6.25. The present test series is a part of an extended experimental
program that aims to assess the stiffness of different connection layouts.
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2.1 Test specimens presentation
Fig. 1
Table 1
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Configuration of test specimens and the wire loop connectors (in mm) [1]
Precast concrete material properties

Test Concrete Value Comments

Method property [MPa]
SR EN fcm.cube 76,20 average of 3 compressive tests according to SR EN 12390-3 on
12390 CoV:0,02 150mm cubes; specimens age 123 days.
fctm 3,74 average of 7 tensile splitting tests using SR EN 12390-6 multi-
CoV:0.12 plied with a factor of 0,9 [4]; specimens age 130 days.
Table 2 Joint mortar material properties

Test Mortar Value Comments
Method property [MPa]
SR EN fcm.cube 58,86 based on 12 compressive tests on 40mm cubes according to SR
196-1 CoV:0.06 EN 196-1; specimens age 67 days
fctm 5,09 average of 6 flexural tensile tests on 40x40x160mm prisms ac-
CoV:0.08 cording to SR EN 196-1 and converted according to 3.23 rela-
tionship from EN 1992-1-1 [4]; specimens age 67 days.
SR EN fcm.cube 57,10 based on 6 compressive tests according to SR EN 12390-3 on
12390 CoV:0.08 150mm cubes; tests performed during the hole test series (be-
tween 63-85 days)
fctm 2,35 based on 6 tensile splitting tests according to SR EN 12390-6 on
CoV:0.08 100x100x550mm prisms multiplied with a factor of 0,9 [4];
specimens age 92 days.

This document may not be copiedExperimental
study of precast wall connection with high strength wire loops
The tested connection detail was designed according to the technical specifications provided by Peikko
[1]. The description of the test specimens is presented below:
b
▪ the reinforcement of the precast panels was designed in a way to ensure the failure of the con-
nections in a push-off test configuration without following any specific reinforcement config-
urations used in actual building structures;
▪ the joint interface did not receive any special treatment (e.g., cleaning, or the opposite, greas-
if
ing), emulating normal on-site casting conditions;
▪ the lacer bar was provided with end plates (secured by screwing) in order to compensate for
the lack of anchorage length;
▪ joint casting was done with a dry mix non-sagging mortar widely used in Finland and the Bal-
tic Countries: Weber ESL C30/37 [5]. The joint was casted manually, in a vertical position.
One side of the joint was fully molded from the beginning, while the mold on the other side
was installed progressively during the casting. Mean material properties are presented in Ta-
ble 1 and 2 and their coefficient of variation with normal distribution (CoV);
▪ existing horizontal cracks were observed on the joint surface before testing (≤0.1mm crack
width). The existing cracks did not grow during tests and did not show a significant depth;
▪ the wire loops are not perfectly fixed in the boxes, having the possibility of sliding in and out
the box. In case of several wire loops it was noticed that the wire overlapping was around
50mm instead of 60mm (as described in the technical specifications [1]).
2.2 Test set-up

The test set-up consist of a reaction frame and two interconnected hydraulic jacks. The forces from the
two jacks are transferred to the specimen by a steel transfer beam, under which a load cell and a spher-
ical cap are laid. For the bottom support, a neoprene pad is provided to assure uniform support pressure
distribution and accommodate rotations. Around the specimen, a safety frame has been assembled out
of multi-purpose, adjustable and reusable steel beams. The role of the safety frame is to secure the
specimen position and provide support for the ground fixed transducers.
The loading was applied in incremental load steps with a maximum load increment of 10kN. To
ensure the deformation/internal stress stabilization, the load level was kept constant between the load
steps for a minimum of 100s.

Displacement measurements were performed on both faces of the specimen, with Linear Variable
Differential Transducers (LVDT) on the front face (Fig. 2), and with a 3D Digital Image Correlation
(DIC) system on the rear face. Both faces were measured to assess if there are other significant force
components in the connection (e.g., out-of-plane shear, bending over the vertical axis) induced by force
eccentricity or casting imperfections.
Fig. 2 Laboratory test set-up (theory and practice)
Dan Miclăușoiu, Gábor-Álmos Sándor, Horia Constantinescu, Bogdan Hegheș and Mihai Nedelcu 187
14 th
3 Test results
b
At the time of testing, the grouting material age ranged between 63 and 85 days. Although the three
testing specimens had identical joint set-up and were casted in similar conditions, significant differ-
ences were measured in terms of force - shear slip behavior, cracking load and peak load. The force -
shear slip behavior can be divided in two stages: a pre-cracking stage followed by a post-cracking stage.
In the pre-cracking stage, very small shear-slip displacements were measured: ≈0.15mm for the 1st
if
and the 3rd test and 0.04mm for the 2nd test. This stage is completed by the reaching of the cracking
load, which was also equal to the peak load for the 1st and the 2nd test. After the end of this stage, LVDTs
measured shear slips around 12mm for the 1st test, 5mm for the 2nd and 2mm for the 3rd test (at the
starting of the post-cracking stage). Fig. 3 shows the test specimens at the end of the pre-cracking stage.
The post-cracking stage starts after the cracking load is reached. In all three tests, a descending
branch in the curve can be identified, followed by a hardening branch. For the 3rd test the hardening
branch reached a peak load of 161,7kN, higher than the cracking load (increased by 135%). The relative
shear displacement associated to the peak load was 16.6mm. The completion of this stage is marked by
the wires rupture for the 2nd and the 3rd specimen (shown in Fig. 5). The failure crack went through the
grout shear keys (complete key shear-off; see Fig. 4 and 5). In the 1st test, only one wire broke, and the
others remained bonded in the grout (see Fig. 5). Air gaps surrounding the wires were observed after
the test (Fig. 5), that probably increased their elongations. This might explain why there was no increase
in capacity at higher shear displacements. The 1st test was stopped due to shear displacement limitations
imposed by the configuration of the test set-up.
Fig. 3 Crack pattern visualization just after the cracking load (from left to right). Cracking loads for
Test 1: 102.5kN, Test 2: 147.2kN, Test 3: 68.9kN (major strains, using DIC)
Fig. 4 Observed failure mechanisms after failure (from left to right). Peak loads for Test 1:
102.5kN, Test 2: 147.2kN, Test 3: 161.7kN

if b
Fig. 5 Analysis of the failed connections
3.1 Load – shear slip behavior

Load - shear slip behavior was measured using a load cell and DIC. The average shear slip was extracted
from DIC results using 10 points laid at equal distances from each other along the joint height. A more
detailed explanation of the measurement and plotting of the force - shear slip can be found in [6].
As discussed in the previous chapter, the force – shear slip behavior was divided in two stages. For
both stages, the secant stiffness value was calculated by dividing the secant slope of the graphs (see
Fig. 6 and Fig. 7) to the connection height (1.25m).
In the pre-cracking stage, for the 1st and the 3rd test, the stiffness can be approximated by two secant
slopes: first one with 2.7·106 kN/m/m stiffness value and the following slope is decreased by 87.8% to
a value of 3.3·105 kN/m/m. For the 2nd test, the stiffness had an increase by 381.5% (to an average value
of 1.3·107 kN/m/m) compared with the other tests. The stiffness remained constant up to 82% of the
cracking (and peak) load.
The post-cracking stage is presented in Fig. 7. Here it can be observed that the 1 st and the 2nd test
do not reach a higher load than the cracking load. This behavior might be associated with the results
presented by Biswal [3], shown in Fig. 8 (right side graph). The 3rd test reached a higher peak load in
the post-cracking stage (as discussed in previous chapter) having a stiffness decreased by 98.93% from
the pre-cracking stage (post-cracked stiffness: 4.5·103 kN/m/m). This behavior might be associated with
the test results presented by Jørgensen [2], shown in Fig. 8 (left side graph).
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if b
Fig. 6 Shear force vs average shear slip in pre-cracking stage
Fig. 7 Shear force vs average shear slip along the joint height in post-cracking
Fig. 8 Load vs shear slip presented by Jørgensen [2] tests on PVL60 (left image) and Biswal [3]
tests on PVL100 (right image)
3.2 Comparisons with calculations

Test results were compared with the recommended design method described in EN 1992-1-1 Chapter
6.2.5 (based on paragraph (4) of this chapter) [4]. In order to have a better comparison with the tests
the 6.25 formula is derived as follows:
𝑉𝑅.𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑐𝑡𝑚 𝐴𝑖𝑛𝑑 + 𝑐𝑣𝑠 𝑓𝑐𝑡𝑚 𝐴𝑣𝑠 + 𝐹𝑡𝑖𝑒 𝜇𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝑖𝑛𝑑 ⁄𝐴𝑖 + 𝐹𝑡𝑖𝑒 𝜇𝑣𝑠 𝐴𝑣𝑠 ⁄𝐴𝑖
(1)
≤ 0.5 𝜗 𝑓𝑐𝑑 𝐴𝑖
Where:
▪ c and μ are factors which depend on the roughness of the interface; cind = 0.5 (for indented
interface); cvs = 0.25 (for very smooth interface); µind = 0.9 (for indented interface); µvs =
0.5 (for very smooth interface);
▪ fctm – mean tensile strength from Table 2;
▪ Ftie – the clamping force estimated with different methods for various connectors;
▪ As - is the area of reinforcement crossing the interface, including ordinary shear rein-
b
forcement (if any), with adequate anchorage at both sides of the interface;
▪ Aind – area of the shear keys, complying to Figure 6.9 from [4];
▪ Avs – surface casted against specially prepared wooden molds;
▪ Ai - is the total area of the joint;
if
▪ ν - is a strength reduction factor (see chapter 6.2.2 from EN 1992-1-1 (6)).
EN 1992-1-1 specifies in Figure 6.8 and 6.9 [4] how the interface area should be considered. The very
smooth area is much greater than the indented area in the present situation. For a more realistic com-
parison with test results, the very smooth area was not neglected in eq. (1). During previous test obser-
vations [6] it was noticed that considering the area of the n shear keys as indented (Aind = n·hkey·bkey)
and the very smooth area as the remaining area (Avs = Ai - Aind; Ai = bwall·Ljoint) EN 1992-1-1 rel. 6.25
provides smaller deviation from the test results.
Ftie, the clamping force provided by the wire loops, can be calculated with the model proposed by
Jørgensen, which imposes a failure mechanism of concrete crushing between the wire loops [2]. Previ-
ous wire tests presented by Jørgensen indicate a very low elasticity modulus, due to large axial dis-
placements of the wire ropes (Fig. 9). If elasticity modulus is low, then the forces in the wires at small
displacements are consequently low. For now, the clamping force contribution is completely neglected
(Ftie = 0).
Fig. 9 Wire tests presented by Jørgensen [2]

The approach given by EN 1992-1-1 is highly dependent on the tensile strength of the mortar. Usually,
the mechanical properties of the mortar are determined using SR EN 196-1, on small probes:
40x40x160mm prisms, tested in three-point bending configuration. In this research, the mortar was
additionally tested according to SR EN 12390 (part 5 and 6), on larger probes: 100x100x550mm prisms
subjected to four-point bending test. The remaining undamaged ends of the same specimen were sub-
jected to tensile splitting tests. The results were converted to uniaxial tensile strength (fctm) according
to EN 1992-1-1. It was noticed that the results obtained from the larger prisms were much lower than
the results obtained on the small prisms (see Table 2). Further, it was presumed that the tests on larger
prisms provide more realistic results, since the joint width is 100mm. The high air content of the mortar
(8-12%), declared by [5], might also impact the calculations. Consequently, so the interfaces area was
reduced by a factor of 0.88. The ratio between the cracking loads from experiments/model resistances
(using eq. (1)) are 0.74, 1.07, 0.5.
Fig. 10 Shear capacities - comparison of test results with calculations (in kN)
14 th
Judging from the wide spread of the results, is it possible that the shear capacity of these connections
might reach even lower failure values? Based on EN 1990 [7] annex D7.2, a characteristic value might
b
be assessed from the three tests (results are shown in Fig. 10, with a log-normal distribution). Variations
in the cracking load and deviations from the theoretical model (in terms of peak loads) were discussed
in Jørgensen’s [2] thesis too (see Fig. 8, left graph). It was stated that wires straightening difficulties
(not achieving 90 º with the panels) might have caused the deviation from the theoretical values [2].
if
Similar concerns were raised during this project. Yet, the failure of the tested connections was governed
by wires rupture and not the wire anchorage failure.
4 Conclusions
Test measured cracking and peak loads, as well as the associated shear displacements, shows a wide
spread of values.
The cracking loads deviate up to 38.6% from the average, while the peak loads deviate up to 25.3%.
The peak loads are reached at very different values: 0.13mm, 0.04mm and 16.6mm (1st, 2nd and 3rd test).
Two out of the three tests had an approximately similar pre-cracking behavior, but the third, pre-
sented a very high stiffness compared to the other two. Design based on linear-elastic finite element
global analysis might cause unreliable estimations in terms structural response.
The relation (1) derived from EN 1992-1-1 (with the very smooth area contribution considered, and
the wire loop contribution neglected) provides non-conservative results compared to the cracking val-
ues obtained from tests. Statistic interpretation of the results, based on three tests rise the concern of
much lower cracking values.
Besides the suspected high deformability of the wire loops (low elasticity modulus), the greatest
concern is that the actual air content after the casting of the joint is much higher than declared in the
technical manual. These connections cannot achieve force transfer without the mortar. Use of grouts
with fluid consistency should eliminate the possibility of air bubbles in the connections. Verification of
the joint quality with non-destructive methods like Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Tester may lower the
concern of un-proper filling.
In the authors’ opinion, the Ultimate Limit State for these connections must be limited to their
cracking load. Experimental results show that there is a high possibility of not achieving higher post-
cracking capacity. Moreover, if higher post-cracking loads are achieved, they are associated to very
high displacements, which would cause forces migration that cannot be pre-estimated with linear elastic
finite element analysis.
Acknowledgements
Hereby the authors would like to express their special thanks and gratitude to the Group Technology
Development Center of Consolis as well as Consolis’ Romanian subsidiary ASA Cons. Without their
dedication and engagement towards science this research project could not have taken place.
References
[1] PEIKKO Group. 02/2020. Technical Manual PVL® Connecting Loop. Accessed May 2022.
https://www.peikko.com/products/product/pvl-connecting-loop/
[2] Jørgensen, B. Henrik. 2014. “Strength of Loop Connections between Precast Concrete Ele-
ments: Part I: U-bar Connections Loaded in Combined Tension and Bending -Part II: Wire
Loop Connections Loaded in Shear.“ PhD diss. Syddansk Universitet. Det Tekniske Fakultet.
[3] Biswal, Aparup, and Meher A. Prasad, Kumar A. Sengupta. 2018. “Study of shear behavior of
grouted vertical joints between precast concrete wall panels under direct shear loading" Struc-
tural Concrete 1–19.
[4] CEN: EN 1992-1-1. Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures - Part 1-1: General rules and
rules for buildings. Brussels, Belgium: CEN; 2004.
[5] SAINT-GOBAIN Weber. 15 June 2021. Weber ESL: Mortar for concrete element joints
C30/37-4.
[6] Miclăușoiu, Dan and Sándor, Á. Gábor, Horia Constantinescu, Bogdan Hegheș, Mihai Nedelcu.
2022. “Experimental study of precast wall connection with grouted shear keys and welded pla-
tes.” Paper presented at fib International Congress 2022 Oslo
[7] CEN. Comité européen de normalization. EN 1990: Eurocode - Basis of structural design. CEN,
Brussels, Belgium; 2002.
Effect of loading rate on reinforced concrete walls
b
under dynamic loading
Hyeon-Keun Yang and Hong-Gun Park
if
Department of Architecture and Architecutral Engineering
Seoul National University
1, Gwanak-ro Gwanak-gu, Seoul (08826), Korea
Abstract
In the event of an earthquake, loading rate might be aroung 10 -1. However, most of structural
spcimens which were effect on the code revision were tested under static laoding. In this research,
shaking table tests were conducted using RC walls. The input ground motion was based on RG1.60
which is design spectrum of nuclear power plant building. The number of specimens was 2, (one for
aspect ratio 1.0 and the other for aspect ratio 2.0). The test result indicates that the maximum strength
of reinforced concrete structure was increased under dynamic loading rate, because of less number of
crack and the steel yield strength increase.
1 Introduction
Nuclear power plant can supply stable electric energy. However, the accident or collapse of nuclear
power plant can cause the significant damage on enviorment and people. To prevent these accidents,
many researches related strucutres, systems, and equipment of nuclear power planat have been con-
ducted. In addition, the extreme performance of nuclear power plant structures was evaluated for seis-
mic probabilistic fragility anaylsis.
To confirm structure’s actual strength, the shaking table test of real scale is the best, however, the
capacity of shaking table test is limited, and the large scale of test can not be possible. The other possible
test method is using scaled specimen with pseudo-dynamic test. Horizontal cyclic loading rate can si-
mulate the earthquake loading. Most of cyclic loading tests were conducted under very slow loading
(pseudo-static loading). However, the loading rate under earthquake is around 10-1[1] which is much
higher than the strain rate of pseudo-static test. In addition, the structural strength of reinforced concrte
is higher in that loading rate than the loading rate under pseudo-static. According to varying strain rate,
maximum shear strength, stiffness, and durability can be changed. Also these changes can alter the
goverining failure mode in RC sturcutre. Higher strain rate test was performed for RC beams [2, 3, 4,
5, 6, and 7]. Chung and Shah [8] tested beam-column joint under different strain rate. The research
investigated that RC member subjected high strain rate had low ductility and the number of crack was
decreased.
In the case of RC walls, to evaluate the seismic performance of nuclear power plant exactly, RC
wall specimen tests were conducted [9, 10, and 11]. However, most of tests were performed under
quasi-stati loading. Baek et al. [12] was conducted the RC wall test under dynamic loading rate and the
test results summerized in the next chapter. In the present study, to apply the pseudo-dynamic test result
to shaking table test, RC shear wall specimenw were tested shaking table test. The effect of loading rate
on the extreme strength of reinforced concrete wall was studied.
2 Dynamic lateral loading test (Beak et al. (2020))
2.1 Major test prameters and test results (Pseudo-Static and Dynamnic loading)
Five wall specimens with aspect ratio 1.0 and three specimens with aspect ratio 0.5 were prepared for
pseudo-static and pseudo-dynamic test. The test specimens are summarized in Table 1. Test parameters
were loading rate (pseudo-static or pseudo-dynamic), design failure mode, aspect ratio and shear rein-
forcing bar ratio. The first two letters PS and PD refer to the test method: PS: pseudo-static and DS:
pseudo-dynamic. The second letters F, SF, and S refer to the design failure modes: flexural yielding
failure, shear-friction failure and shear failure respectively. The failure modes was controlled by vertical
reinforcing bar ratio in the wall boundary area and firction coefficient between base part of specimen
14 th
and wall part of specimen. The third letter H and F refer shear reinforcing bar ratio: 0.5% and 0.9%.
The number following the specimen name “_5” refers aspect ratio of specimen.
b
Table 1 Test program and results of beak et al.
Predcited Peak strength (kN)
if
Specimen Test Method VTest / VPredicted
strength (kN) VStatic VDynamic
PSFH Pseudo-Static 823 792 - 0.96
PDFH Pseudo-Dyamic 823 - 878 1.07
PDFF Pseudo-Dyamic 1228 - 1301 1.06
PDFH_5 Pseudo-Dyamic 851 - 862 1.01
PSSFH_5 Pseudo-Static 832 728 - 0.88
PDSFH_5 Pseudo-Dyamic 832 - 766 0.92
PSSH Pseudo-Static 836 1423 - 1.70
PDSH Pseudo-Dyamic 836 - 1568 1.88
2.2 Dynamic increased factor

In this research, to predict the peak strength of RC walls under high-frequency loading, a increasing
reinforcing steel model proposed by Li and Li [13] and a concrete model proposed by Kulkarni and
Shah [2] were used.
f dy s
= 1 + cu log( ) (1)
fy  so

f dc
= 0.22log( c ) + 0.9973 (2)
fc  co
Table 2 shows the predicted flrexural strength Vf, shear strength Vn or shear-friction strength Vsf
of RC walls with DIFs (Dynamic increased factors, Eq. (1) and (2)).
Table 2 Predicted strength of specimen using DIFs (Beak et al.).
Original de- Predicted design strength

Specimen Test strength VTest / VPredict_DIF
sign strength using DIFs
PDFH 823 Vf = 836 878 1.05

PDFF 1228 Vf = 1360 1301 0.96
PDFH_5 851 Vf = 886 862 0.97
PDSFH_5 832 Vsf = 866 766 0.88
PDSH 836 Vn = 857 1568 1.83
The strength ratios were less than the results not considering DIFs (Table 1). The specific discussions
were included in Beak et al. (2020).
3 Shaking table test
3.1 Test specimen

To verifying the effect of strain rate on flexural strength of RC walls under earthquake loading, shaking
table test was conducted. Two test speciemens were prepared. The dimensions of the specimens with
an aspect ratio of 1.0 were 1500 mm (length) × 1500 mm (height) × 200 mm (thickness), whereas those
of the walls with an aspect ratio 2.0 were 750 mm × 1500 mm × 200 mm (Table 3 and Fig. 1). Because
b
of the high seismic demand of nuclear power plant building, the shear reinforcement ratio is 0.59 and
1.06 for the specimens with aspect ratio 1.0 and 2.0, respectively.
Table 3 Shaking table Test program and results of beak et al.
if
Re-bar ratio Design strength prediction
Aspect Increment of
Specimen
ratio input PGA
Ver. Hor. Mf (kN‧m) Vf (kN) Vn (kN) Vn/Vf
A1.0 1.0 0.55 0.55 577.2 312 983 3.15 0.3g
A2.0 2.0 0.79 0.79 306.5 165 577 3.50 0.1g
Fig. 1 Shaking table set-up and superimposed mass

To prevent shear failure, the horizontal shear reinforcing bar ratio was increased in the specimen with
aspect ratio 2.0 (A2.0). The flexural strength and shear strengths of specimens were calculated based
on ACI 349 [14]. Both specimens were desicend to induce that flexural yield failure occurs before shear
failure.
Superimposed mass installed top of specimen was used to make large inertial force. The sumper-
impsosed mass was 26 ton. The increment of input PGA was differnet according to the aspect ratio of
speciemens because the prediected flexural strength of A1.0 was higher than that of A2.0. However,
the measured PGA at the shaking table floor was differnet with expected one. The measured PGA is
using follow explanation.
3.2 Input ground motion

Figure 2 shows the elastic response spectrum of input ground motion of RG1.60 [15]. RG1.60
which was published by EPRI is the design spectrum of nuclear power plant building. The input motion
was artificial earthquake that an elastic response spectrum of artificial earthquake was as same as
RG1.60. The seed motion was 912 earthquake which was occurred at Kyung-Ju in 2016. The strong
motion duration was 30 sec.
Fig. 2 Elastic response spectrum of RG1.60

14 th
4 Shaking table test results
b
4.1 Structural damage and eigenvalue change
Figure 3 shows the changes of natural frequency and damping ratio of specimens according to PGA.
The natural frequency and damping ratio were calculated based on transfer-fruncion (Chopra, 1995
[16]) using the measured acceleration.
if
In the case of A1.0, the natural frequency was changed from 8.9 Hz to 4.1 Hz and the damping ratio
was changed from 4.7 % to 10.0 %. According to the test procedure, the natural frequency of specimen
was decreased, and the damping ratio was increased.
In the case of A2.0, the natural frequency was little higher than that of A1.0, because of aspect ratio.
The natural frequency was changed from 4.0 Hz to 1.8 Hz. The damping ratio of specimen was changed
form 7.8 % to 17.4 %. The tendencies of natural frequency and dmaping ratio of both specimens were
similar.
Fig. 3 Freqeucny and damping ratio relationship according to peak ground acceleration
4.2 Load-displacement relationship

Figure 4 shows the overturning moment and lateral displacement relationships of specimens at the
tests that PGA was over 0.3g. Because the specimens were defomed elastic range, the test results that
PGA was less 0.3g were not showed. The overturning moment was calculated from the axial force
measured from loadcells which installed under the specimen. The lateral dispcelment was calculated
using top slab displacement and bottom slab displacement. To compare the test results, nominal flexural
strength based on ACI 349 was marked in the Fig. 4.
Fig. 4 Overturning moment and relative displacement relation
The peak overturning moment of both specimens were larger than nominal flexural strength. After
the peak overturning moement, the lateral drift was increased without increment of overturning moment.

This results indicated that the test specimens resisted with ductile capacity to the lateral force (or
earthquake force) after flexural yielding.
b
In the case of A1.0, the maximum lateral displacements were +7.96 mm and -15.04 mm (lateral
drift: +0.43 % and -0.81 %) and the peak overturning moements were +596 kN‧m and -620 kN‧m. The
peak overturning moment was 3.3 % and 7.5 % larger than nominal flexural strength of A1.0 at positive
and negative directions, respectively.
if
On the other case of A2.0, the peak overturning moments were +361 kN‧m and -346 kN‧m. The
test results showed that the peak overturning moments were 17.6 % and 12.7% larger than the nominal
flexural strength of A2.0.
Fig. 5 Specimens with damages
Figure 5 shows the crack propagation of specimens after shaking table test. Horizontal cracks were
occurred in both specimens because of overturing moment. In the area of web, diagonal crack was
occurred. In the bottom area, concrete crushing was occurred in the final test and the test was paused
for the safety.
5 Predict peak strength using DIFs

Based on the research of Beak et al., the flexural yield strengths of RC walls were prediected using
DIFs. The strain rates which used to derive DIFs were the maximum strain rate at the maximum PGA
test results. Table 4 shows the predicted strength with DIFs and without DIFs and test strength. The
ratios of predicted strengths with DIFs and test strength were 1.01 and 1.00 at the A1.0 and A2.0,
respectively. The results showed that the prediected strength with DIFs can estimate the test results
accurately.
Table 4 Predicted flexural yield strength, test results and comparison with predicted and test
strength
Predicted and test strength (kN‧m) Eigenvalues
Specimen Mf_Dy- Damping (%) Freq. (Hz)

Mf_Dy- Mf /
Mf MTest namic /
namic MTest < My > My < My > My
MTest
4.5- 10.0- 8.9- 4.0-

A1.0 577 612 608 0.95 1.01
6.4 10.0 6.0 4.0
7.8- 13.2- 4.0- 2.2-
A2.0 307 323 322 0.95 1.00
8.7 17.4 2.3 1.8

14 th
6 Conclusion
b
To investigate the maximum strength of RC walls under earthquake loading, two RC walls were tested
under shaking table test. The test parameters were PGA, aspect ratio. The major findings of the present
study are summarized as follows:
1. The maximum flexural yielding strengths of RC walls were 5% larger than the predicted
strength based on static test results.
if
2. The predicted strengths with DIFs estimated the test results exactly.
3. The strain rate when calculate the DIFs were the maximum strain rate during the earthquake.
The present test results should be limited to flexural strength of RC walls and small scale. To con-
firm the effect of strain rate on shear strength or shear-friction strength of RC walls, various design
parameters need to be considered, which include: wall thickness, horizontal reinforcing bar ratio, failure
mode, concrete strength and etc.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Korea Institute of Energy Technology Evaluation and Planning
(KETEP) and the Ministry of Trad, Industry & Energy (MOTIE) of Republic of Korea (No.
20201510100020) and
References
[1] Biscoff, P. H., and Perry, S. H., „Compressive Behaviour of Concrete at High Strain rates,“ Ma-
terials and Structures, V. 24, No. 6, 1991, pp 425-450.
[2] Kulkarni, S. M., and Shah, S. P., “Response of Reinforced Concrete Beams at High Strain
Rates,” ACI Structural Journal, V. 95, No. 6, Nov.-Dec. 1998, pp. 705-715.
[3] Limberger, E.; Brandes, K.; and Herter, J., “Influence of Mechan- ical Properties of Reinforcing
Steel on the Ductility of reinforced Concrete Beams with Respect to High Strain Rates,” Sym-
posium on Concrete Struc- tures under Impact and Impulsive Loading, Berlin, Germany, 1982,
656 pp.
[4] Mahin, S. A.; Bertero, V. V.; Atalay, M. B.; and Rea, D., “Rate of Loading Effects on Un-
cracked and Repaired Reinforced Concrete Members,” Earthquake Engineering Research
Center, University of Cali- fornia, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, 1972, pp. 1461-1470.
[5] Mutsuyoshi, H., and Machida, A., “Properties and Failure of Rein- forced Concrete Members
Subjected to Dynamic Loading,” Transactions of the Japan Concrete Institute, V. 6, 1984, pp.
521-528.
[6] Takeda, J., and Tachikawa, H., “Deformation and Fracture of Concrete Subjected to
Dynamic Load,” Proceedings, Proceedings of the Conference on Mechanical Behavior of Ma-
terials, 1972, Transport and Road Research Laboratory (TRRL), Crowthorne, UK, pp. 267-277.
[7] Wakabayashi, M.; Nakamura, T.; Yoshida, N.; Iwai, S.; and Wata- nabe, Y., “Dynamic Loading
Effects on the Structural Performance of Concrete and Steel Materials and Beams,” Proceedings,
7th World Confer- ence on Earthquake Engineering, 1980, Turkish National Committee on
Earthquake Engineering, V. 6, pp. 271-278.
[8] Chung, L., and Shah, S. P., “Effect of Loading Rate on Anchorage Bond and Beam-Column
Joints,” ACI Structural Journal, V. 86, No. 2, Mar.-Apr. 1989, pp. 132-142.
[9] Baek, J.-W.; Park, H.-G.; Lee, B.-S.; and Shin, H.-M., “Shear-Fric- tion Strength of Low-Rise
Walls with 550 MPa (80 ksi) Reinforcing Bars under Cyclic Loading,” ACI Structural Journal,
V. 115, No. 1, Jan. 2018, pp. 65-78.
[10] Park, H. G.; Baek, J. W.; Lee, J. H.; and Shin, H. M., “Cyclic Loading Tests for Shear Strength
of Low-Rise Reinforced Concrete Walls with Grade 550 MPa Bars,” ACI Structural Journal,
V. 112, No. 3, May-June 2015, pp. 299-310. doi: 10.14359/51687406
[11] Baek, J. W., Kim, S. H., Park, H. G., & Lee, B. S. (2020). Shear-Friction Strength of Low-Rise
Walls with 600 MPa Reinforcing Bars. ACI Structural Journal, 117(1).
[12] Baek, J. W., Yang, H. K., & Park, H. G. (2020). Loading Rate Effect on Reinforced Concrete
Walls with Low Aspect Ratios under High-Frequency Earthquake. ACI Structural Jour-
nal, 117(6).
[13] Li, M., and Li, H., “Effects of Strain Rate on Reinforced Concrete Structure under Seismic
Loading,” Advances in Structural Engineering, V. 15, No. 3, 2012, pp. 461-475. doi:
10.1260/1369-4332.15.3.461
[14] ACI Committee 349, “Code Requirements for Nuclear Safety-Related Concrete Structures
(ACI 349-13) and Commentary,” American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 2013,
b
196 pp.
[15] USNRC, R. Guide 1.60 Design Response Spectra for Seismic Design of Nuclear Power Plants.
[16] Chopra, A. K. (1995). Dynamics of structures: theory and applications to earthquake engineering.
Prentice Hall.
if

if b
Digital Design of automatically wound shear
b
reinforcement for non-prismatic concrete beams.
Anna Perepechay1, Saverio Spadea1,2, Eduardo Costa3, Paul Shepherd3
if
1School of Science and Engineering,
University of Dundee,
Fulton Building, Dundee DD1 4HN, United Kingdom
2Department of Civil, Environmental, Building Engineering and Chemistry (DICATECh),

Polytechnic University of Bari,
Via Amendola - 70126 Bari, Italy
3Department of Architecture & Civil Engineering,

University of Bath,
Bath BA2 7AY, United Kingdom
Abstract
Concrete is the world’s most widely used man-made material, accounting for around 7% of global CO2
emissions. Currently, up to half of the concrete used in buildings is unnecessary, as it is there because
it is shaped using prismatic formworks, which are structurally inefficient.
Recent research has demonstrated that flexible formwork can be used to form concrete members of any
shape and that reinforcement can be woven into geometrically appropriate cages. This process is well
suited for robotic automation, enabling off-site casting of non-prismatic beams with minimal human
involvement.
In a previous contribution, an iterative optimisation process was implemented in a parametric modelling
framework to generate and analyse non-prismatic beams in bending, considering the constraints im-
posed by the use of fabric formwork. The current effort focuses on the winding process, which triggers
further design constraints while considerably contributing, together with the concrete shape sections,
to the shear strength of the beams.
The analytical tool is linked to the generative geometry process and an optimisation tool, which can
inform the parametric design of flexible beams with minimal embodied carbon.
1 Introduction
The worldwide race to reduce energy consumption is on, with a majority of the industries developing
their own smart ways to minimise the embodied and operational carbon. The British construction sector
also participates in this ambitious goal of achieving a nearly zero-carbon economy by 2050 [1]. Con-
crete is heavily utilised, which makes it responsible for the production of around 7% of the global
carbon emissions. However, the early actions of the UK industry resulted in achieving a five times
lower CO2 value than the world average [2]. Nevertheless, scientists, designers, and contractors recog-
nise that collective action is more important than ever. They are joined in a collaboration to research
and implement the techniques that will reduce the negative impact of this artificial material. Although
the traditional way of construction is still leading on the building sites, novel methods have become
more popular and are desirable alternatives.
Concrete is exploited in large quantities; therefore, it is undeniable that reducing the volume used
will contribute to a decrease in CO2 emissions. In a traditional reinforced concrete beam, utilisation
varies along length resulting in up to 40% of the material being redundant [3]. Shape optimisation of
the structural elements leads to more efficient material use due to regular stress distribution [4]. Non-
prismatic structures are formed using flexible formwork that allows casting complex geometries easily
and therefore is subjected to a growing interest from architects and contractors. Moreover, the impro-
vement in the durability has been observed while casting concrete in a permeable membrane as excess
pore water bleeds from the concrete during curing, attaining a reduction of water to cement ratio in the
surface zone [5]. However, concrete is not the only great contributor to total embodied carbon in RC
14 th
elements. Steel is a highly energy-consuming product mainly due to its production process. IEA data
shows that iron and steel manufacturing accounts for 22% of total industrial energy use [www.iea.org].
b
This resulted in several experiments attempting to partially or entirely replace steel reinforcement with
different materials like FRPs (e.g., carbon, glass, basalt), bamboo or natural fibres.
Although non-prismatic structural elements have been researched widely in the past, limited studies
have been given to digital design with optimisation. The study presented in this paper summarises
if
some of the work performed under the ‘Automating Concrete Construction (ACORN)‘ [https://auto-
mated.construction] research project. This aims to improve whole-life construction sustainability and
productivity by defining a holistic approach to the manufacture, assembly, reuse, and deconstruction of
concrete buildings, leading to a healthier and safer built environment. This paper outlines the process
of optimising the beam, to find a minimum embodied carbon value, by varying the width and depth of
‘T’-shaped beam together with the cross-sectional area and spacing of the shear stirrups.
2 Digital Design Algorithm
2.1 Digital Design Method

The design code was developed within a parametric modelling framework supported by CAD model-
ling software Rhinoceros (Rhino) and the visual programming interface Grasshopper (GH). Addition-
ally, new components were implemented into Python.
The algorithm consists of the three main modules: Geometry, Analysis and Optimisation, which
compromise the following tasks: geometry input, angles calculations, ULS and SLS checks, embodied
carbon, utilisation check and optimisation.
Fig. 1 Digital design algorithm.
Firstly, a primary geometry is pre-defined with the initial values of the variables: a width which is
constant through the beam, effective depth, shear reinforcement area and spacing. Parameters for an
element length, support type and concrete cover thickness are also set. Additionally, the material prop-
erties are determined. Together with a geometry and material input, design loading is specified. The
beam loading is considered to be uniformly distributed through the length with the partial safety factors
applied automatically. Afterwards, the input parameters are processed by the script in order to calculate
a shear reinforcement angle (β) and a concrete strut angle () followed by shear and bending moment
capacity calculations. Subsequently, beam deflection is derived using the double integration method.
Prior to optimisation, there is a carbon calculation component that sums up the embodied carbon from
the concrete mass, steel longitudinal bars and CFRP stirrups. Then, the code runs a utilisation check to
ensure that the utilisation at any section does not exceed 1. Finally, the optimising engine Wallacei X
searches for the optimal element shape (depth and width), shear reinforcement area and spacing with
a minimum embodied carbon value as an objective.
2.2 Materials
The design code utilises two material types for the reinforcement: wound CFRP cages with the alternate
stirrups inclined at 90 and at a calculated β angle for the transverse reinforcement and steel for the
This document mayDigital
not be copied or distributed without prior permission from fib.
Design of automatically wound shear reinforcement for non-prismatic concrete beams.
longitudinal bars. The main concept behind using CFRP to form the rectangular spirals is that the ma-
terial demonstrates a linear elastic stress-strain relationship up to failure [6], is characterised by excel-
b
lent tensile properties, is invulnerable to corrosion, and the produced cages are relatively light so that
they can be easily manufactured off-site and transported prior to casting in a flexible formwork [7]. The
modulus of elasticity of the CFRP is lower than steel; therefore, the design will usually be governed by
the deflection criteria [8].
if
Table 1 Properties of CFRP adopted*.
Tensile Strength 496 MPa
Young Modulus 124 GPa
*values sourced from [9]
The current version of the code relies on a user-specified concrete grade – i.e., given the compres-
sive and tensile strength.
3 Geometry Module
The Geometry Module consists of the components that generate the ‘T’-shaped beam geometry and
visualise the reinforcement. The beam is divided into a number of equally spaced planar sections along
its length in the locations of the midspan between the inclined stirrups and additionally at the supports.
Each of the sections is described by a set of cross-section parameters that vary along the beam length.
These include total depth, effective depth, shear reinforcement area, stirrups inclination and concrete
struct angle. Several parameters remain constant and are as follows: beam web width, flange width,
flange thickness, area of longitudinal reinforcement, stirrups spacing and concrete cover.
Fig. 2 Perspective view of ‘T’-shaped beam with sectional divisions
Fig. 3 Elevation of ‘T’-shaped beam with sectional divisions
The width and thickness of the beam flange are related to the width of the beam and are determined
based on the minimum effective width of the isolated T-beam as described in Section 8.10.4 of ACI318
[10].
4 Analysis Module
The beam performance is assessed at each section in terms of shear and flexural strengths, where the
stresses are compared to the capacities. Serviceability check and embodied carbon calculations are per-
formed considering a beam as a one-element (without the sectional division).
Fig. 4 Isolated T-beam cross-section.

14 th
4.1 Shear
b
The shear capacity of the FRP stirrups, Vf, is derived from the equation (1) originating from the Cana-
dian Code CSA S806 [11] and is based on the truss analogy [7]:
𝐴𝑓𝑤 × 𝑓𝑓𝑤 × 𝑑𝑤 × (𝑐𝑜𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡) × 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑓 = (1)
𝑠
where Afw = area of the shear reinforcement; ffw = stress level in the FRP shear reinforcement at ultimate
if
load; dw = effective shear depth;  = angle of the inclined cracks;  = angle of shear reinforcement with
the beam axis; and s = spacing of the reinforcement legs.
The total shear capacity of the section, Vf,total, is calculated as a sum of the contributions from the
vertical and inclined stirrups (2).
𝑉𝑓,𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑉𝑓,𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 + 𝑉𝑓,𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 (2)
4.2 Bending Moment

The ultimate moment of resistance, MRd, is based on the Eurocode equation (3) [12]:
𝑀𝑅𝑑 = 0.167 × 𝑓𝑐𝑘 × 𝑏 × 𝑑2 (3)
where fck = characteristic compressive cylinder strength of concrete at 28 days; b = width of section;
and d = effective depth of the tension reinforcement.
4.3 Deflection
Moment-curvature approach is used to derive deflection. The calculations are performed on the basis
of the moment-curvature relationship (m-) that is used to establish the constitutive behaviour of
a flexural member [13]. The moment function depends on the loading arrangement and is obtained from
the internal forces. The deformation value is acquired by the double integration method described by
equation (4).
𝑀
 = ∬ 𝐸𝐼 𝑑2 𝑥 + 𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶2 (4)
where M = bending moment ; E = modulus of elasticity; I = moment of inertia; and x = distance from
the beginning of x-axis.
4.4 Embodied Carbon

The embodied carbon component multiplies the mass of the materials by the appropriate embodied
carbon coefficients that are listed in Table 2.
Table 2 Embodied carbon factors (ECFs) used in the code to calculate total embodied carbon.
Material Embodied Carbon Factors [kgCO2/kg]* Density [kg/m3]
Concrete 0.138 2400
Steel 0.76 7850
CFRP 1.80 1600
*values sourced from [14]
Although CFRP has a higher carbon factor than steel, it is significantly less dense, resulting in a smaller
value of the total embodied carbon.
5 Optimisation Module
The objective of the optimisation module is to find the minimum concrete volume and the optimal
reinforcement arrangement required to achieve the structural capacity. The form-finding algorithm is
powered by Wallacei X engine that searches for the minimum value of embodied carbon given the
following variables in the form of the number sliders are the gene-pools: effective depth, beam width,
shear reinforcement area and stirrups spacings.

b
Fig. 5 Optimised ‘T’-shaped concrete beam with a variable depth.
if
Fig. 6 ‘T’-shaped concrete beam with a constant depth.
Wallacei X is a freely available analytic and evolutionary engine for Grasshopper 3D that employs the
NSGA-2 algorithm as the primary evolutionary algorithm and utilises the K-means method as the clus-
tering algorithm [www.wallacei.com].
Fig. 7 Standard deviation graph.
The tool runs simulations with the inputs to achieve the smallest value of the single objective, which is
a desired solution for the specified problem. However, some iteration outputs are not structurally valid;
therefore, a utilisation check component has been introduced within the code that allows to control the
ratio between stress and capacity and disregards the solution that does not meet the strength require-
ment. If the utilisation exceeds 1, the script sends the information to the optimiser that the iteration has
an enormously high total embodied carbon value, and therefore it is automatically disqualified from a
set of possible solutions.
Fig. 7 presents a standard deviation graph that is produced by an optimising engine to highlight the
variations within a single simulation. Each of the curves represents a generation performed that allows
us to better understand the evolutionary runs. The narrower the curve, the less variation is within one
generation.
6 Parametric Beam vs Typical RC beam

The study performed for the purpose of this paper involved a comparison between a non-prismatic
beam created and optimised using the developed code and a typical RC beam utilised across the con-
struction industry.
6.1 Design Data

The initial parameters set for the designs are summarised in Table 3. Both of the beams were considered
to be 6m long, made of concrete grade C30/37.

14th
Table 3 Beam parameters used in the design.
b
Parameter / Beam Type Parametric Beam Typical RC Beam
Shape Non-prismatic “T-beam” Prismatic “T-beam”
Transverse Reinforcement CFRP, winded cage, vertical Traditional steel cage, vertical
if
Type & inclined stirrups stirrups only
Longitudinal Reinforcement Steel bars Steel bars
Simplicity and time were the aspects that determined the type of transverse reinforcement used in
the comparison. Although steel cages can be produced with inclined stirrups, which will positively
contribute to their effectiveness, this practice is not widely used in the construction industry, and unlike
CFRP, the process is expensive and time-consuming.
6.2 Loading
The beams were subjected to a uniformly distributed load: the dead load of 20.4 kN/m, imposed load
of 10.5 kN/m and a self-weight. The values were derived on the basis of the office building with a 7.2m
by 6m structural grid and two-way spanning slabs.
6.3 Results & Discussion

Deflection limiting criteria and required bending strength were governing the design of the considered
beam.
Fig. 8 Bending moment values comparison.
The depth of the optimised beam follows the bending moment diagram, as illustrated in Fig.8, which
permits to utilise the material more effectively than in a conventional beam where the depth is specified
based on the maximum bending moment. Although the beam shape optimisation is not a novel ap-
proach, the new technology, which includes digital design, reinforcement winding and robotic automa-
tion, permitted to decrease the process cost substantially and made the non-prismatic forms attractive
again. The presented design exhibited that optimisation allowed to save 8.3% of concrete volume com-
pared to a typical RC beam, which is over 40kgCO2 per beam purely based on the concrete usage.
Moreover, limiting the volume of material used resulted in a lighter element, which in turn decreased
the loading on the beam, and therefore allowed to reduce reinforcement further and had a positive im-
pact on the deflection.
Fig. 9 and Fig. 10 present the stirrups arrangements that were output from the designs. Shear re-
sistance of the member was governed by the failure of the stirrups. In a traditional RC beam, vertical
links were required to be 2 x 8mm dia. provided at a spacing of 250mm c/c in zones adjacent to the
supports and at 275mm c/c in the middle part of the beam, whereas in the parametric beam the vertical
and inclined stirrups were needed to be spaced at 250mm c/c. Table 4 and Table 5 present the embodied
carbon based on the shear reinforcement area provided and the material type used. Section subjected to
shear is larger in the conventional beam, which usually would result in a reduction of steel reinforce-
ment. However, the optimised beam approach allows to decrease a concrete volume and the use of
reinforcing material that is significantly lighter than steel contributes to lowering the load acting on a

beam, and therefore to reduce the shear force. Steel reinforcement is limited to the available bar diam-
eters. Hence the area provided will always be higher than the one that is actually needed and will fully
b
depend on the bar sizes. The comparison shows a significant difference in embodied carbon, which can
be concluded that CFRP cages in a beam with the optimised geometry can decrease the CO 2 value of
shear reinforcement thrice.
if
Fig. 9 Design output: stirrups arrangement in an optimised beam.
Fig. 10 Design output: stirrups arrangement in a conventional beam.
Table 4 Shear stirrups CO2 in an optimised beam.

Zone Asw, provided Material Density ECF Embodied Carbon
(1500mm long) [mm2/m] [kg/m3] [kgCO2/kg) [1/m * kg/m]
1 250 1600 1.80 0.72
2a 225 1600 1.80 0.65
2b 225 1600 1.80 0.65

3 250 1600 1.80 0.72
2.74
Table 5 Shear stirrups CO2 in a conventional beam.

Zone Asw,req Asw, prov Material Density ECF Embodied Carbon
(1500mm long) [mm2/m] [mm2/m] [kg/m3] [kgCO2/kg) [1/m * kg/m]
1 388 402 7850 0.76 2.40
2a 263 366 7850 0.76 2.18
2b 263 366 7850 0.76 2.18
3 388 402 7850 0.76 2.40
9.16
7 Conclusion
This paper presents the outcomes of beam optimisation with the goal of achieving the lowest embodied
carbon value whilst sustaining structural integrity.
Based on the results obtained herein, the following conclusions are drawn:
• The developed design code allows to produce optimised geometries that reduce the total vol-
ume of concrete used and utilise the reinforcement more efficiently, and therefore minimise
the environmental impact;
• Wound CFRP cages are suitable for automation and mass production off-site. Together with
flexible formwork, they are an appealing alternative to the traditional RC beam not only in
terms of sustainability but also in cost and durability.
14 th
• Reducing the weight of the beams results generally in a lighter structure, and therefore allows
to decrease the sizes of the other building elements, e.g., columns and foundations. This, in
b
consequence, leads to savings in CO2 emissions and funds.
8 Future Work
if
It is known that the main driver of embodied carbon within the concrete mix is Portland Cement; there-
fore, future work will focus on the mix composition. The optimisation engine will additionally consider
the strength and CO2 for different mixes and will result in the most appropriate concrete composition
for a given design problem.
Although currently, the spacing of the stirrups is one of the variables, once determined, the intervals
are the same through the beam length. It is envisaged that the next script release should allow not only
inclination and depth to vary from section to section but also the shear links spacing. This will allow to
utilise shear reinforcement more efficiently and therefore reduce embodied carbon even greater.
The optimisation study described in this paper will be validated by the experimental work that will
involve casting and testing 6m long flexibly formed beams with CFRP cages. It is planned to utilise a
low carbon concrete mix composition to maximise the effects of a sustainable design.
Acknowledgements
The presented work was a part of the ‘Automating Concrete Construction (ACORN)’ research project
funded by UKRI through the ISCF Transforming Construction programme, grant number
EP/S031316/1.
References
[1] Yang, Y., Orr, J. and Ibell, T. 2020. “Shear behaviour of fabric formed T beams reinforced
using W-FRP.“ Structures 24:869-879.
[2] MPA UK Concrete. 2020 “UK Concrete and Cement Industry Roadmap to Beyond Net Zero.”
Mineral Product Association.
[3] Costa, E., Shepherd P., Orr, J., Ibell, T. and Oval, R. 2020. „Automating Concrete Construction:
Digital Design of Non-Prismatic Reinforced Concrete Beams“. Second RILEM International
Conference on Concrete and Digital Fabrication, Volume 28.

[4] Garbet, J., Darby, A.P. and Ibell, T.J. 2010. “Optimised Beam Design Using Innovative Fabric-
Formed Concrete.” Advances in Structural Engineering 13:5.
[5] Yang, Y., Orr, J., Spadea, S. 2018. „Shear Behavior of Variable-Depth Concrete Beams with
Wound Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Shear Reinforcement“ Journal of Composites for Construc-
tion 22 (6), art. no. 04018058.
[6] Spadea, S., Orr, J., Ivanova, K. 2017. „Bend-strength of novel filament wound shear reinforce-
ment“ Composite Structures 176, pp. 244-253.
[7] Spadea, S., Orr, J., Nanni, A., Yang, Y. 2017. „Wound FRP Shear Reinforcement for Concrete
Structures“. Journal of Composites for Construction 21 (5), art. no. 04017026.
[8] Spadea, S., Orr, J., Ibell, T. and Nanni, A. 2018. „Development of New FRP Reinforcement for
Optimised Concrete Structures“. High Tech Concrete: Where Technology and Engineering
Meet.
[9] Nanni, A., De Luca, A., Zadeh, H. J., 2019. Reinforced concrete with FRP bars: Mechanics
and design. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
[10] ACI CODE–318-19: Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete and Commentary.
[11] CSA S806: Design and construction of building structures with fibre-reinforced polymers.
[12] EN 1992-1-1 (2004): Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures – Part 1-1:P General rules
and rules for buildings“.
[13] Chen, X., Dong-hua, Z., Peng, W., Sheng-ping, Z. 2015. „New procedure for determining the
moment-curvature relationship of a reinforced concrete section.“ Magazine of Concrete Re-
search 67(3):121-132.
[14] Gibbons, O. P., Orr, J. J., 2020. „How to calculate embodied carbon“. Institution of Structural
Engineers.

Application of FSE approach for structural fire safety
b
assessment of car and motor scooter parks
Margherita Autiero, Enrico Cardellino, Donatella de Silva and Emidio Nigro
if
Department of Structures for Engineering and Architecture,
University of Naples Federico II,
Via Claudio 21, Naples (80125), Italy
Abstract
In the international research field, the application of the FSE approach to study car parks fire behaviour
is a well-investigated topic, unlike when the park is intended for motorcycles. Thus, the aim of this
work is to investigate several fire scenarios correlated to the two different intended uses. Different fire
curves were obtained thanks to thermo-fluid-dynamic zone models knowing Heat Release Rate (HRR)
curves from the literature. Results showed that a motorcycle fire can become significant for exodus
reason, while the car fire must be considered for structural fire resistance purpose. Several advanced
thermo-mechanical analyses were carried out on substructures selected according to FSE criteria, both
using natural and nominal fire curves. The results have underlined the importance of the FSE to reduce
the structural fire demand.
1 Introduction
In the last decades, many underground car and motor parks are constructed at the basement of residen-
tial, administrative and office buildings, because the usable land available is increasingly limited, es-
pecially in big cities. The main feature of these underground parks is the enclosed condition, which can
become particularly critical, in case of fire. Indeed, the limited ventilation inside the compartment can
cause large amount of smoke, high temperature with difficulty in evacuation with great human suffering
and property loss. The fire involving cars and heavy goods vehicles are well known in literatures, both
from the experimental and numerical point of view. Johan Mangs et al. [1], studied a realistic scenario
of a car fire in an open car park, by using ordinary medium-size passenger cars. Gas temperatures were
calculated using rate of heat release for the model plumes, and compared to experimental temperatures,
finding a good agreement. Zhang et al. [2], design the development of car fire by letting surface densi-
ties of the fuel over the car. Fire spread and movement of smoke are then investigated under different
ventilation conditions. Tohir & Spearpoint [3] discusses a simplified approach to obtaining heat release
rate curves for multiple passenger vehicle fires and these single vehicle design fire curves are then used
to define regions of likely design fire curves for multiple vehicle fires. The good agreement with the
experimental results confirms the robustness of the simplified method. However, the fire of motorcycles
is little investigated in the literature and one of the most relevant works has been proposed by Chen et
al. [4], in which a series of burning tests were conducted on motor scooters by using a 10 MW large-
scale fire products collector. The emissions characteristics and heat release rates of burning motor
scooters were identified. They found that as the number of scooters increased, the duration of the fully
developed burning period became shorter and the ignition and fire spreading patterns affected the max-
imal heat release rate considerably.
Even if the potential fire generated by a motors cycle is less dangerous than a vehicle one for the
structural collapse, it could become dangerous if more motorcycles burn at the same time ; moreover,
the fires of motorcycles in an underground parking can also be significant for the safe people evacua-
tion. Starting from this lack of literature indications, the aim of this work is to investigate several fire
scenarios correlated to the two different intended uses, to quantify the natural fire curves and the tem-
perature levels reached in each fire scenario. These fire scenarios were considered for analysing the fire
behaviour of a real reinforced concrete structure, underling all its criticalities and peculiarities, useful
for the future fluid-dynamic and thermo-mechanical analyses, especially considering the motor scooter
parks, which are not contained in any technical regulation.
14 th
2 Fire modelling
b
To study the fire resistance of structures according to the performance-based approach, the first step is
the modelling of possible fire scenarios that lead to the design natural fire curves. First of all, the Heat
Release Rate (HRR) curves that characterize the fire scenarios have to be defined. In this work the HRR
curves of cars and motorcycles are considered and described in the following.
if
2.1 Heat Release Rate (HRR) curves for cars
In the international scientific literature, vehicles are classified according to the thermal energy that can
be released during the fire; an example is the classification reported in Kruppa et al. [5].
The belonging to a certain category is a function of the car tank volume and the engine size. In
relation to the most commercially available cars, at the Category 3 belong the ones with capacity less
or equal to 2000 cc. However, the cars with a higher engine size belong to "Categories 4 and 5". In this
paper Category 3 were considered, in particular the best-selling cars with a calorific value of 9500 MJ
was chosen and the HRR curves are provided from experimental fire test data [5]. Category 3 may also
include VANs, to which should be added a fire load derived by 250kg of flammable material with a
calorific value of 40 MJ/kg. The envelope of the experimental curves allowed the derivation of input
HRR curves in Fig.1.
20000 RHR [KW] 20000
RHR [KW]
18000 18000
16000 16000
14000 14000
RHR INP UT_1 CAR RHR INP UT_VAN
12000 12000
10000 10000
8000 8000
6000 6000
4000 4000
2000 2000
t [min] t [min]
0 0
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 0 15 30 45 60 75 90
Fig. 1 the HRR curves for one car (left) and one Van (right).
2.2 Heat Release Rate (HRR) curves for motorcycles

To determine the HRR curves for the motorcycles, as mentioned, one of the most relevant works has
been proposed by Chen et al. [4]. The tests were conducted with one, two and three scooters to obtain
the different thermal release.
1400 RHR [KW] RHR INPUT_1 MOTORCYCLE
1300
1200
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
t [min]
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Fig. 2 Ignition positions for one (a), two (b) and three (c) scooters and the six major flammable parts of
a motor scooter (d) and the example of HRR curves for Motorcycles (e).
Also, the influence of the position of ignition has been investigated, as well as the fire spreading pattern,
the duration of fully developed burning and the peak heat release rate. The test results show that one
b
scooter has a peak heat release rate equal to 1 MW, two scooters and three scooters have 2 MW, and
three scooters have 4 MW, showing that the maximal heat release rate does not grow linearly with the
number of the motor scooters [4]. However, the total heat release is approximately equal to the com-
bustion energies sum of all available flammable materials. On the contrary, the duration of full devel-
if
oped burning becomes shorter increasing the number of scooters. As results the available HRR curves
has been obtained with a HRRmax equal to about 1300 MW and a total duration of about 17 minutes,
as showed in Fig. 2 (e).
2.3 Thermo-fluid dynamic analyses

The HRR curve described in the previous paragraph were used as input for thermo-fluid dynamic anal-
yses performed by Cfast software [6], to obtain the natural fire curves of each fire scenario. To better
understand the effect of various parameters on the natural fires, a parametric analysed was carried out.
2.3.1 Parametric Analyses
Many thermo-fluid dynamic analyses were performed by varying the ignition time delay between each
motorcycle, the number of cycles, the influence of the openings and finally the size of the compartment.
The variation of motorcycles number, from 1 to 25, lead to observe an increment of the temperature
peak until about 600°C showed in Fig. 3 (left).
Fig. 3 Fire curves by varying: the number of morcycles (left), the opening factor (centre) and the com-
partment dimension (right).
The opening factor (O), was varied from 0.025 to 0.096 m-1, obtaining a modification of both peak and
duration of the fire curve Fig. 3 (centre). At last, increasing the compartment dimension, the reduction
of the peak temperature was observed as shown in Fig 3 (right). The results obtained from this para-
metric analysis, which aims to define the fire scenarios, can be summarized as following:
• motorcycle fire scenarios are susceptible to the number of motorcycles and therefore it is difficult
to establish a certain number of motorcycles to be considered, like for cars;
• as the height of the compartment increases, the maximum temperatures in terms of peak decreases;
• as the opening factor increases, the maximum temperatures in terms of peak decreases, but the fire
duration increases;
• decreasing the size of the compartment, the temperature increases for the same opening factors.
3 Case study description

The parking analysed in this study is intended for motorcycles, with 366 motorcycle spaces available.
It is located at the basement of a reinforced concrete building with 11 floors, where the first floor is
intended for offices while the remaining floors are intended for residential use. The parking is charac-
terised by two underground levels; the first one, with a height of 4.9 metres, is directly connected to the
outside through two entrances and it is partly covered by a skylight. The second level, with a height of
3 metres, doesn’t have a direct connection with the outside; it is connected to the first level through an
internal ramp.
14th
3.1 Thermo Fluid-dynamic analyses
b
The first step of the performance-based approach consists of the assessment of thermal action through
the selection of the design fire scenarios. The design fire scenario is a qualitative description of the fire
development during the time, identifying key events that characterise the fire and distinguish it from
other possible fires. It typically defines the ignition and fire growth process, the fully developed stage
and the decay one. As shown in the previous paragraph, the fire scenario is largely influenced by dif-
if
ferent conditions: internal ventilation, external environmental conditions, active protection system ef-
fectiveness, type, position and dimension of fire ignition, type and distribution of fire load, fire load
density, windows and door state (close or open), conditions of the occupants. For this reason, the num-
ber of possible fire scenarios is usually too large and the analysis of each one is not practicable. There-
fore, the design fire scenarios should be chosen, in order to analyse the most severe cases for the struc-
ture, the development and spread of the fire, the safety of the occupants and rescue teams.
In general, the choice of the design fire scenarios should be carried out based on the risk (R),
associated to each fire scenario, equal to the probability of occurrence multiplied by the consequence
of each fire scenario. For each selected fire scenario, the designer has to define the natural fire curve,
determined on the basis of models of fire. In this study the identification of possible fire scenarios was
based on maximising the fire effects related to the resistance of the structural elements and evacuation,
thanks to engineering judgments. In particular, five fire scenarios were analysed and the fire tempera-
ture was estimated by placing the targets near each motorcycle. In the following, the Target of the
Motorcycle are TM while the Target of the Car are TC. In each scenario, the ignition time delay bet-
ween each motorcycle was considered equal to 24 seconds.
In the first (Scenario 1) and second (Scenario 2) scenarios, 5 motorcycles were involved. Scenario
1 aimed to maximise the fire effects on the evacuation and on the columns and floor located near the
access ramp, where is a reduction in height from 4.9m to 3m. Scenario 2 aimed to maximise the effects
on the column where the height is 4.9 m, since this column has a smaller section and was surrounded
by several motorcycles. Scenario 3 aimed to maximise the effects on the floor at a height of 4.9 m,
therefore it was considered the area with a lower ventilation because of the external grids, and it was
considered a greater number of motorcycles, indeed 7 motorcycles were involved with a symmetrical
fire spreading which started from the central one. Scenario 4 and Scenario 5 aimed to maximise the fire
effects on both the displacement and bending moments of the beams. In Scenario 4, 5 motorcycles were
concentrated at the central span while in Scenario 5, 4 motorcycles were placed at the end span. Since
the park structure has only exposed beams, the beam with the greatest span was considered.
In addition, different scenarios were analysed also in the case of car parking ; in order to compare
the temperatures and consequently the performances in terms of strength and stiffness of the structural
elements, in the two different intended uses. Unlike for the case of motorcycles parking, in this case of
car parking, the national and international technical standards indicate how to apply the fire safety en-
gineering methods. Therefore, the code provides the experimental Heat Release Rate (HRR) curves
which are described in the previous part of this paper and that are going to be used for the following
structural analyses, as well as the ignition time delay between each car, that can be assumed to be equal
to 12 minutes. The scenarios analysed in this case were similar to the ones described for motorcycles
with the aim to maximise the effects on structural elements and evacuation but considering the arran-
gement of car spaces in this specific parking.
In Table 1, the maximum temperatures obtained in both cases and for each scenario, are shown.
Table 1 Maximum temperatures obtained from the fluid-dynamic analysis of fire scenarios for mo-
torcycles and cars
θmax [°C] Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 3 Scenario 4 Scenario 5 Scenario 6
motorcycles 342.4 163.6 440.6 165.1 161.5 -
cars 1143.2 940.4 956.6 921.2 956.7 813.6
From the results it is possible to see that in case of cars, fluid-dynamic analyses show significantly
higher temperatures than the ones reached in case of motorcycles. Therefore, it was deemed necessary
to carry out structural thermo-mechanical analyses in the case of cars, because in the case of motorcy-
cles the temperatures don’t significantly affect the thermal properties of the concrete and so the perfor-
mance in terms of strength and stability of the structural elements. For this reason, the fire resistance
can be considered verified for motorcycles from the beginning. This may be also justified by the fact
that the fire loads densities are clearly different in the two cases (or to the commercial vehicle that the
b
technical regulation requires to consider in a fire scenario) :
qmoto = 181 MJ/m2 < qauto = 543 MJ/m2 < qvan = 1512 MJ/m2
3.2 Thermo-mechanical analyses
if
3.2.1 Selection of the substructure
The fluid dynamic analysis of each scenario provides the natural fire curves which represent the thermal
inputs to carry out the advanced mechanical analyses. According to Eurocodes, the structural analysis
in case of fire should be carried out also for significant parts of the structure. These substructures differ
in extension and boundary conditions; these latter should be chosen based on potential thermal expan-
sion and deformation so that their interaction with the other parts of the structure can be approximated
with constant boundary conditions during fire exposure (EN1994-1-2) [7].
1200 θ [ C]
TC 1
TC 2
1000 TC 3
TC 4
800
600
400
200
t [min]
0
0 15 30 45 60 75 90
Fig. 4 Fire propagation and arrangement of the Target Car (TC) in the fire scenario 1 (left), Thermal
results of the Fire Scenario 1 (right).
Therefore, each scenario corresponds to a different substructure and the substructure which might better
simulate the behaviour of the entire structure cannot be defined uniquely. Consequently, the designer,
based on his own experience, must identify the extension of the substructure and its surrounding con-
ditions, without modifying excessively the structural fire response. Among all analysed scenarios, in
the following is shown the most severe one in terms of maximum temperatures of the fire curves.
This one corresponds to the first fire scenario, in which four cars are involved and it is characterised
by a fire spreading of a VAN, to maximise the effects on the beam in the area with a height of 3m. Fig
4 (right) shows the results obtained from the fluid-dynamic analysis in terms of temperatures recorded
by the thermocouples placed near each car.
The first analysis of these results allowed to confirm the substructure, which is shown in Fig.5.In
particular, the constraints at the basis joints of the columns A, B, C and D were considered fixed. The
vertical load of the nodes I, L, M, and N was assumed constant and equal to the axial stress at time t=0
(Nfi,d,0), because the floor fire condition should not produce significant differential elongations in the
heated columns, such as to activate the shear stiffness of the floor beams ILMN (including ILMN).
Indeed, the beam ILMN remains cold, and it can be assumed that it has sufficient axial stiffness to resist
the elongation induced by the thermal expansion of the heated beam EFGH : therefore, the horizontal
displacement in nodes I, L, M and N are considered stopped. On the contrary, the real rotational restrain
condition at nodes I, L, M and N, is certainly intermediate between the one simulated by a constant
bending moment and by a zero rotation. In this specific case, the rotational constraint condition of these
nodes does not significantly change the result of the analysis, therefore, four bending rotations were
simulated for safety reasons. In order to simulate the presence of the remaining structure in elevation ;
distributed loads were used on the EFGH beam. As said before the natural fire curves considered to
14 th
carry out the mechanical analyses, are the ones obtained from the first fire scenario (see Fig.4) In par-
ticular, among these curves, for the beams EF and FG, the heavier fire curve, i.e. TC1, was chosen,
b
while for the GH beam was considered another curve obtained from an additional target positioned in
the middle.
if
1200 θ [ C] 1200 θ [ C]
TC1 TARGET_FRAME 3
1200 [ C] 1200 [ C]
1000 1000
TC1 TARGET_FRAME 3
1000 1000
800 800
800 800
600 600
600 600
400 400
400 400
200 200
200 200
t [min] t [min]
0 t [min] 0 t [min]
0 0
0 0 15 20 30 45 0 15 30 45 60 75 90
40 60 60 8075 90
100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Fig. 5 Selected substructure and related fire curve

4 Results and discussion

Once the substructure was identified, it was possible to carry out the thermal analyses of the structural
element (column 55x75 cm with a concrete cover c=6 cm and 10ϕ18 reinforcement steel bars; beam
40x55 cm with a concrete cover c=4 cm and 5+5ϕ18 reinforcement steel bars) and consequently the
mechanical analyses of the structure by using Safir software [8]. The thermo-mechanical analysis was
conducted also using the nominal fire curves to provide a comparison between the two different ap-
proaches, prescriptive and performance-based one. In Fig.6 , the thermal fileds obtained for the column
and the beam after 15 minutes, which is the natural fire curve peak, are represented by varying the fire
curves.
1200 θ [ C]
1000
NATURAL FIRE
800
ISO 834
600
HYDROCARB ON
400
200
t [min]
0
0 15 30 45 60 75 90
Fig.6 Selected fire curves and corresponding thermal fileds.

In the contest of the Italian fire code [9] and according to a prescriptive approach, the required fire
resistance for the analysed parking is R90. By comparing the heating curves Fig.7 (left and centre)
b
obtained for the two sections and for each fire curve (i.e., the two approaches), it is possible to observe
that in the first stage of the heating, both for the column and the beam, the temperatures reached with
the natural fire curve are higher than the ones obtained with nominal fire ones. However, with the
increase of the heating time, the trend is reversed.
if
The mechanical analysis was carried out by using the previous thermal fields as inputs, i.e. as sec-
tions part of the considered substructure. Fig7 (right) compares the bending moment obtained for the
most stressed span (Msd,t) with continuous curves, and the resistant bending moment (Mrd,t), with dashed
curves. It is possible to see that for all the heating time the Msd is always lower than Mrd, this happens
for both natural and nominal fire curves. Therefore, it is possible to assume that the fire resistance is
verified for the parking considered in this study, both using prescriptive and performance-based ap-
proach. It’s worth underling that, the Mrd shows a growing phase at the beginning of the thermal tran-
sient, and this represent a beneficial effect, considering the growth of the normal stresses caused by
thermal expansions. Even if the temperature reached during the natural fire are greater than the nominal
ones, the duration of these high temperatures is not sufficient to cause the collapse of the structure as it
is made of reinforced concrete.
Fig. 7 Temperature distributions in the concrete cover for the column (left) and beam (centre); Bending
moments variation in the mid span of the beam E-F.
5 Conclusions
The fire resistance of reinforced concrete structures can be guaranteed using two different approaches,
prescriptive or performance-based ones according to the Fire Safety Engineering (FSE) criteria. In the
international research field, the application of the FSE approach to study car parks fire behaviour is a
relevant and a well-investigated topic. However, if the park is intended for motorcycles, no much in-
formation is provided neither in literature nor in the codes. Thus, the aim of this work is to investigate
several fire scenarios correlated to the two different intended uses, in order to quantify the natural fire
curves and the temperature levels reached in each fire scenario. Starting from a deep literature review
about Heat Release Rate (HRR) curves measured in experimental fire tests, different fire curves are
obtained thanks to thermo-fluid-dynamic zone models. In particular, many thermo-fluid dynamic anal-
yses were performed by varying the ignition time delay between each motorcycle, the number of cycles,
the influence of the openings and finally the size of the compartment. The results obtained from this
parametric analysis, that allowed defining the fire scenarios, can be summarized as following:
• motorcycle fire scenarios are susceptible to the number of motorcycles and therefore it is difficult
to establish a certain number of motorcycles to be considered, like for cars;
• as the height of the compartment increases, the maximum temperatures in terms of peak decreases;
• as the opening factor increases, the maximum temperatures in terms of peak decreases, but the fire
duration increases;
• decreasing the size of the compartment, the temperature increases for the same opening factors.
In the second part of this paper the fire behaviour of a real reinforced concrete structure was analysed,
underling all its criticalities and peculiarities, which can be a useful reference for designers of parking
14th
intended for motorcycles. Preliminary results showed that the temperatures reached in the case of mo-
torcycles are less than the ones reached for cars. For this reason, a motorcycle fire can become signifi-
b
cant for exodus purpose, while the car fire scenarios have to be considered for structural fire resistance
design/verification. Once the fire curves were chosen, advanced thermo-mechanical analyses were car-
ried out on substructures selected, according to FSE criteria. The thermo-mechanical analyses carried
out, both using natural and nominal fire curves, have showed that the collapse is not reached in both
if
cases. Indeed, although the natural fire curve shows temperatures particularly high, the duration of these
temperatures is not capable to lead at the collapse of the structure as it is made of reinforced concrete.
Indeed, given the high thermal inertia, concrete structures are not sensitive only to the temperature peak
reached during the fire, but also to the duration of each temperature level. This underlines the im-
portance of evaluating the fire resistance not only with prescriptive approaches, but also with perfor-
mance-based ones, allowing studying on the one hand the fires that can really happen and on the other
the real behaviour of the whole structure where indirect actions, redistribution of the stresses and inter-
nal actions according to the different stiffness of the structural members play a fundamental role.
References
[1] Johan M. 2004. “On the fire dynamics of vehicles and electrical equipment.” Academic disser-
tation, University of Helsinki.
[2] Zhang X.G., Guo Y.C., Chan C.K., Li W.Y. 2007. "Numerical simulations on fire spread and
smoke movement in an underground car park". Building and Environment 42:3466–3475.
[3] Mohd Tohir M Z, Spearpoint, M. 2014. "Simplified approach to predict heat release rate curves
from multiple vehicle fires in car parking buildings". 3rd International Conference on Fire in
Vehicles (FIVE), Berlin, Germany, 1–2 Oct..
[4] Chen C.J., Tsai M.J., Ji B.C., Wu C.W., Pu J.Y. and Lin T.H. 2005. "Burning Analysis of Motor
Scooters". Paper presented at the Eighth International Symposium on Fire Safety Science,Tsin-
ghua University, Beijing, China,18-23 September, 671-680.
[5] Kruppa J., Joyeux D., Cajot L. 2002. " Demonstration of real fire tests in car parks and high
buildings : final report ". European Commission, Directorate-General for Research and Inno-
vation.
[6] Jones W., Forney G., Peacock, R. and Reneke, P. (2003), A Technical Reference for CFAST:
An Engineering Tool for Estimating Fire and Smoke Transport, Technical Note (NIST TN),
National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD,
https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.tn.1431, May 2, 2022).
[7] EN 1994-1-2, Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and concrete structures – Part 1-2: General
rules - Structural fire design, 2005.
[8] Franssen, J.M., Gernay, T. (2017), Modeling structures in fire with SAFIR®: Theoretical back-
ground and capabilities, Journal of Structural Fire Engineering, 8(3):300-323.
https://doi.org/10.1108/JSFE-07-2016-0010
[9] D.M. 3 agosto 2015 “Approvazione di norme tecniche di prevenzione incendi, ai sensi dell’ar-
ticolo 15 del decreto legislativo 8 marzo 2006, n. 139”, GU n. 192 del 20/8/2015 – S.O. n. 51.

Post-earthquake seismic residual capacity and
b
economic loss assessment of reinforced concrete
buildings
if
Livio Pedone and Stefano Pampanin
Department of Structural and Geotechnical Engineering,
Sapienza University of Rome,
via Eudossiana 18, Rome (00184), Italy
Abstract
This research work investigates the residual capacity of earthquake-damaged buildings, aiming to sup-
port their safety evaluation and loss assessment in practical application. A case-study reinforced con-
crete building is analysed, evaluating pre- and post-earthquake collapse risk and economic loss consid-
ering different damage levels. Specifically, a pushover-based methodology is adopted to assess the
seismic performance of the damaged building, based on the use of capacity reduction factors for dam-
aged structural members. Results highlight that both higher seismic risk and economic losses can be
expected when cumulative damage is considered. This output could support decisions on the post-earth-
quake repair/retrofit/demolition.
1 Introduction and motivation

After an earthquake, a detailed assessment of the residual capacity of damaged buildings, including
both safety and loss investigations, is critical to support decision-making related to both re-occupancy
and repair vs demolition. However, in post-earthquake emergency and recovery phases, the safety level
of buildings is often evaluated following “tagging” procedures based only on visual inspection and
expert judgment of the damage level (e.g., [1], [2]). Moreover, the evident complexity and lack of
knowledge both in terms of evaluation of the capacity of damaged buildings to sustain subsequent af-
tershocks and selection of suitable repair techniques have often led to extensive demolition (as observed
during the Canterbury Earthquake Sequence 2010-2011 [3]) or to, possibly, inadequate repair interven-
tions. Both options have resulted in additional indirect economic losses and restoring time or, in the
case of repair options, in underestimation of the post-repair safety level and economic losses.
In the last years, research works and practical guidelines focusing on the seismic performance of
damaged buildings have been developed (e.g., [4]-[19]). However, even when just limiting the attention
to Reinforced Concrete (RC) frame structures, limited information is still available on the residual ca-
pacity of structural components such as beam-column joints, beam/column plastic hinges, and dia-
phragm behaviour ([6]). Moreover, a comprehensive validation and further developments to account
for damage accumulation and make it suitable for practical applications is still missing in literature.
Therefore, as part of a larger research program on the topic, this paper investigates and quantitatively
discusses the effects of earthquake-related damage to RC frame structures both in terms of safety and
economic losses. Specifically, a RC case-study building is selected, and collapse risk evaluation and
economic loss assessment are implemented considering different damage levels. In order to evaluate
the seismic performance of damaged buildings, a numerical pushover-based procedure is adopted, mod-
elling the modifications of the plastic hinges’ capacity curves for damaged elements, according to the
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) 306 [4] approach. A lumped plasticity model is thus
implemented and numerical nonlinear static analyses on a Multi Degree of Freedom (MDoF) model of
the structure in its as-built and damaged conditions are performed. An ADRS-based (Acceleration-
Displacement Response Spectrum) capacity spectrum method is adopted to evaluate the seismic per-
formance of the structure as well as the collapse fragility curves in its pre- and post-earthquake damage
state. For each damage level, the “Safety Index” (IS-V, or %NBS in [20]) defined as the C/D ratio
between the Capacity of the building at Ultimate Limit State and the Demand of a new building, and
the Expected Annual Losses (EAL) are thus evaluated according to the Italian “Seismic-Bonus” guide-
lines[21], underpinning the access to the newly introduced financial incentives for seismic retrofitting.
Moreover, the seismic risk in terms of Mean Annual Frequency (MAF) of collapse is also assessed.
14 th
2 Post-earthquake residual capacity of damaged building: literature review
b
In the last decades, a substantial research effort has been devoted at international level to better under-
stand the post-earthquake seismic residual capacity of buildings. In the late 1990s, the FEMA 306 report
[4] introduced a practical pushover-based approach for evaluating the seismic performance of earth-
quake-damaged concrete and masonry-wall buildings. The effects of damage on component behaviour
are taken into account by adopting capacity reduction factors for stiffness, strength, and ductility
if
(namely 𝜆𝐾 , 𝜆𝑄 , and 𝜆𝐷 , Fig. 1, left), depending on the behaviour mode/mechanism and the severity of
damage to the component. More recently, in the Japan Building Disaster Prevention Association
(JBDPA) Guideline [5] a residual seismic capacity ratio (i.e., the R index, defined as the ratio of post-
earthquake to original seismic capacity) has been introduced to identify the damage state of buildings.
The post-earthquake seismic capacity index is evaluated considering a single capacity reduction factor,
namely 𝜂, defined as the ratio of residual energy dissipation capacity to the original one (Fig. 1, right).
Fig. 1. Stiffness/strength/displacement modification factors in FEMA 306 [4] (left) and capacity
reduction factor for structural members in JBDPA Guideline [5] (right).
Bazzurro et al. [7] proposed a building tagging procedure based on the increase in MAF of exceeding
the median residual capacity of the mainshock-damaged building. The procedure requires carrying out
the nonlinear static pushover curves for the as-built and damaged structure. Luco et al. [8] investigated
the consistency of this approach by comparing the results to ones obtained through a nonlinear dynamic
approach involving back-to-back Incremental Dynamic Analysis (IDA) of equivalent Single Degree of
Freedom (SDoF) systems. Cuevas and Pampanin [9] investigated the effect of seismic damage to RC
frames in terms of residual fatigue life of the plastic hinges; the authors also proposed a displacement-
based framework to account for residual capacity in the design and assessment processes against
mainshock and aftershocks. In line with this approach, Loporcaro et al. [10] experimentally investigated
the reduction in low-cycle fatigue life of steel reinforcement due to strain-ageing effects.
Following the FEMA 306 approach, research efforts have been dedicated to deriving plastic hinges
modification factors for damaged RC components as well as to defining a practical framework for the
evaluation of the residual capacity of RC buildings. For example, Di Ludovico et al. [11] proposed
suitable expressions for stiffness/strength/ductility modification factors for typical RC structural ele-
ments of buildings in Mediterranean regions. Similarly, Marder et al. [12] investigated the effect of
seismic damage to code-conforming RC beams, proposing a lower-bound formulation for their post-
earthquake residual stiffness. Polese et al. [13] proposed a pushover-based methodology to assess the
residual capacity of RC buildings based on a spectral approach. Moreover, recently Pampanin [6] dis-
cussed the applicability of a refined version of the Simple Lateral Mechanism Analysis (SLaMA, [20])
method for safety evaluation and loss assessment of buildings in either pre- or post-earthquake config-
uration. Ceccarelli et al. [14] derived stiffness and strength reduction coefficients for RC walls in dif-
ferent post-earthquake damage conditions by refined Finite Element Method (FEM) numerical anal-
yses. The authors also investigated and discussed the influence of residual capacity on the economic
seismic losses of wall structures. Rossi et al. [15] studied the effect of both earthquake-related damage
and repair intervention on the seismic performance of RC walls by a loss-assessment framework.
Moving to a probabilistic seismic assessment of buildings, the effects of cumulative damage are
generally taken into account by adopting the concept of state-dependent fragility relationships (i.e.,
fragility curves depending on the attained damage state after a mainshock). Several research works
focusing on the derivation of state-dependent fragilities through rigorous nonlinear dynamic approaches
are available in literature (e.g. [16]-[17]); at the same time, simplified approaches, suitable for practical
application, were proposed (e.g., [13], [18]-[19]). Among others, recently Pedone et al. [19] introduced
a simplified pushover-based methodology, adopted in this work, to develop state-dependent fragility
relationships.
3 Methodology
b
The general framework adopted in this research work to investigate the effects of earthquake-related
structural damage to frame buildings is illustrated in Fig. 2.
if
Fig. 2 Adopted framework for investigating the seismic residual capacity of buildings.
Firstly, geometric details and material properties of the case-study building are identified (step 1). A
lumped plasticity model is thus implemented, and nonlinear static (pushover) numerical analyses are
performed in order to assess the seismic performance of the structure (step 2). Different structure-spe-
cific damage states (DSs) are also defined based on the pushover analysis results. For each considered
damage state, the seismic performance of the structure in its post-earthquake (i.e., damaged) condition
is assessed by adopting a pushover-based method, according to the FEMA 306 approach (step 3). Sim-
ilar results can also be obtained by adopting other simplified pushover-based methodologies available
in the literature, as described in section 2. Pre- and post-earthquake life-safety evaluation and economic-
loss assessment are thus carried out following the simplified methodology described in the Italian “Seis-
mic-Bonus” guidelines [21] (step 4). This procedure allows evaluating the “Safety Index” (IS-V, or
%NBS [20]) and the EAL based on the unique database of repairing costs vs. level of damage after
L’Aquila Earthquake [22]. Moreover, pushover capacity curves of the intact and damaged structure are
used to evaluate state-dependent collapse fragility curves (step 5) according to the framework proposed
in Pedone et al. [19]. Finally, combining the results of the fragility analysis with the hazard analysis
(step 6) the seismic risk of the structure in its intact and damaged configuration is assessed (step 7) in
terms of MAF of collapse, 𝜆𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒 , according to (1):
∞
𝑑𝜆𝐼𝑀 (𝑥)
𝜆𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒 = ∫ 𝑃(𝐶|𝐼𝑀 = 𝑥, 𝐷𝑆𝑀𝑆 ) | | 𝑑𝑥 (1)
0 𝑑𝑥
where 𝑃(𝐶|𝐼𝑀 = 𝑥, 𝐷𝑆𝑀𝑆 ) is the probability of collapse of the structure given an intensity measure
(IM) value, 𝐼𝑀 = 𝑥, and an attained DS during the mainshock; 𝜆𝐼𝑀 is the MAF of earthquakes causing
the exceedance of the 𝐼𝑀 = 𝑥. Specifically, in this research work, a refined version of the SAC/FEMA
closed-form expression [23] is adopted, considering a second-order power-law hazard fit [24].
4 Illustrative application to a RC school building
4.1 Description of the case-study building

The pre- and post-earthquake assessment framework is implemented for a 4-storey RC building. The
structure is characterized by global dimensions as shown in Fig. 3. This case-study building is part of
a large data collection carried out under a research project, involving 81 school buildings located in the
province of Foggia (South Italy).

14th
if b
Fig. 3 Global dimension of the case-study building (upper-left); geometrical details of the ana-
lysed frame (lower-left) and the RC members (right).
The structural skeleton consists of moment-resisting 9-bay frames in one direction and moment-resist-
ing 3-bay frames in the orthogonal direction. Storey mass is around 500 tons and 420 tons for a typical
storey and the roof, respectively. The construction period is 1972; therefore the structure was designed
for gravity loads only, according to pre-seismic code requirements, and presents the typical structural
weaknesses, e.g., absence of hierarchy of strengths principles, inadequate transverse reinforcement and
anchorage details, lower quality of materials. In this study, the 9-bay longitudinal frame (Fig. 3 lower-
left) is considered. Geometrical details of the RC members are shown in Fig. 3 (right). The mean con-
crete cylindrical strength is equal to 16.0 MPa, and the mean steel yield stress is equal to 392.0 MPa.
4.2 Modelling approach

In order to develop nonlinear static (pushover) analyses, a two-dimensional (2D) lumped plasticity
model is implemented in the structural software Ruaumoko [25]. For the sake of simplicity, fixed base
joints are considered (i.e., the soil-structure interaction contribution is herein neglected), while floor
diaphragms are assumed rigid in their plane. Mono-dimensional elastic elements with plastic hinges at
the connection interfaces (Giberson elements) are used to model the structural members. Bi-linear mo-
ment-curvature relationships characterise the beam plastic hinges, considering a plastic hinge length
according to Priestley et al. [26]. On the other hand, an axial load-moment interaction diagram is im-
plemented for column plastic hinges. The shear failure mechanism is also evaluated. In order to take
into account possible failure mechanisms of the beam-column joints (critical for existing RC buildings),
additional nonlinear rotational springs are implemented to model panel zones, according to Pampanin
et al. [27]. These springs are characterised by equivalent column moment versus shear deformation
relationships. Moreover, the influence of the axial load in the beam-column joint capacity is considered
by implementing an axial load-moment interaction diagram. Finally, a linear strength degradation is
defined for all RC structural members, setting the moment capacity equal to zero when a deformation
equal to twice the near-collapse capacity of the member is achieved (as adopted in [17] ). A load distri-
bution proportional to the storey masses is adopted for the pushover analysis.
4.3 Result and Discussion

4.3.1 Pre- and post-earthquake pushover analyses
Results of the nonlinear static analysis of the as-built structure are reported in Fig. 4 (left). As expected,
the pushover force-displacement curve highlights a low global ductility capacity, due to the lack of
capacity design provisions. Specifically, a mixed-sway mechanism is observed, involving the failure of
external beam-columns joints. Based on the pushover results, four different DSs are identified: DS1
(slight damage), DS2 (moderate damage), DS3 (extensive damage), and DS4 (complete damage). DS1
threshold corresponds to the yield displacement of the idealised (bi-linear) pushover curve. DS2, DS3
and DS4 are defined considering the first attainment of the 50% life-safety deformation capacity, life-
b
safety and collapse prevention limit state for any structural element, respectively. It is worth mentioning
that other criteria can be used to identify the DSs. According to the FEMA 306 approach, for each
considered damage state, plastic hinges’ modification factors for damaged members are selected. In
this work, the reduction factors proposed by Di Ludovico et al. [11] are adopted. Therefore, additional
if
pushover analyses for the four damaged configurations (one for each DS) are performed (Fig. 4, right).
Fig. 4 Pushover force-displacement curve of the intact (left) and damaged structure (right).
4.3.2 Safety evaluation and loss assessment

Seismic safety evaluation and loss assessment are preliminarily performed following the spectrum-
based approach reported in the Italian “Seismic-bonus” guidelines [21]. This document describes the
Italian seismic risk classification of existing buildings (from A + to G), based on the evaluation of the
“Safety Index” IS-V (equivalent to the %NBS index [20]) and the EAL index. As suggested in Pampa-
nin [6], the Capacity/Demand ratios at different limit states are evaluated considering the ADRS curves
of the intact and damaged configuration and applying the Capacity Spectrum Method (CSM, [28]) (Fig.
5, left). Results of the procedure in terms of EAL curves (for each considered initial DS) are shown in
Fig. 5 (right). Results in terms of IS-V and EAL indexes are summarized in Table 1. It is worth high-
lighting that the initial damage level equal to DS4 is not considered in the analyses, since DS4 repre-
sents a complete damage scenario (i.e., no DSs after the attainment of DS4 are considered in this study).
Fig. 5 Evaluation of the performance points at Life Safety Limit State for the intact structure (left)
and EAL curves for intact and damaged configuration (right).
Table 1 Safety indexes (IS-V) and expected annual loss (EAL) values for each DS.
Initial damage state As-built DS1 DS2 DS3
IS-V 0.75 0.74 0.68 0.64
EAL 1.09% 1.11% 1.30% 1.34%

14 th
Considering initial earthquake-related structural damage, lower values of IS-V, as well as higher values
of EAL, are obtained when compared to the ones related to the as-built configuration. In particular, a
b
low damage level (i.e., DS1) does not significantly affect the seismic performance of the structure.
Therefore, no significant reductions in the safety index or increases in the economic loss are observed.
On the other hand, considering a more severe initial damage (i.e., DS2, DS3), a reduction up to almost
15% is observed for the safety index, as well as an increase up to almost 23% of the EAL.
if
Pushover capacity curves of the intact and damaged configurations are also used to derive state-
dependent fragility relationships, following a simplified spectrum-based approach. Specifically, the
methodology introduced by Pedone et al. [19] is implemented. This procedure combines nonlinear static
analysis results of the intact and damaged structure with the Cloud-CSM (i.e., an extended version of
the traditional CSM, based on the use of as-recorded spectra and allowing to consider the record-to-
record variability [29]). A cloud-based procedure is thus adopted to compute fragility analyses. More
details about the whole procedure and the adopted fragility formulation can be found in Pedone et. al
[19]. Results in terms of state-dependent collapse fragility curves are reported in Fig. 6.
Fig. 6 State-dependent collapse fragility curves (left) and MAF integrand of the as-built and dam-
aged structure configurations.
The presence of initial damage increases the fragility of the structure, leading to a “left-shift” of the
curves. Coupling the fragility results with the hazard curves of the site it is possible to evaluate through
Eq. (1) the MAF of collapse for the as-built and damaged configurations. Specifically, the Italian seis-
mic hazard model [30] is adopted. Moreover, a second-order power-law biased fit of the hazard curve
[24] is implemented, in order to evaluate the MAF of collapse in a closed-form expression, according
to the SAC/FEMA approach. The obtained MAF integrands are shown in Fig. 6 (right). MAF of col-
lapse is represented by the area under the curves; therefore, it can be noted that higher collapse risk
(i.e., higher MAF of collapse) is observed considering initial structural damage to the structure. Nu-
merical results in terms of MAF of collapse are reported in Table 2.
Table 2 MAF of collapse of intact and damaged configurations

Initial damage state As-built DS1 DS2 DS3
MAF of collapse 1.201 ∙ 10−4 1.202 ∙ 10−4 1.567 ∙ 10−4 2.058 ∙ 10−4
Considering a low initial damage level (DS1), no significant increase in collapse risk is observed. On
the other hand, a significant increase in the MAF of collapse is obtained when higher (moderate-to-
severe) initial damage is considered. An increase equal to almost 30% and 71% is observed for DS2
and DS3, respectively.
5 Conclusions
In this research work, the effects of earthquake-related structural damage to a RC case-study frame
structure have been investigated. A pushover-based methodology has been adopted, allowing to con-
sider the collapse risk and economic losses of the structure in its as-built and post-earthquake condi-
tions. Specifically, the seismic performance of the damaged structure has been evaluated by considering
suitable plastic hinges’ modification factor for damaged members, according to the state-of-the-art of
procedures available in the literature. This allowed obtaining the force-displacement capacity curves
b
for the as-built and damaged structures. A simplified loss assessment was thus implemented, according
to the Italian “Seismic-Bonus” guidelines procedure. Moreover, state-dependent fragility analyses were
performed following the Cloud-CSM procedure; finally, the collapse risk of the pre- and post-earth-
quake configurations was assessed. The results highlighted an increase in the collapse risk and the
if
economic losses as the level of post-earthquake damage increases. This output could be a very valuable
support to the decision-making process on post-earthquake repair/retrofit/demolition.
Future (and ongoing) developments of this work involve more refined and comprehensive numeri-
cal investigations (e.g., nonlinear dynamic analysis) to further validate the simplified framework. More-
over, more refined loss assessment investigations (e.g., FEMA P-58 [31]) are needed, including con-
siderations on the effects of initial post-earthquake damage to both structural and non-structural mem-
bers. Finally, different types of RC frame structures can be analysed to improve the research work,
including infilled frame structures as well as modern (code-conforming) buildings.
Acknowledgements
The authors want to acknowledge the financial support of the Italian Ministry of University and Re-
search (MUR) for funding the Doctoral Scholarship of Livio Pedone. The authors also acknowledge
the support of the DPC-ReLUIS 2019-2021 research project.
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Exploiting traffic-induced vibration for high-resolution
b
damage identification in bridges with sparse
instrumentation
if
Said Quqa, Luca Landi and Pier Paolo Diotallevi
Department of Civil, Chemical, Environmental, and Materials Engineering,
University of Bologna,
Viale del Risorgimento 2, 40136 Bologna, Italy
Abstract
Growing traffic demand on aging civil infrastructure raises the need for reliable structural health mon-
itoring tools for "minor" bridges. Data management can be power-demanding in state-of-the-art dense
wireless sensor networks. This study presents an original damage identification algorithm for viaducts
to identify a dense curvature distribution of the loaded structure based on sparse acceleration recordings.
Moving vehicles are exploited to obtain dense spatial information of the structural features and localize
anomalies with high resolution. Modal parameters and curvature influence lines are obtained by pro-
cessing the raw acceleration signals with a particular filter bank, efficiently implementable through
edge computing technologies.
1 Introduction
Roadway bridges have a fundamental role in the transportation infrastructure. The survey of existing
bridges is a severe concern that commits governments and authorities in almost all industrialized coun-
tries. In Italy, there are more than 100,000 roadway bridges, and most of them are classified as "minor"
and are over 50 years old. Furthermore, many bridges have no owners, meaning that no one is willing
to spend money to oversee their maintenance [1]. This situation is common in all of Europe. Thereby,
an urgent need to monitor the health of existing minor infrastructure has become evident to ensure
safety and satisfactory quality of service.

Modal flexibility and curvature are among the most popular damage-sensitive features (DSFs) used
in vibration-based structural health monitoring (SHM) applications based on dynamic measurements
[2]. However, structural features are generally available only at the locations where measurements are
collected. Dense sensor networks may be necessary to obtain a satisfactory spatial resolution of the
damage indicators used for anomaly localization [3]. Although some effort has been recently spent on
getting dense DSFs using limited instrumentation through roving sensors [4] or drive-by methods [5],
these applications need the intervention of operators.
Recent studies identified influence lines, i.e., a given effect in the structural elements due to a mov-
ing load as a function of its location, using displacement [6], [7] or strain [8], [9] measurements. In
general, displacement transducers need a fixed reference point, which is hard to find in long-term field
applications. For this reason, cameras and computer vision techniques have been used recently to sup-
port or replace displacement sensing devices [10], [11]. In this case, however, changing weather con-
ditions and physical obstacles can affect the identification outcome. Moreover, whereas strain sensors
can be cheaper than displacement transducers, several strain gauges or distributed sensing devices are
typically necessary to localize damage with sufficient accuracy.
Accelerometers are the most widely used sensors for collecting vibration measurements. However,
their operating bandwidth is typically limited to the dynamic range, not allowing the collection of quasi-
static signal components associated with structural deflection under moving loads. However, the sens-
ing devices used for SHM in the last two decades, including force balance accelerometers (FBA) and
micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS), can collect accelerations down to direct current (DC).
This study summarizes the most relevant results obtained by the authors for the identification of
dense damage-sensitive features using a sparse network of accelerometers, exploiting the quasi-static
response of the structure to moving vehicles. Recent results showed that applying simple filtering tech-
niques to raw acceleration data provides curvature information with high spatial resolution under a
particular structural loading condition [12] without time synchronization between sensors. Also, an
14 th
analogous filtering procedure can be used to identify modal parameters (i.e., natural frequencies and
mode shapes) from the same datasets [13]. Besides, a unique filter bank can be used to simultaneously
b
extract quasi-static and dynamic (modal) components. This process can also be implemented using
analog in-memory computing [14], resulting in a computationally convenient framework [15]. Further-
more, an approach to fuse dynamic and quasi-static features was provided, limiting the variance of
curvature influence lines (each obtained by a single-vehicle passage) with more robust modal parame-
if
ters and providing dense spatial information on structural conditions.
In this paper, Section 2 describes the inner structure of the vibration response of bridges traveled
by moving loads. Section 3 explains how to extract valuable damage-sensitive features, namely the
curvature influence lines and modal parameters from the quasi-static and dynamic components of the
structural response, respectively. Section 4 proposes an identification algorithm based on these features.
Finally, Section 5 presents an application of the proposed method, and Section 6 concludes the paper.
2 Traffic-induced vibration response of bridges

The structural response collected through accelerometers deployed on the structure subjected to travel-
ing vehicles consists of (i) quasi-static components due to the structural deflection under moving loads,
(ii) modal components depending on the instantaneous equilibrium between inertial, elastic, and dissi-
pative forces of the bridge and vehicle (the effects of the latter are neglected in this study), and (iii)
"noise" components, mainly related to the instrumentation sensitivity and road roughness. While the
first term is typically limited to the low-frequency range of the structural response spectrum, as well as
flicker instrumentation noise, resonant frequencies populate the medium-frequency range (i.e., between
a few and a few dozen hertz). If damping is negligible, assuming a linear-elastic structural behavior,
the superposition of these components generated by a load 𝑃 moving with constant speed 𝑣 can be
modeled as follows [16]:
∞
𝑃𝑙 3 1 𝑚𝜋𝑧 𝑚𝜋𝑣 2 𝛼
𝑢̈ [𝑧, 𝑡] = − ∑ 2 2 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) [( ) 𝜆𝑚 [𝑡] + 𝑝𝑚 [𝑡]] + 𝑤[𝑧, 𝑡] (1)
48𝐸𝐼 𝑚 (𝑚 − 𝛼 ) 𝑙 𝑙 𝑚
𝑚=1
where 𝜆𝑚 [𝑡], 𝑝𝑚 [𝑡], and 𝑤[𝑧, 𝑡] represent the quasi-static, dynamic, and noise components of the struc-
tural acceleration response 𝑢̈ [𝑧, 𝑡] in time (𝑡) and space (𝑧). In this formulation, 𝑙 and 𝐸𝐼 denote the
total length and the flexural stiffness of the bridge section (assuming a constant cross-section), while
𝑣𝑙 𝜇
𝛼= √ (2)
𝜋 𝐸𝐼
where 𝜇 is the mass per unit length of the bridge (with respect to its longitudinal axis). The full expres-
sions of quasi-static and dynamic components can be found in [12] and are not reported for brevity.
However, while the first generally lies within the sub-hertz frequency range, the dynamic components
are centered at the resonant frequencies of the bridge.
3 Structural identification
This section briefly reports the theoretical framework to identify dense curvature estimates from dy-
namic and quasi-static components of the structural response.
3.1 Quasi-static features

The dependence on time of 𝜆𝑚 [𝑡] in equation (1) represents the instantaneous location of the moving
load. Therefore, assuming the load location as 𝑧̂ = 𝑣𝑡, the quasi-static component can be written as a
function of space. In these terms, the summation of quasi-static components is the double derivative in
𝑧̂ of structural displacements (i.e., the bridge curvature) as a function of the load location. Except for a
scaling factor, this can be interpreted as the curvature (or bending moment, if the cross-section is con-
stant) influence line of the beam, calculated at the instrumented location. Introducing these concepts in
Eq. (1) and considering only the quasi-static terms, the curvature influence line of the beam computed
in a section 𝜁 = 𝑧/𝑙 can be obtained as [12]:
∞
(𝜁) [𝑧̂ ]
𝑃𝑙 3 𝜋 2 𝑣 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑚𝜋𝜁) 𝑚𝜋𝑧̂ 𝑧̂ 1
ℎ =− ∑ 2 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )∏( − ) (3)
48𝐸𝐼 𝑙 (𝑚 − 𝛼 2 ) 𝑙 𝑙 2
𝑚=1
In this expression, only the terms with a low 𝑚 index are non-negligible. Specifically, the sum of
the first four terms has an amplitude that is about 87% of the total amplitude of ℎ(𝜁) [𝑧̂ ]. Thereby, a low-

ThisExploiting
traffic-induced vibration for high-resolution damage identification in bridges with sparse instrumentation
pass filter can be employed to obtain a reasonable estimate of the curvature influence line of the bridge
directly from raw acceleration measurements, as follows:
b
ℎ(𝜁) [𝑧̂ ] ≈ (𝑢̈ (𝑧, 𝑡)|𝑧=𝜁𝑙, 𝑡=𝑧̂ /𝑣 ∗ 𝑏0 )[𝑧̂] (4)
where 𝑏0 [𝜏] is the impulse response of a suitable lowpass filter. The filter must be built assuming an
average expected speed of passing vehicles and bridge length. For instance, a combination of the first
four terms can be extracted using a cutoff frequency larger than 2𝑣/𝑙 and lower than the first resonant
if
frequency of the bridge.
The individual estimates of influence lines obtained through (4) may be corrupted due to the high
variability of each acceleration measurement collected during distinct vehicle passages and flicker
noise. Moreover, the non-ideality of lowpass filters may lead to the inclusion of spurious dynamic
components in the estimate. The empirical mode decomposition (EMD) [17], [18] has shown to be
particularly suitable for removing both these effects [19]. Indeed, an effective "cleansing" technique
(𝜁)
consists of decomposing ℎ(𝜁) [𝑧̂ ] into a set of intrinsic mode functions (IMFs) ℎ𝑘 [𝑧̂ ] plus a residual
𝑟 (𝜁) [𝑧̂], using the EMD, as follows:
𝐾
(𝜁)
ℎ(𝜁) [𝑧̂] = ∑ ℎ𝑘 [𝑧̂ ] + 𝑟 (𝜁) [𝑧̂ ] (5)
𝑘=1
and reconstructing the cleansed estimate ℎ ̃ (𝜁) [𝑧̂ ]
by summing only the IMFs with low mean frequency
(which can be calculated, e.g., using the Hilbert or Fourier transform) [20]. The particular "lobed"
structure of the frequency spectrum of ℎ(𝜁) [𝑧̂ ] generated by preliminary processing through a low-pass
filter has shown to prevent mode-mixing in the formation of IMFs [19].
After cleansing, the individual features identified for multiple vehicles can be averaged to obtain a
more robust estimate of the influence line. Moreover, since different vehicles may have different aver-
age speeds, ℎ̃(𝜁) [𝑧̂] must be preliminarily interpolated to a user-defined spatial grid to refer to the same
physical points of the bridge regardless of the vehicle speed.
After averaging, the influence lines collected at different locations can be summed to obtain the
curvature diagram of the structure subjected to a set of uniform loads at the sensor locations, exploiting
the superposition principle and the Maxwell-Betti theorem.
3.2 Dynamic features

Although several algorithms exist for identifying modal parameters [2], an approach based on filtering
becomes particularly convenient in a unified identification approach for estimating modal and quasi-
static features, as discussed later in this paper. The authors recently presented an algorithm for modal
identification in near-real-time for linear [21] and nonlinear [22] time-varying systems. The central
computational core of this algorithm is based on filtering operations, using bandpass filters to directly
calculate mode shapes from synchronized acceleration recordings collected at different locations. Spe-
cifically, using a bandpass filter with impulse response 𝑏𝑚 [𝜏] centered at the 𝑚-th resonant frequency
of the bridge, the 𝑚-the dynamic component at the 𝑖-th instrumented location can be obtained as
𝑢̈ 𝑚 [𝑧𝑖 , 𝑡] = 𝑢̈ [𝑧𝑖 , 𝑡] ∗ 𝑏𝑚 [𝜏], where ∗ is the convolution operator. Then, the instantaneous mode shape
can be identified by calculating the ratio between the filtered signals at two different instrumented lo-
cations (e.g., 𝑖 and 𝑟):
𝑢̈ 𝑚 [𝑧𝑖 , 𝑡]
𝜙𝑚 [𝑧𝑖 , 𝑡] = (6)
𝑢̈ 𝑚 [𝑧𝑟 , 𝑡]
A robust estimate of mode shapes can then be calculated by averaging 𝜙𝑚 [𝑧𝑖 , 𝑡] over time. Suitable
filters can be designed using clustered filter banks [13] or the modal assurance distribution [21].
Modal parameters can be employed to calculate the flexibility matrix of the structure as 𝐅 =
𝚽𝚲−1 𝚽 T , where 𝚲 = diag{𝜔𝑚 2 } and [𝚽]
𝑖𝑚 = 𝜙𝑚 (𝑧𝑖 ). Besides, the uniform load line (ULL), repre-
senting the structural deflection under unitary loads applied at the instrumented locations, can be cal-
culated as:
𝐲 = 𝐅𝐩 = 𝚽𝚲−1 𝚽 T 𝐩 (7)
T
where 𝐩 = [1, … ,1] is a unitary load vector.
A spatially dense estimate of the bridge curvature can be obtained from sparse displacements
through spline interpolation. Considering simply-supported bridge decks, their curvature diagram gen-
erated by concentrated loads is piecewise linear. Thereby, assuming that curvature is the second deriv-
ative of displacement, the structural deflection in (7) can be fitted using a cubic spline. The interpolation
14th
problem for natural cubic splines can be posed as 𝐀𝐜 = 𝐝, where 𝐜 is the curvature at the knots of the
spline, i.e., the instrumented locations, while the elements of 𝐝 are defined as:
b
6 6
[𝐝]𝑖 = (𝑦 − 𝑦𝑖 ) − (𝑦 − 𝑦𝑖−1 ) (8)
𝑥𝑖+1 − 𝑥𝑖 𝑖+1 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥𝑖−1 𝑖
with 𝑦𝑖 representing the elements of 𝐲 and 𝑥𝑖 are the coordinates of instrumented locations along the
bridge axis. The matrix 𝐀 is defined such that [𝐀]𝑖𝑚 = 2(𝜀𝑖−1 + 𝜀𝑖 ) if 𝑖 = 𝑚, [𝐀]𝑖𝑚 = 𝜀𝑖 if 𝑖 = 𝑚 −
if
1, and [𝐀]𝑖𝑚 = 𝜀𝑚 if 𝑖 = 𝑚 + 1 [19]. The curvature can thus be calculated by inverting the interpola-
tion problem to find 𝐜 = 𝐀−1 𝐝.
Since the curvature profile is linear, the values obtained at the instrumented locations can be linearly
interpolated at a user-defined spatial grid coinciding with that used for influence lines. This process can
be done in matrix form as 𝐜̂ = 𝐒𝐜, where 𝐒 is the interpolation matrix [19]. In this way, the interpolated
dense feature is equivalent to that obtained by summing the influence lines obtained at different loca-
tions (see Section 3.1).
3.3 Unified identification framework

This section will briefly explain how dynamic and quasi-static features can be obtained using a single
filter bank in a unified framework.
Consider 𝑝 + 1 column vectors 𝐛𝑚 containing the impulse responses 𝑏𝑚 [𝜏] of one low-pass (𝑚 =
0) and 𝑝 bandpass (𝑚 = 1, … , 𝑝) filters such that the central frequencies of the bandpass filters coincide
with the first 𝑝 resonant frequencies of the bridge. These filters can be arranged in a filter bank matrix:
𝐁 = [𝐛0 , 𝐛1 , … , 𝐛𝑝 ] (10)
Specifically, 𝐛0 and the other filters 𝐛𝑚 are designed to extract quasi-static and modal structural
features, respectively, as explained in the previous sections. Let 𝐔𝑡 be a matrix that includes the accel-
eration signals 𝑢̈ [𝑧𝑖 , 𝑡] recorded at the instrumented locations 𝑖 = 1, … , 𝑟 in a given time interval
[𝑡, … , 𝑡 + 𝑇], defined as:
𝐔𝑡 = [𝐮𝑡,1 , 𝐮𝑡,2 , … , 𝐮𝑡,𝑟 ] (11)
A set of decomposed signals can be calculated through the following matrix multiplication:
𝑢̈ 0 [𝑧1 , 𝑡] 𝑢̈ 1 [𝑧1 , 𝑡] ⋯ 𝑢̈ 𝑝 [𝑧1 , 𝑡]
̂ 𝑡 = 𝐔𝑡T 𝐁 = 𝑢̈ 0 [𝑧2 , 𝑡] 𝑢̈ 1 [𝑧2 , 𝑡] ⋯ 𝑢̈ 𝑝 [𝑧2 , 𝑡]
𝐔 (12)
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
[𝑢̈ 0 [𝑧𝑟 , 𝑡] 𝑢̈ 1 [𝑧𝑟 , 𝑡] ⋯ 𝑢̈ 𝑝 [𝑧𝑟 , 𝑡]]
Here, the first column contains the samples of the curvature influence line of the beam evaluated at
the 𝑖-th location, i.e., an estimate of ℎ(𝑧1/𝑙) [𝑧̂ ]. Due to the Maxwell-Betti reciprocal work theorem,
𝑢̈ 0 [𝑧𝑖 , 𝑡] can be interpreted as the structural curvature of the beam due to a static load applied at the 𝑖-
th instrumented location. On the other hand, the remaining terms 𝑢̈ 𝑚 [𝑧𝑖 , 𝑡] are the 𝑡-th samples of the
𝑚-th decoupled modal components at the 𝑖-th location. Thereby, the 𝑚-th column of 𝐔 ̂ 𝑡 with 𝑚 =
1, … , 𝑝 is an instantaneous mode shape of the bridge.
Based on these concepts, the following identification algorithm is proposed:
• Collect the structural acceleration response at 𝑟 instrumented locations during a vehicle
passage.
• Filter each response into 𝑝 + 1 components through equation (12).
• For each sensor location:
o 𝑦𝑖,0 [𝑡] for 𝑡 = 1, … , 𝑇 (where 𝑇 is the time interval referred to the passage of a single
vehicle on the bridge) is an estimate of the dense influence line of the curvature of the
bridge at the 𝑖-th instrumented location.
o 𝑦𝑖,𝑚 [𝑡] (𝑚 = 1, … , 𝑝) is the instantaneous modal amplitude of the structure, which
can be averaged over time to obtain a single, more robust estimate, as explained in
Section 3.2.
After identifying these features, post-processing operations can be performed to improve their qual-
ity. Specifically, the cleansed curvature influence line can be calculated from 𝑦𝑖,0 [𝑡] using the EMD
and then summed to obtain a dense curvature profile generated by uniform concentrated loads. This
feature can also be obtained from 𝑦𝑖,𝑚 [𝑡] as explained in Section 3.2. The matrix-vector multiplication
shown in Eq. 12 can be optimized for edge computing, e.g., exploiting devices mounting computational
cores based on analog-in-memory computing [15].

ThisExploiting
4 Damage identification
b
The dense curvature profiles obtained using dynamic and quasi-static features can be fused using a
Kalman Filter (KF). Specifically, the discrete-time KF is employed in this study, setting the state vari-
ables as the real curvature values of the bridge deck at the user-defined spatial grid. The state variables
can be updated using the KF every time a new set of curvature estimates (either from dynamic or quasi-
static features) is available. In order to carry out the fusion process, a preliminary normalization is
if
necessary to make the quantities consistent. To this aim, an estimate of the flexural stiffness of the
bridge deck can be obtained by using an inspection vehicle with known weight through the following
formula:
𝑀
𝜋 2 𝑣 2 𝑃𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑚𝜋𝜁)2
𝐸𝐼 ≈ ∑ (13)
48 max(ℎ ) ̅ (𝜁) 𝑚2
𝑚=1
and assuming that 𝛼 2 ≪ 1, which is a typical condition for regular bridge sizes and vehicle speeds.
With a preliminary estimate of 𝐸𝐼, which is likely to be constant until the occurrence of damage,
the (unknown) weight 𝑃 of other vehicles traveling the bridge during the monitoring process can be
estimated by inverting (13). The vehicle average speed 𝑣 can be retrieved from the length of the accel-
eration time history between the instants when the vehicle enters and leaves the bridge span (collected,
e.g., using optical sensors). Moreover, thermal effects on the flexural stiffness could be compensated
after building a temperature-stiffness curve, which is not the focus of this study.
After normalizing the identified features, they can be used to update the state vector 𝛘𝑘 (containing
the state variables) of the KF according to different observation models. Specifically, if a new set of
modal parameters is available, the updating model is assumed as follows:
𝐝 = (𝐒𝐀−1 )† 𝛘𝑘 + 𝐯𝑘ULL (14)
where ∎† is the Moore-Penrose pseudoinverse of ∎. On the other hand, if a new set of influence lines
is available, the observation model becomes:
𝐡 = 𝐈𝛘𝑘 + 𝐯𝑘IL (15)
ULL IL
In these models, 𝐯𝑘 and 𝐯𝑘 denote two Gaussian-distributed error vectors with a covariance ma-
trix that depends on the estimate. Moreover, in this study, the state transition model, i.e., the evolution
of the state between two consecutive time instants, is assumed as a random walk with a user-determined
process noise [19].
After an initialization phase, i.e., until the state covariance of the KF has stabilized due to the up-
dating process, the updated state can be used as a DSF, as it represents the curvature profile of the
structure subjected to a set of concentrated loads at the instrumented locations. In particular, the differ-
ence in the state vector between the current instant and a baseline configuration selected at the begin-
ning of the monitoring process can be interpreted as a curvature variation in the structure, thus repre-
senting stiffness variations due to the ongoing structural degradation process.
5 Application
This section reports the most significant result obtained by the authors regarding the application of
the proposed method. Several datasets collected during vehicle passages on the Old ADA Bridge (Fig.
1), demolished in Japan in 2012, were employed to calculate quasi-static and modal DSFs, then fused
into a robust and dense curvature estimate for damage identification. The datasets used herein are avail-
able on an online repository, freely accessible [23].
The case study was a bridge consisting of two steel Warren trusses supporting a reinforced concrete
(RC) deck. The total length of the bridge was 59.2 m, and the width of the deck was 3.6 m. More details
on the steel profiles of the truss structure and geometric dimensions are reported in [24].
The datasets used in this study were collected using two accelerometers (ARS-A by Tokyo Meas-
uring Instruments) deployed in the vertical direction (as shown in Fig. 1), sampling the data at 200 Hz.
The test vehicle used to excite the bridge was a Nissan Serena, with an approximate total weight of 21
kN. The first resonant frequencies of the vehicle and of the bridge were approximately 1.7 Hz and 3.0
Hz, respectively.
After collecting 10 datasets in a baseline configuration (DC0), four damage scenarios were induced
artificially, during which 10 acceleration datasets were collected while the test vehicle passed at 40
km/h. The cross-section of the central truss T1 (Fig. 1) was first reduced by half (configuration DC1)

14 th
and then completely cut (DC2). Afterward, it was repaired by lifting the bridge with a jack and soldering
the cut elements (DC3). The truss T2, in a different location, was then completely cut (DC4).
b
During the dynamic tests, three optical sensors (PZ-G52 by Keyence Co.) were used for logging
the time instants when the test vehicle passed on the supports and at the midspan. No substantial tem-
perature change was observed.
if
Damage
conditions: DC0 DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4
T1 T2
A1 A2
T1 T2
A1 A2
740
5920
Fig. 1 Scheme of the case study, sensor layout, and damage configurations; adapted from [24].
Each acceleration time history collected at the vehicle passage was decomposed into one quasi-
static and four dynamic components in this application. The first was extracted using a lowpass filter
obtained by cascading a reverse biorthogonal lowpass wavelet filter with three vanishing moments
(rbio3) up to a decomposition level 8. On the other hand, the dynamic components were extracted using
bandpass filters obtained by cascading eight Fejér-Korovkin 4 wavelet lowpass and highpass filters in
different orders to obtain different passband ranges [15]. Each filter of the bank had a bandpass range
width of 0.39 Hz.
Fig. 2 reports the ULLs and dense curvature profiles obtained using modal parameters and quasi-
static features, respectively, for different damage conditions. These quantities were normalized using
the flexural stiffness identified from a preliminary set of influence lines identified, assuming to know
the vehicle weight. Individual estimates have high variance, and thus, distinguishing different damage
conditions can be particularly challenging.
10 -3 DC0 DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4 10 -5 DC0 DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4
0
0
Displacement [m]
Curvature [1/m]
4 2
6 4
8
6
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Location [m] Location [m]
(a) (b)
Fig. 2 Identified parameters: (a) uniform load lines from modal parameters, (b) dense curvature
profiles from the quasi-static structural response.
The KF was then employed to fuse the identified parameters to improve their robustness. Fig. 3
shows the variation in the updated state (i.e., the damage indicator) obtained after 10 observations col-
lected in three damage conditions (DC1, DC3, and DC4). Specifically, Fig. 3 (a) shows this variation
compared to a baseline structural configuration selected at the beginning of the monitoring process,
while Fig. 3 (b) reports the relative variation between consecutive observations. It is possible to notice
that the damage is correctly identified and localized in all the damage scenarios, as the maximum value
ThisExploiting
of the damage indicator (highlighted with circles in Fig. 3 (b)) is close to the damaged element. Specif-
ically, when T1 is damaged and retrofitted, the damage indicator presents a maximum curvature incre-
b
ment and decrement, respectively, at the midspan. On the other hand, in DC4, the curvature variation
is localized at the location of the damaged truss T2 (highlighted with a vertical dashed line). This result
confirms that high-resolution damage localization can be achieved through highly sparse sensor net-
works by including traffic-induced quasi-static features of the vibration response.
if
10 -5 DC1 DC3 DC4 10 -5 DC1 DC3 DC4
1 1
curvature [1/m]
curvature [1/m]
0 0
1 1
T1 T2 T1 T2
2 2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Location [m] Location [m]
(a) (b)
Fig. 3 Damage index at three inspection instants: (a) difference from the baseline and (b) differ-
ence from the previous configuration.
6 Conclusions
This paper summarized the latest research findings in identifying dense damage indicators using quasi-
static and dynamic features of the vibration response of bridges traveled by moving loads using only
accelerometers. Raw accelerations, decomposed into quasi-static and dynamic components, allow iden-
tifying dense curvature influence lines and mode shapes. Fusing these features through a Kalman filter
led to a robust damage indicator for the localization of structural anomalies. The state of the system,
representing the dense curvature profile of the structure at the last inspection time, has proven an effec-
tive damage-sensitive feature even with extremely sparse sensor deployment in a real steel truss bridge.
The particular form of the processing algorithm, mainly consisting of filtering (i.e., multiply-and-accu-
mulate operations), is particularly appealing for analog in-memory computing.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to gratefully acknowledge the availability of data recorded on the Old ADA
Bridge, available at [23].
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Chloride ingress – investigation of rapid testing
b
methods with focus on their application to new cement
compositions
if
Hannah Drenkard1,2, Christian Fischer1 and Christoph Gehlen2
1 Faculty of Architecture and Civil Engineering,
University of Applied Sciences Würzburg-Schweinfurt,
Röntgenring 8, 97070 Würzburg, Germany
2 Centre for Building Materials, Department of Materials Engineering

TUM School of Engineering and Design, Technical University of Munich,
Franz-Langinger-Straße 10, 81245 München, Germany
Abstract
The existing test methods to determine the concrete resistance against chloride ingress were developed
with focus prior on Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)/CEM I concretes. However, with the essential
requirement of CO2 reduction within cement production there will be new cement compositions in the
future with reduced percentage of OPC. This research focuses on the existing rapid migration and dif-
fusion test methods, whether reliable results can be obtained even for the new cement compositions.
The preliminary Rapid Chloride Migration (RCM) tests presented in this paper show that futher inves-
tigations are needed, especially with regard to the variability of the test setup like NaCl concentration
or the presence of KOH in the catholyte solution.
1 Introduction
The cement industry has a large share in CO2 emissions, of which two thirds are process-related from
the deacidification of limestone and only one-third results from the use of fuel. In Germany, an average
of about 600 kg CO2 per tonne cement is currently released [1]. With the replacement of fossil fuels by
alternative fuels and the improvement of efficiency, some reduction can be achieved. However, due to
the large share of process-related emissions, the development of new clinker-reduced cements is re-
quired. The current state in Germany will be presented in chapter 2.
Beside the reduction of CO2 emissions during the production, the durability of the built structures
is of great importance for the required sustainability. For reinforced concrete structures chloride ingress
is one of the reasons for depassivation of rebars and thus one of the major reasons for damage [2]. To
prevent this, it is important to know the resistance against chloride ingress of the used concrete and to
consider the results in the planning process. One method to determine this resistance is the so called
Rapid Chloride Migration (RCM) Test developed by Tang [3]. Due to the fact that it was originally
intended for OPC/CEM I concretes, it must be clearified, whether reliable results can be obtained even
for the new cement compositions.
This paper discusses the differences between various regulations for the RCM test and will present
the first preliminary tests regarding the effects of some parameter variations with the aim of also reliably
applying the test to new cement compositions. At the end of the paper further planned research is shortly
described.
2 New binders: current state in Germany

The VDZ (Verein deutscher Zementwerke) developed a CO2 roadmap for the German cement industry
[1] with two scenarios regarding the reduction of CO2 emissions: an ambitious reference scenario and
a climate neutrality scenario. The reference scenario is based on technologies for CO2 reduction avail-
able today and includes improvements in the area of construction demand, clinker, cement, concrete,
construction and recarbonation with amibitous approaches. The climate neutrality scenario goes even
beyond this and envisages measures, which reach to technical limits. In addition to further savings, the
application of CEM VI cements and the use of CCUS (Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage), among
other things, should reduce CO2 emissions almost completely until 2050 [1].
14 th
In order to reduce the CO2 emissions in cement production significantly, one step is to decrease the
percentage of clinker in the cement composition [1]. The currently widely used cements CEM II and
b
CEM III with a high share of granulated blast furnace slag will probably no longer be available in large
quantities in the future. This is due to the predicted decrease in the availability of the raw materials
granulated blast furnace slag and fly ash in the future [4].
Figure 1 shows the future cement portfolio in the climate neutrality scenario until 2050 [1]. As can be
if
seen, there is a significant reduction of CEM II/A+B and CEM III as well as an increase of the new
CEM II/C until 2030. CEM II/C is composed of 50-64% clinker and 36-50% granulated blast furnace
slag, silica fume, fly ash, puzzolan, burnt shale or limestone [5]. In 2030, its share will be almost 50%.
From 2030 onwards, CEM VI with only 35-49% clinker and other new binders are required. Their share
will increase to approximately 35-40% by 2050.
Fig. 1 Cement portfolio in the climate neutrality scenario according to [1]
Except for CEM II/C and CEM VI the types are regulated in the harmonised standard DIN EN197-1
[6]. The requirements of the new CEM II/C and CEM VI are described in the non-harmonised standard
DIN EN 197-5 [5]. Currently, the first CEM II/C cements can be used with a national technical approval
(abZ) of the DIBt (Deutsches Institut fuer Bautechnik) in all exposure classes except of XF2-XF4. This
regulation should also be included in the new edition of the DIN 1045-2 in the future. The approval for
exposure classes XF2-XF4 is also possible with the appropriate performance tests and is already avail-
able for some products [7].
For a reliable testing of the new binder compositions to chloride ingress with the RCM test, it is neces-
sary to know the processes and influencing parameters of the test in detail. Thererfore, in a first step,
the variation of some main factors was analysed. For the practical application to real structures, espe-
cially the possible variation within the used regulations as well as the differences between the regula-
tions used in the literature must be investigated.
Whereas in most publications the RCM test is carried out according to NT Build 492 [8], in Ger-
many there is the BAW Merkblatt “BAW Merkblatt Dauerhaftigkeitsbemessung und -bewertung von
Stahlbetonbauwerken bei Carbonatisierung und Chlorideinwirkung (MDCC)” [9] and the
DIN EN 12390-18:2021 [10]. In general, the regulations follow the same procedure. However, there
are some small differences, which are described in Table 1.
Table 1 Comparison of main aspects for the RCM test setup described in different regulations [8],
[9], [10]
b
NT Build 492 BAW Merkblatt DIN EN 12390-18
sample prepa- storage under water
vacuum saturation storage under water for 28 d
ration for 28 d
if
composition 0.2 mol/l KOH or
0.3 mol/l NaOH 0.2 mol/l KOH
anolyte 0.3 mol/l NaOH
composition 10% NaCl in 3%-10% NaCl in 0.2 mol/l KOH
10% NaCl
catholyte 0.2 mol/l KOH or 0.3 mol/l NaOH
voltage and 10-60 V 10-30 V 10-30 V
duration 6-96 h 6-168 h 6-168 h
3.1 Materials and sample preparation for the preliminary tests

The RCM test was originally developed by Tang 1996 for ordinary Portland cement (OPC, CEM I) [3].
For this reason CEM I was used to produce reference samples. Due to the increased application of
cements with granulated blast furnace slag especially to structures with chloride exposition, these were
also analysed.
For the RCM test, cubes with 150x150x150 mm³ were produced and demolded after 24 h. This was
followed by storage under water for another 27 days. A few days before the test a cylinder with diameter
100 mm was drilled out of the centre of the cube and a 10 mm thick slice was cut from the surface.
Specimens with 50 mm height were then sawn off and grounded to smoothen the surfaces. After pre-
paration, the specimes were stored under water again until the start of the test.
In contrast to the NT Build 492 [8], the German regulations [9], [10] do not require vacuum satu-
ration.
3.2 RCM test setup

The general RCM test setup was according to the German “BAW Merkblatt Dauerhaftigkeitsbemes-
sung und –bewertung von Stahlbetonbauwerken bei Carbonatisierung und Chlorideinwirkung
(MDCC)“ [9]. A silicon rubber sleeve was fitted on each prepared specimen and fixed with two clamps.
Three specimens were placed on a plastic support in one common catholyte reservoir containing 10%
NaCl in 0.2 mol/l KOH. The anolyte solution filled in the sleeves above the specimen was also
0.2 mol/l KOH. For the migration process a power supply with 0-30 V DC was connected. Fig. 2 (left)
shows the scheme of the RCM setup and Fig. 2 (right) a photo of the real setup in laboratory.
Fig. 2 Left: theoretical scheme of the RCM setup; right: real RCM setup in laboratory

14 th
The analysis of the free chloride penetration front x d was carried out with 0.1 mol/l AgNO3 and ultra-
violet light on freshly split halves (figure 3 left). Figure 3 (right) shows an example for the coloration
b
of the specimen after the application of the indicator. The chloride-containing zone appears gray-violet
and the chloride free zone clearly brighter.
The chloride penetration depth was then measured by caliper and ruler using the colour change as
borderline. Potassium dichromate or fluorescine were not used.
if
Fig. 3 Left: freshly split halves with AgNO3 under ultraviolet light; right: CEM II/A-LL specimen
as an example of coloration after application of AgNO3
4 Investigated parameters
4.1 Influence of NaCl concentration

DIN EN 12390-18 [10] allows NaCl concentrations between 3% (≈ 0.5 mol/l) and 10% (≈ 1.8 mol/l).
In literature, different statements can be found regarding the influence of the NaCl concentration in the
catholyte solution.
Thus Zhang and Gjørv [11] stated that the chloride diffusivity decreases with increasing chloride
source concentration. Their considerations and experimental results refer to a steady state migration
test method: the concrete specimen is placed between two cells, cell 1 contains the chloride source
solution and cell 2 is the chloride collecting cell containing NaOH. Two mesh electrodes are placed on
each side of the specimen and a counter electrical fiel is applied. After a certain time, a steady-state
migration is reached. In fact the chloride increase dc/dt in cell 2 becomes constant and is measured to
calculate the diffusivity according to equation (1) [12].
𝑘𝑇 𝑉 𝑑𝑐
𝐷 = 300 [cm²/s] (1)
𝑧𝑒0 𝐸 𝑐0 𝐴0 𝑑𝑡
Where k = Boltzmann constant

T = absolute temperature
z = ionic valence
e0 = charge of proton/electron
E = electrical field
V = volume of cell 2
c0 = chloride source concentration
A0 = cross section
Already 1994 they stated in [12] that the chloride concentration has a significant influence on the dif-
fusivity and proposed that the dependence must be considered by a correction factor 𝛽0 . In [13] they
explain that the factor is intended to represent the retardation of the ions caused by the effects of the
ionic cloud surrounding the chloride ions. The considerations are based on the Debye-Hückel theory
and only valid up to a concentration of 0.5 mol/l. Experimental results in [14] and [11], however, show,
that dependency is even stronger than assumed and the correction factor based on the Debye-Hückel
theory is not sufficient. Therefore, a new correction factor was determined on the basis of the obtained
data. Within the examined range of 0.01 mol/l – 1.0 mol/l it can be also seen that the diffusivity is about
10 to 20 times higher at 0.01 mol/l than at 1 mol/l and that dependency is much less strong at higher
concentrations [11].
In contrast Jiang et al. [15] considered the chloride concentration dependency in a conventional RCM
test and investigated the range of 0.1 mol/l – 0.5 mol/l. He figured out that the migration coefficient
b
DRCM increases with chloride source concentration. His explanation for the differences of the results
compared to Zhang [11], [14] are the different test methods used. In the steady-state migration, the
pores are totally filled with source chloride solution and thus a constant electrical field is present. In
contrast there is a larger voltage over the penetration field in the non-steady-state RCM test due to the
if
unequal composition of the pore solution over the specimen [15].
Tang [16], [17] also describes a strong dependence of the diffusivity obtained in conventional dif-
fusion or migration tests on the chloride source concentration. As most important reasons he identified
the effects of the counter electrical field and the friction effect. Lay [18] mentions still another rela-
tionship between the diffusion coefficient and the chloride source concentration : Thus, the formation
of the diffuse double layer on the pore wall can lead to repulsion of diffused chloride ions, if their
surrounding cloud overlies with the layer (see figure 4). The thickness of the layer is called Debye-
length 1/𝜅 and it decreases with increasing chloride concentration. Therefore an increase of the chlo-
ride source concentration can reduce the repulsion and induce larger diffusion coefficients. As this is
especially relevant for fine-pored concrete, it does not contradict Zhang’s study of a rather coarsed-
pored CEM I [18]. Additionally Spiesz’s [19] summary of some selected data in the literature is that
the influence of the chloride concentration in the catholyte is negligible.
Fig. 4 Scheme of the electrical diffuse layer and their influence of chloride transport according to
[18]
All these conclusions refer to tests without KOH in the catholyte solution and only take into account
chloride concentrations up to 1 mol/l (≈ 5% NaCl). Therefore, the dependency should be considered
once again specifically for the RCM test according to German regulations with different cement com-
positions.
The first preliminary tests were performed with various types of cement respectively concerete
compositions as shown in table 2.
Table 2 Concrete composition and compressive strength (CS) for the preliminary RCM tests regard-
ing the influence of the NaCl concentration in the catholyte solution
w/c cement water 0/2 2/8 8/16 Fly ash CS

[kg/m³] [MPa]
CI-1 0.5 350 175 462 813 573 47.7
CI-2 0.5 350 175 461.3 793.5 590.5 48.7
CII 0.5 350 175 461.3 793.5 590.5 35.8
CII+FA 0.5 318.2 175 446.4 767.8 571.4 ̂ 25%)
80 (≈ 44.6
CIII-A 0.5 350 175 642 678 513 52.5
CIII-B 0.5 350 175 642 678 513 51.9
NaCl if applied during concrete mixing might influence the compressive strength. However, no NaCl
was added during casting and compressive strength was tested before chloride penetration.
14 th
Figure 5 shows the chloride migration coefficients in dependence of the sodium chloride content
for 3% ≈ 0.5 mol/l, 5% ≈ 1.0 mol/l and 10% ≈ 1.8 mol/l in the catholyte. The data collected so far
b
indicate that the chloride source concentration has an insignificant influence on the migration coeffi-
cient obtained in the RCM test. Thus, the migration coefficient of the setup with 10% NaCl is around
15% larger on average across all cements than that of the setup with 3% NaCl respectively 13% larger
on average across all cements than that of the setup with 5% NaCl. For the CEM III/A and CEM III/B
if
the coefficient is very small in general. With the associated small penetration depths, the measurement
error here can be very high. If these coefficients are therefore excluded from the mean value, the follo-
wing percentage result: 19% higher coefficients for the 10% NaCl setup than for the 3% NaCl setup
respectively 8% higher coefficients for the 10% NaCl setup than for the 5% NaCl setup. Further study
is needed to ensure the findings and transfer them to other binder compositions (see also chapter 5).
age: 28d age: 41d age: 29d
chloride migration coefficient [*10-12m²/s]
20
15
10
0
3% 5% 10% 3% 5% 10% 3% 5% 10% 3% 5% 10% 3% 5% 10% 3% 5% 10%
CEM I 42.5N (CI-1) CEM I 52.5N (CI-2) CEM II/A-LL 42.5N + CEM II/A-LL 42.5N CEM III/A 42.5N-LH CEM III/B
FA (CII-FA) (CII) (CIII-A) 42.5N-LH/SR
(CIII-B)
Fig. 5 Influence of the NaCl concentration in the catholyte solution – results of preliminary RCM
tests
As mentioned above Zhang [12], [13] stated out that the migration is influenced by the ionic cloud
surrounding the chloride ion respectively by ionic interactions in general. It is therefore important to
investigate the influence of composition of the catholyte solution, especially the additional KOH ac-
cording to German regulations.
4.2 Influence of the presence of KOH

One of the biggest differences between the German BAW Merkblatt [9] and the NT Build 492 [8] is
the composition of the catholyte and anolyte solution. In contrast to the NT Build 492 the catholyte
solution according to BAW Merkblatt contains 0.2 mol/l KOH. This causes high pH values right from
the start and is comparable to the pore solution. Due to the cathodic recation as described in [2] the pH
value will also increase in a setup without KOH, but start at a pH value of about 7.
Spiesz [19] explains that the hydroxyl ions OH- from the KOH will migrate with the chloride ions
because of the external electrical field and thus also transport electrical charge. This means that less
charge has to be transported by the chloride ions and they do not penetrate as far into the concrete as in
a setup without hydroxyl ions. As a consequence the migration coefficients obtained in a RCM test
according to NT Build 492 (without KOH) are larger than those obtained according to BAW Merkblatt
(with KOH).
Preliminary tests following the BAW Merkblatt were performed to evaluate this parameter and the
sole difference between the series was the presence of KOH in the catholyte solution. The used binders
and concrete compositions are shown in table 3. Figure 6 shows the chloride migration coefficients in
dependence of the presence of KOH in the catholyte solution.
The data collected so far indicate that the KOH in the catholyte solution has an insignificant in-
fluence on the migration coefficient obtained in the RCM test and that the effect is dependent of the
type of binder. Thus, the differences in the migration coefficient between the setup without KOH and
with KOH are around +7% for the CEM I and -18% for the CEM III/B. Further study is needed to
ensure the findings and transfer them to other binder compositions (see also chapter 5).
Table 3 Concrete composition for the preliminary RCM tests regarding the influence of the presence
of KOH in the catholyte solution
b
w/c cement water 0/2 2/8 8/16 comp. strength
[kg/m³] [MPa]
if
CIII/B 0,5 350 175 642 678 513 54,2
CI 0,5 350 175 642 678 513 47,5
12.0
chloride migration coefficient [*10-12m²/s]
age: 28d
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
with KOH without KOH with KOH without KOH
CEM I 52.5N (CI) CEM III/B 42.4N-LH/SR (CIII/B)
Fig. 6 Influence of the presence of KOH in the catholyte solution – results of preliminary RCM
tests
5 Conclusions and further research

The following conclusions and need for further research can be drawn from the points described above:
▪ The results obtained so far show that the migration coefficient of the setup with 10% NaCl is
around 15% larger on average across all tested cements than that of the setup with 3% NaCl
respectively 13% larger than that of the setup with 5% NaCl. The differences in the migration
coefficient between the setup without KOH and with KOH are around +7% for the CEM I and
-18% for the CEM III/B.
▪ Thus, the preliminary tests regarding NaCl concentration and presence of KOH in the catho-
lyte solution of the RCM test indicate that further research is needed to clarify their influence
and the comparability of results obtained by different regulations. This is an important step
before transferring the experiment to new cement compositions.
▪ For further research an appreciable experimental programme has been planned with additional
measurements and tests : rapid chloride migration, rapid chloride penetration, diffusion and
concrete resistivity. The obtained results should be used in combination with results from lit-
erature to build a large database. From this, relationships will then finally be deduced and ver-
ified. In addition boundary conditions for test setup need to be defined if necessary.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to express their gratitude to the Bavarian Academic Forum BayWISS for the financial
and personal support as well as for the possibility of the cooperation between the University of Applied
Sciences Würzburg-Schweinfurt and the Technical University of Munich.

14th
References
b
[1] Verein Deutscher Zementwerke, VDZ. 2020. Dekarbonisierung von Zement und Beton - Min-
derungspfade und Handlungsstrategien. Düsseldorf.
[2] Andrade, C. 1993. “Calculation of chloride diffusion coefficients in concrete from ionic migra-
tion measurements.” Cement and Concrete Research 23(3): 724–742.
if
[3] Tang, L. 1996. “Chloride transport in concrete: Measurement and prediction.” Dissertation,
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[4] Bundesverband Baustoffe - Steine und Erden e.V. 2019. Studie „Die Nachfrage nach Primär-
und Sekundärrohstoffen der Steine-und-Erden-Industrie bis 2035 in Deutschland". Berlin.
[5] Deutsches Institut für Normung e.V. 2021. Zement - Teil 5: Portlandkompositzement CEM
II/C-M und Kompositzement CEM VI; Deutsche Fassung EN 197-5:2021. DIN EN 197-
5:2021-07.
[6] Deutsches Institut für Normung e.V. 2011. Zement - Teil 1: Zusammensetzung, Anforderungen
und Konformitätskriterien von Normalzement; Deutsche Fassung EN 197-1:2011. DIN EN
197-1:2011.
[7] Müller, C. 2022. “Klinkereffiziente Zemente – wichtiger Baustein auf dem Weg zur Dekarbo-
nisierung von Zement und Beton.” Gutes Klima für die Zukunft. Dekarbonisierung als wichti-
ger Schlüssel zum nachhaltigen Bauen mit Beton, U. Nolting, F. Dehn, and V.M. Kind, eds.,
KIT Scientific Publishing, 1–9.
[8] Nordtest. 1999. “NT Build 492 - Concrete, mortar and cement-based repair materials: chloride
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[9] Bundesanstalt für Wasserbau. 2019. BAWMerkblatt Dauerhaftigkeitsbemessung und -bewer-
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ruhe.
[10] Deutsches Institut für Normung e.V. 2021. Prüfung von Festbeton - Teil 18: Bestimmung des
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18:2021-09.
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fusivity in Concrete.” ACI Materials Journal 102(5): 295–298.

[12] Zhang, T., and Gjørv, O. E. 1994. “An electrochemical method for accelerated testing of chlo-
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Baustein eines Systems zum Lebenszyklusmanagement von Stahlbetonbauwerken.” Disserta-
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[19] Spiesz, P. 2013. “Durability of concrete with emphasis on chloride migration.” Dissertation,
Technische Universiteit Eindhoven.

Prediction of the time of corrosion initiation of
b
reinforced geopolymer concrete hollow piles
Ali Abdulhasan Khalaf and Katalin Kopecskó
if
Department of Engineering Geology and Geotechnics ,
Műegyetem rakpart 3, Budapest 1111, Hungary
Abstract
Geopolymer concrete can be a solution in the future as a sustainable green construction material due to
its low carbon footprint. Therefore, it is vital to understand its durability in a severe environment such
as chloride exposure. The related data are collected from the peer-reviewed literature and analysed for
the binding capacity of chloride ions and apparent diffusion coefficient. The binding capacity shows a
concise increase by increasing slag content when ground granulated blast furnace slag, GGBFS, is
added to fly ash geopolymer concrete. On the other hand, the binding capacity fluctuates in a wide
range when fly ash is used alone due to the absence of chemical binding in this case. The apparent
diffusion coefficient results are analysed to its mixing and exposure variables. The relative apparent
diffusion coefficient, RDa, with respect to Portland cement has been introduced to eliminate the varia-
bility of exposure type and time. According to the literature, the remaining variables are the same as
the compressive strength, CS, variables. However, samples with comparable CS values show signifi-
cantly different relative apparent diffusion coefficient values as a result of the difference in the slag
content in the mixture. Therefore, it is concluded that the primary role in the chloride resistance is
played by slag content.Furthermore, a statistical model of RDa have been proposed and utilised to pre-
dict the time of the corrosion initiation of reinforced geopolymer concrete hollow piles based on three
simple parameters: GGBFS%, CS, and alkali activation solution-binder ratio (AAS/B).
1 Introduction
Reinforced concrete hollow piles are highly preferred to be used in marine structures, including piers,
bridges, since they have a higher bearing capacity and better adaptability to foundation soils than the
traditional piles [1]. From a sustainable point of view, cement manufacturing involves high carbon
dioxide emission (CO2), which are very harmful to the environment. As a result, researchers have been
seeking alternatives that have less impact on the environment. One of the most promising alternative
materials is geopolymer [2]. The source of geopolymer binders can be natural, by-product or synthetic
amorphous aluminosilicate. The idea of geopolymerisation is that the chemical reaction between alu-
minosilicate oxides and alkali polysilicates produces polymeric (Si-O-Al) bonds of amorphous to semi-
crystalline three-dimensional silico-aluminate structures [2,3]. Evidently, since Portland cement con-
crete practice manuals and design codes have been established over decades, most cement alternatives
at the first stage are compared with cement properties to examine their validation [4–6]. Portland ce-
ment concrete is widely used in construction mainly due to its exceptional durability. However, material
design and practice limitations can lead to concrete deterioration, especially under severe exposure
conditions such as marine surroundings [4]. When concrete is exposed to such severe environments, it
will be vulnerable to some deterioration induces, and one of the most critical deterioration factors is
chloride-induced pitting corrosion of steel reinforcement. Ingress of chloride ions upto the steel rein-
forcement will destroy the passive protective layer and leave steel susceptible to pitting corrosion.
Therefore, it is quite acceptable to govern the concrete durability by the resistance to the penetration of
chloride ions [4,7]. There are three groups of chloride ions involving the chemical attack of concrete:
free, bound, and total chloride ions. Free chloride is the type responsible for the initiation of reinforcing
steel corrosion. The free chloride is dissolved in the pore water of concrete. The bound chloride can be
physically bound to the pore walls of cement stone or chemically bound with hydrates or ion exchange
binding. It is believed that the free and bound chlorides are in equilibrium, and the concentration of free
chloride is equal to the concentration in the surrounding environment. The total chloride content is
equal to the sum of free and bound chloride [8].
14 th
According to the ASTM C1556 standard results [9], the primary chloride binding is the reaction
product of mixtures containing ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS). Ismail et al. [10] studied
b
GGBFS, fly ash, and different percentages of GGBFS/fly ash geopolymer concretes and mortars. The
mortar samples are mixed with a w/b ratio of 0.4 and cured at 30 ºC. The period of immersion was 180
days of 3.5% NaCl solution. The binding capacities of all geopolymers were comparable to Portland
cement concrete. Furthermore, Lee and Lee [11] inferred that increasing the slag content decreased the
if
binding capacity for geopolymer paste samples with the immersion period of 28 and 91 days of a 10%
NaCl solution. Tittarelli et al. [12] studied the binding capacity under wet-dry cycles of fly ash and
metakaolin geopolymer mortars for 12 weekly cycles in a 3.5% NaCl solution. The curing temperature
was 20 ºC. The specimens were in three classes of strength R1 <10 MPa, R2 < 15 MPa and R3 < 20
MPa. Only R3 is a structural class. The geopolymer specimens show no binding capacity except for the
R2 class. Therefore, statistical analysis of all published results in the peer-reviewed literature will pro-
vide a comprehensive understanding of the relationship between chloride binding capacity and GGBFS
content.
The diffusion process occurs when there is a concentration gradient, and concrete provides a con-
tinuous liquid phase [8]. "The chloride diffusion coefficient defines the capacity of any specific con-
crete to resist chloride penetration and is used to predict the service life of reinforced concrete struc-
tures" [13]. Therefore, the apparent (steady state) diffusion coefficient of chloride was taken as a repre-
sentative to evaluate the chloride ingress resistance of geopolymer concrete in this study. The apparent
diffusion coefficient of concrete is determined by the relationship between chloride content (C (t, r))
and the radius of the exposed surface (r). There are many methods to evaluate C (t, r), such as NT Build
443 [14] or ASTM C1556 [9] tests, which have similar procedures [15].
The study aimed to prove the correlation between the chloride binding capacity of geopolymer
concrete and GGBFS content. Since there was no proposed model in the literature to evaluate the chlo-
ride ion ingress resistance of geopolymer concrete, the goal has been extended to construct a statistical
model to predict the resistance against chloride ingress in geopolymer concrete based on the GGBFS
content and compressive strength (CS) as a percentage of the chloride ion ingress resistance of Portland
cement concrete. Furthermore, the proposed model is used in an analytical model to predict the time of
the corrosion initiation of reinforced geopolymer concrete hollow piles (RGPCHP) by determining an
additional simple parameter of geopolymer concrete (alkali activation solution-binder ratio, AAS/B).
2 Data description
2.1 Chloride binding capacity data

The relevant data have been collected from the peer-reviewed literature [10–12,15–17] to obtain 22
samples. The chloride binding capacity of geopolymer (GPBC), chloride binding capacity of Portland
cement corresponding to the assigned geopolymer (PCBC), and GGBFS content are statistically ana-
lysed to calculate the statistical parameters such as mean median range and standard deviation (STD).
The statistical summary are shown in Table 1. Since there was a high range of variability in the immer-
sion period, conditions, and type of testing, a new parameter is introduced in this research based on the
corresponding chloride binding capacity of Portland cement calculated by Eq. (1).
Table1 Chloride binding capacity data and statistical summary.
Variable
GPBC (%) PCBC (%) GGBFS (%)
Statistical parameter
Mean 42.5 35.4 15.9

Median 33.7 30.6 0.0
Range 94.4- 0.0 95.5- 9.7 100.0- 0.0
STD 40.2 29.1 28.3
𝐺𝑃𝐵𝐶
𝑅𝐵𝐶 = ∗ 100% (1)
𝑃𝐶𝐵𝐶

where RBC is the relative binding capacity in percentage; GPBC is the geopolymer chloride binding
capacity; PCBC is the Portland cement chloride binding capacity.
b
2.2 The apparent chloride diffusion coefficient data
In a similar manner to chloride binding capacity, 42 samples have been collected from the peer-re-
viewed literature [10,15,17–25] [14,19,21,25-32] to investigate the apparent diffusion coefficient. The
if
statistical summary of the apparent diffusion coefficient of geopolymer concrete, the corresponding
apparent diffusion coefficient of Portland cement concrete, and the cylindeical compressive strength
(CS) of geopolymer concrete are shown in Table 2. The relative apparent diffusion coefficient (RDa)
has also been introduced here to overcome the high variability in the exposure conditions as follows:
𝐺𝑃𝐷𝑎
𝑅𝐷𝑎 = ∗ 100% (2)
𝑃𝐶𝐷𝑎
where RDa is the relative apparent diffusion coefficient in percentage; GPDa is the geopolymer concrete
apparent diffusion coefficient; PCDa is the Portland cement concrete apparent diffusion coefficient.
Moreover, by looking at the other variables to the literature, it can be inferred that these variables
are the same that control CS of geopolymer concrete [26–28]. As a result, CS has been taken as a
representative for the other variables and their effect on RDa.
Table 2 Chloride apparent diffusion coefficient data statistical summary.
Variable GPDa PCDa GGBFS CS

Statistical parameter *10-12 m2/s *10-12 m2/s % MPa
Mean 35.1 16.0 26.6 44.4

Median 9.3 9.5 5.0 43.4
Range 215.0-0.01 71.3- 0.95 100.0- 0.0 68.0- 21.5
STD 54.7 20.3 35.5 11.7
3.1 Relative chloride binding capacity of geopolymer concrete

The curve fitting tool in Matlab software has been run to evaluate the best curve fitting between RBC
and GGBFS content. The fourth degree polynomial is found to have the best description of the relation-
ship between RBC and GGBFS with a positive correlation. Generally, increasing the GGBFS increases
the RBC. Moreover, the evidence from the literature stated that the binding capacity of fly ash geopol-
ymer concrete is considered highly disturbed physical binding [17]. Furthermore, another study con-
cluded that 10% of GGBFS was not enough to improve the chloride ingress resistance of geopolymer
concrete [19]. Therefore, the samples with high RBC that fulfilled the abovementioned conditions have
been excluded and considered outliers in the curve fitting process. The goodness of fitting was evalu-
ated based on the root mean squared error (RMSE = 20.47 %) and determination coefficient (R 2 =
0.8251). Therefore, the correlation between RBC and GGBFS content is clearly strong as depicted in
Fig. 1. It can be inferred that increasing GGBFS increases RBC. Due to limited data on chloride binding
capacity, the GGBFS content can be used to replace it in the investigation of chloride ingress resistance
of geopolymer concrete. The relationship is represented by Eq. (3):
𝑅𝐵𝐶 = 1.503 ∗ 10−6 ∗ 𝐺𝐺𝐵𝐹𝑆 4 + 5.566 ∗ 10−5 ∗ 𝐺𝐺𝐵𝐹𝑆 3 − 0.051 ∗ 𝐺𝐺𝐵𝐹𝑆 2

(3)
+ 3.877 ∗ 𝐺𝐺𝐵𝐹𝑆 + 13.04

14th
if b
Fig. 1 Correlation between RBC and GGBFS content.
3.2 Relative apparent chloride diffusion coefficient of geopolymer concrete

RDa has been analysed by the curve fitting tool in Matlab software with respect to GGBFS content and
CS simultaneously. After investigating all possible relationships, the polynomial fourth degree and
quadratic were the best performance to describe the relationship between RDa as a dependent variable
and GGBFS content and CS, respectively, as depicted in Eq. (4):
𝑅𝐷𝑎 = 𝑝00 + 𝑝10 𝐺𝐺𝐵𝐹𝑆 + 𝑝01 𝐶𝑆 + 𝑝20 𝐺𝐺𝐵𝐹𝑆 2 + 𝑝11 𝐺𝐺𝐵𝐹𝑆 ∗ 𝐶𝑆 + 𝑝02 𝐶𝑆 2 +
𝑝30 𝐺𝐺𝐵𝐹𝑆 3 + 𝑝21 𝐺𝐺𝐵𝐹𝑆 2 ∗ 𝐶𝑆 + 𝑝12 𝐺𝐺𝐵𝐹𝑆 ∗ 𝐶𝑆 2 + 𝑝40 𝐺𝐺𝐵𝐹𝑆 4 + 𝑝31 𝐺𝐺𝐵𝐹𝑆 3 ∗ (4)
𝐶𝑆 + 𝑝22 𝐺𝐺𝐵𝐹𝑆 2 𝐶𝑆 2
where GGBFS and CS is normalised by their means and standard deviations. The model and the good-
ness-of-fit parameters are shown in Table 3.
Table 3 Model and the goodness of fitting parameters.

95% Confidence interval

Parameter Estimate
Lower bound Upper bound
p00 190.3 100.4 280.2
p10 -250.9 -380.8 -120.9
p01 -38.04 -175.2 99.1
p20 -134.5 -275.7 6.8
p11 20.16 -37.1 77.5
p02 -19.64 -86.8 47.5
p30 280.0 73.2 486.8
p21 53.6 -137.1 244.3
p12 13.5 -44.2 71.2
p40 -83.59 -158.8 -8.4
p31 -29.3 -111.9 53.3
p22 -4.9 -50.9 41.2
Goodness of fitting
R-square Adjusted R-square RMSE
0.6106 0.4916 65.74 %

if b
Fig. 2 The response surface for the RDa model (left); the contour map of the RDa model (right).
The response surface for the RDa model is depicted in Fig. 2a. At 0% of GGBFS (only fly ash geopol-
ymer concrete), the RDa was generally higher than 100.0 %. However, there were regional decreases at
very low compressive strength and very high compressive strength, which are very different from the
behaviour of Portland cement concrete in such a way that increasing compressive strength reduces the
PCDa [29].There is evidence from the literature that reports that the chloride binding capacity of the fly
ash geopolymer depends on the compressive strength class [12]. For fly ash-GGBFS blended geopoly-
mer concrete, there were three main surface regions. The first surface region underwent high RDa, even
higher than only fly ash geopolymer, which is designated with low GGBFS content up to 37.5% to
achieve 100.1 of RDa value as shown in Fig. 2b.
The calculated value of RDa corresponding to 40 % of GGFBS content from the literature [21] was
found 77.2. The GGBFS values of 39.58 % and the 40.0% and RD a values of 80.78 and 77.2 for the
proposed model and calculated based on the literature, respectively, are not far from each other, but
they are comparatively in the same vicinity, taking into consideration that increasing the GGBFS con-
tent reduces the RDa. The effect of CS in this region is that increasing CS decreased the RD a slightly
until it reached 65.0 MPa of CS, as shown in Fig. 3. The second surface region is where the minimum
RDa is achieved. The GGBFS content in this region is in the interval [53.0 – 80] to produce a minimum
RDa range. These results are confirmed by the literature [24] that reported a significant shift in the
apparent diffusion coefficient after 50.0 % of GGBFS. The effect of CS strength in this region was
opposite to that of the first region. Increasing the CS increased the RDa values slightly. The third region
is where the GGBFS precursor is dominant. The RDa values showed a continuous increase as the
GGBFS content. This behaviour has been explained by Davidovit [30], who stated that GGBFS alkali-
activated concrete is exposed to alkali cation leaching, which could reduce chloride ingress resistance.
The effect of CS in this region is that increasing CS reduced the RD a values. CS had only an obvious
influence on RDa results in the first and second stages, where GGBFS% was between (0-37.5). The
reason behind these results can be related to the changing of the gel formation in the geopolymer matrix
when GGBFS increased to produce coexistence of N-A-S-H and C-S-H gel types [31].
3.3 The analytical model for the time of the corrosion initiation stage
The time of the corrosion initiation stage Ti is the time from the ingress of chloride ion to the initiation
of corrosion in steel reinforcement. In case of the initial chloride content in the geopolymer concrete
hollow piles is zero and assuming the saturated situation, the limit state function of this stage S(t) is as
follows Eqs. (5-6):
𝑆𝑡= 𝐶𝑡ℎ𝑟−C(𝑟,𝑡)
(5)
𝑇𝑖 =[𝑆(𝑡) ≤ 0]
(6)
where; r is the diffusion radius; 𝐶𝑡ℎ𝑟 is the threshold level of the chloride with the lowest value of 0.2
% and the mean value of 0.6 % [32]; C(r,t) is the chloride concentration (%) based on Fick's second
law and taking into consideration hollow sections is calculated [1] as follows Eqs. (7-9):
𝐶(𝑟, 𝑡) = 0, ( 𝑡 = 0, 𝑎 < 𝑟 < 𝑏)

𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 { 𝐶𝑠 (a, t) = 𝐶𝑠 𝑡 𝑘 , ( 𝑡 > 0, 𝑟 = 𝑎) } (7)
𝐶𝑠 (b, t) = 𝐶𝑠 𝑡 𝑘 , ( 𝑡 > 0, 𝑟 = 𝑏)

14 th
𝜋𝐽0 (𝛼𝑛 𝑎)𝑈0 (𝛼𝑛 𝑟) 2

𝐶(𝑟, 𝑡) = 𝐶𝑠 𝑡 𝑘 [1 − ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑒 −𝛼𝑛 (𝐺𝐷𝑎)𝑡 ] (8)
𝐽0 (𝛼𝑛 𝑎)+ 𝐽0 (𝛼𝑛 𝑏)
b
𝑈0 (𝛼𝑛 𝑟) = 𝐽0 (𝛼𝑛 𝑟)𝑌0 (𝛼𝑛 𝑏) − 𝐽0 (𝛼𝑛 𝑏)𝑌0 (𝛼𝑛 𝑟) (9)
where a is the internal radius of the pile, b is the external radius of the pile, r is the diffusion radius, C s
is the surface chloride concentration at time t (s), and k is the empirical coefficient = 0.37, J0 and Y0
if
are the Bessel functions of the first and second kind of order zeros, respectively, and αn is the positive
root of the equation U0(αn a) = 0.
Eq. 8 shows that the GDa has to be known to evaluate the C(r,t) value. Returning to Eq. 2, the GDa
value is calculated by applying a corresponding known value of PCDa. Therefore the value of PCDa
can be calculated [1] as follows Eqs. (10-16):
𝑃𝐶𝐷𝑎 = 𝑃𝐶𝐷𝑐 . 𝑓(𝑡). 𝑓(𝜎). 𝑓(𝑇). 𝑓(ℎ)

(10)
𝑤 2 𝑤
[ −0.79( ) +0.340( )−13.10]
𝑃𝐶𝐷𝑐 = 10 𝑐 𝑐 (11)
𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑚
𝑓(𝑡) = ( ) (12)
𝑡
(8𝜎 3 )
𝑓(𝜎) = 1 + 5.98𝑒 (13)
𝑈 1 1
[ 𝑐 ( − )]
𝑓(𝑇) = 𝑒 𝑅 𝑇1 𝑇2 (14)
(1−ℎ)4 −1
𝑓(ℎ) = [1 + (1− ℎ𝑐 )4
] (15)
𝑤
𝑚 = 2.5 ( ) − 0.6 (16)
𝑐
where PCDc is the Portland cement concrete initial diffusion coefficient; w/c is the water-cement ratio;
the functions f(t), f (σ), f(T), and f(h) reflect the dependence of PCDa on the concrete ageing, stress
level, current absolute temperature, and relative humidity, respectively; t ref is the reference time (28
days), t is the exposure time (days); σ is the imposed tensile stress (MPa); Uc is the activation energy
(Uc = 35 kJ/mol), R is the gas constant (R = 8.314 J mol-1 K-1), T1 is the reference temperature (296 K),
T2 is the current absolute temperature of the pile (K); h is the relative humidity, and hc is the critical
humidity level (75%); m is the age reduction factor calculated based on w/c.
The w/c of Portland cement concrete that corresponds to geopolymer concrete is calculated based
on the alkali activator solution-binder ratio (AAS/B) [33] as follows Eq. (17) :
𝑤 𝐴𝐴𝑆
= (17)
𝑐 𝐵
The procedure to calculate the time of the corrosion initiation for RGPCHP is as follows:
1. Determining the GGBFS %, CS, and AAS/B of the geopolymer concrete.
2. Utilising the proposed prediction model (Eq. 4) to determine RDa and w/c from Eq. 17.
3. Calculating PCDa by applying Eqs. 10-16 based on the exposure and load conditions of the
pile and GDa is determined by applying Eq. 2.
4. C(r,t) value is determined by applying Eqs. 7-9 in time interval and subtituted in Eq. 5.
5. Applying Eq. 5 on the results of C (r,t).
6. Determining the time of the corrosion initiation by applying Eq. 6.
4 Conclusions
In this study, data relevant to chloride binding capacity and apparent diffusion coefficient of geopoly-
mer concrete have been collected from the peer-reviewed literature. A comprehensive understanding
was developed from a statistical point of view to predict the time of the corrosion initiation of reinforced
geopolymer concrete hollow piles. As a result, the key findings are as follows:
▪ The correlation between RBC and GGBFS was positively quite strong since R2 value equals
0.8251. Hence, increasing GGBFS content increased chloride binding capacity.

▪ The proposed RDa model to evaluate the chloride ion ingress resistance of geopolymer con-
crete in terms of GGBFS and CS put future research steps in the right way since it has a mod-
b
erate R2 value equals 0.6106.
▪ According to the proposed model, geopolymer concrete with only fly ash or less than 37.5 %
of GGBFS had higher chloride ingress than Portland cement concrete. By increasing GGBFS
from 37.5 to 80.0%, geopolymer concrete had quite lower chloride ingress than Portland ce-
if
ment concrete. When the GGBFS % was more than 80.0%, geopolymer concrete underwent
an increase of chloride ion ingress but was still lower than Portland cement concrete had.
▪ CS has an influence on the chloride ion ingress resistance of geopolymer concrete only with
the first and second stages, where the GGBFS% is between (0-37.5).
▪ RDa has been successfully utilised to predict the time of the corrosion initiation of reinforced
geopolymer concrete hollow piles based on knowing simple parameters (GGBFS%, CS, and
AAS/B) by an analytical model.
Acknowledgement
Stipendium Hungaricum Scholarship Programme is highly acknowledged for supporting the PhD study.
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Experimental and numerical investigation on PC
b
beams with artificially corroded post-tensioned
tendons
if
Dario De Domenico, Matteo Mazzeo, Davide Messina and Antonino Recupero
Department of Engineering, University of Messina,
Contrada Di Dio, Villaggio S. Agata, Messina (98166), Italy
Abstract
An experimental campaign was carried out at the University of Messina to investigate the impact of
corrosion of post-tensioned tendons on the resulting load-bearing capacity of prestressed concrete (PC)
beams. Artificial corrosion was induced on some specimens through chemical solution injected in the
duct. The specimens were tested up to failure to study the load-bearing capacity of the PC beams under
different corrosive substances or fungal strains. Post-tensioned tendons were subsequently extracted
from the beams and tested to quantify the actual corrosion-induced effects on the tensile mechanical
properties of the prestressing steel. A numerical model was realized via the software ATENA with the
aim to set up and calibrate a simulation model that could be used, in subsequent developments of this
work, for parametric analysis to scrutinize the load-bearing capacity for levels of corrosion other than
those analyzed in the experimental campaign
1 Introduction
Most ordinary beam bridges are made of prestressed concrete (PC) girders [1], [2], which may be prone
to corrosion risk when placed in aggressive environments (e.g., presence of chloride ions from marine
environments, deicing salt, etc.). Additional issues, like lack of complete injection, concrete porosity
and defects in the anchorage zones might compromise the structural safety of PC beams [3], [4]. Dura-
bility aspects and material deterioration phenomena are generally more important for PC structures than
for ordinary reinforced concrete structures, because tendon actual stresses are much higher (around five
times larger) than those of mild steel re-bars [5]. For this reason, it is of extreme importance to perform
experimental investigations to quantify the impact of corrosion on the resulting load-bearing capacity
of PC beams with corrosion degradation [6].
The present contribution illustrates the results of an ongoing experimental campaign at the Univer-
sity of Messina, Italy, on PC beams with artificially corroded post-tensioned tendons [7]. The tested
beams were cast in 2006, and a series of defects was purposely introduced in the form of chemical
solution or fungal strains in the duct. The beams were tested up to failure after more than 12 years from
casting, and the comparative results between undamaged PC beams and PC beams with various defects
were analyzed in terms of load-bearing capacity. Subsequently, the corroded tendons were extracted
from the tested beams, and their tensile mechanical properties were analyzed through experiments. This
contribution also presents some preliminary investigations on the numerical modelling of PC beams
carried out with the nonlinear finite element software ATENA [8], which may be useful for performing
future parametric analyses to investigate the presumed reduction of the load-bearing capacity for levels
of corrosion other than those analyzed in this experimental campaign.
2 Experimental campaign: summary of test results

A set of 12 PC beams with bonded and unbonded tendons were designed and manufactured with dif-
ferent prestressing levels and types of defects, the latter introduced to be representative of a non-perfect
injection of the ducts identified in several PC girders of bridges and viaducts constructed in the 1950s-
1970s. Six of the twelve beams were tested up to failure, while the remaining six will be tested in the
subsequent part of the experimental campaign.
The beams have rectangular cross section, width 40 cm, height 25 cm, and length 6.3 m (simply
supported by two rollers having span 5 m). These dimensions were selected to reproduce a 1:3 scaled
bridge beam of a girder deck with span 20 m. Steel reinforcement consists of four 𝜙18 longitudinal
bars at the four corners (2 cm cover) and stirrups 𝜙8 at spacing 80 mm near the supports and 100 mm
14th
near the centre of the beam. A single prestressing cable with straight configuration is located at the
centre of the cross section, comprising four 7-wire tendons with 0.6" diameter. Manufacturing and
b
casting of PC beams are illustrated in Fig. 1.
if
Fig. 1 Manufacturing and casting of PC beams with artificially corroded post-tensioned tendons
(top) and testing setup (bottom).
The materials employed in the beams are concrete with grade C50/60 (mean cubic strength 𝑅𝑐𝑚 =
69.7 MPa, coefficient of variation 5.3%, estimated from a series of crushing tests on cubic specimens
for each beam), steel re-bars FeB44k (characteristic yield strength 430 MPa), and prestressing steel
with 1% stress equal to 1670 MPa. Contamination of beams was performed through suitable pipes
created before casting (Fig. 1), through which different substances were introduced. Nomenclature and
defect specifications of the six tested PC beams are listed in Table 1. The chemical solution NH4SCN
used in beams T3a and T5a was obtained by diluting 200 g of NH4SCN in 800 ml of distilled water and
was aimed to generate hydrogen embrittlement of the prestressing steel as per ISO 15630 provisions.
The families of fungal strains used in the T6 beams are three ubiquitous fungi (Aspergillus flavus,
Penicillum commune and Fusarium solani) and an acidotolerant black yeast (Acidomyces acidophilum)
used as corrosion promoter due to their action of grease oxidant [9].
Table 1 Beam nomenclature and defect specifications.

Beam nomenclature Beam condition and defect details
T1 No defects. 100% of tendon allowable force (781 kN)
T2 No defects. 50% of tendon allowable force (390 kN)
Damaged with a void 100 mm long inside of the duct at mid-
T3a span. A chemical solution (NH4SCN) was added to induce a lo-
cal corrosion of the tendon.
Damaged with two voids, 100 mm long, inside of the duct, at
one quarter of the span and mid-span of the beam length. A
T5a
chemical solution (NH4SCN) was added to induce a local corro-
sion of the tendon.
With unbounded tendon. The duct was subsequently injected
with calcium-based grease (OVOLINE 71C) at 1/6, 1/2 and 5/6
T6a, T6b
of the beam length. The grease was inoculated with four fami-
lies of fungal strains.
ThisExperimental
and numerical investigation on PC beams with artificially corroded post-tensioned tendons
A series of sensors were deployed in the tested beams (see Fig. 2), namely: three linear variable
b
displacement transducers (LVDTs, Solartron Metrology V10005SBN3, stroke ±100mm) to measure
longitudinal strains at the mid-span section of the beam; four accelerometers (PCB Piezotronics
393B05, sensitivity 10 V/g), used to capture the evolution of the beam natural frequencies triggered by
hammer excitation at different stages of the loading process, corresponding to different damage levels;
if
several sonic sensors (eight VS30-V piezoelectric transducers for concrete, bandwidth 20-80 kHz, and
four VS150-M type working in the frequency range 100-450 kHz with resonance at 150 kHz) for acous-
tic emission investigations. Results obtained from these sensors and correlation with experimental re-
sponse will be discussed in a separate paper.
Fig. 2 Layout of sensors deployed in the tested beams.

The beams underwent classical three-point bending tests, with the load applied through a vertical
actuator (1000 kN load capacity) and transferred to the specimen through a rigid steel plate (Fig. 1 and
Fig. 2). The force-deflection curves were recorded for each test and reported in Fig. 3. All the beams
with defects (T3a, T5a, T6a, T6b) exhibited a lower load-bearing capacity than the undamaged beam
(T1). For two beams (T3a and T5a) the maximum force (59.2 kN and 62.6 kN, respectively) decreased
to less than half the bearing capacity of the undamaged beam (132.1 kN). Sectional analysis principles
revealed that the load capacity of these two corroded beams is consistent with that of a simple reinforced
concrete beam without any prestressing force, as if the additional carrying capacity ensured by the
damaged prestressing tendons was totally absent. This extreme interpretation was confirmed by the
observation of the tendons extracted from the two mentioned beams, which were completely corroded
and exhibited some broken wires as shown in Fig. 3. Furthermore, the comparison between results of
beams T1 and T2 (the latter with half of the prestressing force) can be representative of a mistake
occurring during the prestressing process. It is observed that the load capacity of T2 beam is reduced
of around 20% compared to that of beam T1. It is also worth noting that the two beams (T1 and T2),
without any artificial defect on the prestressing tendons, exhibit a similar initial stiffness and response
behavior until cracking (load level around 70 kN), as expected.
14 th
if b
Fig. 3 Force-displacement curves of the six tested PC beams.
3 Stress-strain relationships of extracted corroded tendons

After the tests, the ducts were opened, and some specimens of corroded tendons were extracted for
tensile testing. The tensile tests were performed as per UNI EN ISO 15630-3/2004 provisions in order
to determine the 0.1% proof-stress 𝑓𝑝(0.1) and the 1% stress 𝑓𝑝(1) , which are representative of the yield
strength of prestressing steel, and the ultimate tensile strength 𝑓𝑝𝑡 of prestressing steel. Relevant results
are illustrated in Fig. 4.
Fig. 4 Corroded prestressing tendons extracted from the PC beams after collapse and related ten-
sile strength properties identified from direct tensile testing.

ThisExperimental
It is evidently noted that the introduction of corrosive substances has caused a decrease of the tensile
mechanical properties of the tendons, in terms of both yielding stress and ultimate strength, but to dif-
b
ferent extents depending on the location of extraction (identified by a symbol “𝑥” followed by a number
from 1 to 6, passing from one beam support to the other) and the type of characteristic defect introduced
in the specimen, cf. again Table 1. Some of the tested tendons experienced the rupture of wires during
tensile loading, and the test was suddenly interrupted. For these cases, in most cases coinciding with
if
tendons having apparent corrosion spots identifiable from a preliminary visual inspection (e.g., 𝑇3𝑎,𝑥6 ;
𝑇5𝑎,𝑥6 ), only ultimate strength was measured and reported in Fig. 4. Based on the results obtained, an
average reduction of the yielding stress of around 5-7% was measured; on the other hand, the reduction
of the ultimate strength for tendons exhibiting a premature rupture of some wires was sensibly higher
(up to -45%). It is also worth noting that such cases with drastic drop of the tensile strength are associ-
ated with the two beams T3a and T5a that exhibited the lowest load-bearing capacity, among the arti-
ficially corroded specimens. This confirms that the adopted chemical solution (NH4SCN) was able to
generate a severe state of corrosion on the prestressing steel. Microscopic investigation on the corro-
sion-induced degradation of the extracted tendons and the corrosion morphology will be discussed in a
future work.
4 Numerical nonlinear finite element modelling

Two of the beams (T1 and T2) were modelled through the finite element (FE) code ATENA [8] to
test, in a preliminary stage, the capability to simulate the experimental behavior of the uncorroded
specimens. The numerical model is based on a fracture-plastic approach for concrete, combining tensile
fracture behavior and compressive plastic behavior. In particular, a smeared crack approach based on
Rankine criterion is adopted for describing the tensile response of concrete, whereas concrete crushing
is modelled via a 3D Menétrey-Willam failure surface with hardening plasticity. The concrete material
parameters are automatically generated by the software through the empirical relationships proposed
by the Model Code 2010, assuming mean cubic strength 𝑅𝑐𝑚 = 69.7 MPa.
Steel plates (linear elastic material “CC3DElastIsotropic”) are introduced in the model to distribute
the loads transferred by the actuators as in the experimental campaign, as well as to model the pair of
beam supports. Master-slave constraints are adopted at each beam-plate interface. With regard to rein-
forcement bars and post-tensioned tendons, discrete truss elements are adopted with a bilinear elastic-
plastic material “CCReinforcement” whose parameters are consistent with experimental findings.
The prestressing force is implemented through boundary conditions in the form of “initial strain for
reinforcement line”. The applied initial strain incorporates stress losses and is consistent with an actual
stress (including prestressing losses) equal to 1162 MPa, calculated according to EC2 provisions [10].
More specifically, assuming an elastic modulus 195 GPa for prestressing steel, the initial strain is equal
to 5.959‰. After a preliminary sensitivity study, the beam was discretized through 5040 3D hexahedral
solid elements (126 and 8 along the longitudinal and transversal direction, and 5 along the height of the
beam), see Fig. 5. Truss elements are automatically discretized to comply with the discretization
adopted for concrete elements, and perfect bond is assumed between reinforcement and concrete. A
nonlinear solver (PARDISO) with arc-length method is adopted to solve the governing set of nonlinear
equations.
Fig. 5 Finite element model of the tested beams: render view (top); wireframe view (bottom).
14th
In Fig. 6 the force-displacement curves of the two tested beams obtained from the FE model are
compared with the related experimental outcomes. A very good agreement in terms of both initial stiff-
b
ness and ultimate load capacity is observed. The FE model predicts a maximum load for T1 beam equal
to 127.5 kN (versus 132.0 kN experimental) and for T2 beams equal to 108.0 kN (versus 107.3 kN),
thus revealing the capability to simulate the drop of the load-bearing capacity with the variation of the
prestressing force in accordance with experimental findings.
if
Fig. 6 Comparison between experimental and numerical force-displacement curves of beam T1
(left) and T2 (right).
Finally, a comparison is made with regard to the evolution of the crack pattern of the beam T1, as
illustrated in Fig. 7. The crack widths increase up to widths of the order of 1 mm at the incipient collapse
load of 127 kN. As expected, the damaging mechanisms are mostly concentrated around the beam mid-
span at 25 kN, with a series of sub-vertical cracks that originate at the beam soffit. With further load
increases (75-100 kN) the cracked zones broaden (from the mid-span to the surrounding zones) and
propagate progressively towards to the top part of the specimen. Close to the peak load (127 kN) some
additional horizontal cracks develop just below the loading plate, in the crushed concrete portion of the
beam. This crack pattern identified from the numerical simulation is quite in line with the experimental
findings as indicated by the comparison with some representative photographs reported in Fig. 7.
Fig. 7 Numerical versus experimental crack pattern at failure for beam T1.
ThisExperimental
Although the numerical results are very consistent with the experimental ones, the inherent uncer-
tainties in numerical modelling might be included in a refinement of the present work through available
b
literature formulations, see e.g., the recent papers by Castaldo et al. [11] and Gino et al. [12]. Moreover,
the present work has presented the numerical simulation for just two beams, the obtained results are
quite promising, and the FE model can certainly be extended to include also the remaining corroded
specimens of this testing campaign by properly incorporating the material degradation phenomena in
if
the form of reduced tensile mechanical properties of the tendons obtained from experiments. Indeed,
this goal represents the object of a current research and future results will be presented in forthcoming
publications.
5 Conclusions
This contribution has presented an experimental-numerical work focused on PC beams with artifi-
cially corroded post-tensioned tendons. Experimental tests on PC beams with some corrosive sub-
stances introduced in the post-tensioned tendons have revealed a reduction of the load capacity of more
than 50% compared to the uncorroded (reference beam). After the tests, some specimens of corroded
tendons have been extracted for tensile testing: it has been found that the ultimate strength of corroded
tendons decreased up to 45% compared to the uncorroded specimen, depending on the type of corrosive
substance and the location of the tested tendon with respect to the beam longitudinal profile. Prelimi-
nary numerical investigation has been carried out to simulate the experimental findings. A nonlinear
FE model has been set up in ATENA software, by exploiting a 3D fracture-plastic concrete model based
on the Menétrey-Willam failure surface and the crack band model of softening in tension. Using the
material parameters detected from the experimental campaign without any particular calibration proce-
dure, a very good predictive capability of the uncorroded beams has been obtained in terms of load
capacity and crack pattern description. Further studies will apply the model to the prediction of the
corroded beams by incorporating the deteriorated tensile mechanical properties of corroded tendons
within the proposed approach and will extend the analysis to other levels of corrosion of the beams
within a wider parametric study. Moreover, further microscopic investigation on the corrosion-induced
degradation of the extracted tendons and corrosion morphology will be discussed in a future work.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to acknowledge the technical support of Dr. Natale Maugeri and Dr. Paolo Longo
during the execution of the testing campaign.
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b
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870.

Applicability of the fib Model Code 2010 for predicting
b
strength and shrinkage behaviour of alkali-activated
slag concrete
if
Richard Caron, Ravi Patel and Frank Dehn
Institute of Concrete Structures and Building Materials,
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT),
Gotthard-Franz-Str. 3, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
Abstract
For structural applications of alkali-activated slag concrete, it is important to understand the time de-
velopment of mechanical properties and early age volume stability due to basic shrinkage and drying
shrinkage. This contribution focuses on two mixes with the same slag as precursor but two different
alkali solutions. The compressive strength and Young’s modulus are evaluated at several ages. The
strength development is comparable to cement-based concretes and can be predicted with the fib Model
Code 2010. Shrinkage tests were made on cylinders for at least three months in sealed and unsealed
conditions. The results show that the fib Model Code 2010 can be extended for such concretes. An
extension is proposed with four coefficients, which are calibrated from the obtained shrinkage results.
1 Introduction
Slag is a by-product of the steel industry that has been used for decades to generate concrete. Mixed
with an alkali solution it can harden and provide concrete with comparable mechanical properties and
durability as cement-based concretes. In this case, the concrete is referred to as Alkali-Activated Slag
(AAS) concrete. Using sodium silicate solution as activator allows the obtention of concretes with rel-
atively high flexural and compressive strengths [1]. However, it has been reported in a few available
studies in the literature that the corresponding concretes have often a much higher shrinkage than clas-
sical cement-based concretes [2]. As a result, existing engineering models are not directly applicable to
AAS concrete and further extensions are needed.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Materials
Two concrete mixes were studied and produced using the same slag provided by Ecocem (Netherlands).
The oxide composition of the slag was determined by energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (XRF) with
a M4 Tornado spectrometer (Bruker GmbH Karlsruhe, Germany). The four main oxides are
CaO (38.8 % mass), SiO2 (36.3 % mass), Al2O3 (12.8 % mass) and MgO (8.0 % mass). The two stud-
ied alkali solutions have the following parameters: the water slag ratio (w/s) is equal to 0.45, the alka-
linity coefficient (n) is equal to 5.0 g Na2O / 100 g slag, and the silicate ratio (MS) is equal to either 0.5
for the mix lS or 2.2 for the mix hS. The alkali solutions were prepared by mixing a sodium hydroxide
solution NaOH, which had a solid content equal to 50 % in mass, with a commercial waterglass solu-
tion, made of 64.0 % (mass) water, 27.8 % (mass) SiO2 and 8.2 % (mass) Na2O and tap water to adapt
w/s. The volumetric content of the paste was chosen such as the slag content in the concrete was
450 kg/m3. The aggregate to slag content a/s was 3.5 kg/kg and the distribution of aggregates was such
as sand represented 40 % of the volume of aggregates, middle-size gravels (2-8 mm) 30 %, and big-
size gravels (8-16 mm) also 30 %. The complete mix designs are given in Table 1.
14 th
Table 1 Studied AAS mix designs.
b
Parameter Mix lS Mix hS
w/s [kg/kg] 0.45 0.45
n [Na2O g/100 g slag] 5.0 5.0
if
MS [SiO2/Na2O mol/mol] 0.5 2.2
Precursor content [kg/m3 concrete] 450 450
a/s [kg/kg] 3.5 3.5
Sand [Vol-%] 40 40
Small Agg. [Vol-%] 30 30
Big Agg. [Vol-%] 30 30
2.2 Methods
Cylinders of diameter 100 mm and height 285 mm were cast for the determination of Young’s modulus
and compressive strength. These properties were determined after 2, 7, 14, 28 and 56 days and six
samples were tested per test day, following the standard DIN EN 12390-13 (Method B) [3]. The shrink-
age was determined using the same sample geometry following the standard DIN EN 12390-16 [4]. It
was measured in both sealed and unsealed conditions. In sealed conditions, the corresponding measured
strain is referred to as basic shrinkage εcbs. In unsealed conditions, the corresponding measured strain
is referred to as total shrinkage εcs. The drying shrinkage εcds is defined as the difference between the
total shrinkage and the basic shrinkage after the exposure to drying: εcds = εcs - εcbs. The ambient tem-
perature was T = 20 °C and the studied relative humidity in unsealed conditions was RH = 65 %. For
each mix, three ages of exposure to drying were studied, namely 1, 7 and 28 days. The complete exper-
imental program with the nomenclature of the specimens is provided in Table 2.
Table 2 Shrinkage experimental program

Name Mix Exposure age to drying [d]
lS-BS -
lS-DS-1T Mix lS 1
lS-DS-7T 7
lS-DS-28T 28
hS-BS -
hS-DS-1T Mix hS 1
hS-DS-7T 7
hS-DS-28T 28
3 Modeling of strength development and shrinkage of concrete with the fib Model
Code 2010
3.1 Strength development of concrete

In the fib MC 2010 [5], the development of both Young’s modulus and compressive strength is modeled
using the following function:
28 0.5
𝛽𝑐𝑐 (𝑡) = exp (𝑠 ∙ (1 − ) ) (1)
𝑡
s is a coefficient that characterizes the strength class of the binder. Three classes are defined that account
for the rapidity of the strength development, as can be seen in Table 3.
concrete
Table 3 Characteristic coefficient s for different types of cement.
b
fcm [MPa] Strength class of cement s
32.5 N 0.38
≤ 60 32.5 R, 42.5 N 0.25
if
42.5 R, 52.5 N, 52.5 R 0.20
> 60 all classes 0.20
From this equation, the values of the compressive strength fcm(t) and Young’s modulus Eci(t) with time
are given by:
𝑓𝑐𝑚 (𝑡) = 𝛽𝑐𝑐 (𝑡) 𝑓𝑐𝑚 (𝑡 = 28 𝑑)
{ (2)
𝐸𝑐𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝛽𝑐𝑐 (𝑡)0.5 𝐸𝑐𝑖 (𝑡 = 28 𝑑)
3.2 Basic shrinkage and drying shrinkage of concrete following the fib MC 2010
In the fib MC 2010, the shrinkage εcs of concrete in function of time t is divided into two parts: the basic
shrinkage εcbs, which is measured in sealed conditions, and the drying shrinkage εcds, which is the addi-
tional strain when the concrete is exposed to drying:
𝜀𝑐𝑠 (𝑡, 𝑡𝑠 ) = 𝜀𝑐𝑏𝑠 (𝑡) + 𝜀𝑐𝑑𝑠 (𝑡𝑠 ) (3)
where ts is the time to exposure to drying.
The basic shrinkage is modeled as the following product:
𝜀𝑐𝑏𝑠 (𝑡) = 𝜀𝑐𝑏𝑠0 (𝑓𝑐𝑚 ) ∙ 𝛽𝑏𝑠 (𝑡) (4)
with:
0.1 ∙ 𝑓𝑐𝑚 2.5
𝜀 (𝑓 ) = −𝛼𝑏𝑠 ( ) ∙ 10−6
{ 𝑐𝑏𝑠0 𝑐𝑚 6 + 0.1 ∙ 𝑓𝑐𝑚 (5)
𝛽𝑏𝑠 (𝑡) = 1 − exp(−0.2 ∙ √𝑡)
The drying shrinkage is modeled by:

𝜀𝑐𝑑𝑠 (𝑡) = 𝜀𝑐𝑑𝑠0 (𝑓𝑐𝑚 ) ∙ 𝛽𝑅𝐻 (𝑅𝐻) ∙ 𝛽𝑑𝑠 (𝑡) (6)
with:
𝜀𝑐𝑑𝑠0 (𝑓𝑐𝑚 ) [(220 + 110 ∙ 𝛼𝑑𝑠1 ) ∙ exp (−𝛼𝑑𝑠2 ∙ 𝑓𝑐𝑚 )] ∙ 10−6
=
𝑡 − 𝑡𝑠 0.5
𝛽𝑑𝑠 (𝑡 − 𝑡𝑠 ) = ( 2
)
0.035 ∙ ℎ + (𝑡 − 𝑡𝑠 )
(7)
𝑅𝐻 3
−1.55 ∙ [1 − ( ) ] for 40 ≤ 𝑅𝐻 ≤ 99 % ∙ 𝛽𝑠1
𝛽𝑅𝐻 (𝑅𝐻) = { 100
{ 0.25 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝐻 ≥ 99 % ∙ 𝛽𝑠1
35 0.1
and 𝛽𝑠1 = ( ) ≤ 1.0
𝑓𝑐𝑚
The three coefficients αbs, αds1 and αds2 depend on the strength class of the binder and are given in
Table 4.
Table 4 Characteristic coefficients αbs, αds1 and αds2 for different types of cement.
Strength class of cement αbs αds1 αds2
32.5 N 800 3 0.013
32.5 R, 42.5 N 700 4 0.012
42.5 R, 52.5 N, 52.5 R 600 6 0.012

14 th
3.3 Extension of the fib MC 2010 for basic and drying shrinkage of AAS concrete
b
The fib MC 2010 was developed for cement-based concrete. However, a much higher shrinkage for
AAS concrete has been reported in comparison to cement-based systems [2]. Thus, adapting coeffi-
cients must be introduced to extend the validity of the model to AAS. Following the approach from
Tosic et al. for recycled concrete [6], the model can be extended with the following equations:
𝜀𝑐𝑠 (𝑡, 𝑡𝑠 ) = 𝜉𝑐𝑏𝑠,1 ∙ 𝜀𝑐𝑠𝑏 (𝑡, 𝜉𝑐𝑏𝑠,2 ) + 𝜉𝑐𝑑𝑠,1 ∙ 𝜀𝑐𝑠𝑑 (𝑡, 𝑡𝑠 , 𝜉𝑐𝑑𝑠,2 )
if
𝛽𝑏𝑠 (𝑡) = 1 − exp (−0.2 ∙ 𝜉𝑐𝑏𝑠,2 √𝑡)
0.5 (8)
𝑡 − 𝑡𝑠
𝛽𝑑𝑠 (𝑡) = ( )
{ 0.035 ∙ 𝜉𝑐𝑑𝑠,2 ∙ ℎ2 + (𝑡 − 𝑡𝑠 )
An equivalent strength class of the slag is determined with the coefficient s of Eq. (1) and is then
used to quantify the coefficients αbs, αds1 and αds2 from Eqs. (5) and (7). The four coefficients ξcbs,1,
ξcbs,2, ξcds,1 and ξcds,2 were calibrated by the least-squares method using the experimental results reported
in this study with the following objective function:
2
𝐹𝑜𝑏𝑗 (𝜉1 , 𝜉2 ) = √∑ (𝐹𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑙 (𝑡𝑖 , 𝜉1 , 𝜉2 ) − 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑝 (𝑡𝑖 )) (9)
𝑖
where ξ1 and ξ2 are the parameters to optimize, ti is the time of the experimental measure, Fexp(ti) is
the measure at ti and Fmodel is the model function. The tolerance in the relative error of the sum of
squares was 1.49012 e-8.
4 Strength and shrinkage results of AAS concrete

In this section, the strength results are first presented in terms of Young’s modulus and compressive
strength. They allow the determination of an equivalent strength class for both studied mixes. Then, the
shrinkage results are given, as well as calibrated coefficients of the extended model from Eq. (8).
4.1 Strength results

The strength evolution of both mix lS and mix hS is given in Figure 1. The mix lS has a characteristic
compressive strength of fcm,lS = 56 MPa after 28 days, while the one from the mix hS is equal to
fcm,hS = 76 MPa. Thus, both mixes show good compressive strength and can be considered for structural
applications. The results of the strength evolution are comparable to that of cement-based concretes:
the optimization on the coefficient s from Eq. (1) indicates that the binders of both mixes can be mod-
eled with an equivalent strength class of 42.5 R, 52.5 N, 52.5 R or superior.
Fig. 1 Time development of (a) the compressive strength fcm and (b) Young’s modulus Eci of both
mix lS and mix hS.
4.2 Basic and drying shrinkage results

The results of the basic shrinkage for both mix lS and mix hS on the concrete level are given in Figure 2.
In comparison to cement-based concrete, the shrinkage is much higher for both mixes. It can also be

concrete
seen that increasing MS increases the shrinkage of AAS concrete. It is in accordance with results re-
ported in the literature on the mortar level [7]. It can also be seen that the shrinkage rate seems to be
b
stabilized after 84 days.
if
Fig. 2 Basic shrinkage εcbs results for both mix lS and mix hS (points) with results from the opti-
mized calibration (plain lines). The shrinkage is counted positively on the graph.
The results of the drying shrinkage for the same mixes and different exposure ages to drying are
plotted in Figure 3. In comparison to the fib MC 2010, the drying age has a more predominant impact
on the drying shrinkage. Indeed, equivalent concretes with compressive strengths similar to fcm,lS or
fcm,hS and exposure to drying at the age equal to 1, 7 or 28 days lead to a drying shrinkage between
248 µm/m and 346 µm/m after 84 days according to the fib MC 2010. This drying shrinkage contributes
to around 70 % of the final shrinkage. However, when the mix lS or the mix hS are exposed after 1 day,
the corresponding drying shrinkage after 84 days is equal to 410 µm/m and 1321 µm/m, respectively.
Moreover, for an exposure age equal to 7 or 28 days, both mixes exhibit drying shrinkage lower than
175 µm/m. In practice, it is thus recommended to cover the specimens during the first days of the reac-
tion to avoid any moisture loss. An explanation for that could be that the activation of slag with wa-
terglass needs more time at early age in comparison to the hydration of cement. Calorimetry results for
both mixes on the paste scale indicate indeed that the second exothermic peaks of the activation are not
finished after one day [8]. Thus, the material would be much more sensitive to drying with higher free
water after one day of reaction.
Fig. 3 Drying shrinkage εcds results for both mix lS and mix hS (points) with results from the
optimized calibration (plain lines) and the original fib MC 2010 models (dashed lines). The
shrinkage is counted positively on the graph.
14 th
It can be also seen that the drying shrinkage is very fast and stabilizes after a few days only. This
concurs well with results from Ma et al. [9]. It can be explained by the faster drop in relative humidity
b
for AAS systems as shown e.g. by Li et al. [10], who obtained a relative humidity equal to 75 % after
7 days. In comparison, the relative humidity of cement systems was measured as higher than 90 % after
one year by Lura et al. [11]. This means that the internal drying of AAS systems is much higher than
for cement systems. Therefore, the gradient between the material and its surrounding environment is
if
much lower and this would induce a lower drying shrinkage for specimens exposed after seven days or
more.
4.3 Calibration of the extended shrinkage model for AAS concrete

From the results of the previous part, the four coefficients ξcbs,1, ξcbs,2, ξcds,1 and ξcds,2 can be calibrated
for both mix lS and mix hS. The results are given in Table 5 and the corresponding calibrated results
from the model are plotted against the experimental results in Figure 1 for basic shrinkage and Figure 2
for drying shrinkage. Note that if ξcbs1 > 1, the final basic shrinkage is higher than the one predicted by
the fib MC 2010. If ξcds1 > 1, the final drying shrinkage is higher than the one predicted by the fib MC
2010. If ξcbs2 > 1, the basic shrinkage is faster than the one predicted by the fib MC 2010. If ξcbs2 < 1,
the drying shrinkage is faster than the one predicted by the fib MC 2010.
Table 5 Calibrated parameters ξcbs,1, ξcbs,2, ξcds,1 and ξcds,2 from the experimental results
Sample ξcbs,1 ξcbs,2
lS-BS 9.90 0.80
hS-BS 13.0 1.51
Sample ξcds,1 ξcds,2
lS-DS-1T 0.85 0.04
lS-DS-7T 0.36 2.6
lS-DS-28T 0.08 0.17

hS-DS-1T 3.5 0.002
hS-DS-7T 0.44 0.003
hS-DS-28T 0.16 0.32
From the obtained results of the calibration, the following calibration for the basic shrinkage is pro-
posed:
𝜉𝑐𝑏𝑠,1 (𝑀𝑆 ) = 1.83 ∙ 𝑀𝑆 + 8.98
{ (10)
𝜉𝑐𝑏𝑠,2 (𝑀𝑆 ) = 0.41 ∙ 𝑀𝑆 + 0.59
For the drying shrinkage of AAS, the chosen calibration accounts for the importance of the exposure to
drying for the final drying shrinkage. It is a piecewise continuous function taking into account the fact
that the material is very sensitive to drying at early age. Also, given the different ranges obtained for
the coefficient ξcds,2, a unique coefficient equal to 0.25, being the average of the calibration of both
mixes for the exposure age of 28 days, is chosen:
𝑡𝑠 2.5
𝜉𝑐𝑑𝑠,1 (𝑀𝑆 , 1 ≤ 𝑡𝑠 ≤ 7) = 7.9 ∙ exp (− ( ) ) + 0.40
1.6
𝜉𝑐𝑑𝑠,1 (𝑀𝑠, 𝑡𝑠 > 7) = −1.3 ∙ 10−2 ∙ 𝑡𝑠 + 0.49 (11)
{ 𝜉𝑐𝑑𝑠,2 = 0.25
5 Conclusion
The basic shrinkage of alkali-activated slag (AAS) concrete is around 10 times higher than the one of
cement-based concrete and it increases with increasing MS. The volumetric stability of AAS concrete
is very sensitive to water loss at early age. It presents a much higher drying shrinkage for an exposure

concrete
age of one day than that predicted by the fib MC 2010. However, the strength results indicate that AAS
concrete can be used for structural applications provided that at very early age, the exposure to drying
b
is avoided by proper sealing of the surfaces to reduce the drying shrinkage. It is also demonstrated that
the fib MC 2010 can be successfully extended for the modeling of shrinkage of AAS concrete. In the
future, this modeling should be completed with more experiments made on concretes with varying mix
designs, alkali solutions and slag compositions.
if
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program
under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No 813596.
References
[1] Fernández-Jiménez, Ana; Puertas, Francisca. 2003. "Structure of Calcium Silicate Hydrates
Formed in Alkaline-Activated Slag: Influence of the Type of Alkaline Activator". J. Am. Ceram.
Soc. 86:1389–1394.
[2] Collins, Frak; Sanjayan, J. G. 2000. "Effect of pore size distribution on drying shrinkage of
alkali-activated slag concrete". Cement and Concrete Research. 30:1401–1406.
[3] DIN EN 12390-13. 2019. "Prüfung von Festbeton – Teil 13: Bestimmung des Elastizitätsmo-
duls unter Druckbelastung(Sekantenmodul); Deutsche und Englische Fassung prEN 12390-
13:2019". Beuth Verlag.
[4] DIN EN 12390-16. 2019. "Prüfung von Festbeton - Teil 16: Bestimmung des Schwindens von
Beton; Deutsche Fassung EN 12390-16:2019". Beuth Verlag.
[5] FIB. 2013. "fib Model Code for Concrete Structures 2010". International Federation for Struc-
tural Concrete (fib), Lausanne.
[6] Tošić, Nikola; La Fuente, Albert de; Marinković, Snežana. 2018. "Shrinkage of recycled ag-
gregate concrete: experimental database and application of fib Model Code 2010". Materials
and Structures. 51:125.
[7] Ballekere Kumarappa, Darshan; Peethamparan, Sulapha; Ngami, Margueritte. 2018. "Autoge-
nous shrinkage of alkali activated slag mortars: Basic mechanisms and mitigation methods".
Cement and Concrete Research. 109:1–9.

[8] Caron, Richard; Patel, Ravi A.; Dehn, Frank. 2022. "Activation kinetic model and mechanisms
for alkali-activated slag cements". Construction and Building Materials. 323:126577.
[9] Ma, Jianxin; Dehn, Frank. 2017. "Shrinkage and creep behavior of an alkali-activated slag con-
crete". Structural Concrete. 18:801–810.
[10] Li, Zhenming; Lu, Tianshi; Liang, Xuhui; Dong, Hua; Ye, Guang. 2020. "Mechanisms of au-
togenous shrinkage of alkali-activated slag and fly ash pastes". Cement and Concrete Research.
135:106107.
[11] Lura, Pietro; Jensen, Ole Mejlheede; van Breugel, Klaas. 2003. "Autogenous shrinkage in high-
performance cement paste: An evaluation of basic mechanisms". Cement and Concrete Rese-
arch. 33:223–232.

if b
Mechanical properties and stress-strain response of
b
rubberised one-part alkali-activated concrete
Mohamed Elzeadani, Dan Bompa and Ahmed Elghazouli
if
Imperial College London,
Imperial College Rd, London SW7 2BU, United Kingdom
Abstract
This study investigates the effect of crumb rubber replacement of natural aggregates on the mechanical
properties and stress-strain response, both monotonic and cyclic, of rubberised one-part alkali-activated
concrete. The aluminosilicate precursors used are blast furnace slag (80%) and fly ash (20%), and the
solid activator employed is sodium metasilicate anhydrous. Crumb rubber particles are used to replace
both the fine and coarse natural aggregates by up to 60 vol.%, and the effect of such replacement on
the compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, and flexural strength, is investigated. The monotonic
and cyclic stress-strain responses of the rubberised specimens are also investigated. The results show a
deterioration in mechanical properties as a function of rubber replacement of natural mineral aggre-
gates. The elastic modulus and axial crushing strain also reduce with higher crumb rubber addition,
while the descending stress-strain response shows higher softening with greater rubber replacement of
natural aggregates. The normalized crushing energy and ductility of the rubberised mixes are observed
to increase with higher crumb rubber replacement. The cyclic stress-strain response of the rubberised
specimens falls within the monotonic stress-strain curves. The unloading modulus reduces with higher
axial strain, whereas the plastic strain increases with higher axial strain indicating compressive damage
accumulation with the increase in loading/unloading cycles.
1 Introduction
Recent developments in sustainable concrete materials have led to the introduction of rubberised con-
crete (RuC) and alkali-activated concrete (AAC). RuC is formed by replacing a proportion of the natural
mineral aggregates with crumb rubber (CR) particles [1,2]. This helps reduce the demand for natural
aggregates and provides a recycling path for end-of-life tyres. AAC, meanwhile, avoids the use of or-
dinary Portland cement (OPC) as a binder, and instead uses industrial waste material with favourable
cementitious properties [3]. Among the most used binders in AAC are fly ash (FA) and ground granu-
lated blast furnace slag (GGBS). FA is a by-product of burning coal in thermal power plants while
GGBS is a by-product of iron production in blast furnaces [4]. Due to their lower reactivity in alkali-
neutral environments (pH of around 7), these binders – known as aluminosilicate precursors – typically
need to be activated in highly alkaline environments to ensure the formation of strength giving binding
gels. For that reason, aggressive alkaline solutions such as sodium hydroxides and sodium silicates are
commonly used in AAC to activate the aluminosilicate precursors [5].
Due to the caustic nature of such alkaline solutions, practical developments in AAC have led to the
introduction of one-part alkali-activated materials where the alkaline activator is added in a solid form
and mixed directly with the precursor and aggregates as a first step, and then water is added to initiate
the reaction [6]. While the incorporation of crumb rubber particles as a replacement for natural mineral
aggregates in conventional AAC (i.e., with alkaline solutions) has been previously explored [7], less
attention has been given to the production of rubberised one-part AAC (one-part RuAAC). Moreover,
there is a lack of studies on the stress-strain properties of rubberised AAC (RuAAC). This study, there-
fore, investigates the mechanical properties and monotonic and cyclic compressive stress-strain re-
sponse of one-part RuAAC. Experimental tests on concrete cubes, cylinders and prisms are performed
to obtain the 28-day compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, flexural strength, and full stress-
strain response. From the experimental findings, analytical expressions to predict the mechanical be-
haviour and constitutive stress-strain properties of one-part RuAAC are presented.
14 th
b
The experimental programme was divided into two parts to investigate: i) the mechanical properties of
one-part RuAAC, and ii) the cyclic stress-strain response of one-part RuAAC. The mixes used for each
part are referred to as Group 1 and Group 2, respectively, and a description of the materials, mix designs,
mixing method and loading arrangements is given below.
if
2.1 Materials
The aluminosilicate precursors used in this study were GGBS and low-calcium FA. The GGBS had a
specific gravity (SG) of 2.95 and a median particle size, d50, of 16 μm. The FA used had SG = 2.33 and
d50 = 22.6 μm. Using X-ray fluorescence test, the GGBS had SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3 and CaO contents of
33.4%, 12.6%, 0.7%, and 39.9% by mass fraction, respectively. The FA had SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3 and
CaO contents of 50.6%, 23.9%, 11.1%, and 4.5%, respectively. The loss on ignition of GGBS and FA
was 2.1% and 1.6%, respectively. The solid activator used was anhydrous sodium metasilicate
(Na2SiO3-anhydrous), with a modulus of silicate (SiO2/Na2O) of 0.92. To improve the rheology of the
mix and retard the setting, sodium tetraborate decahydrate-borax (Na2B4O7.10H2O) – referred to here-
after as borax – with a mesh size of 2.36 mm was used. Natural river sand (< 5 mm) and crushed gravel
(5-10 mm) were used as fine and coarse natural aggregates, respectively. The river sand had SG = 2.67
and water absorption of 1.34%, while the crushed gravel had SG = 2.69 and water absorption of 3.0%.
CR particles with six different sizes and SG = 0.97 were used to replace the natural aggregates. The CR
sizes used were 0-0.5 mm, 0.5-0.8 mm, 1-1.25 mm, 2-4 mm, 4-10 mm and 10-20 mm, with each size
making up 5%, 5% 15%, 20%, 10% and 45% of the total CR replacement, respectively, to ensure opti-
mum compatibility and minimal strength loss. Images of the raw materials used are given in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 Raw materials (FA – fly ash, GGBS – Ground granulated blast furnace slag, FNA – fine
natural aggregates, CNA – coarse natural aggregates, CR – crumb rubber)
2.2 Mix details and specimen preparation

Five different mixes in Group 1 were used to investigate the quasi-static mechanical properties of one-
part RuAAC. These mixes were named R00, R15, R30, R45 and R60, representing volumetric CR
replacement ratios of total natural aggregates, ρvr, of 0, 0.15, 0.3, 0.45 and 0.6, respectively, and their
details are given in Table 1. To investigate the cyclic stress-strain properties, three mixes in Group 2
were considered and these include R00, R30 and R60. The mix designs were the result of an optimisa-
tion procedure and include 480 kg/m3 of GGBS and 120 kg/m3 of FA. The Na2SiO3-anhydrous dosage
was kept at 12% of the total precursor content (FA + GGBS), while the borax dosage was maintained
at 5% of the total precursor content. The water content used was 0.3 of the precursor content.
Mixing was performed in a 40 L rotary mixing machine where all the dry materials were initially
mixed for 5 minutes, and then water was added slowly to the mix and mixing was continued for 5-8
minutes. Casting was carried out in two or three layers, and each layer was compacted on a vibrating
table to remove any entrapped air bubbles. Specimens were then demoulded two days after casting and
allowed to cure in ambient laboratory environments at temperatures and relative humidity in the range
of 20±5 °C and 50±20%, respectively. Standard concrete slump tests were performed on fresh concrete
prior to casting to ensure adequate consistency and all mixes showed slump values of over 150 mm.
Prior to testing, the top and bottom surface of the non-rubberised compressive cylindrical specimens
were levelled using a water grinding machine to ensure smooth contact with the loading platens. The
b
rubberised specimens were fitted with jubilee rings at both ends to prevent the initiation of failure at
the edges and the top surface was capped with high-strength mortar due to difficulty of grinding rub-
berised surfaces. The hardened density at 28 days of the mixes considered is also shown in Table 1.
The reference mix, R00, had a density of 2302 kg/m3 indicating normal weight concrete (< 2400 kg/m3).
if
As the CR replacement ratio increased, the hardened density of the mixes reduced. Mixes R45 and R60
showed densities of less than 2000 kg/m3, and hence can be classified as lightweight concrete.
Table 1 Mix design details and hardened density of one-part RuAAC

Mix FA GGBS Activa- FNA CNA CR Borax Water 28d
ID tor Density
(-) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (L) (kg/m3)
R00 120 480 72 675.0 825.0 0.0 30 180 2302
R15 120 480 72 573.8 701.3 81.4 30 180 2221
R30 120 480 72 472.5 577.5 162.8 30 180 2104
R45 120 480 72 371.3 453.8 244.2 30 180 1996
R60 120 480 72 270.0 330.0 325.6 30 180 1882
2.3 Testing arrangement

The mechanical properties were determined at 28 days. The compressive strength, fc, was determined
from both 100 × 100 × 100 mm cubes and ϕ100 × 200 mm cylinders. The concrete cubes were tested
in load-control conditions in a 3000 kN Automax machine at a rate of 0.30 MPa/s as shown in Fig. 2(a).
The concrete cylinders were tested in displacement control conditions in an Instron Satec 3500 kN
machine at a rate of 0.25 mm/min as shown in Fig. 2(b). Displacements in the pre-peak regime were
determined using three ring transducers spaced at 120° around the specimen and covering the middle
100 mm. Two other transducers were mounted directly on the loading platen of the Instron machine to
record displacements in the post-peak regime. The splitting tensile strength, fsp, under quasi-static con-
ditions was obtained from ϕ100 × 200 mm cylinders loaded in an Instron Satec 600 kN machine at a
rate of 0.1 mm/min as shown in Fig. 2(c). The flexural strength, ff, was determined from 100 × 100 ×
350 mm prisms loaded under four-point bending in an Instron 100 kN machine at a rate of 0.1 mm/min
as given in Fig. 2(d). The distance between the loading points was 100 mm while the distance between
the supports was 300 mm.
The cyclic compressive stress-strain properties were determined from ϕ100 × 200 mm cylinders
tested at 28 days at a loading rate of 0.25 mm/min. The tests were conducted in an Instron Satec 3500
kN machine shown in Fig. 2(b) following the same loading arrangement described above to get the full
stress-strain response. Specimens tested under cyclic conditions were initially preloaded to 30% of the
monotonic compressive strength to avoid any gaps during loading and unloading cycles. An incremen-
tal cyclic displacement with three loading-unloading cycles at each displacement level was applied as
shown in Fig. 3(a). Prior to crushing, an incremental displacement of 0.1 mm was used, and this in-
creased gradually after crushing. The mechanical properties and monotonic and cyclic stress-strain re-
sponse were determined from an average of three identical specimens for each mix design.
Fig. 2 Test setup: a) cube compressive strength, b) cylinder stress-strain response, c) splitting ten-
sile strength, d) flexural strength
14 th
if b
a) b)
Fig. 3 a) cyclic loading sequence, b) representation of monotonic and cyclic stress-strain response
3.1 Mechanical properties

A summary of the mechanical properties of Group 1 mixes is given in Fig. 4. The 28-day compressive
strength, fc, of the reference mix, determined from the cylindrical specimens, was 80.4 MPa. The incor-
poration of CR particles at ρvr values of 0.15, 0.30, 0.45 and 0.60 caused fc to drop to 42 MPa, 20.6
MPa, 14.7 MPa and 10.9 MPa, respectively, as shown in Fig. 4(a). The 28-day cube compressive
strength, fc,cube, of mixes R00, R15, R30, R45 and R60 was 98.3 MPa, 70.3 MPa, 45.6 MPa, 28 MPa,
and 18.3 MPa, respectively, which were consistently higher than fc values recorded from the cylindrical
specimens. The reduction in fc with higher ρvr occurs mainly due to the lower stiffness of CR particles
when compared to the surrounding concrete matrix, causing as a result stress concentrations in the
vicinity of CR particles and the subsequent formation of microcracks. This contributes to a weaker
microstructure and a lower compressive strength.
The elastic modulus, Ec, of the rubberised mixes was taken as the slope of the linear ascending
branch of the compressive stress-strain response as shown in Fig. 3(b) and the results are given in Fig.
4(b). A similar trend to the compressive strength was observed where a higher ρvr value resulted in a
greater reduction in Ec. The elastic modulus of R15, R30, R45 and R60 dropped by 36.4%, 64.3%,
72.1% and 78.8%, respectively, when compared to the reference mix R00. The crushing strain, εcr,1, of
the rubberised mixes, taken as the axial strain corresponding to fc on the stress-strain response, also
experienced a minor drop with higher ρvr as shown in Fig. 4(c). For instance, the recorded value of εcr,1
for R00, R30 and R60 was 3.16‰, 2.87‰, 2.45‰, respectively.
A degradation in the splitting tensile strength, fsp, and flexural strength, ff, with higher ρvr was also
observed as shown in Fig. 4(d) and Fig. 4(e), respectively. The splitting tensile strength fsp of R00, R30
and R60 was 4.6 MPa, 2.9 MPa and 1.6 MPa, respectively, whereas the flexural strength ff of R00, R30
and R60 was 3.5 MPa, 3.1 MPa and 1.9 MPa, respectively. The reasons behind such drop in fsp and ff
with higher ρvr are similar to those for fc. In addition, the weak interfacial transition zone between CR
particles and the alkali-activated concrete matrix due to the hydrophobic property of rubber contributes
to the observed reduction in mechanical properties.
The crushing energy, Gc, of Group 1 specimens with varying ρvr is shown in Fig. 4(f) and is calcu-
lated by measuring the area under the stress-strain response highlighted in the same figure. The crushing
energy Gc reduced with higher values of ρvr due to the measurable reduction in fc with higher ρvr. How-
ever, looking at the normalized crushing energy, Gc-nor, taken as Gc over fc for a given mix, an improve-
ment is observed with increase in ρvr as shown in Fig. 4(g). This indicates a higher crushing energy per
unit stress (Gc-nor) with higher CR replacement of natural mineral aggregates.
The ductility factor, μ, of Group 1 mixes is shown in Fig. 4(h). The ductility factor was measured
as the ratio of the axial strain corresponding to 0.85fc on the descending branch (ε85%) to the strain
corresponding to the yield stress (εy) as given by Gholampour et al. [8]. The latter is taken as the strain
on the stress-strain curve when the ascending branch deviates noticeably from the linear elastic response
as shown by the representation in Fig. 4(h). Results indicate an improvement in μ with higher ρvr. For
instance, μ increased from 1.63 for R00 to 2.53 and 2.65 for R30 and R60, respectively, corresponding
to an increase of about 55.2% and 62.6%, accordingly.

if b
Fig. 4 Effect of ρvr on mechanical properties: a) compressive strength, b) elastic modulus, c) crush-
ing strain, d) splitting tensile strength, e) flexural strength, f) crushing energy, g) normalized
crushing energy, h) ductility factor
3.2 Monotonic and cyclic stress-strain response

The monotonic stress-strain response of Group 1 specimens is shown in Fig. 5(a) where average values
are shown by black lines and the range of experimental results – from the three identical specimens –
is shown by the grey regions. An increase in ρvr caused a reduction in stiffness of the ascending branch
of the stress-strain response and a greater softening of the descending branch. The same behaviour was
noted for the monotonic stress-strain curves of Group 2 specimens shown in Fig. 5(b).
The average cyclic stress-strain curves for Group 2 specimens are shown in Fig. 5(c)-(e) alongside
their monotonic responses. Clearly, the cyclic stress-strain curves for the rubberised mixes fall within
the monotonic response, and the envelope curves of the cyclic stress-strain responses can be taken by
the monotonic curves. It is interesting to note that R00, depicted in Fig. 5(c), showed no post-peak
cyclic degradation behaviour and failed immediately after reaching fc. On the contrary, both R30 and
R60 showed reasonable post-peak cyclic degradation with high axial strain values.
Eq. (8) Eq. (9)
Eq. (8)
Eq. (9)
Eq. (7)
Eq. (7)
Fig. 5 Stress-strain response of one-part RuAAC: a) monotonic response of Group 1 specimens,

b) monotonic response of Group 2 specimens, c) monotonic and cyclic response of R00, d)
monotonic and cyclic response of R30, e) monotonic and cyclic response of R60
14 th
To characterize the cyclic response, both the unloading modulus, Eun, and plastic residual strain,
εpl, are commonly reported. Eun represents the unloading path as shown in Fig. 3(b), while εpl represents
b
the residual strains after unloading at zero or near-zero stress [9]. These parameters could give a good
indication of the accumulation of damage in the material due to cyclic loading. Fig. 6(a) gives Eun
determined from each first cyclic loop for R30 and R60 plotted against the unloading axial strain, εun,
shown in Fig. 3(b). At the same εun, R30 specimens show a higher Eun due to their higher fc and Ec when
if
compared to R60. Similarly, both mixes showed a higher rate of degradation in Eun at lower εun which
tended to level off as εun increased. The plastic strain, εpl, determined from each first cyclic loop is
shown in Fig. 6(b), and appears not to be influenced by ρvr. Expectedly, εpl increased with higher εun
indicating greater damage accumulation at higher axial strains.
Fig. 6 Characterisation of cyclic response: a) unloading modulus, b) plastic residual strain
4 Analytical expressions and constitutive model

To predict the reduction in fc with higher ρvr, the expression given by Eq. (1) can be used. fc0 in Eq. (1)
is the compressive strength of the reference mix (ρvr = 0), and the factor 𝜆 can be taken as 2.90 when
CR particles replace both fine and coarse natural aggregates as given by Bompa et al. [1]. From the
results presented in this paper, Eq. (1) gives an average test-to-predicted value of 1.07 and a coefficient
of variation (COV) of 9.80%. A comparison between the predicted values of Eq. (1) and the experi-
mental results is shown in Fig. 7(a).
𝑓𝑐 1
= → 0 ≤ 𝜌𝑣𝑟 ≤ 0.6
𝑓𝑐0 3𝜆𝜌𝑣𝑟 3⁄2 (1)
1 + 2( )
2
The elastic modulus, Ec, of one-part RuAAC can be related to fc as given by Eq. (2) and shown in
Fig. 7(b). Eq. (2) gives an average test-to-predicted value of 0.95 and a COV of 12.4%. It is worth
noting that Ec predicted using Eq. (2) is significantly lower than the expression presented by Bompa et
al. [1] for OPC-based conventional rubberised concrete and given by Eq. (3). From the findings of this
study, it is clear that one-part RuAAC has a lower stiffness when compared to conventional RuC with
the same fc.
⁄
𝑓𝑐 2 3
𝐸𝑐 = 6500 ( ) (2)
10
⁄
𝑓𝑐 2 3
𝐸𝑐 = 1200 ( ) (3)
10
The splitting strength, fsp, and flexural strength, ff, of one-part RuAAC mixes can also be correlated
to fc as given by Eq. (4) and Eq. (5), respectively. These expressions are plotted alongside the experi-
mental results in Fig. 7(c) and Fig. 7(d). Eq. (4) gives an average test-to-predicted value of 1.13 and a
COV of 13.7%, while Eq. (5) gives an average test-to-predicted value of 1.33 and a COV of 25.4%.
⁄
𝑓𝑠𝑝 = 0.29𝑓𝑐 2 3 (4)
⁄
𝑓𝑓 = 0.25𝑓𝑐 2 3 (5)
The crushing strain, εcr,1, can be determined as a function of ρvr and the crushing strain of the refer-
ence mix, εcr0,1. This is given by Eq. (6) and plotted in Fig. 7(e) which gives an average test-to-predicted
value of 0.98 and a COV of 2.8%.
𝜀𝑐𝑟,1
= (1 − 𝜌𝑣𝑟 )1⁄4 → 0 ≤ 𝜌𝑣𝑟 ≤ 0.6 (6)
𝜀𝑐𝑟0,1
b
The constitutive axial stress-strain response of one-part RuAAC can be predicted using Eqs. (7)-
(11). The expressions divide the stress-strain response into three regions: a) a perfectly linear elastic
region up to 0.3fc represented by Eq. (7); b) a softening-ascending stress-strain response accounting for
the formation of micro-cracks up to crushing and represented by Eq. (8); and c) a softening-descending
if
region capturing the post-peak behaviour often controlled by sliding and represented by Eq. (9). Gen-
erally, good agreement is observed between the predicted stress-strain curves and the experimental
results as shown in Fig. 5(a) and Fig. 5(b).
0.3 𝑓𝑐
𝜎 = 𝐸𝑐 𝜀𝑐,1 → 0 ≤ 𝜀𝑐,1 ≤ 𝜀𝑐,1,𝑒𝑙 = (7)
𝐸𝑐
2
𝜎 5 𝜀𝑐,1 − 𝜀𝑐,1,𝑒𝑙 𝜀𝑐,1 − 𝜀𝑐,1,𝑒𝑙
= ( )− ( ) + 0.3 → 𝜀𝑐,1,𝑒𝑙 ≤ 𝜀𝑐,1 ≤ 𝜀𝑐𝑟,1 (8)
𝑓𝑐 3 𝜀𝑐𝑟,1 𝜀𝑐𝑟,1
2 2
𝜎 1 𝑓𝑐 𝜀𝑐,1 − 𝜀𝑐𝑟,1, 5 𝑓𝑐 𝜀𝑐,1 − 𝜀𝑐𝑟,1, 𝑓𝑐,2
= ( − 1) ( ) − ( − 1) ( )+ → 𝜀𝑐,1 > 𝜀𝑐𝑟,1 (9)
𝑓𝑐 8 𝑔𝑐,2 𝜀𝑐𝑟,1 8 𝑔𝑐,2 𝜀𝑐𝑟,1 𝑓𝑐
2
𝑓𝑐,2 5 𝜀𝑐𝑟,1 − 𝜀𝑐,1,𝑒𝑙 𝜀𝑐𝑟,1 − 𝜀𝑐,1,𝑒𝑙
= ( )− ( ) + 0.3 (10)
𝑓𝑐 3 𝜀𝑐𝑟,1 𝜀𝑐𝑟,1
2 ⁄3
𝑔𝑐,2 = [(1 + 𝜌𝑣𝑟 )𝑓𝑐 ] (11)
The unloading modulus, Eun, and plastic residual strain, εpl, from the cyclic stress-strain response
of one-part RuAAC mixes can be predicted with good accuracy using Eq. (12) and Eq. (14), respec-
tively. Eq. (12) is a function of ρvr, εcr,1, εun, and Ec and gives an average test-to-predicted value of 0.93
and a COV of 10.3% as shown in Fig. 7(f). The plastic strain, εpl, given by Eq. (14) is a function of εun
and εcr,1 and gives an average test-to-predicted value of 1.02 and a COV of 12.2% as shown in Fig. 7(g).
𝐸𝑢𝑛
= (1.2 × 𝐴−1.24 ) (12)
𝐸𝑐
𝜀𝑢𝑛
𝐴 = ( − 1) × (−1.5𝜌𝑣𝑟 + 2.5) + 1 (13)
𝜀𝑐𝑟,1
𝜀𝑢𝑛
𝜀𝑝𝑙 = (7 × − 2) × 10−4 (14)
𝜀𝑐𝑟,1
Fig. 7 Analytical expressions: a) compressive strength, b) elastic modulus, c) splitting tensile

strength, d) flexural strength, e) crushing strain, f) unloading modulus, g) plastic strain

14 th
5 Conclusions
b
The mechanical properties and full monotonic and cyclic stress-strain response of rubberised one-part
alkali-activated concrete (one-part RuAAC) were investigated. High volumetric rubber replacement
ratios of up to 60% by volume of total natural aggregates were considered. The mechanical properties
investigated included the compressive strength, elastic modulus, splitting tensile strength and flexural
strength. The findings illustrate a consistent degradation in the mechanical properties with an increase
if
in crumb rubber (CR) replacement of natural aggregates. This degradation is more severe at low CR
replacement values and levels off at high replacements. Moreover, a high CR replacement of natural
aggregates was shown to lead to relatively high normalized crushing energy and ductility in the rubber-
ised specimens.
The elastic modulus of one-part RuAAC specimens for a given compressive strength was signifi-
cantly lower than that for ordinary rubberised concrete materials in which Portland cement is used as a
binder. The crushing strains at maximum compressive strength were also generally higher than ordinary
rubberised concrete materials. This highlights that one-part alkali-activated concrete materials and one-
part RuAAC have lower stiffness when compared to ordinary concrete.
The cyclic stress-strain response falls within the monotonic curves and the rubberised specimens
show high post-peak cyclic degradation behaviour as opposed to the non-rubberised specimen which
failed upon reaching their compressive strength. Degradation in the cyclic response of the rubberised
specimens was quantified in terms of the unloading modulus and residual plastic strain. The unloading
modulus, representing the stiffness of the unloading path, reduced significantly at higher axial strains.
The plastic residual strain, representing damage accumulation, increased with higher axial strain but
was independent of the rubber replacement ratio.
Analytical expressions to predict the mechanical properties of one-part RuAAC were given, includ-
ing the compressive strength, elastic modulus, splitting strength, flexural strength, crushing strain, and
full axial stress-axial strain curves for different rubber replacement ratio. Analytical expressions to
characterize the cyclic response, including both the unloading modulus and plastic strain, were also
provided.
Acknowledgements
The first author is grateful for the funding provided by the President’s PhD Scholarship at Imperial
College London for his research studies. The authors also acknowledge the support of Hanson and
LKAB for providing the blast furnace slag (GGBS) used in this study. Lastly, the assistance provided
by the technical staff of the Structures Laboratory at Imperial College London, particularly that of Mr.
Bob Hewitt and Mr. Les Clark, is highly appreciated.
References
[1] Bompa, D. V., Elghazouli, A. Y., Xu, B., Stafford, P. J., Ruiz-Teran, A. M. 2017. “Experimental
assessment and constitutive modelling of rubberised concrete materials.” Constr. Build. Mater.
137: 246–260.
[2] Raffoul, S., Garcia, R., Pilakoutas, K., Guadagnini, M., Medina, N. F. 2016. “Optimisation of
rubberised concrete with high rubber content: An experimental investigation.” Constr. Build.
Mater. 124: 391–404.
[3] Provis, J. L. 2018. “Alkali-activated materials.” Cem. Concr. Res. 114: 40–48.
[4] Amran, M., Alyousef, R., Alabduljabbar, H., El-Zeadani, M. 2020. “Clean production and prop-
erties of geopolymer concrete; A review.” J. Clean. Prod. 251: 119679.
[5] Provis, J. L., Bernal, S. A. 2014. “Geopolymers and related alkali-activated materials.” Annu.
Rev. Mater. Res. 44: 299–327.
[6] Luukkonen, T., Abdollahnejad, Z., Yliniemi, J., Kinnunen, P., Illikainen, M. 2018. “One-part
alkali-activated materials: A review.” Cem. Concr. Res. 103: 21–34.
[7] Elzeadani, M., Bompa, D. V., Elghazouli, A. Y. 2021. “Preparation and properties of rubberised
geopolymer concrete: A review.” Constr. Build. Mater. 313: 125504.
[8] Gholampour, A., Fallah Pour, A., Hassanli, R., Ozbakkaloglu, T. 2019. “Behavior of Actively
Confined Rubberized Concrete under Cyclic Axial Compression.” J. Struct. Eng. 145:
04019131.
[9] Xu, B., Bompa, D. V., Elghazouli, A. Y. 2020. “Cyclic stress–strain rate-dependent response
of rubberised concrete.” Constr. Build. Mater. 254: 1–14.
A critical review on structural behavior of alkali-
b
activated concrete beams
Zhenxu Qian1, Eva O. L. Lantsoght1,2 and Mladena Luković1
if
1 Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences
Delft University of Technology
Stevinweg 1, 2628 CN Delft, The Netherlands
2 Politécnico
Universidad San Francisco de Quito
Diego de Robles y Pampite, EC 170157, Quito, Ecuador
Abstract
The increasing demand for sustainable development in engineering practice has triggered researchers
to explore solutions to reduce the CO2 footprint caused by ordinary Portland cement (OPC) production.
Alkali-activated concrete (AAC), made of by-products using alkali activation, is of great potential as a
promising alternative to conventional concrete (CC). Despite vast studies on its material properties,
there is still insufficient scientific research on the structural performance of AAC, which impedes its
widespread application. In this paper, an overview of the fundamental behavior of AAC beams under
different loading conditions is presented. The experimental investigations on mechanical performance
of AAC beams are reviewed in terms of ultimate capacity, ductility and cracking behavior. Moreover,
numerical methods to predict AAC structural response as well as the applicability of existing CC design
codes are summarized. It is concluded that AAC beams show comparable short-term behavior with CC
counterparts. Besides, the design codes for CC turn out to be applicable but conservative for most steel-
reinforced AAC beams. Though short-term flexural behavior has been widely investigated for AAC
beams, the challenge remains to clarify shear behavior and long-term behavior. Furthermore, reliable
guidelines are needed to be developed, providing recommendations for future structural design.
1 Introduction
Huge demand for ordinary Portland cement (OPC), the essential component of concrete, leads to an
annual increase in production. The manufacturing of OPC is responsible for up to 10% release of total
CO2 emissions, resulting in enormous impacts on the environment [1]. In recent decades, increasing
awareness of the importance of sustainability leads to the development of more environmentally-
friendly materials for the building industry. Among those, alkali-activated concrete (AAC), where OPC
is replaced by binder made of by-products activated by alkali, has become a promising option. It is
envisioned that this zero-cement technology can bring us a step further to the realization of sustainable
construction by value-added use of recycled industrial waste and reduction of CO2 footprint [2].
Considerable research on the material level illustrates that some of AAC mixtures have high com-
pressive strength, good chemical and high temperature resistance, as well as good adhesion properties
in general [3], contributing to increasing attention in the construction industry.
Some companies have already taken the first step to field application of AAC. In Australia, rein-
forced AAC has been applied in both precast and cast in-situ elements, including external wall panels,
floor beams, slabs and bridge decks [4], etc. However, challenges still exist for promotion of AAC
because of (among other things), the gap between the current knowledge of material properties and
structural applications. It is of vital importance to fully understand the structural response of AAC
members for the utilization of this innovative material in new structures.
The aim of this paper is to review the structural behavior of AAC beams. The experimental inves-
tigations of both monolithic and composite AAC beams are summarized. The numerical models avail-
able in the literature for performance prediction are included. It is highlighted that the similarity and
difference between AAC beams and conventional concrete (CC) counterparts are investigated and the
applicability of available design codes for steel-reinforced CC beams is further discussed. Based on the
current findings, recommendations are proposed for future investigations in this field.
14 th
2 Methodology
b
Scopus [5], a widely-accepted database, is used for searching current research output including journal
papers, conference proceedings and book chapters. The keywords are limited to (“geopolymer concrete
” or “alkali activated concrete”) and (“beam” or “girder”) and articles published before 21/03/2022 are
recorded. Only the highly-related and accessible publications, which focus on the structural behavior
of newly-built AAC beams, are chosen for critical review. Articles relevant to the experimental inves-
if
tigations of both monolithic and composite AAC beams are summarized and further analyzed in Section
3. Meanwhile, those involving modelling methods are included in Section 4. Furthermore, a small da-
taset including 38 steel-reinforced AAC beams subjected to flexure, is built for assessment of the ap-
plicability of current design codes on ultimate bending moment while for ultimate shear load of steel-
reinforced AAC beams, only 2 relevant papers are reported in Section 4.2.
3 Experimental investigation of AAC beams
3.1 Monolithic AAC beams

In this review, monolithic AAC beams are classified with those produced by AAC and reinforcement
only, including the steel or FRP-reinforced AAC beams and prestressed AAC beams. In Table 1, the
number of publications as well as relevant monolithic AAC specimens using different precursors and
under various loading conditions, are recorded. In total 78 AAC beams are cast using fly ash as the
precursor. However, due to the lack of reactivity, ambient-temperature-cured fly-ash-based AAC illus-
trated low compressive strength and thus heat curing is necessary [6]. Although fly-ash-based AAC is
promising for precast structural elements with a high-temperature curing environment, it is not suitable
for cast in-situ members. The addition of slag was beneficial to the strength development of AAC at
ambient temperature, but short setting time and poor workability impede its structural application [7].
In order to satisfy the requirement of practical construction, growing attention is paid to the beams
produced by combined systems incorporating low-calcium (e.g. fly ash) and calcium-rich (e.g. slag)
precursors, from which a balance of desired strength and workability can be obtained [8]. Regarding
different loading conditions, AAC beams subjected to flexure are most widely tested while the shear
behavior gains increasing attention. Besides, researchers started to explore the structural behavior of
AAC beams under dynamic load [9], [10], but this paper is limited to static loading conditions.
Table 1 Publication (and specimen) number considering different precursors and loading conditions
Precursor type Fly ash Slag Other Combination
Loading condition
Flexure 13 (59) 3 (14) 14 (17) 16 (58)

Shear 4 (19) 1 (21) 2 (13) 6 (49)
Torsion 0 0 0 1 (9)
Long-term effects 0 1 (2) 0 2 (5)
Dynamic 0 0 0 5 (27)
3.1.1 Flexural behavior of reinforced AAC beams
Studies on the short-term flexural behavior of reinforced AAC beams were undertaken since 2005 by
Wallah and Rangan [11]. Four-point bending tests were conducted to investigate the flexural perfor-
mance of steel-reinforced AAC beams in comparison with CC counterparts. Similar experiments with
various AAC mixtures and different types of reinforcement were carried out in the following years,
from which flexural behavior was found to be similar for reinforced AAC and CC beams in general.
Compared to CC beams, AAC beams showed generally higher ultimate capacity and similar crack
patterns [12]–[15]. However, inconsistent results of deflection at failure were found. As recorded in
[12], both reinforced fly-ash-based AAC and fly-ash/slag-based-AAC exhibited significantly larger de-
flection than CC beams. But there is no information about compressive strength of both AAC and CC
provided in this paper. In contrast, Yost et al. [16] found that reinforced fly-ash-based AAC beams
failed in a sudden and brittle mode while CC counterparts with the same strength class experienced a
gradual decrease of load before eventual concrete crushing, and thus slightly higher displacement com-
pared to AAC beams. Reasons for these observed discrepancies are still not clear.
b
Lower post-cracked stiffness was found in reinforced AAC beams cured under ambient conditions.
Tran et al. [17] pointed out that the considerable drying shrinkage of ambient-cured AAC with high
content of slag might lead to the formation of drying cracks, which further resulted in the loss of tension-
stiffening. However, the influence of severe drying shrinkage on the structural behavior of AAC ele-
if
ments needs more investigation.
In addition, the influence of different aspects on flexural behavior of AAC beams was investigated,
including the compressive strength of AAC [11], [18], types of reinforcement [13], [19], reinforcement
ratio [20], [21] and the addition of fibers [17], [22], [23]. Similar to CC, the increase of compressive
strength leads to higher initial stiffness while similar deflection and crack patterns are measured. Re-
garding different types of reinforcement, FRP-reinforced AAC beams showed comparable flexural be-
havior to FRP-reinforced CC beams [13]. In addition, the increase of reinforcement ratio also had a
considerable impact on the enhancement of ultimate capacity of under-reinforced AAC beams while
the ultimate strength mainly depended on the material properties of AAC when over-reinforced beams
were designed [20]. Furthermore, comparable to CC, the usage of appropriate volume of fiber improves
the cracking resistance, ultimate flexural capacity, and ductility of reinforced AAC beams as expected.
Multiple and fine cracks were observed in the constant moment zone [24]. It should be noted that the
post-crack stiffness of ambient-cured specimens was enhanced owing to the control of drying shrinkage
when fibers were added [17].
3.1.2 Shear behavior of reinforced AAC beams
Limited amount of shear tests for reinforced AAC beams were conducted in the last decade. In general,
AAC specimens with the same strength class as CC counterparts illustrate comparable crack distribu-
tion and shear strength [16], [25]. Tran et al. [26] reported that one slag-based AAC sample cured under
an ambient condition exhibited lower stiffness and cracking load, resulting from severe shrinkage
cracks. Such observation is in line with the phenomenon presented in the previous flexural tests [17].
Additionally, Wu et al. [25] found that AAC beams showed more brittle behavior and fewer cracks.
The factors that influence the shear behavior of reinforced AAC beams are similar to that of rein-
forced CC beams. The most widely investigated factors are shear span-to-depth ratio and stirrup spac-
ing. A decrease of shear span-to-depth ratio results in a great increase of ultimate shear capacity in
terms of the change of failure mode, confirming arching action in AAC beams [25], [27]. A smaller
stirrup spacing contributed to the improvement of shear resistance was found in [28], [29] while insig-
nificant impacts of stirrup spacing were reported in [30]. It was concluded that the explanation of these
discrepancies needs further studies and verifications.
3.1.3 Time-dependent behavior of reinforced AAC beams
Un et al. [31] verified that previous estimation methods of long-term deflection applied for CC beams
(such as effective modulus method (EMM) and age-adjusted effective modulus method (AEMM))
could also be applied for the tested AAC beams. However, the input parameters of these prediction
models mainly relied on the material properties of concrete and only one kind of AAC was taken into
account. The feasibility of such methods for other types of AAC needs to be further studied. Moreover,
the cracking characteristics under long-term load were not studied in this research. Moreover, a series
of experiments were carried out on reinforced AAC beams with different curing ages till 91 days in
order to clarify their time-dependent flexural behavior, considering the change of material properties
over time [14]. But it was found that the decrease of material properties had no significant effects on
the flexural capacity of AAC beams. Also, a reduced tension stiffening effect in the stabilized cracking
stage was observed, but no explanation was given for this phenomenon. A longer time test was advised.
3.1.4 Structural behavior of prestressed AAC beams
Few researchers gave insight into prestressed AAC beams in the past years. The feasibility of applying
AAC to prestressed beams was first proposed by Liu et al. [32] and calculation methods for prestress
loss due to anchorage slip and prestress tendon retraction were then put forward. The flexural perfor-
mance of prestressed fly-ash/slag-based AAC beams was investigated and compared with CC counter-
parts of the same strength class in [33]. The experimental results indicated that prestressed AAC beams
had better cracking resistance and could undergo slightly higher ultimate load and deflection. However,
Zhenxu Qian, Eva O. L. Lantsoght and Mladena Luković 275

14 th
in the above research, the long-term deflection, cracking characteristics, as well as the effects of creep
and shrinkage on the long-term behavior of prestressed AAC beams, were not yet reported.
b
3.2 Composite AAC beams
Apart from monolithic reinforced AAC beams, researchers have begun to introduce AAC into compo-
site beams and verify its feasibility. Steel-concrete composite beams composed of precast AAC panels
if
connected by tensioned friction-grip bolts were proposed to achieve the target of low-carbon design,
illustrating good load-carrying capacity and desirable system deconstructability [34], [35]. The influ-
ence of the depth of AAC layers on the structural behavior of reinforced multi-layered concrete beams
consisting of AAC and Normal Concrete was investigated through traditional and non-destructive test-
ing methods [36]. The multi-layered concrete beams were found to have higher ductility compared to
beams with a single layer. Similar results were reported on AAC-High Performance Concrete (HPC)
beams with shear reinforcement [37]. However, debonding between AAC and HPC resulted in a lower
carrying capacity when no shear reinforcement was applied. AAC-filled pultruded composite beams
introduced by Ferdous et al. [38] illustrated satisfactory stiffness and strength under flexure through
experimental and numerical investigations. As such, the elements could be used as railway sleepers.
4 Modelling methods of AAC beams
4.1 Numerical simulation

Apart from experimental studies, numerical simulations are used to evaluate and predict the structural
behavior of AAC beams. Since only limited experimental studies are available, numerical studies based
on such experiments are even more scarce.
Finite element modelling is mainly conducted by ANSYS [39] and ABAQUS [40] following sim-
ilar procedures for simulation of CC beams. The widely used constitutive models of CC are also chosen
for characterization of AAC. The definition in the elastic stage is similar while different models are
chosen for the characterization of nonlinear behavior. Hammad et al. [41] adopted a multilinear elastic
model with no consideration of post-peak behavior. Few researchers chose the “concrete damage plas-
ticity model” (CDP) to simulate the fracture propagation of AAC by introducing damage variables [28],
[42], [43]. Such a model is comparatively precise but parameters regarding the post-peak performance
need to be calibrated. The choice of these parameters would significantly affect the prediction of crack
propagation. The stress-strain curves of AAC adopted in most research are determined by the simplified
equation for CC while few of them refer to relevant experimental results of AAC specimens. Perfect
bond assumption is justified to model the concrete-reinforcement interaction since higher short-term
bond strength between AAC and reinforcement is reported by Mo et al. [44].
In general, it can be concluded that the flexural and shear behavior of AAC beams in terms of load-
deflection relationship and crack propagation obtained by the numerical approach are in good agree-
ment with the experimental results. Thus, the numerical methods for CC are confirmed applicable for
AAC beams based on the available literature. Nevertheless, the reliable analytical stress-strain curve of
AAC and bond-slip relationship needs to be developed to simulate the structural behavior of AAC
beams under more realistic situation.
4.2 Analytical prediction

Existing codes for the design of reinforced CC beams were applied to reinforced AAC beams. The
feasibility of code equation for ultimate capacity calculation is only discussed within the scope of steel-
reinforced AAC specimens.
As mentioned in Section 2, owing to the relatively large number of collected data, a small dataset
is established, in which 38 specimens subjected to flexure varying in AAC mixtures, geometry and
reinforcement configuration are included (see Table 2).
Table 2 Specimens used for the dataset.
Literature [11] [14] [18] [19] [21] [45] [46]

Number of specimens 6 4 12 1 7 2 6

Fig. 1 demonstrates the comparison of ultimate bending moment (Mu) between experimental results
and theoretical values obtained from ACI 318-19 [47] and EN 1992-1-1:2004 [48], respectively. The
b
situations of “underestimate” (Mu,exp > Mu,theo) and “overestimate” (Mu,exp < Mu,theo) are classified in blue
and red dots. As shown in Fig. 1, the ultimate bending capacity is underestimated in most cases. For
ACI 318-19, the average Mu,exp / Mu,theo ratio is 1.09 with standard deviation of 0.11. Slightly overesti-
mated capacity with a Mu,exp / Mu,theo ratio in a range of 0.92-0.99 is reported for 7 specimens. Regarding
if
EN 1992-1-1:2004, the average Mu,exp / Mu,theo ratio is 1.05 with standard deviation of 0.13. 12 specimens
exhibit a lower ultimate bending moment than the theoretical value, in which beams produced with
high strength AAC (> 70MPa) show a low Mu,exp / Mu,theo ratio up to 0.75. Generally, current codes for
CC can be applied to conservatively calculate the ultimate bending moment of reinforced AAC beams.
(a) ACI 318-19 (b) EN 1992-1-1:2004

Fig. 1 Theoretical solution vs experimental results of ultimate bending moment of steel-reinforced
AAC beams.
Shear tests conducted in the previous years are not sufficient, which restrict the establishment of a
dataset. Yost et al. [16] and Madheswaran et al. [29] compared the ultimate shear load of steel-rein-
forced AAC beams with stirrups that failed in shear obtained from experiments and code provisions. In
[16], ACI 318-08 [49] is selected for comparison and the average Vexp / Vtheo ratio of 1.52 with standard
deviation of 0.03 is reported for 3 specimens with the same configuration. In [29], an average Vexp / Vtheo
ratio of 1.42 with standard deviation of 0.28 and 1.40 with standard deviation of 0.29 are recorded for
6 samples with different stirrup spacing based on ACI 318-08 [49] and IS 456 [50], respectively. It can
be seen that both codes give conservative results in comparison with measured test values. Further
studies on shear behavior are necessary to provide a sufficient database for assessing current codes as
well as proposing guidelines, specifically for AAC elements.
5 Discussion and recommendation for future work

Existing reviews generally conclude the performance of AAC structural members including beams,
columns and slabs [44], [51], [52] while this review only targets AAC beams, which allows specific
insight into the discussion of their structural behavior. Despite the difference in research scope, the
applicability of AAC as a replacement for OPC has been confirmed. However, current results from the
literature on the mechanical behavior of reinforced AAC beams are still insufficient for the develop-
ment of common analytical and design methods. Besides, Ma et al. [53] pointed out that most investi-
gations focused on fly-ash-based AAC members. But, considerable attention to fly-ash/slag-based AAC
beams is paid in this review because of the narrow research scope and the increasing awareness of the
utilization of combined precursor systems after 2018.
Reinforced AAC beams show comparable load-carrying capacity and cracking behavior to CC
beams under flexure while the underlying reason for the inconsistent results regarding ductility needs
further investigation. Besides, shear behavior, as well as the governing factors, are recommended to be
clarified. In addition, the focus of research on structural behavior of AAC beams is mainly on the rein-
forced AAC elements. It is promising to apply the prestressed technology, which could lead to the
effective utilization of AAC on a larger scale. The application of prestressed AAC elements and their
14 th
working mechanism are meaningful to involve in future research topics. Apart from short-term behav-
ior, long-term behavior is also of great importance to investigate with regard to long-term deflection,
b
cracking behavior and prestress loss. Such studies will be beneficial for a safe design regarding the
long-term serviceability of AAC beams. Furthermore, it turns out that AAC is more sensitive to curing
regimes than CC and the mechanical properties of AAC under certain curing conditions may decrease
over time. The role of curing regimes and the effects of time-dependent material properties are still
if
unclear for both short-term and long-term structural behavior.
As a powerful tool for prediction of structural behavior without performing a large number of ex-
periments, numerical methods need to be further developed and promoted. The bond-slip relationship
between AAC and reinforcement is suggested to be considered for more precise simulation. Finally,
simply relying on existing codes of CC beams could lead to an unsafe design with inaccurate prediction
because of the difference in terms of chemical reaction and matrix formation of AAC. Thus, it is an
important task to provide recommendations for the prediction of the structural response and develop
specific codes for AAC elements.
6 Conclusion
This paper provides a state-of-art review on the structural behavior of AAC beams. The main findings
are concluded as follows:
(1) Reinforced AAC beams exhibit comparable ultimate capacity and crack pattern to reinforced
CC counterparts under flexural and shear conditions. Similar to CC, the ultimate flexural strength is
improved by the increase of compressive strength, tensile reinforcement ratio and addition of fiber
within a reasonable range. The methods used in the numerical simulations of CC beams are applicable
for AAC beams, which is confirmed by the good agreement between experimental and numerical results
in terms of load-deflection response and crack development.
(2) Related to the applicability of existing codes and methods, ACI 318-19 and EN 1992-1-1:2004
can be conservatively applied for the prediction of ultimate bending moment of steel-reinforced AAC
beams in general, with average Mu,exp / Mu,theo ratio of 1.09 and 1.05. The prediction of shear strength
of steel-reinforced AAC beams is underestimated according to ACI 318-08 and IS 456 based on the
available dataset. The feasibility of prediction methods for long-term deflection of CC beams was con-
firmed by AAC beams cast in one mixture.

(3) Few researchers gave insight into the time-dependent behavior of reinforced AAC beams.
Though decrease of long-term material properties of AAC was measured, the relevant consequence for
long-term structural behavior of AAC beams is still unknown. Besides, ambient-cured reinforced AAC
beams with high content of slag illustrate lower post-crack stiffness compared to CC due to severe
drying shrinkage, which indicates the importance of research on the impacts of curing conditions.
(4) In general, current studies regarding the structural behavior of AAC beams are still limited.
More experimental and numerical studies on AAC beams need to be conducted, allowing the establish-
ment of a large dataset. Thus, the development of design guidelines specifically for AAC beams can be
facilitated.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the project “Toepassingsmogelijkheiden Geopolymerbeton in infrastruc-
turele werken” (project number CM2B17). Zhenxu Qian would like to acknowledge the funding sup-
port from China Scholarship Council (CSC) under the grant CSC No.202106090024.
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Mechanical characterization and modelling of Ultra
b
High Performance Fiber Reinforced Concrete
Sara Bascì, Matteo Colombo and Giulio Zani
if
Dept. Of Civil and Environmental Eng.
Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, Milan (20133), Italy
Abstract
In the last two decades the use of Ultra High Performance Fiber Reinforced Concrete (UHPFRC) for
the construction of structural and non-structural elements has increased, but there is still a strong need
to establish a complete method for its mechanical characterization, especially of its tensile behavior. In
this paper, a mechanical investigation carried out on four UHPFRC specimens with a fiber volume
fraction of 3.3% is presented. The fiber content resulted to be sufficient to cause strain hardening be-
havior, characterized by a multicracking phase. The tensile constitutive law provided by Model Code
2010 for the inverse analysis from bending tests is hereby discussed. In particular, the size of the mul-
ticrack diffusion zone is investigated with vision-based measurement tools and used as a characteristic
length.
1 Introduction
UHPFRC is the object of numerous studies and its use is becoming increasingly widespread. Thanks to
its mix design, it is able to achieve high aesthetic and mechanical requirements, but its mechanical
characterization, especially in terms of tensile behavior, is still much debated. Direct tensile testing
might be an appropriate method to directly derive the tensile strength of the material since it does not
require inverse analysis [1]. On the other hand, direct tensile tests are difficult to perform due to the
complexity of the setup and its sensitivity to various factor (imperfections in the specimen, stress con-
centrations at its attachment points, etc.), therefore could not produce completely reliable results [2]. In
answer to this question, several codes propose to define the tensile behavior by means of bending tests
and subsequent inverse analysis. As a matter of fact, the current Fiber Reinforced Concrete standard
(Model Code 2010 [3]) proposes a simplified approach to find the stress-strain relationship in tension.
In order to use the constitutive law in the Finite Element Model (FEM) and make it mesh independent,
it is possible to perform a fracture energy regularization by dividing the crack opening displacement by
the mesh size. However, this procedure leads to an overestimation of the tensile behavior in hardening
materials which are characterized by a multicracking phase that prevents the crack from localizing in a
single section [4]. This paper takes part of this framework by presenting an experimental campaign on
notched beams tested with the three-point bending scheme (3PB). The mechanical response of the ma-
terial and the inverse analysis of the results are discussed. Some considerations on the parameters for
the definition of the constitutive law according to the Model Code 2010 will be presented.
Fig. 1 Straight high carbon steel fibers (left); specimens just after casting (right).
14 th
2 Materials
b
The UHPFRC used to cast the specimens is characterized by a mix design consisting of a premixed
concrete in which only water, superplasticizer and steel fibers have to be added separately. The average
cubic compressive strength (fc,cube,av), obtained from the laboratory tests, was equal to 153.2 MPa.
Straight high carbon steel fibers with a length (lf) of 13 mm, a diameter (df) of 0.16 mm and thus
an aspect ratio (lf/df) of 80 were used (Fig. 1 (left)). The amount of fibers used was 236.2 kg/m3 which
if
corresponds to 3.3% in terms of volume. The mix design is summarized in Table 1.
Table 1 UHPFRC mix design.

Component Dosage [kg/m3]
premix 2105.3
water 129.5
superplasticizer 37.9
steel fibers 263.2
Four 150 x 150 x 600 mm notched beams were casted (Fig. 1 (right)) and tested by 3PB following
EN 14651 [5] standard procedures. The tests were carried out at the laboratory of the Politecnico di
Milano (Campus Lecco) with a hydrodynamic press characterized by a load capacity of 150 kN. All
the tests were performed in crack-opening control with a rate of 0.05 mm/min until a crack opening of
0.1 mm is achieved and then increased to 0.2 mm/min as required by standard EN 14651. To provide
measurement of the crack mouth opening displacement (CMOD) and of the crack tip opening displace-
ment (CTOD), each specimen was instrumented, respectively, with a clip gauge located astride the
notch and a linear variable displacement transducer (LVDT) with a gauge length of 50 mm positioned
to be aligned and centered relative to the innermost edge of the notch (Fig. 2 (left)).
In standard softening materials, the expected response is crack propagation only at the notch. In
hardening materials, such as UHPFRC, the crack may also occur outside the notched section. These
phenomena are difficult to identify with normal instrumentation applied to specimens, but they may
have an important contribution in identifying the direct tensile response of the material. For this reason,
an alternative measurement method was chosen and applied to the specimen coded as 3PB-4. (Fig. 2
(right)). The technique used is Digital Image Correlation (DIC), which enables the non-contact full-
field measure of geometry, displacement and strain [6] of materials and structures and is based on the
correlation of two grey-scale images taken at different time instants, before and after deformation. To
prepare the DIC setup the first step was to prepare the Area of Interest (AoI) of the specimen with a
stochastic pattern. The surface was painted uniformly with a white spry can and once dry was sprayed
with a damaged black one. A speckle pattern of black dots ranging in size from approximately 0.2 to
3.5 mm were obtained and the coverage factor, i.e. the percentage of black dots on the white back-
ground, was calculated as around 13%. To check the flatness of the acquired images and to easily con-
vert pixels to millimeters and vice versa, two targets with four crosses placed between them at a known
distance of 10 mm were applied at the two opposite vertices of the AoI. A bright spotlight was placed
pointing at the surface of the specimen to provide proper illumination to address the requirement for
high quality images and therefore sufficient exposure and high contrast. Afterwards a 24 Megapixel
camera with a focal length of 50 mm was positioned 30.6 cm from the specimen to cover an AoI of 200
x 150 mm (Fig. 3). Finally, an image acquisition rate of 3 seconds was set. A higher frequency was not
chosen to lighten the subsequent data processing, which would otherwise have taken a considerable
amount of time without adding information to the processed data.
4.1 Mechanical response

Fig. 4 shows the experimental results in terms of nominal stress versus CMOD of the four specimens
tested at 3PB and Table 2 presents the following data: flexural tensile strength (fct,fl); residual strength
for serviceability conditions at CMOD = 0.5 mm (fR1); residual strength for ultimate conditions at
CMOD = 2.5 mm (fR3); for each parameter even mean value, coefficient of variation (CoV) and char-
b
acteristic value according to log-normal distribution are presented. Following the guidelines provided
by Model Code 2010 about the FRC classification, the material investigated results in the class 19b.
if
Fig. 2 Specimens geometry and 3PB setup (left); AoI for DIC (right).
Fig. 3 a) Scheme of the focal length and the distance needed between the camera and the specimen
to obtain the required AoI dimension; b) image captured by the camera, it is possible to observe the
stochastic pattern; c) setup on test specimen 3PB-4, the AoI is highlighted by blue rectangle.
Table 2 Experimental results of 3PB tests.

Specimen code fct,fl [MPa] fR1 [MPa] fR3 [MPa]
3PB-1 11.85 18.09 14.73
3PB-2 12.41 22.73 17.58
3PB-3 12.64 19.77 12.12
3PB-4 10.72 18.49 13.55
fi,mean [MPa] 11.9 19.77 14.5
Cov [%] 0.07 0.11 0.16
fi,k [MPa] 9.79 15.02 9.51

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if b
Fig. 4 Nominal Stress vs. CMOD for the four specimens, average curve and results scatter.
4.2 Vision-based measurements

The images acquired during the test were processed with Matlab-based DIC code - version 4 developed
by E. M. C. Jones [7]. Briefly, the images were correlated, the optimal subset size for the correlation of
full-images was determined, the displacements were smoothed with the Gaussian distribution of weight
and finally strains were calculated using a 16-node, bi-cubic finite element interpolation scheme. The
effective resolution of the images is 34 μm/pixel, which allows micro-displacements and therefore mi-
crocracks to be precisely investigated.
Fig. 6 represents the strain distribution over the AoI at the load steps, from a) to h), indicated on
the stress versus CMOD curve of Fig. 5 (left). Point a) represents the crack initiation at the notch tip.
In the phase from a) to c) a localization of the strain can be noticed. Starting from point d) a crack
bifurcation is observable from the DIC images and in the following steps a clear multicracking pattern
is visible although dominated by a wider central crack in correspondence of the notch.
As highlighted in Fig. 5 (right), corresponding to step h), the region characterized by the presence
of microcracks has an extension of about 65 mm. It is worth noting that after point h) the large dis-
placements achieved by the sample lead to a loss of image correlation processed with the adopted DIC
software. Therefore, from that point on, it is no longer possible to obtain reliable results. In Fig. 5 (right)
it is already possible to observe a partial loss of image correlation. This loss is represented by the white
areas in correspondence of the main crack starting from the notch.
Fig. 5 Nominal stress vs. CMOD curve of 3PB-4 specimen. The letters from (a) to (h) correspond
to the steps shown in the following Fig. (left); strains of step h) obtained by processing the images with
the DIC software used. The width (equal to 65 mm) of the area characterized by the multicrack phe-
nomenon is highlighted (right).

if b
Fig. 6 Strains obtained from DIC in eight selected steps corresponding to the points highlighted in
the curve in Fig. 5 (left).
4.3 Numerical modelling

A numerical investigation, aimed at discussing the uniaxial tensile constitutive law to be adopted for
non-linear finite elements model in case of strain-hardening material, is here proposed with reference
to the use of Concrete Damage Plasticity model implemented in Abaqus. Several uniaxial constitutive
laws were adopted to model 3PB tests previously discussed. Notched beam is discretized using plane
stress elements 4-node bilinear with reduced integration and hourglass control (CPS4R) and a regular
quadrangular mesh with elements of side 2.5 mm (Fig. 8 (left)). The uniaxial tensile laws were assigned
in terms of stress versus plastic strain relationships where the plastic strains were defined dividing the
crack opening (w) by a characteristic length (lch). The adopted laws differ by the value of the lch and/or
the shape of the constitutive law. In particular, the following cases were analyzed and summarized in
Fig. 7 and Table 3:
A) use of the uniaxial tensile law proposed by Model Code 2010 assuming a lch equal to di ele-
ment size (2.5 mm) as suggested by the traditional fracture energy regularization approach
for concrete [8];
B) use of the uniaxial tensile law proposed by model Code 2010, but assuming for the strain
related to fFts, a lch value equal to 65 mm which represents the size of the microcrack diffusion
zone measured by DIC (Section 4.2). For the point corresponding to the ultimate residual
strength (fFtu), since it is located on the softening branch of the tensile law, an lch equal to the
element size was adopted;
C) use of a constitutive law similar to those proposed by Model Code 2010 but modified at point
fFts according to [9] (fFts =0.37·fR1). The same lch of case B were applied;
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D) a modified shape of the pre-peak branch was adopted considering pre-peak data deriving from
the data available in the literature on similar material. In particular, the value of the axial
b
tensile strength (fct, equal to 9 MPa), the corresponding strain (equal to 0.38%) and the value
of the elastic modulus (E, equal to 45000 MPa) were selected. The post-peak law and the
values of lch adopted are the same of case C.
The results of all the numerical investigations are captured with the average experimental curve in
if
Fig. 8 (right) in terms of nominal stress versus CMOD. In Table 3 the total energy (computed as the
area under the nominal stress versus CMOD curve up to CMOD = 3 mm) is reported for each model
together with its percentage difference with respect to the experimental one. As can be seen, the nominal
stress versus CMOD curve of case A, despite the reliable prediction of the total energy, does not capture
the shape of the pre-peak and overestimates the tensile properties by showing a hardening behavior at
least up to a CMOD of 3 mm. Case B, having considered the measured dimension of the multicracking
region, continue to over-estimating the performances of the material (even in terms of total energy) but
starts to activate a softening branch even if the peak position (both in terms of stress and CMOD) is not
reliable. Case C provides a good approximation of the peak stress but leads to an under-estimation of
the stable propagation phase and an over-estimation of the fiber pull-out phase. Finally, case D succeeds
in capturing the behavior at low crack opening values and in predicting the peak (both stress and
CMOD) with a minimum over-estimation of the total energy that is mainly concentrated in the final
branch with large CMOD (CMOD > 1.5 mm). This is probably due to the simplification of the model
proposed by Model Code 2010 which determines the stress value corresponding to CMOD = 2.5 mm
from equilibrium with the assumption that the compressive stress resultant is applied on the extrados
chord and that the tensile behavior is rigid-linear. Looking at the plastic strain distribution shown in
Fig. 8 (left) it is possible to observe that they are mainly concentrated in the ligament section.
Table 3 Cases analyzed and variables considered to reconstruct the constitutive tensile relation to be
used in the analytical model (experimental total energy equal to 51,3 N/mm).
Model E fct (or fct ) fFts fFtu ԑp (or ԑp ) lch SLS lchUSL Total
[MPa] [MPa] [MPa] [mm] [mm] energy
[MPa] [%]
[N/mm]
A 50300 5.6 8.9 3.3 0.015 2.5 2.5 54.3
(+5.8%)
B 50300 5.6 8.9 3.3 0.015 65 2.5 64.1
(+24.7%)
C 50300 5.6 7.3 3.3 0.015 65 2.5 55.7
(+8.5%)
D 45000 9 7.3 3.3 0.38 65 2.5 53.3
(+3.8%)
Fig. 7 Out-of-scale scheme of constitutive laws adopted in the four cases considered (left); nominal
stress vs. strain curve of the four cases considered (right).
if b
Fig. 8 Equivalent plastic strain in uniaxial tension (PEEQT) in the notched region at CMOD = 1.1
mm which corresponds to step h) in DIC measurements (left); Nominal stress vs. CMOD of the four
cases considered compared to the average experimental curve (right).
5 Future developments
The work presented here is part of a wider experimental campaign to characterize the treated UHPFRC
material. The forthcoming experimental campaign ranges from constitutive investigation to structural
response also considering the roles of notch in mechanical characterization of UHPFRC materials. The
results will allow the development of a more refine back calculation procedure for the definition of the
uniaxial tensile law able to predict the structural response by numerical application. Table 4 shows the
test program.
Table 4 Future experimental program.

Type of test Specimen Specimen size [mm] N. of tests

3PB beam (notch 25 mm) 150x150x600 6
3PB beam (unnotched) 150x125x600 3
4PB beam (notch 25 mm) 150x150x600 3
bending with center load circular plate Φ560 t20 3
direct tensile dumbbell-shaped L440 t20 6
direct tensile cylinder (notched) Φ60 h100 6
6 Conclusions
The paper discusses the reliability of commercial numerical models in predicting the flexural response
of notched UHPFRC beams. The analysis results show a large variability depending on the choice of
regularization length and tensile law shape. Based on the results discussed, the following conclusions
can be drawn:
- to study the multicrack zone, the DIC technique is proposed. This method is able to capture
the multicracks that are otherwise difficult to see by naked eye and by the traditional trans-
ducer;
- generally the uniaxial tensile constitutive law proposed by Model Code 2010 does not capture
the actual shape of the experimental response. Moreover the selection of the characteristic
length play a key role in assessing the reliability of the procedure.

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- the results of the numerical modelling are more similar to the experimental curve if the for-
mula fFts =0.37·fR1 is used;
b
- the results show the large importance of the correct definition of the pre-peak branch; this
seems to univocally affect the prediction of the mechanical response for small CMODs.
References
if
[1] Naaman, Antoine E., and Hans-Wolf Reinhardt. 2006. "Proposed classification of HPFRC com-
posites based on their tensile response." Materials and structures 39.5: 547-555.
[2] Kanakubo, Toshiyuki. 2006. "Tensile characteristics evaluation method for ductile fiber-rein-
forced cementitious composites." Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology 4.1: 3-17.
[3] Taerwe, Luc, and Stijn Matthys. 2013. “Fib Model Code for Concrete Structures 2010”. Ernst
& Sohn, Wiley.
[4] López, J. Á., Serna, P., Navarro-Gregori, J., and Coll, H. 2016. "A simplified five-point inverse
analysis method to determine the tensile properties of UHPFRC from unnotched four-point
bending tests." Composites Part B: Engineering 91: 189-204.
[5] EN 14651:2005. Test method for metallic fibered concrete - Measuring the flexural tensile
strength (limit of proportionality (LOP), residual). Brussels: European Committee for Stand-
ardization.
[6] McCormick, Nick, and Jerry Lord. 2010. "Digital image correlation." Materials today 13.12:
52-54.
[7] Jones, E. M. C. 2015. Matlab-based DIC code - version 4, University of Illinois.
[8] Belletti, Beatrice, Cecilia Damoni, and Max AN Hendriks. 2011. "Development of guidelines
for nonlinear finite element analyses of existing reinforced and pre-stressed beams." European
Journal of Environmental and Civil Engineering 15.9: 1361-1384.
[9] Di Prisco, M., Colombo, M., and Dozio, D. 2013. Fibre‐reinforced concrete in fib Model Code
2010: principles, models and test validation. Structural Concrete, 14(4), 342-361.

Numerical modelling of the ageing of Ultra High
b
Performance Fibre Reinforced Cementitious
Composites
if
Antonio Cibelli, Giovanni Di Luzio and Liberato Ferrara
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering (DICA),
Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, Milan 20133, Italy
Abstract
This paper focuses on the experimental characterisation and numerical modelling of mechanical ageing
of UHPC. With reference to a specific UHPC mix, conceived in the framework of the Horizon 2020
project ReSHEALience to be used in extremely aggressive environments, the strength and stiffness
build-up have been assessed through two experimental campaigns, for both the plain matrix and the
fibre-reinforced composite. Then, the tests have been simulated by means of a discrete numerical
model, the Multiphysics—Lattice Discrete Particle Model (M-LDPM), improved for capturing the ma-
terial ageing in presence of slag in the mixture. The parameters governing the hydration process have
been identified through the ONIX model, equally improved to account for the effect of slag. The com-
parison between experimental and numerical results has shown that the model well-captures the mate-
rial behaviour at each age. The model capability of capturing the material ageing accurately is necessary
to distinguish its effect on the mechanical response from those due to other phenomena such as autog-
enous or engineered healing.
1 Introduction
The numerical simulation of the concrete response from early age onwards is of utmost relevance along
the path towards a fully aware modelling of the concrete structures’ durability. In whatever service
scenario, the aforesaid task requires the combined exploitation of diffusion-chemical and mechanical
models. On one hand, the concrete curing leads to an evolution of mechanical characteristics over time;
therefore, as the chemical processes - responsible of the strength and stiffness build-up - evolve, the
mechanical parameters progress accordingly. Symmetrically, the evolution of the chemical processes
and the inherent predisposition of concrete to crack affect its own permeability, and, on turn, all the
water-driven reactions featuring the chemistry of the cementitious materials. In this research activity
the modelling of long-term concrete performance is carried out by employing the Multiphysics-Lattice
Discrete Particle Model (M-LDPM) [1-5], resulting from the coupling of the mechanical model Lattice
Discrete Particle Model (LDPM) [6,7] and its extension for fibre-reinforced composites (LDPM-F)
[8,9] with the hygro-thermo-chemical model HTC [10,11,19].
The paper focuses on the mechanical ageing of an UHPFRCC mix, which has been assessed in
terms of stiffness and strength time evolution through two extensive experimental campaigns, for both
the plain matrix and the fibre-reinforced composite. Then, the tests have been simulated by means of
the M-LDPM model, improved for capturing the material ageing in presence of slag in the mixture. The
parameters governing the hydration process have been identified through the ONIX (ONly (the) mIX
as input) model [19], equally improved to account for the effect of slag.
2 Numerical modelling
Since HTC model was originally formulated continuum-wise, in contrast with the discrete nature of
LDPM, a relevant modelling issue consists of adapting the HTC numerical implementation to the
LDPM solving system. The feasibility of this operation was proved by several authors [1-5].
In M-LDPM, HTC model and LDPM are required to mutually interact in order to describe those
cross effects that the mechanical behaviour yields on the hygro-thermal fields, and vice-versa. The
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HTC-LDPM coupling relies on the definition of Flow Lattice Elements (FLEs): flow channels installed
within the LDPM tetrahedra-based mesh, which together make up a 3D network, referred to as transport
b
lattice system. This strategy allows for having two frameworks numerically aligned, anchored to each
other, and easier to be connected [12].
The M-LDPM coupled numerical framework relies on two bridging parameters: (1) the crack open-
ing wc along the LDPM facets, and (2) the ageing degree . The former determines an increase of the
if
moisture permeability, proportional to the damage level, whereas the latter is used to update the me-
chanical properties accordingly to the evolution of the chemical processes [13]. Precisely in the defini-
tion of the ageing degree it has been implemented the effect of slag, through the introduction of an
additional internal variable, the slag reaction degree sl.
2.1 Ageing functions
The term ageing generally refers to the evolution in time of the concrete macroscopic behaviour. In the
literature, it is broadly accepted that the analysis of the changes of the physical and mechanical charac-
teristics at the structural scale leads to detect nano- and micro-mechanisms, and chemical reactions as
contributory factors. Concerning the build-up of elastic modulus and strength, it has been demonstrated
by several authors that it is function of the overall extent of internal chemical reactions and curing
temperature [14-17]. Experimental evidences induced Cervera et al. to propose an ageing degree, catch-
ing the afore-mentioned dependencies [19], later exploited by Di Luzio and Cusatis [13]. It reads
 T − T n
 max
  ( B − 2 A ) for    0 (1)
 =  Tmax − Tref 

0 otherwise
where  is the total reaction degree,  0 is its value at the end of the setting phase, Tmax is the maximum
temperature at which the hardening is possible under standard condition (≈100°C), Tref is the reference
temperature for the experimental calibration of the ageing degree. For T = Tref , it is  = 0 for  ≤  0,
and  = 1 for  ≤  ∞. Consequently, one can obtain B = [1 + A ( ∞2 −  02) / ( ∞ −  0)]. The material
parameters A and n are calibrated against experimental data.
The ageing degree is an additional bridge parameter between LDPM and HTC models: information
concerning the extent of cement and slag hydration are brought from the chemo-diffusion model to the
mechanical model, allowing for determining the ageing degree. Then, it is exploited to update the meso-
scale mechanical properties of the LDPM constitutive laws [19]:
E0 = E0 ;
 =   n ;  =   n ;  =   n ;
a a a (2)
t t c0 c0 N0 N0
rst = rst  ma ;
lt = lt   ka (1 −  ) + 1
In Eqs. 6, the appendix ∞ indicates the asymptotic value of each mechanical property, whose time
evolution is function of the ageing degree and shaped by the material parameters na, ma, and ka, which
must be experimentally calibrated. E0 is the longitudinal modulus of elasticity, t is the tensile strength,
c0 is the compressive stress at which the pores collapse occurs, N0 is the threshold stress at which the
transition from initial to asymptotic friction coefficients happens within the cohesive material response,
rst is ratio between shear and tensile strength, lt is the tensile characteristic length. The afore-mentioned
parameters are discussed in detail by Cusatis et al. in [6,7].
2.2 Slag implementation in HTC and ONIX

2.2.1 HTC model
In order to include the effect of slag on the modelling of the chemo-diffusion phenomena, a new internal
variable sl is implemented. It represents the normalised degree of slag reaction, and, similarly to the
normalised degree of cement hydration [19], being both diffusion-driven processes, its rate is formu-
lated by means of an Arrhenius-type law, which reads
 Easl  (3)
 sl = Asl ( sl )  exp  − 
 RT 
where Asl(sl) is the normalised chemical affinity, Easl the global reaction activation energy, R the uni-
versal gas constant, and T the temperature at which the process occurs. The normalised chemical affinity
b
is computed as follows
   
Asl ( sl ) = Asl1 ( Asl 2 +  sl )  sl  −  sl  exp  − sl sl  (4)
  sl 
if
in which  sl∞ is the asymptotic normalised reaction degree, and sl, Asl1, and Asl2 are material parameters
to calibrate for the material of interest. The asymptotic degree of slag reaction  sl∞ is assumed to decay
exponentially for decreasing values of the local relative humidity h:
  1  (5)
 sl  (h) =  sl   exp − sl  − 1
  h 
where sl is a material parameter and 𝛼̃ sl∞ the asymptotic reaction degree in saturated condition
(h=1.00). Accordingly, also the total reaction degree is modified in order to include the contribute due
to the slag reaction. Its formulation reads
  c  Qc  +  sl  sl  Qsl  (6)
= c
c  Qc  + sl  Qsl 
in which sl is the slag content and 𝑄̃ sl∞ is the latent heat of slag reaction per unit mass of reacted slag.
In the present work it assumed 𝑄̃ sl∞ = 800 kJ/kg [20].
Slag is a self-cementing material. The presence of calcium hydroxide it is not necessary for slag to
form cementitious products. However, in case of slag hydrating by itself, the amount of cementitious
products formed and the rates of formation are not sufficient for structural purposes. In combination
with Portland cement, instead, slag hydrates faster due to the presence of calcium hydroxide. It has been
experimentally observed that both the hydration of Portland cement and the reaction of mineral admix-
tures contribute to chemically bound water [21]. As a consequence, in order to capture this phenome-
non, the formula for computing wn is updated as follows:
wn = kc  c   c + k sl  sl   sl (7)
where kc and ksl are the mass ratios of non-evaporable water at full cement and slag hydration, respec-
tively.
For the sake of model consistency, and to capture what observed experimentally by several authors,
the slag effect is implemented also into the calculation of the evaporable water content we:
we = we gel + wecap (8)
with
 Q 
(
we gel = g 2     c   c  + sl   sl   sl   1 − e c ( 1 )
 Qc 
−10  g − h
) (9)
w + w − wn − we (h = 1.00)gel
we cap = 0
e c ( 1 ) −1
−10  g −
The chemical shrinkage w is computed as

 wsl 
w =  sh  c   c +  sl   sl  (10)
  wc 
Based on experimental data available in the literature, in this work it is assumed 𝑤
̃ sl =0.110 mL/gslag
and 𝑤
̃ c=0.065 mL/gcem [22,23].
Finally, the HTC field equations are enriched with the effect of slag as follows
we h we we
  ( Dhh ) = + c +  sl + wn (11)
h t  c  sl
T
  ( T ) =   ct  +  c  c  Qc  +  sl  sl  Qsl  (12)
t
The HTC model adopted in this study contains several material parameters that need to be identified
either from experimental data or, as recently proposed by Pathirage et al., with a multiscale approach,

14 th
entitled the ONIX model [19] where the parameters, except for those governing the moisture permea-
bility, are identified by using the output of micro-scale numerical simulations carried out by the
b
CEMHYD3D model [20].
2.2.2 ONIX model
In [19] the ONIX is presented as a numerical tool to identify the hydration-related parameters necessary
if
to simulate the self-desiccation of cementitious materials at the macroscale by means of the HTC model.
In particular, ONIX permits to avoid lengthy calibrations from experimental data, obtaining the HTC
inputs for the constitutive relationships from direct simulations of cement hydration at the microscale.
The latter are executed through the Cement Hydration in Three Dimensions (CEMHYD3D) model [20].
The ONIX model is improved in order to identify the parameters governing the simulation of the slag
hydration in the mesoscale formulation.
Using the ONIX notation, one can identify the slag reaction degree and its rate as the outputs xsl
and ysl, respectively, linked to each other by the relationship ysl = 𝒙̇ sl. Then, once denoted the vector of
the unknown parameters psl as
psl =  Asl1,  sl  , sl  (13)
and the functional form fsl in the HTC formulation
  sl sl 
 sl = Asl1 ( Asl 2 +  sl )  sl  −  sl  exp  −  
(14)
  sl 
by using the non-linear least square method, the following minimisation problem is solved:
2
Find p sl that minimises  sl =   yi − f sl ( xi sl , p sl )

N
(15)
i =0
where i is the sampling index, looping over the N points in which the solution is discretized, and sl is
the objective function to minimise. The vector psl is identified with reference to saturated conditions.
Subsequently, the parameter sl is calibrated by looking for the best match between the HTC and
CEMHYD3D asymptotic slag reaction degrees in sealed conditions.
Finally, the existing algorithm in ONIX for the automatic calibration of the non-evaporable water
constitutive relation is extended in order to identify not only c, but also sl. Therefore, the minimisation
problem is now set as follows
2
( )
N
Find p wn that minimises  wn =   yi − f wn xi wn , p wn  (16)
i =0
in which
x wn = wn , y wn = wn , y wn = x wn (17)
p = c ,  sl 
wn
(18)
f wn : wn = c  c c + sl  sl sl (19)
3 Experimental assessing of material ageing

Two experimental campaigns have been used as reference to evaluate the capability of the improved
M-LDPM to reproduce and predict the material ageing. The first one, published by Lo Monte and Fer-
rara in [24], aimed to propose a method for the experimental characterisation of the tensile behaviour
of UHPFRCCs through indirect tension tests and the back analysis of flexural test results. The material
investigated was an UHPFRCC, whose mix had been optimised within the context of the Horizon 2020
project ReSHEALience [25]. The second campaign was framed in the same research project, but fo-
cused on the investigation of the mechanical ageing experienced by the plain matrix of the same fibre-
reinforced composite analysed in [26].
The investigated mix was composed of type I 52.5 R cement and slag, as binders, and silica sand
with maximum particles size of 2.0 mm, as aggregate. The water-to-binder ratio adopted was 1:5.5. To
achieve the requires self-levelling consistency a high range water reducing admixture was also used.
Finally, the crystalline admixture Penetron Admix ® were added as self-healing promoters [26]. The
mixture composition is reported in Tab. 1. It is worth highlighting that for the matrix characterisation,

the mix was slightly changed, in order to preserve the prescribed components proportions without the
steel fibres. The latter were straight brass-plated fibres (tensile strength ft≥2400 MPa, length lf=20 mm
b
and diameter df=0.22 mm), added to the mixture in the content of 1.5% by volume.
Table 1 Composition of the UHPFRCC mix.
UHPFRCC matrix mix proportion
if
constituent
content in kg/m3 by cement content
cement 600.00 608.40 1.0000
slag 500.00 507.00 0.8334
tap water 200.00 202.80 0.3334
silica sand 982.00 996.25 1.6375
steel fibres 120.00 - 0.2000 / -
superplasticizer 33.00 33.46 0.0550
crystalline admixtures 4.80 4.87 0.0080
Although in [25] the authors performed the mechanical characterisation of the UHPFRCC mix in
Tab. 1 by means of different testing methods, for the purpose of the present work only the 4-point
bending tests on deep beams (DB) are considered. The tests simulated were performed after 90 days
from casting on beam-like specimens, having dimensions length x width x depth = 500x100x100 mm3.
The specimens were cured in climate chamber with RH=90% and T=20°C.
The ageing of UHPFRCC matrix was investigated by testing the material in compression and flex-
ion at different ages, namely after 6, 12, 28, 90, and 180 days from casting. The experimental pro-
gramme included: (i) unconfined compression tests on cylindrical specimens up to fc/3 to measure the
Young modulus; (ii) 3-point bending tests on notched (N-BEAM) and un-notched (UN-BEAM) pris-
matic specimens, having dimensions length x width x depth = 160x40x40 mm3. Also in this case, the
specimens were cured in climate chamber with RH=90% and T=20°C.
4 Numerical simulations
The small aggregate size represents a significant issue for the numerical simulations. In order to limit
the computational cost, the coarse graining technique is adopted, see [27], a coarse graining factor =3.0
is used. This permits to construct the LDPM mesh considering dmax=da=6 mm (instead of 2 mm) and
d0=da/2=3 mm, where the condition dmax≤lf/3 holds in order to capture the fibre contribution and fibre-
aggregate interaction properly.
The parameters governing the cement and slag hydration are identified through the improved ver-
sion of the model ONIX, by exploiting the best match between macro- (HTC) and microscale
(CEMHYD3D) simulations. The values extracted are: g2=0.191, Ac1=8.86 x106 1/h, c=5.124,
𝛼̃ c∞=0.651, c=0.350, 𝑄̃ c∞=469.45 kJ/kg, Ac1=3.28 x1014 1/h, sl=9.330, 𝛼̃ sl∞=0.063, c=0.250,
c=0.247, sl=0.355, sh=0.148. Then, the following ones are assumed fixed as proposed in [20]:
g1=1.500, Eac=40.00 kJ/mol, Ac2=0.005, Easl=80.00 kJ/mol, Ac2=0.05, 𝑄̃ sl∞=800.00 kJ/kg. Finally, the
parameters governing the moisture permeability are: D0/c=1.00 x10-4 mm2/h, D1/c=3.10 mm2/h, n=3.9.
Without dedicated experimental investigations, the latter are derived from [1] in which they are cali-
brated for a similar material.
The ageing law presented in Sec. 2.1 is steered by three parameters, 0, A, and n. They are cali-
brated by employing the linear relationship between Ec and the ageing degree : E0(t)=E0∞, E0=1/(1-
2) Ec → Ec(t)=Ec∞. Once set Ec∞=48.26 GPa, predicted through the fib Model Code 2010 ageing law,
and =1.0 for t=20000 days, the governing parameters are identified by looking for the best match
between experimental and numerical ageing degree (Fig. 1), exp=Ec(t)/Ec∞ and num=E0(t)/E0∞, respec-
tively. The values of the calibrated parameters are: 0=0.15, A=, and n=.
Once calibrated the ageing law, M-LDPM analyses are firstly executed to simulate the 3-point bending
and unconfined compression tests up to rupture for the matrix alone. The experimental data relevant to
6, 28 and 180 days have been used for calibration (Fig. 2), whereas those gathered after 12 and 90 days
are used for calibration (Fig. 3), hence without changing the parameters previously identified. Then,
the fibre-matrix interaction model is calibrated by simulating the 4-point bending tests on 90-day old
14 th
specimens (Fig. 4). The values of the calibrated parameters are: E0∞=70975 MPa, =0.310, t∞=13.31
MPa, c0∞=500.00 MPa, rst∞=3.23, lt∞=8.47 mm, N0∞=350.00 MPa, na=5.47, ma=-3.59, ka=74.97,
b
nt=0.001, Hc0/E0=0.36, c0=2.00, c1=1.00, c2=2.00, 0=0.50, kc=kt=ks=0.50, 0=6.00 MPa, =-0.05,
kspt=150 MPa, ksn=0.40, krup=0.50, p=1.00.
if
Fig. 1 Calibration of the ageing law governing parameters.
Fig. 2 Calibration of the mechanical parameters.
5 Closing remarks
The aim of the present work is to show the numerical modelling of the ageing for advanced cementitious
materials, with non-conventional compounds in the mixture. In the study case, the slag is considered,
but the approach could be extended to other cementitious materials which could be included into the
recipe in order to make the material more sustainable or better performing in specific application fields.
The improvements implemented in the models ONIX and HTC permits to identify the parameters
steering the hydration of cement and slag, enabling the use of the M-LDPM (HTC and LDPM coupled)
even in case of limited (or even none) experimental data. At the same time, the ageing law is able to
capture the evolution of the Young modulus, predicting, once properly calibrated, the ageing degree
with sufficient accuracy. The model parameters, calibrated for the UHPFRCC matrix at issue by simu-
lating the 3-point bending tests on 6, 28, and 180-day old specimens, well perform in predicting the
response of the material at 12 and 90 days, with and without fibres.
The work presented is extracted from a wider research activity in which the exploitation of discrete
numerical tool is investigated in order to model the durability of advanced cementitious materials. Here,
the emphasis has been put on ageing, because it plays a key role in long-term material performance,
especially for UHPC, which typically feature optimised mixes. The model capability of capturing the
material ageing accurately is necessary to distinguish its effect on the mechanical response from those

due to other phenomena such as autogenous or engineered healing. The discrete nature of the model, in
addition, permits to simulate with higher accuracy what is observed in the laboratory, ensuring more
b
sound calibration and, on turn, more reliable predictions. Evidences in this direction are being matter
of investigation and will be published in the near future.
if
Fig. 3 Validation of the mechanical parameters.
Fig. 4 Calibration of the parameters governing the fibre-matrix interaction.
Acknowledgements
The work described in this paper has been performed in the framework of the project ReSHEALience,
whose funding the authors gratefully acknowledge. This project has received funding from the EU
Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (G.A. No 760824). The information and views set
out in this publication do not necessarily reflect the official opinion of the European Commission. Nei-
ther the EU institutions and bodies nor any person acting on their behalf, may be held responsible for
the use which may be made of the information contained therein.
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Fatigue behavior and effect of stimulated autogenous
b
self-healing in Ultra High-Performance Concrete
Niranjan Prabhu K.1, 2, David Alejandro Clerque Vela1, Yanira Ginori Ocampo
Pacheco1, Francesco Lo Monte1, Nele De Belie2 and Liberato Ferrara1
if
1 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Politecnico di Milano, Italy
2 Department of Structural Engineering and Building Materials; Magnel-Vandepitte Labora-
tory, Ghent University, Belgium
Abstract
This paper investigates the mechanical response under fatigue cycles in Ultra-High-Performance Con-
crete (UHPC) under four-point flexural loading, focusing on the effect of damage recovery triggered
by stimulated autogenous self-healing. Thin beam specimens were pre-cracked up to 0.25 mm residual
crack opening displacement under monotonic loading and then subjected to cyclic loading with a fre-
quency of 5.5 Hz and a load amplitude equal to 10-80% of the load corresponding to the load at residual
pre-crack width. Cyclic loading was applied for 700,000 cycles or up to the attainment of 1 mm total
crack opening displacement at maximum load, whichever was reached first. Specimens were then
healed underwater, and the fatigue tests were repeated to failure after the scheduled healing period of
1, 3, or 6 months. Self-healing performance was assessed via ultrasonic pulse velocity test and micro-
scopic image analysis. Furthermore, the effects of self-healing in fatigue-crack growth rate, stiffness
degradation, and critical crack opening were identified together with the benefits brought in as residual
fatigue life recovery. The three-month healed specimens showed up to twenty times reduction in the
rate of crack opening displacement as compared to the same specimen before the healing period.
1 Introduction
In the last hundred years, the requirement for low-cost high fatigue life construction material with ex-
cellent mechanical and durability properties for applications such as bridge decks, high-speed railways,
high-rise buildings, and offshore structures led to the development of high strength concrete with steel
fibres. The addition of steel fibres improves the deformation of concrete and bridges the cracks, which
improves fatigue life [1]. However, the presence of fibres can become the source of additional defects
(i.e., segregation of fibres, entrapped air, and microcracks), leading to the progressive decrease in stiff-
ness of the material when subjected to cyclic loading [2], [3].
Ultra High-Performance Concrete (UHPC) was developed in the early 1990s. It is good in mechan-
ical and durability properties and also in sustainability by reducing the total raw material required for
the construction and from its inherent self-healing properties, which could reduce the repair and mainte-
nance work during its design life. The innate self-healing capacity of UHPC is due to the presence of
excess unhydrated binder particles and the role of fibres in forming multiple healable narrow cracks.
The studies on the autogenous self-healing capability of UHPC are growing significantly. A few re-
search studies showed a potential to self-heal cracks with widths up to 0.15 mm and a significant me-
chanical recovery up to 10-15% higher than the pre-crack flexural stress at least after self-healing for
three months underwater [4]. The self-healing capabilities under different environmental conditions
like submerged, wet-dry, different humidity conditions and also in aggressive environments including
geothermal water and chloride solutions has been studied as well and proved their effectiveness against
water absorption, chloride ingression, carbonation, and sulphate attack [5]. Also, a few studies dealt
with the recycling capabilities of UHPC as recycled aggregates in replacement with natural aggregates
up to 100%, and those recycled aggregates have also proven to impart significant autogenous self-
healing properties, thanks to the potentially reactive binder halo attached to them [6], [7]. Most research
focused especially on different crack widths and environmental conditions with or without crystalline
admixtures. Studies on the effect of autogenous self-healing on fatigue behaviour are scarce or non-
existent.
This study focused on developing a test methodology with a comprehensive laboratory experi-
mental plan to characterize the stimulated autogenous self-healing performance and its effect on fatigue
behaviour of Ultra High-Performance concrete. Recently, there has been an increase in interest in using
14 th
UHPC as a substructure for offshore wind turbines [8] and other potential underwater structures, which
could be the potential application for this study.
b
2 Materials and methods
2.1 Mix design
if
The UHPC mix composition employed for this study is shown in Table 1; its properties were widely
investigated under static conditions in the framework of H2020 project ReSHEALience, which aimed
at obtaining tensile strain hardening capacity up to 0.5% and enhanced durability in aggressive envi-
ronments (exposure classes XS and XA) [9], [10]. Brass-coated steel microfibers with a dimension of
20 mm in length and 0.22 mm in diameter were used in the concrete mix at a volumetric ratio equal to
1.5%, which is considered necessary for reaching the desired amount of strain hardening properties.
Furthermore, crystalline admixture Penetron Admix ®, dosed at 0.8% by mass of cement, was added
to stimulate the autogenous healing capacity.
Table 1 UHPC mix composition

Constituents kg/m3
CEM I 52.5 600
Slag 500
Water 200
Steel fibres 120
Sand (0-2 mm) 982
Superplasticizer 33
Crystalline admixture 4.8
2.2 Procedure
The thin beam specimens required for the experiment were cut from the more than a year-old large cast
slab of approximately 1400 x 1100 x 30 mm3 to the dimension of 500 x 100 x 30 mm3 (± 5 mm); the
older age allowed to reduce the delayed hydration part from the self-healing mechanism. Those large
slabs were stored in the courtyard in the open environment. Before cutting down into small specimens,
magnetic surveys were carried out to identify the fiber density and orientation to assess a uniform fiber
distribution in each specimen [11]; at the beginning, slabs were cut into three parts before cutting down
into the desired size, as shown in Fig. 1. After a preliminary investigation on thin beams, assessing the
influence of various residual Crack Opening Displacements (COD) of 50, 250, and 450 µm and differ-
ent magnitude of cyclic loading of 10-50%, 10-70%, and 10-90% of residual flexural strength at the
prescribed pre-crack COD (FR) at 5.5 Hz frequency, the pre-crack COD was set at 250 µm, and cyclic
load magnitude equal to 10-80% FR was adapted. A few specimens under the cyclic loading of 10-90%
experience sudden failure (data scattering) or difficulty controlling the desired crack opening displace-
ment. This leads to adjusting the cyclic loading range to 10-80%; anything less than this could take a
long time to reach the critical COD point where it distinguishes the stable and unstable part of the curve
in terms of the rate of COD. The first part of the experiment consisted in pre-cracking the specimens
up to 250 µm under a four-point flexural test in an Instron machine, and the flexural strength at that
unloading point was considered as residual flexural strength (F R). The second part of the experiment
was to conduct the four-point fatigue test with the magnitude of 10 to 80% FR at 5.5 Hz frequency on
the pre-cracked specimens up to 700,000 cycles or 1 mm in cumulative COD under load (including pre-
crack width), whichever was reached first. The third stage was the fatigue test after the healing period
of 1, 3, or 6 months in underwater conditions with the same magnitude and frequency but tested up to
2 million cycles, or failure. The specimens which weren't failed in this last stage were tested for failure
in the Instron machine by a four-point flexural test. Hereafter first, second and third stages are referred
to as pre-crack, pre-fatigue, and post-fatigue as shown in Fig. 2. A few specimens were taken out of the
water at the end of first-month of healing and tested for fatigue test up to 100,000 cycles or an additional

150 µm COD under load, whichever was reached first, to check the repeatability of healing, and this
stage is referred to as re-fatigue hereafter, and they were put back in water after the test and a post-
b
fatigue test was carried out after an additional two months of healing. Additionally, a few more speci-
mens were tested for failure under a four-point flexural load after pre-fatigue, 700,000 cycles, to check
residual flexural strength, and those specimens were referred to as pre-fatigue monotonic specimens.
This pre-fatigue monotonic specimens flexural capacity remained the same even after 700,000 cycles.
if
In the four-point bending test set-up, two LVDTs are attached to the sides of the specimen along
200 mm length in the center zone to measure the Crack Opening Displacement (COD). The distance
between the two loading points and the closest support for each loading point was 150 mm, and the
tests were done at a speed of 15 µm/s under displacement control for pre-cracking the specimens to the
crack width of 250 µm. In the same way, specimens were arranged for the cyclic test with a loading
frequency of 5.5 Hz. The number of specimens used for this experimental program for different criteria
is shown in Table 2. Apart from the flexural fatigue tests, Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) and micro-
scopic images were taken to evaluate the self-healing progress. UPV readings were taken before and
after pre-cracking, after pre-fatigue and/or re-fatigue, and after a healing period of 1, 3, or 6 months.
Microscopic images were taken after pre-fatigue and after a healing period. The beam notation is based
on the healing period, and individual number, e.g., 1M01 denotes 1M is one month healing period, and
01 is an individual number of the specimen.
Fig. 1 Contour image of steel fiber distribution (left) and marking to cut the slab (right)
Fig. 2 Three stages in this fatigue test, pre-crack, pre-fatigue, and post-fatigue
Table 2 Specimens used for cyclic test

Criteria Specimens Length Width Thick- Pre-fa- No. of Post-fatigue
[mm] [mm] ness tigue cy- cracks cycles
[mm] cles
1 Month 1M01 500 98 34 700,000 18 -
1M02 499 97 30 182,173 10 21,537
1M03 500 97 30 93,416 15 6,798
1M04 504 97 28 700,000 22 2,000,000+
3 Months 3M01 498 98 33 700,000 20 2,000,000
3M02 490 97 31 700,000 32 -
3M03 490 99 32 100,000 36 286,737
Niranjan Prabhu K., David Alejandro Clerque Vela, Yanira Ginori Ocampo Pacheco, Francesco Lo Monte, 299
Nele De Belie and Liberato Ferrara
14 th
b
3.1 Flexural fatigue test analysis
One of the major roles of fibers in self-healing (ultra-high performance) concrete is to trigger the for-
mation of multiple narrow cracks instead of single large cracks, which makes, even though the overall
deformation of the structural element is high, crack width stays within the healable range. The number
if
of cracks within the 200 mm center section of the specimen and the number of cycles to which each
specimen has been subjected during pre-fatigue and post-fatigue stage are provided in Table 2.
From the fatigue test results, the secant stiffness was computed considering each cycle’s maximum and
minimum load levels from the unloading part of the load vs. COD response during cyclic loading. As
the number of cycles increases, there is a continuous decline in the stiffness; first there is a sharp de-
crease, followed by a steady and constant decline until the end of the pre-fatigue loading. After the
healing process, the initial stiffness value for the post-fatigue tests (or re-fatigue tests for re-cracked
specimens) can either be higher or lower than the final stiffness value of the pre-fatigue tests. After that,
for the initial part of the post-fatigue stage (or re-fatigue stage), the same stiffness behavior as observed
in the pre-fatigue stage can be seen; however, this behavior is followed by a long stabilizing trend of
the stiffness. Whether stiffness increases or is reduced was based on the healing period, as shown in
Fig. 3. Specimen 1M04 shows that the final stiffness of pre-fatigue is 9.1% less than the final stiffness
of post-fatigue; for specimen 3M01, the stiffness increases by 8.86%. The difference in those specimens
is related to the healing period: 1M04 healed for a month, and 3M01 healed for three months. The other
specimens of the same group follow the same trend as shown in Table 3; this proves that a one-month
healing period is too short to start observing any significant effect on the fatigue stiffness.
Fig. 3 One month healed specimen (left) and three months healed specimen (right) stiffness evo-
lution
Table 3 Stiffness evolution for 1 Month and 3 Months specimens
Stiffness Pre-fatigue [kN/mm] Stiffness Post-fatigue [kN/mm]

Criteria Specimens
Initial Final Average Initial Final Average
1M02 10.55 9.52 9.68 9.03 7.24 8.70
1 Month 1M03 8.28 6.67 7.43 - - -
1M04 10.16 8.87 9.10 8.77 8.06 8.22
3M01 13.16 11.63 11.82 13.93 12.66 12.69
3 Months
3M03 11.03 8.52 9.09 9.86 8.86 9.08
The crack opening displacement rate (CODrate) for the specimens was analyzed based on Eq (1)
𝐶𝑂𝐷𝑏 − 𝐶𝑂𝐷𝑎
𝐶𝑂𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = (1)
𝑏−𝑎
where, CODa and CODb are the upper COD values (i.e, crack opening displacement under 80% FR) at
the a-th and b-th cycles, respectively.
Fatigue tests always have some scattering while applying the cyclic amplitude with less than 1 or 2
% error among each cycle for the same specimen. Due to this, it is impossible to analyze the COD rate
b
directly from the Load vs COD curve. An additional graph COD vs. number of cycles was then plotted,
and a polynomial cure fitting was made. Based on the polynomial curve, CODrate vs. COD is plotted as
shown in Fig. 4. The CODrate graph consists of three-stages: the first part is a stable curve where the
rate of COD decreases, the last part is an unstable curve where the rate of COD increases, and the
if
middle part denotes the critical point which clearly separates the stable and unstable part. This curve
helps in designing the structural fatigue elements and setting the cyclic load limit within the stable part
of the curve [12]. Pre-fatigue threshold of 700,000 cycles or a 1 mm COD limit usually falls in the
stable part of the curve and analyzing the rate of COD before and after healing would show the ad-
vantage of self-healing on fatigue behavior. The one-month healed specimen 1M04 shows the rate of
COD increased to 4.81E-05 from 2.69E-05, which is 1.78 times higher after self-healing. However,
three-month healed specimen 3M01 shows the rate of COD is 18.67 times lower after healing as the
values summarized in Table 4 confirm. A similar phenomenon was noticed in the other specimens
according to the same criteria; this trend is inversely proportional to the stiffness, where the stiffness
increases and the rate of COD decreases. This also proves one month healing isn’t enough to recover
mechanical properties of UHPC. The fibers are the important factor in the fatigue life of UHPC, and
this performance gain might be due to partial or complete closure of cracks. Also, self-healing might
happen around the concrete fiber matrix [13], which leads to a considerable reduction in the rate of
COD for three months healed specimens.
Fig. 4 COD vs no. of cycles with polynomial curve fitting (left), and rate of COD vs COD (right)
Table 4 Change in rate of COD for 1 Month and 3 Months
𝑑𝐶𝑂𝐷 𝑑𝐶𝑂𝐷
Criteria Specimens 𝑝𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡
𝑑𝑁 𝑑𝑁
[μm/cycle] [μm/cycle]
1M02 8.13E-04 9.53E-03

1 Month
1M03 1.27E-03 -
1M04 2.69E-05 4.81E-05
3M01 6.76E-05 3.62E-06
3 Months
3M03 9.35E-04 3.33E-04
3.2 Ultrasonic pulse velocity test and microscopic image analysis

UPV readings were taken before and after pre-cracking, after pre-fatigue and /or re-fatigue testing, and
14th
after a healing period to evaluate the damage and recovery of the specimens. Before taking UPV read-
ings, after specimens were taken out of the water, 48 hours drying in a lab environment was allowed.
b
The transducers were placed 200 mm apart in the mid-section on the tension zone of the specimen,
where the specimen had maximum bending moment and concentration of many cracks. For every meas-
urement after each interval, transducers were placed at the same place to take the readings. The recovery
index by UPV (IRUPV) was measured using the formula below (2). One-month self-healed specimens
if
recovered 55% to 80%, and three months self-healed specimens recovered 85% to slightly above 100%,
as shown in Fig. 5 (left).
𝑈𝑃𝑉𝑡 − 𝑈𝑃𝑉𝑝𝑟𝑒−𝑓𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑒
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑏𝑦 𝑈𝑃𝑉 (𝐼𝑅𝑈𝑃𝑉 ) = × 100 (2)
𝑈𝑃𝑉𝑢𝑛−𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑑 − 𝑈𝑃𝑉𝑝𝑟𝑒−𝑓𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑒
where the subscript t refers to the time of healing or re-fatigue at which the UPV has been taken.
A maximum of four cracks was analyzed with Photoshop® software for each specimen since mul-
tiple cracks of smaller size were formed in pre-fatigue. A merged image from Photoshop is shown in
Fig. 6. The index of crack sealing was measured using the formula below (3). The one-month speci-
mens’ crack widths are about 5 to 110 µm, and its overall crack sealing is up to 80%. The three-month
specimens’ crack widths are smaller than the one-month specimens’, ranging between 5 to 25 µm; its
healing capacity is up to 98% because of its narrow cracks, as shown in Fig. 5 (right).
𝐴𝑡
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 (𝐼𝐶𝑆) = (1 − ) × 100 (3)
𝐴𝑝𝑟𝑒−𝑓𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑒
where A is the crack area and t is the subscript representing the healing or re-fatigue time at which the
evaluation of area is performed. Since the number of cracks studied for each specimen is different, a
weighted average in function of the initial width of each crack was used to compute a single ICS for
the healing time studied.
Fig. 5 Recovery index by UPV and Index of crack sealing

b
130 µm
if
105 µm
1 Month healing
Fig. 6 Stitched microscopic image of pre-fatigued (top) and 1-month healed (bottom) specimen
N56
4 Conclusion
This paper has discussed the concept and validation of an experimental methodology to evaluate the
self-healing influence on the flexural fatigue behavior of Ultra High-Performance Concrete by analyz-
ing the stiffness and rate of Crack Opening Displacement before and after self-healing. The following
conclusions can be drawn based on repetitive mechanical behavior observed in at least two or more
specimens.
• Due to the high volumetric fiber content, even after 700,000 cycles at the amplitude of 10-
80% residual flexural strength, the maximum crack width would be less than 150 µm which
is only possible because of multiple cracks formation, as much as 36 cracks within 200 mm
spacing. This is one of the significant UHPC advantages; it can enable self-healing of almost
all cracks as long as they stay within the healable width range.
• Progressive microstructure deterioration leads to a steady decrease in material stiffness under
cyclic loading. And this decrease in stiffness causes a fatigue failure. The three-month self-
healed specimens show an improvement of the stiffness by up to 8.9%, which could directly
improve the fatigue life of the structure.
• The rate of Crack Opening Displacement was reduced by as much as 19 times for a three-
month healed specimen, which could significantly alter the CODrate curve and which could
increase the stability of the cracks, further contributing to the improvement of the structure’s
fatigue life.
• UPV readings and surface crack closure for three-month healed specimens show up to 100%
recovery. For one-month healed specimens, both tests show up to 80% recovery. However,
based on the post-fatigue performance of the specimen, reduction in stiffness and an increase
in CODrate are both undesirable outcomes that make a minimum three-month healing period
required to recover the fatigue ability of the structures.
Acknowledgements
The kind collaboration of Mrs. Maria Santangelo, MsArch., and Mr. Francesco Pillai,
technicians in the Laboratory for Testing Materials, Buildings and Structures, in ar-
ranging the experimental set-up and managing the experimental campaign is gratefully
acknowledged. This project has received funding from the European Union's Horizon
2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No
860006.
14th
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b
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Compos..

Mechanical performances of thermally-conditioned
b
Fabric Reinforced Cementitious Matrix systems
Marielda Guglielmi, Pietro Mazzuca and Luciano Ombres
if
Department of Civil Engineering,
University of Calabria,
Pietro Bucci Street, Cube 39B, 87036 Arcavacata di Rende (CS), Italy
Abstract
This paper presents the results of an experimental investigation performed on thermally-conditioned
FRCM specimens. Direct tensile (DT) and single-lap direct shear (DS) tests were carried out on FRCM
coupons and FRCM-to-concrete joints, respectively. Specimens were exposed to heating and cooling
down regimes and then tested at room temperature. This investigation aims to evaluate the influence of
several parameters such as temperature values (from 20°C to 300°C) and type of reinforcement, namely
PBO (short of polyparaphenylene benzobisoxazole) fibers, on the mechanical response of the compo-
site systems. The obtained results allow to define analytical relationships, which can be used as input
data for the thermomechanic simulation of concrete beams or slabs strengthened with PBO-FRCM
systems and for design purposes.
1 Introduction and backgrownd

Over the last decades, the rehabilitation of existing degraded structures through the application of com-
posite materials has been of great importance, especially where the benefits of these materials may offer
an alternative to traditional solutions; moreover, the scientific community had focused the attention on
how to face the occurrence of degradation phenomena, complying with the current safety design stand-
ards. Fiber-Reinforced Cementitious Matrix (FRCM) composites represent an effective solution for
these purposes as a result of their properties (i.e. durability, high strength-to-weight ratio and compati-
bility with concrete substrates); if compared to traditional composite materials, namely fiber reinforced
polymer (FRP) materials, FRCMs also present heat resistance and low flammability [1]. These proper-
ties are closely related to the combination of advanced fibres (in form of open-mesh configuration tex-
tiles) with inorganic matrices, such as lime-based or cement-based mortars. FRCMs have been found
to be very reliable solutions as strengthening systems of existing structures or RC elements [2-11].
Their effectiveness has been proven for the reinforcement of masonry or stone members, as in the case
of columns or walls; furthermore, their performances has been studied for flexural and shear reinforce-
ment of concrete structures, such as slabs or beams. Nevertheless, one of the main concerns associated
to the use of FRCM materials is the lack of knowledge about their mechanical behaviour when sub-
jected to elevated service temperature or fire; in addition, the obtained results give evidence that the
performances of members strengthened with FRCMs are governed by the slippage phenomenon at the
substrate (concrete or masonry)-FRCM system interface and/or at the fiber fabric-mortar interface.
FRCM-to-concrete bond performances have been widely investigated [12-15]. The results of these in-
vestigations remarked that the fibers-to-mortar adhesion is affected by the size of the particles, which
is larger than the space between the filaments; as a consequence, the mortar is unable to embed and
impregnate the fibers so the stress between these two components is not uniformly transferred. In these
conditions, the internal fibers, subjected to the least stress, undergo a slip while the external ones break,
as the greatest bond stress occurs. When a relative slip takes place without any visible damage, it is
referred to as the well-known “telescopic failure”. The information about the bond behaviour between
FRCM systems and concrete substrates is very limited; moreover, most of the results available in the
literature are contradictory: bond strength increased in some cases, decreased in others and even pre-
sented a non-monotonic variation with temperature.
Research on the performances of FRCM systems at elevated temperature or fire is extremely lim-
ited. This may concern the inherent experimental difficulties in the simultaneous application of loading
and high temperature, even for small-scale specimens. The studies reported in the literature analyze the
tensile stress-strain behaviour FRCMs, focusing on their residual capacity. For instance, Ombres et al.
14 th
[16] evaluated the tensile response of FRCM composites reinforced with one layer of PBO fibers sub-
jected to heating-cooling regimes (temperatures ranging from 20 °C to 200°C). The obtained results
b
highlighted that the PBO-FRCM specimens presented a great sensitivity to temperature; at 200 °C, the
retained tensile strength was only 40% compared to ambient temperature values.
In this scenario, a study on the mechanical response of thermally-conditioned FRCM was planned.
The preliminary results are reported and discussed in this paper. Direct Tensile (DT) tests were per-
if
formed on PBO-FRCM coupons and single-lap Direct Shear (DS) tests were carried out on PBO-
FRCM-to-concrete joints. The aim of this research is (i) to investigate the influence of the temperature
on the mechanical properties of the PBO-FRCM system; (ii) to assess the tensile strength variation of
the PBO-FRCM system after the thermal conditioning and, (iii) to evaluate the influence of several
parameters such as exposure time, temperature values (20°C, 100°C, 200°C and 300°C) and type of
reinforcement, namely PBO (short of polyparaphenylene benzobisoxazole) fibers, on the mechanical
response of the composite systems. The obtained results allow to define analytical relationships, useful
for design purposes and for the implementation of numerical procedures.
Thermally-conditioned PBO-FRCM coupons were tested to investigate the mechanical properties of
PBO-FRCM strengthening system under high temperatures. The experimental program consists of two
series of tests: Series I and Series II. Series I comprises 12 direct tensile tests carried out on PBO-FRCM
coupons to better understand the influence of thermal exposure on the mechanical properties (stress,
strain, etc.). Series II comprises the first 4 direct shear tests of an ongoing experimental investigation,
performed on FRCM-to-concrete joints in order to examinate the bond capacity of PBO-FRCM applied
on concrete substrate and the behaviour at the fabric-mortar interface when exposed to the target tem-
peratures.
2.1 Materials
The PBO-FRCM adopted in this study, provided by Ruregold, consists of a bidirectional unbalanced
fabric mesh (areal weight of 70 g/m² and 18 g/m² in the longitudinal and transverse direction, respec-
tively), embedded in a stabilized inorganic (cement-based) matrix. The PBO fiber yarns are spaced 10
mm with an equivalent thickness of 0.045 mm in the longitudinal direction and 20 mm with an equiv-
alent thickness of 0.012 mm in the transversal direction.
A ready-mix cement-based mortar was used. All the mechanical properties of textile and matrix are
repoted in Tab.1, where Ef, ffu and εfu are the elastic modulus, the tensile strength and the ultimate strain
of the fibers, respectively, while fcm is the compression strength of the mortar.
Table 1 PBO textile and mortar mechanical properties.

Ef (GPa) ffu (MPa) εfu (mm/mm) fcm (MPa)
PBO textile Mortar
218.56 1734.60 0.0187 43.11
2.2 Specimens preparation and temperature exposure

PBO-FRCM specimens were designed according to the recommendations of AC434 [17] and RILEM
TC 232-TDT [18] and were manufactured in prismatic shape with the aid of individual removable
molds. Specimens were 500 mm long, 50 mm wide and 6 mm thick. The indicated length was estab-
lished to define an anchorage zone of 100 mm at both ends and to maintain a central measuring zone
of 300 mm; then, two PVC tabs with a length of 100 mm and a thickness of 3 mm were bonded to the
ends of each specimen to ensure a uniform load distribution. The overall width was defined to accom-
modate four fiber bundles of the mesh. A single layer of reinforcement was used in all specimens; they
were demolded 48 hours after fabrication and cured at laboratory ambient conditions for 30 days.
Direct shear tests were performed on FRCM-to-concrete joints; specimens were fabricated with a
bidirectional unbalanced fabric mesh, using the same type of cementitious mortar. Composite strips
were externally bonded to concrete prisms, applying the strengthened system on all the four lateral
faces; prior to the application of the composite, the concrete surfaces were thoroughly wetted. The PBO
strip and the matrix started at a distance of 30 mm from the loaded end of the prism concrete edge;
This document Mechanical
performances of thermally-conditioned Fabric Reinforced Cementitious Matrix systems
moreover, fibers was exposed outside the bonded length. The strip end at the top of the concrete prism
was clamped with two aluminium plates having a width of 50 mm (the same as the specimen) and a
b
length of 60 mm; an epoxy resin was used to improve the fibers gripping to the testing machine. The
aluminum tabs were also 3-mm smoothed in order to guarantee a uniform load distribution.
Before testing, all specimens (i.e. PBO-FRCM coupons and PBO-FRCM-to-concrete joints) were
exposed to the target temperature (100°C, 200°C and 300°C) using a thermal chamber with an average
if
heating rate of 1°C/min. The temperature in the specimens was measured with type-K thermocouples
(0.3 mm of conductor diameter) placed at the PBO-FRCM-to-concrete interface and at the centre of the
PBO-FRCM specimen. An additional thermocouple was used to control the air temperature inside the
oven. It is worth mentioning that the initial temperature was set 10°C above the predefined target tem-
perature in order to reduce the specimen heating time. Once the temperature at the FRCM-to-concrete
interface reached the target value, the oven was switched off and the specimens were left to cool down
without any conditioning until reaching room temperature. The choice of this procedure allowed to
examine any damage occurred in the specimens. After completing the conditioning process, the speci-
mens were taken out of the thermal chamber and tested at room temperature.
2.3 Test procedures

Three specimens were tested for each target temperature (20°C, 100°C, 200°C and 300°C) using a
universal testing machine. A total of 12 direct tensile tests were conducted on PBO-FRCM coupons
according to the CNR-DT 215 guidelines [18]. Tests were carried out under displacement control at a
cross-head displacement speed of 0.2 mm/min, until failure. Axial displacements were measured using
two LVDTs with a 50 mm gauge length, placed on the opposite sides of the specimens. The reported
strains were obtained as average of the values recorded by the two LVDTs used in the set-up.
Single-lap (direct) shear tests were performed on four FRCM-to-concrete joints adopting the clas-
sical push-pull configuration, in which the concrete support was restrained while the fibers were pulled.
The bond length was kept constant and equal to 250 mm for all specimens. Tests were performed under
displacement control at a cross-head displacement speed of 0.003 mm/sec. An aluminium L-shaped
plate was glued to the fibers strip positioned outside the bonded length with the aim of measuring the
plate reactions by means of two LVDTs; the latter were installed on the upper edge of the concrete
prism to measure the relative displacement (i.e. the slip) between the fibers and the support. The average
of these two values was considered to define the global slip (i.e. the relative displacement between the
closing of the concrete support and the composite fabric just outside the bonded zone).
3 Experimental results and discussion
3.1 Effects of thermal conditioning on PBO-FRCM specimens

For each temperature value, tensile stress-axial strain curves are represented in Fig.1 to Fig.4. From the
obtained results, it is possible to point out that all the curves developes in the three phases normally
characterizing this type of material: Phase I-uncracked stage, Phase II- crack development, Phase III-
cracked stage up to failure [18],[19]. Moreover, diagrams show several small stress drops, which are
mainly associated to the development of the cracking phenomena. The reported strains were obtained
as average of the values recorded by the two LVDTs used in the set-up.
800
Tensile stress (MPa)
700
600
500
400
Series I_DT 20-1
300 Series I_DT 20-2
100
0
0 0,002 0,004 0,006 0,008 0,01 0,012 0,014 0,016 0,018
Axial strain (mm/mm)
Fig. 1 Tensile stress-axial strain curves of PBO-FRCM unconditioned specimens (T=20°C).

14th
In the case of PBO-FRCM at room temperature, small stress drops were observed durig the second
stage as the mortar started presenting some cracks; phase II turned into phase III with an evident tran-
b
sition point between the two. After the complete cracking of the matrix, the load-bearing capacity of
the specimens is almost entirely depedant on the tensile response of the fibers: for this reason, the
ultimate stress could be easily identified, and the last branch of the curves assumed a clear slope. It is
worth mentioning that the measurements obtained from the LVDTs returned erratic values at the early
if
stage of the test performed on DT 20-3 specimen; thus, for safety reason the results obtained in terms
of cracking and failure strains had to be discarded. The increase of exposure temperature up to 300°C
barely modified the response of the PBO-FRCM specimens either: tensile stress-axial strain curves still
exhibit an evident transition point between phase II and phase III.
800
700
600
500
400
Series I_DT 100-1
100
0
0 0,002 0,004 0,006 0,008 0,01 0,012 0,014 0,016 0,018
Fig. 2 Tensile stress-axial strain curves of PBO-FRCM conditioned specimens (T=100°C).
800
700
600
500
400
Series I_DT 200-1
100
0
0 0,002 0,004 0,006 0,008 0,01 0,012 0,014 0,016 0,018
800
700
600
500
400
Series I_DT 300-1
100
0
0 0,002 0,004 0,006 0,008 0,01 0,012 0,014 0,016 0,018
The curves also allow to identify the main parameters of the direct tensile tests performed on PBO-
FRCM specimens for each target temperature: tensile stress (σcr) and axial strain (εcr) at the point where
the matrix cracks; ultimate stress (σu), evaluated by dividing the peak load by the textile cross-sectional
area Af =tfbf where tf is the equivalent thickness of the PBO fabric and bf the width of the coupon;
b
ultimate strain (εu) at failure. The obtained values are reported in Tab.2.
Table 2 Experimental results on PBO-FRCM tensile tests.
if
Series I T (°C) σcr (MPa) εcr (mm/mm) σu (MPa) εu (mm/mm)
DT 20-1 20 289.18 0.000697 582.43 0.010937
DT 20-2 20 373.41 0.001062 701.42 0.012859
DT 20-3 20 299.61 - 525.44 -
DT 100-1 100 304.73 0.000838 538.40 0.008645
DT 100-2 100 272.09 0.001208 634.18 0.010697
DT 100-3 100 226.32 0.000578 518.89 0.009083
DT 200-1 200 180.21 0.000218 521.95 0.010651
DT 200-2 200 218.90 0.000420 585.81 0.011021
DT 200-3 200 218.68 0.000423 600.98 0.010214
DT 300-1 300 96.94 0.000416 160.09 0.010369
DT 300-2 300 125.13 0.000375 236.36 0.011921
DT 300-3 300 100.61 0.000333 238.49 0.011281
The tensile strength of the PBO-FRCM specimens can be divided into two temperature intervals. For
temperatures ranging from 20 °C to 200 °C, the tensile strength reductions were almost null: compared
to the values obtained at room temperature, the average strength loss was about 5% and 1% at 100 °C
and 200 °C, respectively. When the test temperature was increased to 300 °C, the specimens exhibited
significant strength losses, with retained values of almost 35%; such a result may due to the lack of
interaction between the fibers and the matrix.
3.2 Crack patterns and failure modes

Fig.5 shows the failure mode of a representative specimen from each target temperature in order to
study the cracking patterns. Regardless of the test temperature, failure was always triggered by the
slippage of the fibers within the matrix.
Fig. 5 Crack patterns of PBO-FRCM specimens for each tested temperature.

14th
Fig. 5 also shows that, for temperatures ranging from 20 to 200 °C, all the specimens presented a pro-
gressive increase in the number of cracks with increasing temperature; this result should be associated
b
to the improvement of the fiber-to-matrix bond together with the thermal shrinkage of the cement-based
matrix. On the other hand, the cracks spacing significantly increased in the specimens tested at 300 °C,
this should be associated to the degradation of the interface between the fibers and the matrix, which
led to a reduction of the load-bearing capacity of the composite.
if
3.3 Effects of thermal conditioning on PBO-FRCM-to-concrete joints
Failure modes and load-slip response varying the target temperature are described and discussed for the
direct shear tests performed on four PBO-FRCM-to-concrete joints, relating to an ongoing research.
The analysis of load-slip diagrams provided by tests on PBO-FRCM systems are reported in Fig.6.
3
Applied load (kN)
2,5
1,5
1 Series II_DS 20-1

Series II_DS 100-1
Series II_DS 200-1
0,5
Series II_DS 300-1
0
0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5
Global slip (mm)
Fig. 6 Applied load-global slip curves of PBO-FRCM-to-concrete joints varying the temperature.
The curve corresponding to the unconditioned specimen shows an initial linear branch up to a value of
the applied load approximately equal to 50% of the peak load; the latter is reached after a non-linear
branch and followed by a descending branch describing a soft load decrease. For the specimen condi-
tioned at 100°C, the highest value of the peak load was recorded, while the initial linear branch of curve
is limited to 30% of this value; at first, the post-peak branch evidences a slight slope which becomes
almost vertical the final segment. The trend of the curve corresponding to the specimen conditioned at
200°C is similar to the previous one, even if a lower value of the peak load was recorded. The exposure
at the 300°C temperature caused a strong decrease of the peak load value; hence, a different behaviour
is described by the curve that shows a post peak stage almost vertical, representative of a sudden and
brittle failure. Thus, it can be observed that the curve corresponding to the specimen conditioned at
300°C is different from those corresponding either to the unconditioned or conditioned at 100°C and
200°C specimens: a more ductile behaviour characterized their performances.
Experimental results are also reported in terms of peak load P* and corresponding slip s*, which
values were measured during the tests and collected in Table 3.
Table 3 Experimental results on PBO-FRCM-to concrete joints direct shear tests.

Series II T (°C) P* (kN) s*(mm)
DS 20-1 20 2.19 0.468
DS 100-1 100 2.62 1.102
DS 200-1 200 2.31 1.418
DS 300-1 300 1.56 0.841
With respect to the room temperature, an increase of about 19% and 5% was recorded for the specimen
conditioned at 100°C and 200°C, respectively; on the contrary, a 28% reduction of the peak load was
observed in the case of exposure at 300°C. Slip values corresponding to peak loads varied between

0.468mm (room temperature) and 1.418mm (T=200°C); they increased with the increase of the target
temperature, except for the specimen tested at 300°C, that evidenced a reduction in both peak load and
b
global slip. This may be due to the drop of bond between the concrete substrate and the composite strip.
For unconditioned and conditioned at 100°C specimens, failure was due to debonding occurred at
the textile-matrix interface while for the specimen conditioned at 200°C, the telescopic failure of the
wire bundles took place, followed by the textile splitting out of the mortar; moreover, the exposure at
if
300°C caused a slight demage of the fabric outside the composite strip: as a consequence, fibers were
affected by a premature rupture; thus, the slip value at 300°C was lower than that recorded at 200°C.
4 Conclusions
In this work, the behaviour of PBO-FRCM coupons and PBO-FRCM-to-concrete joints under thermal
conditioning has been analyzed. The samples were exposed to different temperatures levels (20°C,
100°C, 200°C and 300°C) and subjected to Direct Tensile (DT) and single-lap Direct Shear (DS) tests,
respectively, in order to determine the mechanical properties variation with temperature. The results
obtained from this research allow to draw the following conclusions:
▪ At moderate temperature levels (up to 200◦C), Series I specimens kept their mechanical prop-
erties relatively unaltered; in some cases, improvements in the strength capacity of PBO-FRCM
been obtained. These improvements may be due to the shrinkage of the mortar matrix during
the cooling process, which lead to an improvement of the fiber-to-matrix bond
▪ At 300°C, a significant loss of strength is detected in all specimens; this result could be associ-
ated to the loss of interaction between the fibers and the mortar, together with the to the reduced
load-bearing capacity of the PBO fibers when subjected to a heating-cooling regime.
▪ For temperatures ranging from 20°C to 200°C, the PBO-FRCM specimens exhibited an in-
crease in terms of peak loads, while a huge decrease was recorded at 300°C.
▪ Slip values corresponding to the peak load increased with the temperature when compared to
room temperature values; this is mainly due to the increase of PBO fibers slippage within the
matrix at elevated temperatures.
Further investigations are still needed to validate the results obtained in this study and to better under-
stand the structural performances of fiber composites strengthening systems subjected to thermal con-
ditioning.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express their appreciation to Ruregold s.r.l., Italy, for the composite materials
supplied in this work.
References
[1] Nanni A., 2012, “FRCM strengthening: a new tool in the concrete and masonry repair toolbox”,
Concrete International Design Construction, 34 (4), 43-49
[2] Triantafillou T. and Papanicolau C., 2006, “Shear strengthening of reinforced concrete mem-
bers with textile reinforced mortar (TRM) jackets”, Materials and Structures, 39(1), 93-103
[3] De Caso y Basalo F., Matta F. and Nanni A., 2012, “Fiber reinforced cement based composite
system foir concrete confinement”, Construction and Building Materials, 32:55-65.
[4] Loreto G., Leardini, I., Arboleda D. and Nanni A., 2014, “Performance of RC slab-type ele-
ments strengthened with Fabric Reinforced Cementitious Matrix (FRCM) composites”, Journal
of Composites for Construction, ASCE, 18 (3). A 4013003.
[5] D’Ambrisi A. and Focacci F., 2012, “Flexural strengthening of RC beams with cement-based
composites, Journal of Composites for Construction, ASCE, 15 (5. 707-20.
[6] Ombres L., 2011, “Flexural analysis of reinforced concrete beams strengthened with a cement
based high strength composite material”, Composite Structures, 94, 143-155.
[7] Ombres L., 2014, “Concrete confinement with a cement based high strength composite material”
Composite Structures, 109, 294-304.
[8] Cascardi A., Longo F. Micelli F. and Aiello M.A., 2017, “Compressive strength of confined
column with Fiber Reinforced Mortar (FRM): new design-oriented models”, Construction and
Building Materials, 156, 387-401.

14th
[9] Bournas D.A., Lontou P., Papanicolau C.G and Triuantafillou T.G., 2007, “Textile reinforced
mortar versus Fiber Reinforced Polymer confinement in reinforced concrete columns”, ACI
b
Structural Journal, 104(6), 740-748.
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D.V., Paolacci F. and Papanicolau C.G., 2014, “Mortar-based system for externally bonded
strengthening of masonry”, Materials and Structures, 47 (12), 2021-2037.
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[11] Aiello M.A., Bencardino F., Cascardi A, D’antino T., Fagone M., Frana I., La Mendola L.,
Lignola G.P., Mazzotti C., Micelli F., Minafò G., Napoli A., Ombres L., Oddo M.C., Poggi C.,
Prota A., Ramaglia G., Ranocchiai G., Realfornzo R., Verre S., 2021, “Masonry columns con-
fined with Fabric Reinforced Cementitious Matrix (FRCM) systems: a Round Robin test”,
Construction and Building Materials, 298, 123816.
[12] Ombres L., 2015, “Analysis of the bond between Fabric Reinforced Cementitious Mortar
(FRCM) strengthening system and concrete”, Composites: Part B, 69,418-426.
[13] D’Antino T., Sneed L.H., Carloni C. and Pellegrino C., 2015, “Influence of the substrate cha-
racteristics on the bond behaviour of PBO FRCM-concrete joints”, Construction and Building
Materials, 101, 838-850.
[14] Carloni C., Sneed L.H. and D’Antino T., 2012, “Interfacial bond characteristic of Fiber Rein-
forced Cementitious Matrix for external strengthening of reinforced concrete members”, Pro-
ceedings of the VIII International Conference on Fracture Mechanics of Concrete and Concrete
Structures, FraMCoS-8.
[15] Raoof S.M. and Bournas D.A., 2017, “TRM versus FRP in flexural strengthening of RC beams
behaviour at high temperatures”, Composites: Part B, 154,424-437.
[16] Ombres L., Mazzuca P., Verre S., 2022, “Effects of thermal conditioning at high temperatures
on the response of concrete elements confined with a PBO-FRCM composite system”, J. Mater.
Civ. Eng 34, 1-12.
[17] AC434, 2016, “Acceptance criteria for masonry and concrete strengthening using Fiber-Rein-
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vice.
[18] RILEM Technical Committee 232-TDT, 2016, “Recommendation of Rilem TC 232-TDT, Test
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and Structures.
[19] National Research Council, 2020, “Guide for the design and construction of externally bonded
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bonded Fabric-reinforced Cementitious Matrix systems for repair and strengthening concrete
and masonry structures”, ACI 549.4-R20, Farmington, MI

Steel and carbon fiber textile reinforced high-strength-
b
concrete columns
Yedidya M. Shachar1, Rami Eid2 and Avraham N. Dancygier3
if
1 Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Technion - Israel Institute of Technology,
Haifa 32000, Israel.
2 Civil Engineering Department, Shamoon College of Engineering, Beer Sheva 8410802, Is-
rael.
3 Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, National Building Research Institute,
Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel.
Abstract
High strength concrete (HSC) usage is spreading in reinforced concrete (RC) structures in the past few
decades. Conventional RC columns, made by steel-reinforced HSC, require a large amount of confining
transverse steel to provide sufficient ductility and strength. This leads to transverse reinforcement con-
gestion, and in turn - to application issues of the fresh concrete. Carbon fiber-reinforced polymer
(CFRP) wrappings can provide another solution for the required confinement in columns; however, its
fire resistance is low because of the fire sensitivity of the polymer and the fact that FRP is wrapped on
the external surface of the column. Furthermore, the behavior of CFRP-only confined columns is more
brittle than the steel-confined columns. This paper describes a new hybrid steel-carbon fiber textile
confinement applied to HSC circular columns. The HSC columns are reinforced by dual layers: steel
and carbon fibers mesh. The carbon-fibers mesh is wrapped around the steel hoops of the column before
concrete casting and they are protected by the concrete cover. The behavior of the hybrid confined HSC
columns combines the ductile behavior of the steel with the stiffness of the CFRP and provides the
required confinement level for HSC columns. Initial results that comprise column-confinement analysis
and their experimental examination are presented. The analysis focuses on the uniaxial load-displace-
ment behavior of the circular columns and compares different amounts of steel and carbon fibers to
explain the role of each component. Initial experimental results are also presented, and they demonstrate
the advantages of the hybrid confining system and its effectiveness when used in high-strength concrete
columns.
1 Introduction
The structural and material behavior of HSC has been studied in the past several decades [1]–[9]. One
of the more common applications of HSC is in columns of high-rise buildings, in order to decrease their
cross-sectional area and increase the floor free space. Concrete columns confinement is used to increase
their load-bearing capacity and ductility. Traditionally, the confinement is provided by transverse steel
reinforcement, where the volume of confining steel increases as the strength of the concrete increases
[10]. The large amount of reinforcing steel required for HSC, makes its application almost impractical
due to steel congestion, which inhibits a proper flow of concrete during casting [11].
FRP sheets can be wrapped around the column to solve this problem. This solution was examined
and found efficient in increasing the confinement effect in concrete columns and reducing the amount
of the required lateral steel [12]–[18]. Moreover, an analytical model for the dual (steel hoops and FRP)
confinement influence on HSC was developed by Eid & Paultre [19]. However, externally wrapped
FRP is vulnerable to fire, hence requiring an additional layer of insulation for minimal fire resistance
[20]. It is worth noting that any numerical model may be affected by epistemic uncertainties, as com-
mented in [21]. This paper discusses a new solution of a hybrid steel hoops-carbon fibres confining
system that provides both confinement and fire-safety for HSC columns. This method has been shown
to be feasible in a previous study [18] and the current research further analyzes and examines experi-
mentally this solution.
14 th
2 Test program and procedure
b
To experimentally examine the effect of hybrid confinement on column behavior, several specimen
types were designed.
The specimens had a 250-mm diameter circular cross-section and a height of 600 mm. Details of three
specimens from initial tests presented here are shown in Table 1 and Fig. 1.
if
Table 1 Details of steel-carbon fibers hybrid confined HSC, 250-mm diameter and 600 mm long
specimens.
Specimen Lateral steel Volumetric lateral Carbon fiber Carbon equivalent
steel ratio [%] mesh thickness (mm)
S19C0 ∅10@80 1.78 Non 0
S09C1 ∅10@180 0.79 1 layer 0.0785
S09C4 ∅10@180 0.79 4 layers 0.314
Fig. 1 Specimens sketch (detailed in Table 1)
The concrete mixture included 0.3 water/cement ratio, which yielded a mean concrete cylinder com-
pressive strength at 28 days of 82.7 MPa. Yield strengths of the 10 mm diameter deformed steel hoops
and the 12 mm diameter deformed steel bars were 400 and 530 MPa, respectively. The carbon fibers
confinement was S&P Armo-Mesh L600. The fiber properties provided by the manufacturer are
240GPa elastic modulus and 4200 MPa tensile strength with a0.0175 ultimate strain. It should be noted
that the mesh is coated with amorphous silicate bonded with styrene-acrylic ester copolymer and high-
polymer synthetic agents. The coating system is aimed to increase the fibers’ anchorage. Considering
the following phases of this research, which involve examining similar specimens under fire conditions,
the concrete mix contained 2 kg/m3 polypropylene fibers to prevent spalling of concrete when exposed
to fire.
Each column included 11 strain-gauges (SG): six on the internal steel as shown in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2
and five external gauges mounted on the concrete surface as shown in Fig. 3. Linear variable displace-
ment transducers (LVDT) were installed on the column's edge collars, as shown in Fig. 3. Additionally,
photographs of the specimens were taken during the tests to perform Digital Image Correlation (DIC)
analysis to evaluate the axial deformation.
The three confinement systems are shown in Fig. 2. It is noted that the carbon fibers are originally
manufactured with an equivalent thickness of 0.157 mm (An equivalent thickness is calculated by di-
viding the weight of the carbon rovings in a unit area of the mesh by the carbon fibers density). How-
ever, the equivalent thickness was reduced to 0.0785 mm in order to increase the mesh spacing. The
reduction was made by removing half of the fiber rovings.
This document may not be copied orSteel
and carbon fiber textile reinforced high-strength-concrete columns
The two ends of the columns were covered with Neoprene cappings with steel cups to ensure a
uniform application of the load. To prevent edge failure, steel collars were also installed, as shown in
b
Fig. 3.
if
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 2 Confinement systems of S19C0 control specimen (a), the S09C1 specimen with one carbon
fibers layer (b), and S09C4 with four fibers layers (c)
The specimens were axially loaded in a rigid hydraulic press, manually stroke-controlled, with a max-
imum compressive load of 500 tons (5 MN). The load was measured using a 500-ton load cell. The
specimens were cast in a single batch at a concrete plant and they were tested at NBRI (National Build-
ing Research Institute) laboratory at the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology.
LVDT’s Load Cell
Steel
Collar
Concrete surface
SG’s
Capping
Fig. 3 Test setup

14 th
b
Fig. 4 presents the axial load versus axial displacement as measured by the DIC system. As shown in
Fig. 6, specimen S19C0 failure was near the edge collar. The collar failed during the experiment, which
caused the axial load to decrease suddenly at a displacement of ~14 mm (see solid line in Fig. 4). The
initial linear branch of the load versus the strain is presented in Fig. 5. The DIC measurements were
taken according to two horizontal lines of reference dots, marked at the top and bottom parts of the
if
specimen pictures. They are presented in Fig. 5 together with those of the longitudinal SG’s, and the
analytical prediction of Eid and Paultre model [19]. Due to their attachment to the edge collars, the
LVDT's measurements were not accurate. Moreover, the strain gauges readings went out of scale during
loading around the peak load. Accordingly, the results recorded by different measuring devices need to
be analyzed in light of the above shortcomings. It should be noted that the current application of Eid
and Paultre's model [19] assumes similar behavior of coated and uncoated FRP meshes. This is a sim-
plifying assumption that needs to be further examined.
Specimen S19C0 (control) had a maximum axial load capacity of 409.7 tons. Specimen S09C1
contained meaningfully less transverse steel and only one layer of carbon fibers. This specimen had a
bit higher load capacity of 422.2 tons but meaningfully less ductility as shown in Fig. 4 (dashed line).
Specimen S09C4, which contained the same amount of steel hoops with 4 layers of carbon fibers, had
a similar capacity of 418.1 tons, yet it showed a very ductile response, similar to that of the control
specimen (compare dashed-dotted and continuous lines in Fig. 4). As shown in Fig. 5, the columns'
behavior agrees fairly well with the ascending branch of the model but the descending branch of the
model prediction does not match the test results. These results will be considered in future development
of a modified model.
The three columns before and after the experiment are shown in Fig. 6. The failure of the concrete
cover generally occurred suddenly and stopped the measurements by all the external SG’s. This sudden
failure also affected the LVDT’s measurements and in most cases, the only reliable measure for the
post-peak was the DIC.
As can be shown in Fig. 6, the longitudinal steel failed in buckling and the carbon mesh raptured.
This failure was common to all specimens. The cover spalling off is shown as the first load drop in all
curves of Fig. 4. The following load drops are considered to be caused by the carbon fiber rupture. The
experiments were stopped after buckling of the longitudinal steel bars or after the steel hoops raptured.
The rupture of the steel hoops was preceded by the rupture of the carbon fibers.
Fig. 4 Axial load versus axial shortening of the specimens as measured by the DIC.

if b
Fig. 5 Axial load versus axial strain as measured by different methods and compared to model of
[19]
S19C0 S09C1 S09C4
Fig. 6 Specimens before and after the experiment.

14 th
4 Future investigation
b
The research presented in this paper introduces an innovative method for a confinement solution in
HSC columns, considering their fire safety, as described in the introduction. The following phase of the
investigation is to examine this solution under high-temperatures. For this purpose, an experimental
device has been manufactured, which is able to heat circular specimens while located in the rigid hy-
draulic press. Thus, the specimens can be is axially loaded and heated simultaneously.
if
This electronic heating device is presented in Fig 7. It includes two 3000W semi-cylindrical ceramic
fibers heaters, controlled by a proportional–integral–derivative controller (PID). To protect the ceramic
heaters from possible spalling of the concrete cover, the specimen in the device is set inside a high-
temperature-resistant steel mesh.
(a)
(b) (c)
Fig. 7 Heating device for high-temperature column experiments under axial load: (a) and (b) with-
out a specimen, (c) with a specimen set in a 5-MN testing machine.
5 Summary
Standard amounts of transverse steel reinforcement confinement required by international design codes
for HSC columns are greater than those required for normal strength concrete. Steel hoops that are
required for these requirements result in a large amount of structurally unfeasible construction parts,
especially for circular columns of large diameter (generally found in lobby and parking levels of high-
rise buildings). An alternative hybrid construction method for confining HSC columns is presented in
this paper, using textile reinforcement in concrete for internal confinement together with reduced trans-
verse steel reinforcement. In comparison with the common external, post-casting application of confin-
ing carbon fiber sheets, internal application of this hybrid reinforcement has the advantage of better
resistance under fire.

Initial experimental results of circular column specimens are shown. Test results of specimens with
three different confining systems, which contained different amounts of steel hoops and carbon fibers
b
are presented. The initial results show the effectiveness of the proposed method, in terms of both load-
bearing and displacement (ductility) capacities. A following study of the proposed system behavior
under high-temperature conditions is planned to be carried out in a future phase of this research, em-
ploying a dedicated testing device.
if
Acknowledgments
This research was partially supported by SCE – Shamoon College of Engineering research grant and
also by the Israeli Ministry of construction and housing. The authors would like to thank Mr. Ami
Dahan from Israbeton Concrete - part of Ashtrom Industries, for his important assistance in designing
the concrete mixtures and in casting. Additionally, the technical assistance of Mr. Elhanan Izhak, and
Mr. Edi Gershengoren from the National Building Research Institute at the Technion – Israel Institute
of Technology, is gratefully acknowledged.
References
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Stress Block and Transverse Reinforcement for High-Strength Concrete Columns (441.1R-
18),” Farmington Hills, MI, 2018.
[2] H. Lee, Y. Lai, C. Chen, C. Tao, and H. Lee, “Behavior and modeling of high-strength
concrete tied columns under axial compression compression,” J. Chinese Inst. Eng., vol. 41,
no. 4, pp. 353–365, 2018, doi: 10.1080/02533839.2018.1473806.
[3] S. P. Shah, P. Zia, and D. Johnston, “Economic Considerations for Using High Strength
Concrete in High Rise Buildings,” study Prep. Elborg Technol. Co, 1983.
[4] M. D. Luther and K. C. Bauer, “Using High Strength Concrete Simplifies Precast Column
Design,” Concr. Constr., vol. 32, no. 6, pp. 546–547, 1987.
[5] W. Schmidt and E. S. Hoffman, “9000 PSI CONCRETE--WHY? WHY NOT?,” Civ. Eng.,
vol. 45, no. 5, 1975.
[6] P. Zia, M. L. Leming, and S. H. Ahmad, “High-performance concretes: A State-of-the-Art
Report,” North Carolina State Univ., Raleigh, NC (United States), 1991.

[7] W. E. Kunze, “High-strength Concrete in the United States,” in Pro- ceedings of XIV
Biennial Conference in Concrete, 1995.
[8] Antonius, I. Imran, and P. Setiyawan, “On the Confined High-strength Concrete and Need of
Future Research,” Procedia Eng., vol. 171, pp. 121–130, 2017, doi:
10.1016/j.proeng.2017.01.318.
[9] F. Aslani and M. Bastami, “Constitutive Relationships for Normal- and High-Strength,” ACI
Mater. J., vol. 108, no. 4, pp. 355–364, 2011.
[10] “ACI 441R-96 High-Strength Concrete Columns : State of the Art Reported by joint ACI-
ASCECommittee 441,” 1996.
[11] R. Eid, K. Kovler, I. David, W. Khoury, and S. Miller, “Behavior and design of high-
strength circular reinforced concrete columns subjected to axial compression,” Eng. Struct.,
vol. 173, pp. 472–480, 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.engstruct.2018.06.116.
[12] J. C. Lim and T. Ozbakkaloglu, “Confinement model for FRP-confined high-strength
concrete,” J. Compos. Constr., vol. 18, no. 4, 2014, doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)CC.1943-
5614.0000376.
[13] R. Eid, N. Roy, and P. Paultre, “Normal- and high-strength concrete circular elements
wrapped with frp composites,” J. Compos. Constr., vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 113–124, 2009, doi:
10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0268(2009)13:2(113).
[14] T. Ozbakkaloglu, “Compressive behavior of concrete-filled FRP tube columns : Assessment
of critical column parameters,” Eng. Struct., vol. 51, pp. 188–199, 2013, doi:
10.1016/j.engstruct.2013.01.017.
[15] T. Ozbakkaloglu, “Axial Compressive Behavior of Square and Rectangular High-strength
Concrete-filled FRP Tubes,” J. Compos. Constr., vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 151–161, 2013, doi:
10.1061/(ASCE)CC.1943-5614.0000321.
[16] R. Ortlepp, A. Lorenz, and M. Curbach, “Column strengthening with TRC: Influences of the
column geometry onto the confinement effect,” Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng., vol. 2009, no. 1, pp.
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1–6, 2009, doi: 10.1155/2009/493097.

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Durability of Eco-Friendly Strain-Hardening
b
Cementitious Composite incorporating Recycled
Textile Waste Fiber and Silica Fume
if
Payam Sadrolodabaee, Josep Claramunt, Mònica Ardanuy and Albert de la
Fuente
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering- Polytechnic University of Catalonia
(UPC) – Barcelona (08034), Spain
Abstract
To reach carbon neutrality, the use of more eco-friendly building materials derived from recycled re-
sources and industrial by-products has been widely encouraged. The use of Portland cement (PC) and
concrete as the most used material in the world, after water, ends in the release of million tonnes of CO2
into the atmosphere. On the other hand, fast fashion in the garment industry has resulted in a massive
volume of textile waste (TW) that ends up in landfills worldwide. In this regard, a cementitious com-
posite containing industrial by-products as a partial replacement of PC reinforced with recycled TW
fibers could be a viable option in terms of both durability and sustainability. In this study, the durability
of the hybrid TW/falx nonwoven fabric-reinforced cement composite modified with 30% Silica Fume
(SF) was investigated by determining the effect of accelerated wet /dry cycles on the mechanical be-
havior (through the flexural test) and microstructural characteristics (through scanning and backscat-
tered electron microscope). The results show that there was a negligible difference between the me-
chanical properties of the laminated composite treated with SF with respect to the one without SF in
unaged conditions. Nonetheless, after accelerated aging, the fibers in the former could maintain their
strength and flexibility, resulting in the composite with better post-cracking mechanical parameters by
40%.
1 Introduction
Sustainability is a complex concept that includes economic, environmental, and social impacts, and has
grown to be one of the major issues in the construction industry. According to statistics, the building
industry accounts for around 35% and 45% of CO2 emissions and waste generated in the EU, respec-
tively [1]. Thereby, reducing the environmental impact of building materials has gained growing atten-
tion among scholars and decision-makers in recent decades [2]. In this sense, the use of recycled and
low-carbon embodied resources could improve the environmental sustainability of the construction ma-
terials [3].
Recently, sustainable natural-based fibers including vegetables, cellulose, and recycled ones from
garments (the latter composed by around 70% cotton and 30% polyester fibers) have attracted great
interest in strain-hardening cementitious composites (SHCC) [4]–[8]. Nonetheless, the long-term dura-
bility issue of this kind of natural-based reinforcement in a high alkalinity environment of cement ma-
trix is a big challenge due to fibers’ degradation and embrittlement which occurred by penetration of
hydration products, particularly calcium hydroxide (CH), to the fiber lumen and walls [9]. The dimen-
sional instability of the natural fibers due to the high water absorption could further matter which may
have an adverse effect on their adherence to the matrix.
Substituting the partial Portland cement (PC) with supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs)
to develop the durability of natural fiber-reinforced SHCC through decreasing the alkalinity of the ma-
trix is a well-known method. Further, by deploying this method, the amount of used clinker in mortars
decreases which will reduce the amount of associated CO2 emission (currently estimated to be 850
kgCO2eq/t clinker) and its adverse consequence on global warming [10].
In recent years, see Table 1, various SCMs including silica fume (SF), fly ash (FA), slag, and me-
takaolin (MK), were partially substituted by cement in different dosages (mainly 10 to 50%) to improve
the performance of SHCC reinforced with natural fibers. Further, the mechanical performance of this
kind of thin composites with mainly low to medium structural responsibilities was generally evaluated
through the flexural test. In addition, the most prevalent and critical durability test for vegetable-based
14 th
composites was reported to be exposing the samples to accelerated wet/dry (WD) cycles [11]. Indeed,
when the environment is maintained constant, the transfer of OH- and Ca2+ ions from the cement matrix
b
to the fibers is slow. However, exposure to repeated WD cycles provokes the capillary pore system of
the cement matrix filled and emptied with alkaline pore water consecutively, resulting in accelerating
the hydration product's migration to the fibers [9].
In our previous studies [12], [13], the recycled TW fibers from garments were mixed with flax
if
vegetable fibers to produce the hybrid nonwoven fabric as internal reinforcement for SHCC in building
components with low structural performance. This composite proved to have a better durability prop-
erty against WD cycles than the one reinforced with 100% untreated flax fabric. However, the durability
of this mortar laminate could still be improved by incorporating SCMs. In this regard, this study inves-
tigates the effect of the incorporation of 30% SF on the flexural performance of compression-molded
TW/flax nonwoven fabric-reinforced PC mortar laminates in both unaged and aged conditions. The
microstructure of the composites was studied by the use of scanning and backscattered electron micros-
copy (SEM and BSEM).
Table 1 Summary of recent studies on the use of SCMs in SHCC reinforced with vegetable-based
fibers
SCMs Reinforcement Mechanical test Durability test Ref
3-9% SF Short Kraft pulp fiber Flexural None [14]
15% SF, 15% Sisal and coconut fi- Compressive Chloride penetra- [15]
MK, 15% FA bers tion
50% MK and cal- Long sisal fibers Tensile and flexural None [16]
cined waste
50% MK Jute textile Double-sided High-temperature [17]
pullout exposure
20-40% MK Flax woven fabrics Flexural None [18]
10% SF, 40% slag Sisal and coconut fi- Flexural WD cycles, aging [19]
bers in water
10% SF Flax nonwoven fabrics Tensile and flexural None [20]
10-55% MK and Long sisal fiber Flexural WD cycles [21]
calcined waste
50% MK and cal- Long Sisal fiber Tensile and flexural Hot water immer- [22]
cined waste sion
10-50% MK Flax nonwoven fabrics Flexural WD cycles [23]
2 Experimental procedure
2.1 Materials and sample preparation

CEM I according to EN 197-1:2011 supplied by Cementos Molins Industrial, S.A. (Spain), with a min-
imum of 52.5 Mpa compressive strength at 28 days and a minimum of 95% clinker, in addition to SF
by Sika S.A.U., were used as the binder. Fluidizer Viscocrete-3425 by Sika S.A.U. was used to improve
the workability of the samples containing SF. The internal reinforcement was needle-punched light
nonwoven fabric composed of 65% recycled short TW and 35% long flax fibers as described in depth
in previous research [12].
The composite plates were produced by hand lay-up, vacuuming, and compression techniques.
Briefly, a thin layer of paste was first placed on the bed of the special squared mould of 300 mm × 300
mm × 10 mm. Then, each layer of fabric after being initially impregnated with the paste was stacked
layer by layer up to six. Finally, a thin layer of paste was poured before the final vacuuming. The mould
was kept under the pressure of around 3 Mpa prior to demoulding on the next day. The final plates were
cured for 28 days in the humidity chamber (at >90% RH and 20 ± 1 º C). The plates allocated to the
durability test were undergone 25 cycles of WD accelerated aging in the CCI climatic chamber after
Durability of Eco-Friendly Strain-Hardening Cementitious Composite incorporating Recycled Textile Waste
Fiber and Silica Fume
the normal aging to simulate roughly natural weathering conditions. Each WD cycle consists of 6 hrs
of drying at 60 º C with 60% RH, followed by 18 hrs of immersion in water at 20 º C, based on EN
b
12467. From each plate, six specimens were cut to carry out the mechanical test with rough dimensions
of 50 mm × 300 mm × 10 mm.
As can be seen in Table 2, five different plates were produced and prepared for the mechanical test.
The CTR referred to the one without fiber nor SF, just produced with the cement paste. RC was the
if
cement plate reinforced with six layers of fabric and cured for 28 days. RCSF referred to the composite
containing 30% SF substituted by cement. And finally, RCD and RCSFD were those plates that under-
went accelerated aging, D referred to the Durability test (aged samples). The mix design of each sample
was also shown in Table 2. The initial water to binder ratio was considered to be 1.0 while the final one
was affected by the dewatering technique, vacuuming, and compressing of the plates.
Table 2 Mix proportions and nomenclature of the samples

Sample CTR RC RCSF RCD RCSFD
Cement (gr) 2000 1500 1050 1500 1050
Water (gr) 2000 1500 1500 1500 1500
SF (gr) - - 450 - 450
Fluidizer (gr) - - 15 - 15
Fiber weight (%) - 5.4 5.4 5.4 5.4
(w/b)final 0.50 0.45 0.55 0.45 0.45
2.2 Composite characterization

The mechanical performance of the samples was evaluated using a four-point flexural test with a cross-
head speed of 20 mm/min by using an Incotecnic universal testing machine (Incotecnic Lab-Pre SL,
Spain) following RILEM TFR1 and TFR 4, see Fig 1a-c. The span length was 270 mm and the machine
was equipped with a load cell of 3 kN.

The following mechanical parameters were calculated: the limit of proportionality (LOP) as the
breaking flexural stress of the matrix (first crack strength); the modulus of rupture (MOR) as the max-
imum flexural stress of the composite through Eq (1); toughness index (IG) as specific fracture energy
through the area under the force-displacement curve limited to a deflection of 10% of the support span;
flexural stiffness of the pre-cracked zone (E1) and post-cracking zone (E3) through Eq (2) from the
force-displacement curve.
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐿
𝑀𝑂𝑅 = (1)
𝑏ℎ2
3
23∆𝑃. 𝐿
𝐸= (2)
108∆𝑓. 𝑏ℎ3
Where Pmax is the maximum associated load recorded, L is the span length, b and h are the cross-sec-
tional width and thickness, respectively, ∆P and ∆f are the variations of forces and deflections of any
two points on the elastic (between 60% and 80% of the LOP) or post-cracking regime.
Finally, SEM and BSEM observations were performed using JEOL JSM 6300 (Jeol Ltd., Tokyo,
Japan) equipped with an energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer (EDS) model Link ISIS-200 (Oxford
Instruments, United Kingdom) to study the microstructural features of the composites. The hydration
reactions of the specimens were frozen using isopropyl alcohol immersion, and the specimens were
maintained under a vacuum until the analysis. The specimens were polished and encapsulated in epoxy
resin before BSEM examination (Fig 1d).
14 th
(b) (c)
if b
(a) (d)
Fig. 1 Test procedure: a)flexural test set-up; b) specimen under loading; c) deformed specimens
after the test; d) polished encapsulated specimens for the BSEM observation.
3.1 Mechanical properties

As demonstrated in Fig 2, all the samples except the CTR presented pseudo-ductile behavior resulting
from the formation of multiple fine cracks. Indeed, only the CTR showed a brittle behavior and after
reaching the first cracking stress of the cement matrix (LOP), failed suddenly due to the absence of any
reinforcement. Nonetheless, all the laminated composites after reaching LOP in the elastic zone con-
tinued to resist more loads due to interaction between the matrix and the nonwoven reinforcement in
the transition zone through the formation of several cracks. The post-cracking zone which had a lower
gradient than the pre-cracking zone (E3 ≤ E1), proceeded by the same number of cracks while the width
of the cracks increased until resulted in failure.
All the mechanical parameters from the flexural test were summarized in Table 3. As to MOR, the
RC sample had the highest value and hybrid reinforcement could significantly increase the post-crack-
ing parameters including MOR and IG with respect to CTR. The composite with 30% SF (RCSF)
showed a slightly less MOR than RC probably due to the slow and late pozzolanic activity. Indeed,
hardening and gaining strength due to pozzolanic reaction would be completed in further aging with
respect to clinker reaction. Nonetheless, the fiber efficiency of both composites was almost equal
(MOR/LOP ≈ 2.7) and the difference originated from matrix strength characterized by LOP. As to aged
samples, the flexural resistance of RCD was almost 40% less than the RC which proved the suscepti-
bility of this kind of reinforcement in extreme weathering conditions due to the fibers’ degradation and
embrittlement. Nonetheless, the RCSFD maintained the same strength as the RCSF after exposure to
accelerated aging which proved that the SF could develop the durability performance of the composite
by reducing the amount of Ca(OH)2 which in turn, caused the fibers to keep their strength and flexibil-
ity.
The energy absorption index (IG) calculated till deflection of 27 mm, showed the same trend as the
MOR. In other words, toughness was reduced by more than 35% after exposure to WD cycles for the
composite without SF (RC and RCD) due to the increase in fiber rupture and a decrease in fiber pull-
out as a result of a fiber weakness caused by alkali attack, fiber mineralization, and fiber volume fluc-
tuation. Nevertheless, this loss for the composite treated with SF was only 5%, reaching 8.1 KJ/m 2 from
8.6 KJ/m2.
The slope of the post-cracking regime (E3) demonstrated the efficiency and stiffness of the rein-
forcement after the crack of the matrix. Among the composites, all excluding RCD roughly had the
stiffness in the same range (0.3 Gpa to 0.4 Gpa) which proved the similar contribution of the fiber in
those composites as already observed in MOR/LOP (2.4 to 2.8). Regarding the pre-cracking mechan-
ical properties (LOP and E1) mainly related to matrix strength, these parameters were increased slightly
after aging due to the more development of hydration and pozzolanic reactions.

20
b
16
Flexural Stress [MPa]
12 CTR
if
RC
8
RCSF
4 RCD
RCSFD
0
0 10 20 30 40
Mid span deflection [mm]
Fig. 2 Representative flexural stress: deflection relationships obtained from the four-point flexural
test.
Table3 Mechanical properties obtained from the four-point flexural test (CoV in %)
Sample CTR RC RCSF RCD RCSFD
MOR (MPa) 6.9 (21) 16.5 (12) 14.5 (13) 10.0 (27) 14.3 (3)
LOP (MPa) 6.9 (21) 6.3 (19) 5.2 (24) 6.4 (31) 5.8 (13)
MOR/LOP 1.0 2.6 2.8 1.6 2.4
2
IG (KJ/m ) 0.18 (28) 10.1 (12) 8.6 (13) 6.5 (33) 8.1 (10)
E1 (GPa) 13.1 (8) 11.3 (21) 10.8 (22) 12.0 (5) 11.0 (8)
E3 (GPa) - 0.40 (9) 0.38 (24) 0.15 (24) 0.30 (14)
20
16
Flexural Stress [MPa]
Present study
12 Ramirez et al [23]
Toledo et al [21]
8 Toledo et al [19]
Unaged cement Unaged Aged cement Aged cement/SCMs

composites cement/SCMs composites composites
composites
Fig. 3 Effect of SCMs on the flexural resistance of natural-based SHCC in aged and unaged con-
ditions
The results of the present study are in agreement with other observations in which the effect of SCMs
on the wet/dry aged condition was investigated through the flexural test for the vegetable-based fiber
reinforced mortar composites. As can be seen in Fig 3, the maximum flexural strength of all the unaged
composites reduced almost slightly, on average 16%, after the SCMs partially substituted by the ce-
ment. Further, all samples lost significant resistance, on average 44%, after being exposed to WD cy-
cles. Nonetheless, the pozzolanic additions in all studies (30% SF, 10% MK, 50% MK/calcined waste,
14 th
and 10% SF, respectively) could improve the resistance in aging conditions (25 WD cycles for all stud-
ies except 250 cycles for [23]), with respect to those aged samples without any SCMs. The same trend
b
was observed for the toughness and energy absorption of the materials.
3.2 Microstructural analysis

Fig 4 depicts the SEM observation of the unaged samples. As to the RC sample (Fig 4a-b), natural
if
fibers could be seen in Fig 5a where the fibers demonstrated some separation from each other by deg-
radation of the hemicelluloses due to the alkalinity of the cement. It could be also observed that some
fibrils still maintain their toughness and flexibility (yellow arrows), while some have broken without
elongation (yellow dotted shape). Nonetheless, no major damage appeared and only some superficial
layers seemed to begin to peel off. Some hydrated cement particles were observed on the fiber surface
which could be a Ca(OH)2 crystal impregnated with C-S-H. Synthetic fibers were observed in Fig 5b
with less deterioration than cellulose fiber. The particles on the fiber surface included calcium and
silicon ions that could be indicative of C-S-H particles. SP-2 analyzed the fiber that contained mostly
carbon and oxygen, with calcium residues in the matrix. As to RCSF, Fig 4c-d, many fibers remained
still long after the sample failure which showed that fiber pull-out was more dominant than fiber rup-
ture. Both vegetable and synthetic fibers contained a lot of cement hydration particles, mainly C-S-H.
Calcium hydroxide was detected hardly in the spectra which proved the efficiency of the use of SF to
reduce the amount of portlandite in the PC matrix as previously explained.
As to the BSEM images, the aged composites with and without SF were analyzed. The composite
of RCD (Fig 5a,b) showed more and wider cracks with respect to the RCSFD (Fig 5c,d). Further, in the
EDS analysis of RCD, some amounts of CH were detected while for the RCSFD the spectra showed
no traces of CH which proved the efficiency of the usage of SF in the substitution of PC.
(a) (c)
(b) (d)
Fig. 4 SEM microimages of the fiber surface in RC and RCSF samples and the corresponding
EDS analysis: a,c) vegetable fiber; b,d) synthetic fiber
4 Conclusions and perspectives

Incorporating textile waste (TW) as an internal reinforcement into cementitious composite was inves-
tigated. Further, to improve the durability and sustainability of this composite, the Portland cement was
substituted with 30% silica fume (SF). Based on the analysis of the obtained results in both unaged and
aged conditions (exposed to 25 wed/dry cycles), the following conclusions can be drawn:
• All the aged and unaged composites reinforced with the hybrid TW/flax fabric proved strain
hardening performance with significantly higher toughness and flexural resistance with respect to
the control sample, without any reinforcement.
• The incorporation of SF could improve the post-cracking performance of the composite in the
aged condition by 40% due to the reduction of fiber embrittlement and rupture in a less alkalinity
environment. The less migration of cement hydration products, mainly calcium hydroxide, to the
fibers in composites with SF was confirmed through the microstructural observations.
Thus, this research proves that the cementitious mortar containing recycled TW fiber and silica fume
could be a technically feasible, sustainable, and durable composite. The potential applications of this
b
composite for low structural responsibility elements including façade panels have been studied and the
results have been recently gathered in the Ph.D. thesis of the first author [24].
if
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Fig. 5 BSEM microimages and the corresponding EDS analysis: a,b) RCD sample and magnifi-
cation of matrix area; c,d) RCSFD samples and magnification of matrix area
Acknowledgements
The authors express their gratitude to the Agencia Estatal de Investigación, Spanish Ministry of Econ-
omy, Industry, and Competitiveness (Government of Sp in) for the financial support received under the
scope of the projects RECYBUILDMAT (PID2019-108067RB-I00) and CREEF (PID2019-
108978RB-C32). Monica Ardanuy acknowledges the Ministerio de Universidades (Government of
Spain) for the mobility grant (Subprograma de Movilidad, Plan Estatal de Investigación Científica y
Técnica y de Innovación 2017-2020).
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Investigation of self-healing property of UHPC with sus-
b
tained loads under aggressive exposure environments
Bin Xi, Zhewen Huang, Salam Al-Obaidi, Francesco Lo Monte and Liberato Fer-
if
rara
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milano, Italy
Abstract
This paper describes a preliminary study into the healing performance of ultra-high performance con-
crete (UHPC) with commercial crystalline admixtures (CA) when test samples were exposed to tap,
geothermal, and salt water under sustained loads. The crack closure index was calculated using image
processing techniques after one and two months of exposure. The results show that, as expectable,
narrower cracks tended to gain better self-healing degrees. Exposure to salt water and geothermal water
showed relatively low closure index values compared to exposure to tap water, with the worst state of
geothermal water. This pattern was also validated by ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) test. Additionlly,
the observation of the morphology of self-healing products also revealed an adverse effect on crystal
growth and crystallization in the salt water and geothermal water, which could explain why the samples
showed lower healing capacities in the corrosive water environment. This study will guide the design
of UHPC and pave the way for the promotion of its application.
Keywords: UHPC; Self-healing; Crystalline admixtures; Corrosive environment; Durability
1 Introduction
The durability and sustainability structures are the top priority in the current research in the civil engi-
neering and construction industry. As a brittle material, the concrete is susceptible to cracking under
tensile forces. Reinforced concrete structures working with cracks can suffer from serious durability
problems. The cracks provide a pathway for aggressive substances to enter the concrete interior, which
may significantly endanger the structure service life. For some coastal concrete structures, such as
cross-sea bridges and piers, seawater containing large amounts of sulfates and chlorides can penetrate
the concrete through cracks and reach and attack the reinforcement, leading to excessive corrosion. The
cracking and spalling of the concrete due to expansive action of the corrosion products degrade the
concrete performance and seriously impair the structure safety [1],[2]. In addition, this also increases
the cost of repair and maintenance of structures in service[3],[4].
In recent years, concrete self-healing technologies have developed rapidly [5],[6]. By incorporating
foreign aid additions, concrete structures can heal themselves autonomously without intervention. In
this case, cracks can be sealed, thus preventing the penetration of harmful ions and improving durabi-
lity. The crystalline admixtures (CAs) are one of the most widely used and studied self-healing promo-
ters,[7–9] CAs usually consist of proprietary mixtures of active chemicals[10]. They can react with
water, cement particles, and Ca(OH)2 generated from cement hydration reaction, and then produce pre-
cipitates to seal the cracks, activating the self-healing behavior. Cuenca et al. found that the specimens
soaked in water reached maximum crack closure, and the CA may favor long-term self-sealing capacity
even under repeated cracking and healing events [11]. Reddy et al. observed that samples with CA had
different degrees of recovery of compressive and splitting strength under all exposure conditions (water
immersion, water contact, wet-dry, and air exposure), which was because of the significant increase in
calcite content [12].
In this preliminary study, the self-healing performance of UHPC with commercial CA exposed to
three different aqueous environments under sustained loading was investigated. The UHPC, as an ad-
vanced cementitious material, has been widely studied among researchers since it exhibits ultra-high
strength, durability, and ductility. However, current studies on the self-healing behavior of cracked
UHPC have mainly focused on fresh water and less on aqueous environments in the presence of corro-
sive ions. In addition, past researchers have rarely considered self-healing behavior under sustained
14 th
loading. This paper examines the self-healing property of pre-cracked UHPC immersed in tap water,
geothermal water, and salt water under sustained loading generating sustained through crack tensile
b
stresses. The self-healing performance has been quantified using an ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV)
test and image processing techniques to assess its efficacy in different water environments. Moreover,
optical microscopy was employed to observe the morphology of self-healing products.
if
2 Materials and test methods
2.1 Materials
The mixture proportions of the UHPC used in this study are given in Table 1. The water-cement ratio
was 0.18 to gain high matrix compactness and strength. Besides, 0.8% by weight of cement crystalline
admixture (Penetron Admix ®) was added as a healing promoter. A 1.5% volume fraction of straight
steel fibers (lf = 20 mm, df = 0.22 mm) was incorporated to obtain tensile hardening properties. More
details of the material and the preparation process of the mixture can be found in the authors' previous
study[13],[14].
Table 1 Mixture proportion of UHPC

Constituents (kg/m3)
Sand 0–2 Crystalline
CEM I 52,5 R Slag Water Steel fibers Superplasticizer
mm Admixture
600 500 200 120 982 33 4.8
2.2 Preparation of the pre-cracking and sustained samples

The experimental samples were obtained from larger slabs prepared in situ [15]. They were stored in a
controlled environment for up to one year (RH = 90%, T = 20 °C) to minimize delayed hydration effects
on the assessment of self-healing property. The thin plates were first split into 5 square samples, and
the square sample was cut precisely to make double edge wedge splitting (DEWS) test samples. The
sample shape and size could be found in the study by Cuenca et al.[14]. The DEWS test was considered
an effective way to obtain the constitutive relationship between tensile stress and crack opening dis-
placement (COD) for fibre reinforcedcementitious composites[11], [16].
The DEWS samples were first pre-cracked. The average value of the COD was recorded by one
LVDT attached to each side of the sample, shown in Fig. 1. Two COD values were set at 0.1 and 0.3
mm, respectively, as representative of small and large crack opening. When the value of COD reached
the preset value, the loading was stopped, and the corresponding peak force was recorded. The test was
performed under machine-head displacement control with a loading speed of 0.005mm/s.
Fig.1 Test set-up of Double edge wedge splitting (DEWS) tests.
In order to apply the sustained loading to pre-cracked DEWS samples, a dedicated load-holding device
was designed and manufactured. As shown in Fig. 2, the device consisted of four bolts, four movable
steel plates (15*1.5*2.5 cm), two loading bars with a length of 100 mm and a diameter of 10 mm, and
nuts for fixing.

Errore. Nel documento non esiste testo dello stile specificato.
Loading procedures: firstly, the pre-cracked sample was placed in the center of the device, where
the upper nuts were loose and the lower nuts were fixed. Then, a load from the compressive machine
b
was applied to the center of the sample at the same loading speed as the pre-cracking test. The load
given to a sample was the load corresponding to the value of the corresponding COD in pre-cracking
test for that sample. When the load was reached, the technician pressed the "hold" button on the com-
pressive machine control panel, at which point the force was fixed. The load was directly applied to the
if
movable steel plates which passed through the bolts. As the upper nuts on bolts were tightened, the
force was transmitted directly to the sample via the plates and steel bars, while the control panel also
indicated the load decreased. When the panel readings showed '0', the load was fully applied to the
specimen and was locked by the device.
Fig.2 Set-up for sustained loading DEW samples.
Sustained loaded samples were exposed to three different water environments: tap water, salt water,
and geothermal water. The tap water was from the Milan city tap water supply network; the prepared
salt water concentration was 3.3%; the geothermal water came from a collected water tank in a cooling
tower in a geothermal power plant in Chiudino, Tuscany [15]-[17]. The geothermal water had a high
content of sulfate and chlorides [17].
2.3 Microscopic Techniques for the Closure of Cracks

Before exposure to the different water environments, the sustained loading cracked samples were first
photographed with a digital optical microscope DinoLite (magnification of 225) and the software Dino-
Lite Capture. The obtained images were imported into Phothoshop® to reconstruct the entire crack, as
in Fig. 3(left). The area Aarea, and length of the crack llength were calculated using the mathematical,
statistical tool of Phothoshop®. The average width waverage equaled Aarea divided by llength. The samples
were photographed on different days of exposure. To evaluate the self-healing property, the crack clo-
sure index was calculated as below[18]:
𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 − 𝑊𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 (1)

𝐶𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥(%) = · 100
𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙
where winitial is the initial crack width of the pre-cracking test; w after sealing is the crack width of the same
sample after being soaked in the different water environments.
In addition, the DinoLite microscope was employed to observe the morphological characteristics
of the self-healing products.
2.4 Ultrasonic pulse velocity test

The UPV test is regarded as a common tool for assessing concrete damage and self-healing properties
[10],[19],[20]. The working principle for UPV is shown in Fig. 3(right), where the wave propagation
velocity between emitter and receiver changed when the depth and width of the crack changed. For the
experiments herein performed, the distance between the transmitter and receiver was 100 mm; the trans-
ducer diameter was 50 mm; the signal frequency used was 50 kHz. The tests were performed on intact,
pre-cracked, and sealed samples. The wave velocity was calculated by recording the transmission time
of the wave from the sample.
14 th
if b
Fig. 3 Schematic of extraction and reconstruction of cracks (left); schematic of UPV (right)
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 UPV test

Figure 4(left) compares the average velocity values for the intact sample, the cracked sample with COD
of 0.1 mm, and the cracked sample with COD of 0.3 mm; the average velocity was 4355 m/s, 3866 m/s,
and 3662 m/s, respectively. After one month of exposure, a moderate recovery was observed with re-
spect to the initial cracked state; it can be furthermore observed that for the samples exposed to salt
water the average velocity was slightly lower than that of the samples exposed to tap water, and for
exposure to geothermal water, the average velocity showed the lowest value. The faster the average
speed, the higher the self-healing level obtained. In addition, by comparing values of COD for crack
samples, a narrower crack width can achieve a good healing degree.
3.2 Closure index

The closure index of samples exposed to tap water, salt water, and geothermal water for one month and
two months was calculated according to Equation 1. Three average crack ranges were classified: small
cracks (< 0.15 mm), medium cracks (0.15-0.3 mm) and large cracks (> 0.30 mm).
Figure 4(right) illustrates that all cracks healed as the exposure time increased. The healing effect
was significantly better for small cracks than for the other crack width ranges. Among the three water
environments, the healing effect in tap water was the best. 100% of closure was found for small width
cracks after only one month. Cracks in the medium widt range also were almost 100% sealed after two
months in tap water. For samples exposed to salt water for one month, the closure index was between
60% and 95%, lower than the figure in tap water for the same period. Samples in geothermal water
show the worst healing performance, where even for small width cracks, the closure index after two
months hardly reached 60%, though continuously progressive aloing time. These results indicate that
the self-healing performance was significantly reduced in the aggressive waters. The result was consis-
tent with the pattern of UPV test results.
Fig. 4 UPV test results for the samples after 1 month exposure in different environments, com-
pared to initial intact/cracked ones (left); comparison of closure index (right)

3.3 The morphology of self-healing products
b
3.3.1 Observation of early self-healing products
For samples exposed to tap water, the appearance of the self-healing products was very rapid. Many
white crystals were found at the mouth of the crack in only one day (Fig.5a), and on the7th day, the
small crack had achieved a high sealing level (Fig. 5-b,c). Figure 7b shows crystals that were found to
if
accumulate into pillars, indicating a good crystallinity. For larger cracks, relatively big cubic grains
were found at the crack mouth Fig.5d. In previous studies, it was shown that crystals of this shape were
considered calcite [21].
a b c d
Fig.5 Observation of self-healing products for exposure in tap water. (a): the sample in 1 day;(b)
the pillar crystallization in 7days;(c) small crack closure in 7days;(d) medium crack closure
in 7days
For samples immersed in salt water, the small cracks were able to be sealed well (Fig.6a) on the seventh
day. For larger cracks, the particle size of the crystals was smaller (Fig.6b). Also, many needle-like,
fibrous crystals were observed inside the fractures (Fig.6c), but the crystal in this shape form was dif-
ficult to find on the surface of the sample exposed to the chloride solution on the seventh day. These
were the typical forms of aragonite [22]. Qian et al. suggested that NaCl slowed down the rate of CaCO3
crystallization and reduced its thermodynamic and kinetic potential [23]. In addition, Na+ could lead to
the one-dimensional crystal growth of CaCO3, and NaCl impeded the growth of (1 0 4) and (1 1 1 0)
faces of calcite while inducing the formation of the (1 1 1) face of aragonite [23].
a b c
Fig.6 Observation of self-healing products for exposure in salt water in 7 days. (a) small crack
closure;(b) large crack closure;(c) morphology of crystals
14 th
In geothermal water, although crystal products were also seen on the surface of the crack (Fig7), this
case was sporadic as compared to the companion samples exposed to tap and salt water. Figure 7b
b
shows that small amounts of crystals were also clustered around the large crack mouth. In fact, the
surface free energy of vaterite and aragonite was lower than that of calcite. In this case, aragonite and
vaterite crystallize more easily to be generated due to the dominance of surface energy in the initial
crystallization stage [24],[25]. The sulfate reduced the rate of precipitation of CaCO3 and enhanced
if
(spherical) aggregation [25]. In geothermal water, crystallization is further hindered by the dual action
of sulfate and chloride salts.
3.3.2 Observation of fibers and self-healing products in the long term.
Another noteworthy finding is that, as shown in Fig.7c, by observing at 0-day, one month, and two
months the samples exposed to tap water, more crystal products were adhered to the surface of steel
fibers. The steel fibers provided a further location for crystal nucleation, besides the edge of the crack,
as an additional value of their ‘bridging action.’ The crystals were able to accumulate along the fibers
towards the edges of the crack, gradually sealing it from either side and from its center. Doo et al.
reported that the attached crystals on the outside can protect the steel fibers from corrosion[26].
a b c
Fig.7 Observation of self-healing products for exposure in salt water in 7 days. (a) small crack
closure;(b) large crack closure; (c) observation of self-healing products and steel fiber for
exposure in tap water.
4 Conclusion
This study has presented a preliminary study in which cracked UHPC incorporating a crystalline ad-
mixture as a healing stimulator were exposed under sustained load, generating sustained through crack
tensile stresses, to different environments, including tap water, salt water and geothermal water, to
evaluate their healing performance in the aforesaid scenarions.
The main findings of this study are summarized below:
1, The UPV results demonstrate that, after one month of exposure, samples exposed to salt water
and geothermal water had a recovery, in term of average velocity, lower than those exposed to tap
water. Additionally, the velocity of samples exposed to geothermal shows the smallest value.
2, According to the closure index, all cracks were continuously healing with increasing exposure
time. For small cracks, it was possible to obtain the best self-healing level. Among the three water
environments, the healing effect of the sample soaked in tap water was the best. 100% closure was
achieved for small crack widths after only one month. For samples exposed to salt water for one month,
the closure index ranged from 60% to 95%. The closure index of samples in geothermal water after two
months hardly reached 60%, showing the worst healing performance.
3, The morphology of the early self-healing products revealed that for samples immersed in tap
water they tended to have higher crystallinity. In contrast, poorer crystallization was observed in salt
water and geothermal water. That may be due to chloride and sulfate ions that delayed the kinetics of
the calcium carbonate crystallization further altering the thermodynamics of the same reaction . Addi-
tionlly, the presence of fibers was observed to favor the deposition of self-healing products, providing
b
a location for them to deposite also in the free crack space and then contributing to faster close the crack
bridging the products growing from the free edges of the same cracks.
Acknowledgements
if
The activity described in this paper has been performed in the framework of the project “Rethinking
coastal defense and Green-energy Service infrastructures through enHancEd-durAbiLity high-perfor-
mance cement-based materials-ReSHEALience”, funded by the European Union Horizon 2020 re-
search and innovation program under GA No 760824. Bin Xi would like to acknowledge the funding
supported by China Scholarship Council under grant No.202008440524.
The kind collaboration of Mr Antonio Cocco, Paolo Broglia and Giuseppe Papparà, technicians at
the Laboratory for Testing Materials Buildings and Structures (LPMSC), Politecnico di Milano in ar-
ranging the test set-up and experimental plan is also acknowledged.
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Assessment of Prestressed Dry Joints by X-ray
b
Computed Tomography
Martin Rettinger, Peter Gänz, Jajnabalkya Guhathakurta, Sven Simon and
Alex Hückler
if
Chair of Conceptual and Structural Design,
Technische Universität Berlin,
Gustav-Meyer-Allee 25, 13355 Berlin, Germany
Institute of Computer Architecture and Computer Engineering,

University of Stuttgart,
Universitätsstraße 38, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
Abstract
Dry joints in prefabricated concrete construction, especially in precast segmental bridges, are a matter
of controversial discussion within the professional community. While dry joints have been successfully
applied in major infrastructure projects and offer benefits such as fast construction speed and non-
destructive disassembly, most guidelines recommend wet joining techniques such as epoxy joints in
order to obtain a watertight seal and prevent the risk of stress concentrations due to imperfect joint
surfaces. The latter aspect can now be assessed with high precision both in the unstressed and pre-
stressed state by the use of X-ray computed tomography (CT). This paper presents the development of
a prestressing device for the post-tensioning of small concrete dry joint samples, which are then scanned
in a computer tomograph for industrial applications. With a CT image resolution of 22 µm, gaps in the
dry joint starting from a width of approximately 0.05 mm can be assessed by postprocessing. The dry
joint samples are prestressed in incremental steps from 0 to 20 MPa gross compressive stress in order
to observe the reduction of gap sizes and changes in the effective contact area in the dry joint. In a first
experiment, reduction of the contact-free area relative to the total joint area from 15% in the unstressed
state to 8% under 20 MPa gross compressive stress was observed. The method presented in this article
offers an approach to assess the quality of dry joints produced by different production techniques such
as high precision steel formworks, match-casting, milled joints etc. First experiments suggest that dry
joints produced by match-casting exhibit an excellent contact surface fit, where even under low com-
pressive stresses of only approximately 0–1 MPa no significant gap areas can be detected within the
described image resolution.
1 Introduction
Globally, construction industries see themselves faced with two contrasting challenges. On the one
hand, there is a rising demand for construction to ensure good housing and infrastructure for a growing
worldwide population. On the other hand, the emission of greenhouse gasses and material consumption
must be strongly reduced in order not to cause dramatic changes in our planet’s climate. One way to
address both issues, is to transfer reinforced concrete construction activities from the construction site
to precast concrete facilities as often as possible [1]. In a precast concrete facility, fabrication processes
and the product quality can be improved significantly as compared to on-site construction, leading to
less material consumption (e.g. formwork) and accelerated construction speed.
In the case of bridge construction, precast segmental concrete bridges (Fig. 1) are an example of a
worldwide established construction technique which allows the construction of bridges by joining fully
prefabricated concrete segments by means of post-tensioning, without the need for any slack reinforce-
ment overlap and wet concrete joints [2], [3]. For the joining of the segments, two options for execution
are commonly used, which are dry joints and epoxy joints. In the dry joining method, the concrete
surfaces of the precast segments are prestressed against one another without any additional treatment.
For epoxy joints, an epoxy resin is applied to the concrete segment surface before joining, which must
harden before it reaches a tensile strength superior to the tensile strength of concrete.
14th
if b
Fig. 1 Nivedita Setu, a precast segmental bridge in Kolkata, India. Left: Lifting of segments during
erection in the balanced cantilever method. Right: Fabrication of the precast concrete seg-
ments by match-casting [2].
Contemporary codes and guidelines typically recommend the use of epoxy joints over dry joints, as
they ensure a watertight seal of the joint and thus aid the protection of the post-tensioning tendons from
corrosion [4], [5]. While indeed the seal of the joint is an important component of the multi-layered
protection system of the post-tensioning cables [6], depending on the exposure conditions also other
protection systems such as couplers for duct-continuity at the joint may be feasible [7] and in the case
of bridges with only external tendons [8], the joint seal is not relevant for the corrosion protection of
the cables. Furthermore, concerns over stress concentrations in dry joints have been mentioned [5],
which may result from imperfections in the casting process and in the case of epoxy joints are compen-
sated by the epoxy glue. The contact surface fit in segmental construction however is usually very good,
as the segments are fabricated by match-casting. In match-casting, for each new segment the previously
cast, neighbouring segment is used as formwork, so that (apart from the bowing effect, an effect due
temperature differences in the hardening process, which has already been well studied and can be taken
into account in the structural analysis [9]) an excellent joint surface fit can be achieved. Dry joints on
the other hand, offer the following benefits as compared to epoxy joints [10].
▪ Faster construction speed, as no time for the hardening of epoxy glue has to be observed.
▪ Weather-indepentend construction. As epoxy joints require dry surfaces for the application of
the glue, works can not be carried out in rain.
▪ Removal of epoxy glue also removes potential execution errors, as epoxy glue is sensitive to
temperature, time between mixing and application etc. and thus requires certain expertise.
▪ Segmental bridges with dry joints exhibit a more ductile bending behaviour as compared to
those with epoxy joints, because joint opening occurs after the decompression load is ex-
ceeded and not only after exceeding the concrete tensile strength.
▪ The use of dry joints enables a non-destructive disassembly of segmental bridges, which again
enables the reuse of segments in a circular economy approach.
The presented article aims to make a contribution towards a better understanding of the quality of dry
joints and how imperfections in the joint surface fit can be assessed. By the use of X-ray computed
tomography (CT) and a custom-made prestressing device for small concrete samples, it is possible to
observe the dry joints in the unstressed state as well as under certain levels of prestress. In series 1 of
the tests, a dry joint made by match-casting is analysed. In series 2 the samples are rotated by 90°
relative to each other, in order to simulate two surfaces which are even, but have a small imperfection
in their planarity. In series 3, small grains of aggregate are placed between the samples, showing how
the joint behaves when material or dirt remains at the joint surface if not properly cleaned before join-
ing. Test series 4 is a verification study of series 1, using a different approach to study the relative
displacement of the joint surfaces relative to each other.

2 Methodology
b
2.1 Industrial Computed Tomography
Industrial computed tomography is a method for non-destructively visualizing the internal structure of
a specimen and examining it in detail. An industrial computed tomograph consists of an X-ray source,
a rotation table and an X-ray detector (see Fig. 2, left). The examined sample is placed on a rotation
if
table and then radiated with X-ray. This produces a shadow image that indicates the attenuation of the
X-ray radiation along the line from the X-ray source to the pixel for each pixel of the detector (see Fig.
2, right). The sample is then rotated 360°, taking an image at regular intervals (e.g., every 0.1°) and
thus a large number of images. From this data set, a reconstruction algorithm is then used to calculate
a volume data set that indicates, in the form of a three-dimensional image for each point in the sample,
how much X-ray radiation is absorbed at that point. This produces 3D images of the internal structure
of the sample, which can often be very well matched to the structure and materials. The so-called FDK
algorithm (by Feldkamp, Davis, Kress) is generally used as the reconstruction algorithm [11], which in
a sense is the inverse of the projection process when taking an X-ray image. The values contained in
the resulting volume can then be used to distinguish between different materials, e.g., zement matrix,
aggregate, air, or carbon reinforced polymers (CFRP).
In contrast to medical computed tomography, which is based on the same physical principles, higher
resolution can be achieved in industrial computed tomography. However, longer acquisition times are
also required, often in the range of hours, whereas in medical computed tomography the images must
be completed in a few seconds [11], so that movements of the patient do not lead to so-called image
artifacts. Industrial computed tomography is used, for example, for non-destructive testing, material
analysis, and measurement of components in mechanical engineering.
Fig. 2 Left: Setup of a CT scan for concrete specimens. On the left is the X-ray source, on the
right the detector and in between the concrete object on a rotation table. The rotation table
can be moved closer or further away from the source to increase or decrease magnification.
Right: 2D X-Ray image at the detector.
Industrial X-Ray Computed Tomography has already been used by numerous researchers for the char-
acterisation of concrete and cementious materials [12]–[14], from determining the pore structure to
analysing the distribution and shape of aggregates. Recent studies by the authors have investigated the
feasibility of using CT for the purpose of quality control in an automated flow production of prefabri-
cated concrete elements [15]. The experiments showed that many quality-related parameters can be
measured by CT and how the information can be beneficially utilised in quality assurance in a precast
concrete plant. Among the studied parameters were the characteristics of the pore structure, character-
istics of aggregates, location and tolerances of reinforcement and post-tensioning tendons, ducts and
grout, as well as surface characteristics and cracks in the concrete component. It is suggested that by
monitoring quality-related data captured by CT and thus significantly reducing variation in the product
quality, material safety factors can be reduced to account for the lesser variation. By reduction of safety-
related material demand, a contribution to climate protection and the conservation of natural resources
can be made.
14 th
2.2 Prestressing Device
b
To observe the behaviour of dry joints under defined levels of compression stress in the available in-
dustrial computer tomograph, a custom-made prestressing device had to be designed to fulfil all given
requirements. The prestressing device including the concrete samples had to be small enough to fit into
the computer tomograph, and the application of the prestressing force had to be easily achievable with
minimum equipment and effort. Thus, the prestressing device was designed in such a way, that the
if
prestressing could be applied by hand using a torque wrench and an ordinary steel bolt. The steel bolt
pulls the inner steel frame (see Fig. 3) away from the concrete samples, thus pulling on the wedge
anchorage of the CFRP cable and pretensioning the cable. The outer steel box is under compression
and transfers the compression force from the bolt to the load cell and the concrete samples. The rela-
tionship between the torque and the prestressing force was calibrated with a built-in load cell and is
approximately linear in the force range considered. The prestressing device was made for a prestress
force of 56 kN, which corresponds to a gross compressive stress of 20 MPa in the concrete specimens.
In the image area of the CT scan, a CFRP strand was used instead of metal tie rods to avoid the image
artifacts caused by metal.
Fig. 3 Prestressing device for concrete samples with 64 mm diameter and smooth dry joints for
analysis of the prestressed dry joint by computed tomography.
3 Results
3.1 Series 1: Match-Cast Dry Joint

In the first test series, a sample of a smooth match-cast joint was analysed. The sample was installed in
the exact same orientation as it was fabricated, and the prestressing device was only lightly tightended
by hand. Compression stress at this state is in the range of 0–1 MPa as measured by the load cell. It
should be noted that only joint gaps larger than two to three times the voxel size can be analyzed in the
CT scan. This is 22 µm for all the test series presented in this paper, and consequently joint gaps smaller
than approx. 0.05 mm are considered as contact in the context of the investigation shown here (see Fig.
4). As can be seen in Fig. 4 a), the joint is barely visible in the CT image; the joint gap is below the
resolution limit of the CT image. Here it is clear that the match-cast method in the present specimen
was able to achieve a good, full-surface contact in the joint area.
3.2 Series 2: Joint Surface rotated by 90°

In the second test, the two concrete cylinders were rotated 90° to each other, in order to simulate two
surfaces which are even, but have a small imperfection in their planarity. As can be seen in Fig. 4 b),
these specimens show a clear gap at the joint. In order to evaluate this gap quantitatively, the gap was
segmented and subsequently evaluated by means of a wall thickness analysis (Fig. 4 c).

if b
Fig. 4 CT images of the aligned and 90° rotated specimen at 0 MPa. a) 2D cross-section of the
aligned concrete specimens without visible gap in the joint. b) 2D sectional image of the
90° rotated concrete cylinder with a visible gap in the joint. c) Section through the 3D view
of the 90° rotated concrete cylinder with analysis of the joint gap between the concrete
specimens at 0 MPa.
By gradually increasing the compression stress to 5 MPa, 10 MPa, 15 MPa and 20 MPa, the behavior
of the gap under applied loads was analysed. The closing of the gap is shown by the analysis of the
joint gap in Fig. 5 (top) at 0 MPa, 10 MPa and 20 MPa, respectively. Further, by projecting the seg-
mented gap onto the joint plane, the area between the two concrete cylinders without contact was de-
termined. This analysis was performed for all 5 measurements with increasing force and the contact
area was quantified relative to the total area of the concrete section. Fig. 5 (bottom) shows the decrease
of the relative area without contact from initially 15% at approx. 0 MPa prestress to 8% at 20 MPa.
With the aid of this investigation, it is possible to determine which contact area can be activated at a
defined contact pressure. It can be observed, that the decrease of the gap area is large between the first
two load increments (0 MPa and 5 MPa) and becomes lesser in the additional increments. It thus seems
plausible to assume, that the contact area might converge towards a limit value when applying further
increments of compressive stress.
Fig. 5 Top: Analysis of the joint gap between the concrete specimens (rotated 90° relative to each
other) at 0 MPa, 10 MPa, and 20 MPa compressive stress. Bottom: Relative contact area
with measurable joint gap as a function of applied compressive stress.
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3.3 Series 3: Joint Surface with added sand grains
b
The third experiment evaluates the behaviour of the two concrete cylinders with unwanted objects be-
tween the samples under compressive stress. The cylinders were aligned in the same orientation as they
were produced by match-casting (as in test series 1). Three Stones with a size of 1–2 mm were placed
between the cylinders as shown in Fig. 6 a). First, the cylinders with the stones were scanned with a
compression stress of approx. 0 MPa by lightly tightening the nut of the prestressing device by hand.
if
Four additional scans were carried out with 5 MPa, 10 MPa, 15 MPa and 20 MPa compression stress.
Fig. 6 b) shows the gap due to the unwanted stones between the samples at 0 MPa and Fig. 6 c) the
almost completely closed gap with 5 MPa compressive stress. A negligible reduction of the relative
area without contact can be observed during the increase of the compression stress to 20 MPa, as shown
in Fig. 6 d). The remaining 9.7% of the relative area without contact is mostly due to the projection of
the segmented air volume within the 1.39 mm thick slice, which also includes pores, onto the contact
area. The result of this analysis shows, that small pieces of aggregate or dirt, which might accidentally
occur during the erection of a segmental structures with dry joints, have little influence on the effective
contact area of the joint after application of some initial prestress.
Fig. 6 a) Slice through the gap between the two concrete samples with three stones 0 MPa pre-
stress. b) Visible gap due to the Stones at 0 MPa. c) Closed gap at 5 MPa. d) Plot of the
relative area without contact over the pressure range of 0 MPa to 20 MPa.
3.4 Series 4: Reference measurement of relative joint surface displacement

To confirm the hypothesis, that the joint gap in test series 1 was fully closed, another test series was
conducted, which allows the measurement of the two joint surfaces relative to each other. Starting point
were the same two aligned concrete cylinders as in series 1. One of the concrete cylinders was prepared
with a 0.5 mm deep groove by cutting with a tungsten carbide jigsaw blade. The prepared and standard
cylinder were stacked, prestressed in 5 steps from 0 MPa to 20 MPa, and scanned consecutively. An
overview is shown in Fig 7 a). Next, an iso-surface was determined by using the 50% threshold between
the histogram air and material peaks, followed by a gradient-based refinement of the surface. The
groove could be used to overcome the limitation of detecting only gaps bigger than 2-3 Voxel sizes by
fitting and measuring geometric primitives onto the surface of the groove and the contact plane of the
samples. A side view of the groove and the fitted cylinder can be seen in Fig. 7 b). The cylinder radius
was first determined by a best fit on the sample with 0 MPa prestress and fixed for the further investi-
gation to the resulting value of 3.11 mm. Then, a plane was fitted on the unmodified surface of the
adjacent sample. After aligning all scans, the cylinder and the plane of the 0 MPa recording was copied
to the other scans for reproducable results. The copied geometries were then refitted to the new surface
to track any changes due to the higher pressure applied. The gap formed by the groove and the plane
surface was measured by taking the mean value of the minimum and maximum distance between the
fitted plane and the cylinder axis, orthogonally to the cylinder axis. By subtracting the measured dis-
tance between cylinder axis and the plane from the fixed radius, the gap height could be determined.
Fig. 7 c) shows the gap height over varying pressure. It can be observed that there is no significant
movement of the two concrete parts for pressures in the range of 5 MPa to 20 MPa. We saw in Series 2

that the gap between not perfect aligned samples will close with increasing pressure. The lack of change
in gap height is strong evidence that the two samples were already in full contact.
Fig. 7
if b
a) Overview slice with the visible groove. b) Slice with the fitted cylinder and plane as well
as the measured mean orthogonal distance between the two geometric primitives. c) Plot of
the measured gap height over the pressure range of 0 MPa to 20 MPa.
4 Discussion and Outlook

As even after many decades of experience with precast segmental construction several risks regarding
the execution of dry segmental joints remain little understood, the autors aim to make a contribution
towards the assessment of dry joints under compression stress by the use of computed tomography. The
proposed method enables the analysis of gaps and areas of contact within a small joint sample in the
unstressed and prestressed state. The conducted test series show that joints which are fabricated by
match-casting exhibit an excellent surface fit between the adjacent contact surfaces and that no signif-
icant gap sizes larger than ~0.05 mm can be recorded, which is the limit of the visible range with the
image resolution of 22 µm used in the series. Further, the tests show that contact joints which have a
slight imperfection in their planarity have gap areas which can be detected and assessed by computed
tomography. When such an imperfect contact joint is prestressed gradually with a compression stress,
it can be observed how the measured joint gaps change and the joints "close". The decrease in the gap
area relative to the total surface area is largest in the first increment of prestressing and lesser in the
consecutive increments. In another series the influence of small aggregate grains which accendentally
get stuck between the joint surfaces was investigated and it was found that such points of singularity
are quickly crushed and the contact joint can fully close and reach the maximum area of contact. In a
validation study for the first test series, a method for observing the relative behaviour of two contact
surfaces was developed, which allows the measurement of the relative surface distance even if a perfect
contact fit is given. It was found that in the sample produced by match-casting no significant relative
deformation occurs after the application of the first increment of prestress.
The methods presented in this paper can be utilised for the assessment of tolerances in dry joints
fabricated by various production methods, such as high precision steel formwork, milled dry joints, etc.
Dry joints and production methods more flexible than match-casting can facilitate modular assembly
and disassembly of precast concrete components and thus enable more sustainable, circular concepts
for the construction with precast reinforced concrete.
14th
Acknowledgements
b
The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to the German Research Foundation (DFG)
for funding the research project under Priority Programme 2187 "Adaptive modularised constructions
made in a flux".
References
if
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mentfertigteilbrücken.” Beton- und Stahlbetonbau. https://doi.org/10.1002/best.202200008

Creep and shrinkage of concrete
b
under cyclic ambient humidity conditions
Anna-Lena Podhajecky, Nadja Oneschkow and Michael Haist
if
Institute of Building Materials Science,
Leibniz University Hannover,
Appelstraße 9A, 30167 Hannover, Germany
Abstract
Creep and shrinkage are strongly influenced by the moisture content of the concrete as well as the
ambient humidity. Variations in the humidity as normally observed in outdoor structures are currently
covered in fib Model Code 2010 by using the time-average of ambient humidity. However, the effect
of cyclic humidity on creep and shrinkage compared to the constant mean humidity has been barely
investigated. In this paper, the development of creep and shrinkage of a normal-strength concrete
C30/37 with two pre-adjusted moisture contents subjected to cyclic and constant humidity conditions,
respectively, are comparatively presented. The results demonstrate that the creep strains are increased
up to 47 % due to cyclic humidity compared to those due to the corresponding average constant humid-
ity. Therefore, existing models need to be modified to take this effect into account.
1 Introduction
The long-term deformations of concrete such as creep and shrinkage are calculated using prediction
models, which are in excellent agreement with lab results under constant climatic conditions, e.g. fib
Model Code 2010 [1] or ACI 209R [2]. However, measurements on existing reinforced and pre-stressed
concrete bridges have shown that the real deformations can significantly exceed the deformations pre-
dicted in the design process based on the models currently available [3]. This might lead to serious
damage and safety risks. In literature, the effect of cyclic ambient humidity conditions is mentioned as
a possible reason [4], however, this effect has been barely investigated.
Considering the microscopic origins of creep and shrinkage, Powers [5], Feldman & Sereda [6] and
Tennis & Jennings [7] explained creep and shrinkage deformations as results of rearrangement and
transport processes of water in capillary and gel pores as well as sliding processes between the calcium-
silicate-hydrate (C-S-H) nano-particles. Recent experimental investigations by Haist et al. [8] con-
firmed the latter hypothesis. However, from the limited knowledge available concerning the micro-
scopic origins, it is clear that the magnitude of deformations must depend significantly on the moisture
content in the hardened cement paste (HCP) and gradients in the latter due to variations in the ambient
humidity [5].
The decisive role of water on the deformation behaviour of concrete also becomes apparent from
macroscopic investigations: On the one hand, creep tests performed at hygric equilibrium (i.e. drying
was prevented) have shown that the higher the moisture content in HCP, the higher the deformations
[9]. On the other hand, when specimens are subjected to drying the deformations are significantly
greater than for specimens remaining in a hygric equilibrium [10]. These additional drying defor-
mations (drying creep and drying shrinkage) increase with a reduction of the relative humidity (RH) of
the ambient air [11]. Thus, the significant effects of moisture content and the relative humidity on creep
and shrinkage of concrete under constant humidity conditions are already comprehensively established.
However, concerning the influence of cyclic ambient humidity conditions on the long-term defor-
mations of concrete only individual and partly contrary results are documented in literature: Results
obtained by Hansen [12] showed that the shrinkage curve due to cyclic humidity evenly fluctuates
around the shrinkage curve tested at the time-average constant humidity (RHmean). Thus, no distinct
effect on shrinkage was determined. In contrast, investigations by Müller & Pristl [13] and Al-Alusi et
al. [14] indicated a reduction of shrinkage deformations due to cyclic humidity compared to defor-
mations due to constant humidity. However, it should be noted that hygric shrinkage deformations are
mostly reversible - with the exception of the irreversible deformations during the first drying [7]. Con-
cerning the effect of cyclic humidity on creep, results obtained by Hansen [12] and Müller & Pristl [13]
showed that creep deformations are usually approx. 20 % higher when tested at cyclic humidity than
14 th
tested at constant RHmean. The investigations by Hansen [12] also revealed that the magnitude of creep
deformations at cyclic humidity corresponds more closely to the deformations tested at the constant
b
minimum humidity (RHmin), rather than at constant RHmean. This is in line with recent investigations by
Cagnon et al. [15] which indicated no significant difference in the magnitude of creep deformations
between specimens tested at cyclic humidity and at constant RHmin. On hollow cylindrical specimens,
even an increase of the creep deformations by approx. 200 % due to cyclic humidity compared to con-
if
stant RHmin could be observed [14].
In contrast, investigations of Vandewalle [16] showed a less pronounced influence of cyclic humid-
ity conditions on creep deformations. It must be noted that in these investigations both the relative
humidity and the temperature were varied in a cyclic manner.
Even though individual studies indicated that deformations measured at cyclic ambient humidity
are not comparable to deformations at constant RHmean, it is recommended in the design approach of
fib Model Code 2010 [1] to use the time-average of ambient humidity (RHmean) for the calculation of
drying deformations. Furthermore, these prediction formulas are based almost entirely on tests con-
ducted under constant climatic conditions [4] due to the absence of sufficient systematic and compre-
hensive data concerning the influence of cyclic humidity. Only the models of Bažant [17], [18] cover
the effect of cyclic humidity conditions by inserting a correction factor to the drying creep at RHmean.
The correction factor considers information about the temporal sequence of the humidity, such as the
duration of the humidity period and the amplitude of the humidity, as well as the cross-section thick-
ness. However, the validation of these models was conducted using just a small database documented
in literature.
Therefore, fundamental investigations about the comparability of long-term deformations tested at
cyclic ambient humidity and at the corresponding constant mean humidity, following the design ap-
proach of fib Model Code 2010 [1], were carried out as part of a collaborative research project (cf.
[19]). In the paper at hand, first results on the influence of cyclic ambient humidity on the creep and
shrinkage behaviour of normal-strength concrete cylinders with two different moisture contents are
analysed.
2.1 Concrete composition and specimens

All investigations presented were carried out on a normal-strength concrete C30/37 cast in two batches
with 28-day mean compressive strengths according to DIN EN 12390-3 [20] of fcm,cyl = 31.8 MPa
(batch 2) and fcm,cyl = 36.2 MPa (batch 4), respectively. The specimens of batch 1 and 3 were used for
investigations whose results are not included in this paper. The composition of the concrete is given in
Table 1.
Table 1 Concrete composition.

Component Unit Value
Ordinary Portland cement (CEM I 42.5 R) [kg/m³] 290
Quartz powder (0/0.25 mm) [kg/m³] 40
Natural river sand (quartzitic) (0/2 mm) [kg/m³] 790
Natural river gravel (quartzitic) (2/8 mm) [kg/m³] 966
PCE superplasticiser [kg/m³] 1.7
Water [kg/m³] 202
Water to cement ratio w/c [-] 0.70
For the creep and shrinkage tests, cylindrical specimens with a height of h = 180 mm and a diameter of
d = 60 mm were used. The PVC formwork was filled in two equal concrete layers and each layer was
mechanically compacted using a vibrating table. The specimens were cast with a height of h = 230 mm

and later cut to the final height in order to avoid disturbed areas at the specimen’s ends. After concret-
ing, the specimens were covered with a polyethylene foil and wet cloth for one day and afterwards
b
stored at 20 °C in boxes with wet cloths as to prevent drying. After five weeks, the formworks were
removed, the specimens were cut to the height of 180 mm and subsequently the upper and lower test
surfaces of all specimens were plan-parallel ground and polished in order to achieve a uniform stress
distribution during mechanical loading.
if
Within the presented investigation, results on two defined moisture contents as the mean relative
humidity in the concrete meso-pores of approx. 100 % (referred to as V100) and approx. 75 % (referred
to as V75) are presented. These moisture contents were pre-adjusted as to study the influence of the
overall moisture content onto the deformation behaviour. Therefore, the specimens were stored in two
different ways: For the pre-conditioning scheme V100, the specimens were sealed with layers of plastic
wrap and aluminum coated butyl tape directly after polishing and were stored at 20 °C until testing.
Specimens pre conditioned according to the scheme V75 were stored for 90 days at 20 °C and 65 % RH.
During this drying period, the test surfaces were sealed to ensure a uniform drying over the circumfer-
ential surface. After 90 days, the entire V75 specimen was sealed with plastic wrap and aluminum
coated butyl tape and then stored at 40 °C for further 40 days to ensure a constant moisture distribution
over the cross-section. Thereafter, the V75 specimens remained sealed at 20 °C until testing. The pre-
conditioning scheme V75 was chosen based on diffusion calculations using the finite difference method
of Acosta [21].
All tests were conducted on specimens with a minimum concrete age of 180 days to ensure an
almost completed hydration and to avoid additional hardening of the concrete during testing.
2.2 Experimental set-up

All creep tests were performed using a creep testing machine with a maximum load capacity of 45 kN
and a load precision of ± 1 kN corresponding to ± 0.4 MPa for the specimens tested. The stress was
monotonically increased up to the creep stress level using a hydraulic load cylinder connected to a high
pressure buffer reservoir and afterwards maintained constant until the specimen was unloaded. Shrink-
age specimens were stored unloaded under the same climatic conditions.
Creep and shrinkage tests under constant ambient humidity were conducted in a climatic chamber
in standard climate (20 ± 1 °C and 65 ± 5 % RH).
loading
d=60 mm plate
humidity/
temperature
h=180 mm
sensor
118 mm
LVDT
loading
T=22 °C plate
Fig. 1 Schematic illustration of creep testing machine for cyclic ambient humidity conditions (left)
and experimental set-up (right).
For tests under cyclic ambient humidity conditions a new experimental set-up was developed, see Fig. 1
(left). The humidity control is based on a pipe system, which connects a container of saturated salt
solution and a sealed chamber around each creep and shrinkage specimen. By using saturated salt so-
lutions and two integrated fans, the ambient humidity in the test system was adjusted to a constant
targeted value. The cyclic ambient humidity was achieved by a cyclic change of the salt solution. There-
fore, potassium nitrate and magnesium chloride were used in order to adjust the ambient humidity to
RHmax = 90 ± 5 % RH and RHmin = 40 ± 5 % RH in the test system. The temperature in the test system
14th
was constant at 22 ± 1 °C and thus slightly increased compared to standard climate. The first humidity
cycle was started with RHmax and the ambient humidity was changed in an interval of 14 days.
b
During the entire test, the axial deformations of the specimens were measured continuously using
three linear variable differential transformers (LVDTs) positioned on the circumference of the speci-
mens axis at angles of 0°, 120° and 240°, respectively, see Fig. 1 (right). In addition, the axial force and
the relative humidity as well as the temperature of the ambient air were measured. The axial force and
if
the deformations were recorded with a sampling rate of 1 Hz and the relative humidity and temperature
with a rate of 0.1 Hz.
2.3 Test programme

The compressive strength of the concrete was determined force-controlled immediately before the creep
and shrinkage tests. Therefore, three specimens were tested of each pre-conditioning scheme (V100 or
V75) with the same specimen dimensions as those used in the creep and shrinkage tests. The reference
strengths for the determination of the creep stresses were calculated as the mean values from three
specimens each. The applied creep stress level was set to 35 % of the reference compressive strength
at the time of loading.
Table 2 Overview on the creep and shrinkage tests conducted.

Number of specimens
Line Load type Humidity conditions during testing
V100 V75
1 Creep Cyclic 90/40 % RH 2 2

2 Shrinkage Cyclic 90/40 % RH 2 2
3 Creep Constant 65 % RH 2 2
4 Shrinkage Constant 65 % RH 2 2
5 Creep Sealed 1 2
6 Shrinkage Sealed 2 2
The tests programme for the creep and shrinkage tests is given in Table 2. The influence of cyclic
humidity conditions was investigated by a comparison of test results of lines 1 and 2 (cyclic humidity)
with those of lines 3 and 4 (constant humidity). The cyclic humidity values were chosen to cover real-
istic changes in the ambient humidity in Western Europe [22] and the constant humidity value was
chosen to correspond to the time-average of the cyclic humidity (RHmean). In addition to drying speci-
mens, sealed specimens (lines 5 and 6) were tested to determine basic creep and shrinkage. Each hu-
midity condition during testing was carried out on specimens with the pre-conditionings V100 and V75
to determine the effect of the initial moisture content on the long-term deformations.
The test duration of all tests was 98 days. The creep specimens were loaded for 91 days and subse-
quently unloaded and continuously monitored for another 7 days.
Table 3 Reference compressive strength of cylindrical specimens at the age of loading.
Reference compressive Investigated Age of

strength fcm,ref pre-conditioning loading
Batch 2 43.0 [MPa] V100 629 [d]

Batch 2 46.6 [MPa] V100 818 [d]
Batch 4 44.3 [MPa] V75 545 [d]

Due to the number of test specimens required for this complex test programme, one batch was used for
each pre-conditioning. In Table 3, the reference compressive strengths at the age of loading are sum-
b
marised. All creep and shrinkage tests on specimens of pre-conditioning V75 were conducted simulta-
neously, whereas the tests for V100 had to be divided into two experimental blocks. In one block a
single test for each humidity condition during testing was conducted.
if
2.4 Data analysis
The axial deformations measured were averaged (mean value) and then related to the measuring length
of 118 mm as to calculate the strain. The strains analysed are the mean curves of two specimens each
(except for Fig. 2 c, red curve). The total strain εc corresponds to the measured strain from the creep
tests. The strain measured in the shrinkage test is displayed as shrinkage strain εcs. The creep strain εcc
was calculated from the total strain εc by subtracting the elastic strain εci and the shrinkage strain εcs
from the reference specimens with the same humidity conditions during testing. The elastic strain εci in
this paper was defined as the strain at the time when the creep load was reached.

The shrinkage (a-b) and creep strains (c-d) for specimens tested sealed (red), unsealed at constant hu-
midity (yellow) and unsealed at cyclic ambient humidity (blue) are shown in Fig. 2. The strains for a
moisture content of approx. 100 % (V100) are presented in Fig. 2 a) and c) and those for approx. 75 %
(V75) in Fig. 2 b) and d).
Considering Fig. 2 a) and b), shrinkage strains for unsealed specimens at constant humidity (yel-
low) are higher than for sealed specimens (red) due to drying. The difference between these curves
corresponds to the drying shrinkage. It is apparent that the drying shrinkage increases with a higher
moisture content. Thus, the drying shrinkage strains for specimens with a pre-conditioning V100
(Fig. 2 a) are higher than those for specimens with V75 (Fig. 2 b). This is in accordance with observa-
tions by Acosta [21].
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Fig. 2 Development of shrinkage strain (a-b) and creep strain (c-d) due to constant and cyclic
ambient humidity for specimens with a moisture content of approx. 100 % (V100) and
approx. 75 % (V75)

14th
Shrinkage strains for unsealed specimens tested at cyclic ambient humidity (blue) are characterized by
a fluctuating strain response, which shows consecutive shrinkage and swelling of the specimens. De-
b
pending on the moisture content of the specimens in relation to the ambient humidity, the specimens
release or absorb moisture from the ambient air. As described in Chapter 2.2, the first humidity cycle
was started with an ambient humidity of RHmax = 90 % and after 14 days the humidity was changed to
RHmin = 40 %. In the first cycle at RHmax, specimens with a pre-conditioning V100 (Fig. 2 a) release
if
moisture and shrink, whereas V75 specimens (Fig. 2 b) absorb moisture from the ambient air and swell.
After a change to RHmin, both the V100 and V75 specimens shrink. With each further humidity cycle
V100 and V75 specimens swell at RHmax and shrink at RHmin. The shrinkage strains for specimens
exposed to cyclic ambient humidity fluctuate around the strains for specimens tested at constant RHmean,
but with a different distance in dependence of the moisture content.
After the first humidity cycle (d = 28 days), shrinkage strains for V100 specimens tested at cyclic
humidity are in the same range as specimens tested at constant humidity. Subsequent to further humidity
cycles (d = 56 and 84 days), the shrinkage strains tested at cyclic humidity exceed those at constant
humidity and the deviation between these curves increases from 56 days to 84 days. While the shrink-
age strains for V75 specimens tested at cyclic ambient humidity already exceed the strains tested at
constant humidity after the first humidity cycle. The difference between these curves is nearly constant
after every humidity cycle.
In total, no distinct influence of cyclic ambient humidity compared to constant RHmean on shrinkage
strain can be observed. The extent of this influence seems to be dependent on the initial moisture content
of the concrete. Specimens with a high moisture content of approx. 100 % show higher irreversible
shrinkage as specimens with a moisture content of approx. 75 %. Most of the irreversible shrinkage for
V75 specimens probably occurred during the pre-conditioning by drying at 65 % RH, as a result, at the
humidity conditions tested most of the shrinkage is reversible. Therefore, the shrinkage strain for V75
specimens due to cyclic humidity fluctuates evenly around the shrinkage strain tested at constant
RHmean, which is in line with the results of Hansen [12], who dried the specimens at RH = 70 % for
21 days before testing. The results of the V100 specimens indicate that with further humidity cycles the
curves show a similar behaviour to those of V75 specimens. Contrary to the results obtained for V100
specimens, the results of Müller & Pristl [13], who submerged the specimens in water until testing,
showed that the shrinkage strains for specimens tested at cyclic humidity are lower than those at con-
stant humidity at the end of the last humidity cycle. This contrary behaviour may be due to the shorter
drying interval of 7 days in the investigations of Müller & Pristl [13] compared to the drying interval
of 14 days in the investigation presented in this paper.
When considering the creep strains in Fig. 2 c) and d) it is important to notice that the strain axes
are scaled differently to those of the shrinkage strains. In addition, it must be mentioned that the creep
curve for a pre-conditioning of V100 tested sealed (Fig. 2 c, red) is a single curve. However, compara-
ble investigations tested on another concrete batch of the same composition, excluded from this contri-
bution, showed similar strain developments.
Fig. 2 c) and d) show that the creep strains for unsealed specimens at constant humidity (yellow)
are higher than for sealed specimens due to an additional drying strain component (drying creep). This
is in accordance with the literature [10].
Comparing Fig. 2 c) and d), it can be seen that creep strains are greater for a higher moisture content
V100 compared to V75, even though the loading was on the same stress level. This is consistent with
the results of Wittmann [9], who ascertained that specimens where drying was prevented show greater
deformations with a higher moisture content. Furthermore a comparison between Fig. 2 c) and d) show
that the difference between creep strains for unsealed specimens at constant humidity (yellow) and for
sealed specimens (red) decreases from V100 to V75. Thus, the drying creep decreases with a lower
moisture content.
For specimens tested at cyclic ambient humidity (blue), the humidity cycles are apparent in the
creep strains, however, they are not as pronounced as in the shrinkage strains. It is important to notice
that the creep strain was calculated from the total strain by subtracting the shrinkage strain from the
reference specimens (from Fig. 2 a and b) tested at the same climatic conditions, as it was described in
Chapter 2.4.
In the first humidity cycle at RHmax, creep strains for specimens with a pre-conditioning V100
(Fig. 2 c) tested at cyclic humidity (blue) have a slightly higher slope than creep strains for specimens
tested sealed (red). After approx. 8 days, the slope for specimens tested at cyclic humidity decreases
and converges to those for sealed specimens. This is considered reasonable as the V100 specimens have
a higher initial moisture content (approx. 100 %) compared to the ambient air with RHmax = 90 % and,
therefore, the unsealed specimens show additional drying creep in the first days. After a change to
b
RHmin, the slope of creep strain increases and at the end of the humidity cycle (d = 28 days) the creep
strain is in the same range as for unsealed specimens tested at constant humidity. Subsequently, after a
renewed change to RHmax, the slope turns into a slightly decreasing to an almost constant state. With
another change to RHmin, the slope increases again and at the end of the second humidity cycle
if
(d = 56 days) the creep strain is a bit higher as for specimens tested at constant humidity. After the third
humidity cycle (d = 84 days), the difference between the cyclic and constant strains is more pronounced
and at the end of loading (d = 91 days), the strains for cyclic tests are 3 % higher as for constant tests.
It can be assumed that with further humidity cycles the difference between cyclic and constant strains
will be more significant.
For specimens with the pre-conditioning V75 (Fig. 2 d) the cyclic creep strains are analogous to
those for sealed specimens in the first 14 days. After changing to RHmin, the slope increases very
steeply, so that the creep strain tested at cyclic humidity exceed the strains at constant humidity
significantly at the end of the first humidity cycle. Thereafter, the cyclic curve is permanently above
the constant one. At the end of loading, the creep strain for specimens tested at cyclic humidity is 47 %
greater as the creep strain for specimens tested at the constant mean humidity.
It can be stated that cyclic changes in ambient humidity have an important influence on the creep
strain development and the magnitude of creep strain. These results obtained agree with [12], [13] that
creep strains due to cyclic ambient humidity are higher than strains at the corresponding constant mean
humidity. Furthermore, the results show that the influence of cyclic ambient humidity is more pro-
nounced with a lower moisture content of the specimens. This contradicts with the current design ap-
proach of fib Model Code 2010 for creep strains, which considers the mean humidity (RHmean) of the
ambient air for the calculation.
4 Conclusions and Outlook

The overall objective of the presented research was to examine the influence of cyclic ambient humidity
conditions onto the long-term deformation behaviour of concrete and to prove, respectively, improve
the design approaches for the calculation of these strains. The investigations presented in this contribu-
tion are focused on the comparison between the developments of strain due to cyclic and constant am-
bient humidity conditions. Therefore, creep and shrinkage tests were conducted with cyclic ambient
humidity between RHmax = 90 % and RHmin = 40 % and constant humidity of RHmean = 65 % RH cor-
responding, following the design approach of fib Model Code 2010 [1]. For the investigations a normal-
strength concrete C30/37 with two moisture contents of approx. 100 % (V100) and approx. 75 % (V75)
was used.
The results obtained show no distinct influence of cyclic ambient humidity on the magnitude of
shrinkage strains compared to strains at the constant mean humidity. This can be attributed to a high
reversibility of shrinkage strain. However, the magnitude of creep strain is significantly affected by
cyclic change in humidity. The creep strain is increased up to 47 % due to cyclic humidity compared to
creep strain at RHmean depending on the initial moisture content of concrete.
These results reveal that the assumption of a constant mean ambient humidity (time-average) for
the calculation of creep strains in the design approach of fib Model Code 2010 [1] is not suitable. As a
consequence, cyclic humidity conditions might lead to serious damage and safety risks of deflection-
sensible structures designed with creep formulations, assuming a constant mean humidity RHmean.
Whether it is suitable to use the constant minimum humidity (RHmin) can be neither confirmed nor
excluded at the current state of research. Therefore, it is important to investigate the influence of cyclic
humidity conditions in further detail. Within the scope of this research investigations with additional
moisture contents and concretes with a less pronounced pore system are scheduled. Based on these
results, an adaption or improvement of current deformation prediction models for cyclic humidity con-
ditions is planned.
Acknowledgements
This research was funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Founda-
tion) within the project “Creep and shrinkage at variable hygric exposures”, project number 327002599.
The authors would like to express their gratitude for the financial support.

14th
References
b
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[2] ACI Committee 209. 1992. “Prediction of creep, shrinkage and temperature effects in concrete
structures (ACI 209R-92) (Reapproved 2008).” American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills.
[3] Bažant, Zdeněk P., Qiang Yu, Mija H. Hubler, Vladimír Křístek and Zdeněk Bittnar. 2011.
if
“Wake up call for creep, myth about size effect and black holes in safety: What to improve in
fib model code draft.” Proceedings of fib Symposium: Concrete Engineering for Excellence and
Efficiency, Prague, Czech Republic, 8-10 June, 2011, 2:731-746.
[4] fib – Fédération International du Béton (ed.). 2013. “Code-type models for concrete behaviour.
Background of the constitutive relations and material models in the fib model code for concrete
structures 2010 ; state-of-art report.” fib bulletin no.70, Lausanne, Switzerland.
[5] Powers, T. C.. 1968. “The thermodynamics of volume change and creep.” Matériaux et Con-
structions 1, 6:487-507.
[6] Feldman, R. F. and P. J. Sereda. 1970. “A new model for hydrated Portland cement and its
practical implications.“ Eng J. 53(8-9): 53-59.
[7] Tennis, Paul D., and Hamlin M. Jennings. 2000. “A model for two types of calcium silicate
hydrate in the microstructure of Portland cement pastes.” Cem Conr Res 30(6): 855-863.
[8] Haist, Michael, Thibaut Divoux, Konrad J. Krakowiak, Jørgen Skibsted, Roland J.- M. Pellenq,
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ical study of cement hydrates.” Phys. Rev. Research 3:043127
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[Influence of moisture content on creep of concrete].” Rheologica Acta 9:282-287 [in German].
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a sustained load.” ACI Journal Proceedings 38:333-355.
[11] Troxell, E., J. M. Raphael and R. E. Davis. 1958. “Long-time creep and shrinkage tests of plain
and reinforced concrete.” ASTM Proceedings 58:1101-1120.
[12] Hansen, Torben C.. 1960. “Creep of concrete. The influence of variations in the humidity of
the ambient atmosphere.” Proc. of the 6th Congress of the IABSE, Stockholm, Sweden, Swedish
Cement and Concrete Research Institute, 6:57-65.

[13] Müller, Harald. S., and Marion Pristl. 1993. “Creep and shrinkage of concrete at variable am-
bient conditions.” Proc. of the 5th International RILEM Symposium, Z. P. Bažant and I. Carol,
eds., E. & F.N. SPON, London.
[14] Al-Alusi, Heshan R., Vitelmo V. Bertero and Milos Polívka. 1978. “Einflüsse der Feuchte auf
Schwinden und Kriechen von Beton. [Effects of humidity on shrinkage and creep of concrete.]”
Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 73(1):18-23 [in German].
[15] Cagnon, Hugo, Thierry Vidal, Alain Sellier, Xavier Bourbon and Guillaume Camps. 2015.
“Drying creep in cyclic humidity conditions.” Cement and Concrete Composites 76:91-97.
[16] Vandewalle, Lucie. 2000. “Concrete creep and shrinkage of cyclic ambient conditions.“ Cement
and Concrete Composites 22:201-208.
[17] Bažant, Zdeněk P., and Tong-Sheng Wang. 1985. “Practical prediction of cyclic humidity effect
in creep and shrinkage of concrete.“ Materials and Structures 18(4):247-252.
[18] Bažant, Zdeněk P., and Joong-Koo Kim. 1992. “Improved prediction model for time-dependent
deformations of concrete: Part 5 – Cyclic load and cyclic humidity.” Materials and Structures
25(3):163-169.
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Michael Haist. 2021. “Comparative analysis of concrete behaviour under compressive creep
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surface climate over global land areas.” Clim Res 21:1-25.

The adaption of the set-up for gas permeability
b
measurements for ultra-high performance concrete
Marieke Voigt, André Gardei and Birgit Meng
if
Department 7.1 Building Materials
Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung,
Unter den Eichen 87, 12205, Germany
Abstract
In the framework of this project, a steam pressure vessel was to be developed from ultra-high perfor-
mance concrete (UHPC) to withstand process temperatures of 200 °C and the respective steam pressure
of 15,5 bar. To guarantee the long-term water vapour tightness of the system, the permeability of two
UHPC mixtures were tested after long-term cyclic autoclaving. As UPHC shows a high density and
therefore low permeability, measurements after the RILEM-Recommendation (TC 116-PCD) reached
their detection limit. Therefore, the measurement set-up was adapted to measure the permeability of
highly dense UHPC more reliably and quickly. This adaption includes measurements in a higher pres-
sure range, the change of sample size thickness and the usage of Ar as a medium compared with the
RILEM Recommendation. Additionally, the system was equipped with two pressure sensors and Ar-
flowmeters to guarantee a continuous record of the experimental parameters. The new system was
tested and evaluated by comparing measurements with the RILEM recommended system. Preliminary
results show that the adapted system is capable to provide efficient and reliable results of concrete with
low permeability.
1 State of the art

The permeability of concrete is one characteristic to evaluate the durability of concrete. It indicates how
many pathways in form of capillary pores are within the concrete which can transport fluids and gases
through the concrete. This is of importance as it is linked to chloride diffusion and water uptake which
can lead to corrosion of steel reinforcement and freeze-thaw degradation of the concrete. Therefore,
multiple test methods were developed to measure the water and gas permeability in laboratories and in
situ on site for concrete.
Next to in-situ measurements methods for gas permeability on site like the vacuum chamber meth-
ods [1–3], there are established laboratory test methods of gas permeability which use overpressure
[4,5], from which the RILEM recommended method [4] is in the focus of this study and will further be
referred to as the cembureau method. In this method, a pressure gradient up to 6 bar is established on
one side of a concrete drill core of 50 mm thickness and the gas flow is measured manually while
measuring the time during which a gas bubble runs through a calibrated flowmeter. Using the Hagen-
Poiselle-Darcy equation (1) for gases, the coefficient for permeability (K) can be acquired for a specific
pressure range from the gas flow (Q).
2𝑃𝑎 𝑄𝑖 𝐿µ
𝐾𝑖 = (1)
𝐴(𝑃𝑖2 − 𝑃𝑎2 )
Equation (1) allows for the calculation of the permeability coefficient over different pressure gradients
between the ambient pressure (Pa) and the absolute applied pressure (Pi). The gas flow (Qi) is measured
by the permeability meter for the applied pressure (i) and can be translated to the permeability including
the geometry, the length (L) and cross-section (A) of the cylindrical specimen and the gas dynamic
viscosity (µ).
This measurement system from 1999 is simple but very time-consuming and unstable when it
comes to measurement with the relatively new material ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC). The
term was introduced in 1994 [6] and advanced the field of self-compacting concrete or reactive powder
14 th
concrete. It is a well-known fact since the 1950s [7,8] that permeability is dependent on the pore struc-
ture of the concrete. UHPC is an extremely dense concrete due to its dense packing and low w/c ratio
b
achieved with the use of superplasticisers [9]. With medium pore sizes in the range of gel pores rather
than capillary pores, permeability is expected to be very low [10]. Literature shows that the permeability
of thermally treated UHPC can range from E-18 to E-21 whereas normal strength and high strength
concrete shows permeability up to E-17 depending on the drying method [11]. The low permeability
if
allows the use of UPHC in vessel constructions such as warm water storage tanks, water pipes, liquid
gas containers and many more [12–14].
In this study, a UHPC mixture was designed to withstand high temperatures and pressures as the
main constructive material for a steam pressure vessel. One of the most important performance criteria
is the water vapour tightness of the concrete and hence the permeability of the concrete was to be
measured. The changes within the concrete subjected to cyclic heating and cooling were considered
with cyclic autoclaving of the samples and subsequently investigating the changes in permeability over
time.
As the microstructure of UHPC gets denser when subjected to short-term autoclaving [15] the per-
meability was expected to drop even further. During the first measurements on a standard set up of the
cembureau method, the results were inconclusive as the standard deviation was an order of a magnitude
higher than the accuracy of the measurement and the maximum measurement time was exceeded by
far. To measure the gas flow through low permeable UHPC, the cembureau method was adapted as
described in the following sections.
2 Materials & Method

The new set-up is based on the principles of the cembureau method and is specifically adapted for low
permeable UHPC which was subjected to high temperatures and high pressures.
2.1 Concrete
The new experimental setup is developed for low permeable concrete. UHPC is the concrete chosen in
the project as a building material for gas and liquid containing pressure vessels and is thus to be tested
on its permeability. The concrete in question is a ready-mix compound containing quartz filler and
cement classified as CEM II/B-S 52,5 R. The compound was prepared with 0/2 Sand and hence, can be
classified as a mortar. The 28-day compressive strength of 133 MPa qualifies the concrete as ultra-high
performance, especially for mortars [16].
The mortar underwent further hydrothermal treatment after demoulding at 200 °C and 15.5 bar
under a water vapour atmosphere for a number of cycles of 6 hours each. The samples shown in this
paper are hydrothermally treated for 50 cycles. After 50 cycles the compressive strength increased to
160 MPa. The permeability test results shown in this paper are conducted with the hydrothermally
treated samples only. One cylindrical specimen was produced, and the three samples were cut from one
cylinder for this experiment and thus, have similar pore structures. The samples were dried until con-
stant mass at 40°C for two weeks in an oven and were stored in an exicator at 30 % RH between meas-
urements to ensure constant moisture conditions during the time period between measurements.
2.2 Adaptions of the cembureau method

The cembureau method is a wide established method to measure gas permeability mainly with O2 or N2
up to a pressure difference of 6 bar maximum. A cylindrical sample with a diameter of 150 mm or
50 mm and a thickness of 50 mm is placed in a pressure cell with a pressure difference of the cuff and
the maximal applied pressure of at least 2 bar to ensure gas tightness of the lateral surface. The gas flow
is measured by timing a gas bubble running through a bubble meter manually. In this study, the method
was adapted and improved for efficiency and accuracy for low permeably UHPC. The method is
adapted and compared with a permeability meter for air and gas permeability of concrete from testing
(Figure 1 left side) and used the provided pressure cell from testing (Figure 1 right side).
2.2.1 Pressure difference
The most crucial change in the new method is the higher pressure regime of the test. The new
pressure regime allows measurements up to a 9 bar pressure gradient to allow quicker testing of low
permeable concretes. The system's upper limit is defined by the limits of the pressure cell which allows

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mayadaption
not beofcopied or distributed without prior permission from fib.
the set-up for gas permeability measurements for ultra-high performance concrete
pressures of up to 12 bar for the cuff for the lateral surfaces. In this study measurements up to a differ-
ential pressure of 5 bar is shown and are therefore above the maximal pressure of 3 bar suggested by
b
the cembureau method.
if
Fig. 1 Left: The set-up of the cembureau method includes a barometer (1) to regulate the differ-
ential pressure, the pressure cell (2) and four bubble meters (3) ranging from 150 ml to 1 ml.
In the bubble meters, a soap bubble is generated, and the flow of the gas is measured by the
speed the bubble needs for a particular volume. Right: The pressure cell (2) including the
silicon cuff (4) and the tube (5), which applies the pressure on the sample surface.
The pressure can be controlled by a manual valve and is measured by relative pressure sensors before
and after the pressure cell as can be seen in Figure 2. The data of the pressure sensors, and the gas flow,
are measured at a rate of 1 Hz and the logging program was programmed in LabVIEW.
2.2.2 Sample size
The samples are cast cylinders with a diameter of 50 mm with cut surfaces. In the cembureau method,
a sample thickness of 50 mm is defined. As the tests in this project are conducted on concrete or mortar
with the largest grain size of the aggregates of 2 mm, the sample thickness was decreased to 30 mm
and 15 mm and compared to measurements with the sample of 50 mm thickness. A decrease in meas-
urement time due to the acceleration of a stable gas flow and a decrease in the permeability coefficient
is expected with decreasing sample thickness.
Plastic discs with an outer diameter of 50 mm and a hole with a diameter of 10 mm were prepared
in different thicknesses to serve as spacers. On top and under the samples were directly the steel spacers
provide in the cembureau method to ensure good gas distribution.
2.2.3 Inert Gas
For this project, the permeability against water vapour is the crucial parameter to ensure the tightness
of the pressure vessel over long time periods. Argon was chosen as the testing gas to measure gas
permeability in this set-up as it does not influence the sample as it is an inert noble gas. Furthermore,
the kinetic diameter of Argon (340 pm) and oxygen (346 pm) are approximately similar and are thus in
good comparison with the parameters provided in the standard. For the measurement, three different
Ar-Flowmeters are integrated to log the flow during the whole experiment to also observe stable laminar
flow conditions.
3 Results & Discussion
3.1 Effects of sample size thickness

The permeability is mainly influenced by the interfacial transition zones (ITZ) between the aggregates
as it is the most porous area within concrete [17]. Even though the ITZ is normally a pathway for gases,
in autoclaved UHPC the hydrothermal treatment enforces further hydration of the clinker phases and
results in a denser ITZ [15]. The sample thickness is incorporated within equation (1) and is thus math-
ematically valid to use thinner samples. As long as the aggregates or the reinforcement are small

14th
if b
Fig. 2 The new set-up contains a highly pressurised gas bottle (1), valves including a barometer
to control the pressure (2), a safety valve (3), a relative pressure sensor (4) to measure the
differential input pressure (Pdiff), the same pressure cell (5) as shown in Figure 1, three
digital flowmeters (6) (10, 100 and 1000 sccm/min), a relative pressure sensor (7) to ensure
there is no pressure built up and a relief valve (8). The data from the flowmeters is then
displayed via a computer to allow in situ observations of the flow behaviour.
enough to ensure that the permeability is representative of the sample overall. Therefore, the sample
thickness is dependent on the aggregate size, if the aggregates are considered non-permeable.
This section compares the results of three different sample sizes of the same concrete mix. All three
samples of a thickness of 15 mm, 30 mm and 50 mm were measured at 5 bar for a long period of time
to observe the time span each sample needs for establishing a stable Ar flow as shown in Figure 3. It is
obvious that the sample thickness influences the time which is needed to establish a stable flow. In
Figure 3, it is displayed that the time to establish a stable flow varies with the sample thickness. Where
the thickness increases, more time is needed to get to a stable flow state. In this experiment the sample
of 15 mm thickness achieves the stable flow state after about 1 h, the sample with 30 mm thickness
after 2 h and the 50 mm thick sample does not reach a stable flow within the shown 5 h time frame.
The different time frames to achieve a stable flow show that low permeable concrete can not be meas-
ured after the cembureau method as the method suggest a time frame of 0.5 h to establish a stable flow.
If the low permeable concrete would be measured after 0.5 h of a UHPC sample with a thickness of
50 mm, the permeability coefficient would be higher than in stable flow and hence, introduce a system-
atic error offset for all measurements.
3.2 Comparison of the cembureau method and the new set-up

For comparison of the cembureau method set up to the newly introduced set-up in this study, samples
of different thicknesses were measured at 3 differential pressure stages which lie within the upper limit
of the cembureau method pressure scale. All samples were measured at the same differential pressure
stages at the old cembureau method set up using Air and the new set up using Ar as a gas. The different
results are shown in Figure 4 and are in good agreement with experimental results of a similar mixture
from the literature [11].

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Fig. 3
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This figure shows the long-term behaviour of the Ar-flow during the first 5 h of measure-
ment. The data is shown with an offset in the permeability coefficient to show the different
curves more clearly.
Fig. 4 This figure shows the permeability coefficient K for different sample sizes measured at
different differential pressure stages (Pdiff =Pi-Pa) using either Ar or Air as a gas.

14 th
At first glance, the measurements of the cembureau method from the samples of 15 mm and 30 mm
thickness give very compelling results within a small range over the three pressure stages. These meas-
b
urements were in good agreement with the cembureau method suggestions and show small errors. These
measurements were also compliant with the measuring limits suggested by the cembureau method. The
results from the 50 mm thick sample show large variations and large error ranges and confirm that thick
samples of low permeable concrete cannot be measured after the cembureau method.
if
The samples measured in the new system show less agreement within the data set as the samples
show different values for the permeability coefficient. Nevertheless, the data sets appear more robust
as the progress over the three pressure stages is similar for all three sample sizes.
Overall, the new set-up produces slightly higher values for the permeability coefficient than the
cembureau method for the equivalent sample sizes and pressure stages. Furthermore, the difference in
the results for the coefficient for one sample size between the different gases decreases with decreasing
sample thickness. The thinner the sample, the closer the results of the two setups.
4 Conclusion
The adaption of the permeability meter to a semi-automatic method with a full data log is more efficient
and more accurate for low permeable concretes. The advantages are (I) a better overall understanding
of the gas flow as the measurements show continuous data, (II) ensuring a stable flow during measure-
ments, (III) less measuring effort even for long measurements as the set-up needs no surveillance, and
(IV) measuring very low gas flows outside of the gas flow regime of the cembureau method, (V) the
adaptions are variable as the three parameters sample size, choice of gas and pressure regime can be
adapted to fit the scientific question, (VI) the new set-up can include roughly the same investment costs
as a new cembureau method permeability meter.
The downside of the new method is that the results are not easily comparable with other data meas-
ured on a standard cembureau method system but rather serve as a method to compare permeabilities
within the sample set. The modernisation of the system using digital flowmeters and extensive data
logging have to be taken into consideration
The new method is currently under further evaluation with higher permeable concretes not classi-
fied as UHPC to derive if it can substitute the cembureau method permeability meter with standard
concretes. Preliminary results show that the method works equally good for normal strength concrete
with permeability between E-15 and E-16 and shows just minimal systematic off-sets when compared
to the cembureau method.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Philipp Drabetzki for the sample preparation.
References
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crete,” ACI Materials Journal, 98(1).
[2] Torrent, R. J., 1992, “A Two-Chamber Vacuum Cell for Measuring the Coefficient of Permea-
bility to Air of the Concrete Cover on Site,” Materials and Structures, 25(6), pp. 358–365.
[3] Kurashige, I., 2015, “Novel Non-Destructive Test Method to Evaluate Air-Permeability Distri-
bution in Depth Direction in Concrete - Development of Triple-Cell Air-Permeability Tester
(TCAPT),” p. 10.
[4] RILEM TC 116-PCD, 1999, “Recommendation of TC 116-PCD: Tests for Gas Permeability of
Concrete,” Materials and Structures, 32, pp. 176–179.
[5] SABS, 2015, “Civil Engineering Methods. Part CO3-2: Concrete Durability Index Testing -
Oxygen Permeability Test,” SABS/TC 081/SC 01(SANS-3001-CO§-2).
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the Use of a Packing Model,” Cement and Concrete Research, 24(6), pp. 997–1009.
[7] Powers, T. C., Copeland, L. E., and Mann, H. M., 1959, Capillary Continuity or Discontinuity
in Cement Pastes.
[8] Powers, T. C., and Brownyard, T. L., 1946, “Studies of the Physical Properties of Hardened
Portland Cement Paste (Nine Parts),” Journal of the American Concrete Institute, 43.

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Granular Packing and Percolation Threshold of Reactive Powder Concrete,” Cement and Con-
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crete Research, 30(12), pp. 1861–1867.
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Performance Concrete: Part II. Hydration, Microstructure and Properties,” Construction and
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[11] Wolf, M., 2016, “Optimierung von Ultra-Hochleistungsbeton Zur Verwendung Als Konstruk-
tionsmaterial Für Statisch-Konstruktive Vacuum Insulated Wall (VIW-) Elemente,” Disserta-
tion, Ott-von-Guericke-Universität Magdeburg.
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Review of Concrete Properties at Cryogenic Temperatures: Towards Direct LNG Contain-
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[13] Tengborg, P., Johansson, J., and Durup, J. G., 2014, “Storage of Highly Compressed Gases in
Underground Lined Rock Caverns–More than 10 Years of Experience,” Proceedings of the
World Tunnel Congress.
[14] Reineck, K.-H., and Greiner, S., 2004, “Tests on Ultra-High Performance Fibre-Reinforced
Concrete Designing Hot-Water Tanks and UHPFRC-Shells,” Proceedings of the International
Symposium on Ultra-High Performance Concrete, Kassel, Germany, pp. 361–374.
[15] Lehmann, C., 2013, “Neue Perspektiven für Ultra-Hochleistungsbeton durch gezielte Beein-
flussung des Nanogefüges,” Dissertation, Technische Universität Berlin / BAM Bundesanstalt
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if b
A numerical study of the cracking pattern of reinforced
b
concrete rings under hydrostatic pressure
Sébastien Michel1 and András A. Sipos2
if
1 Dept. Mechanics, Materials and Structures,
Műegyetem rkp. 3, Budapest (1111), Hungary.
2 Dept. Morphology and Geometric Modeling &

MTA-BME Morphodynamics Research Group,
Műegyetem rkp. 3, Budapest (1111), Hungary
Abstract
The emerging cracking pattern in reinforced concrete structures strongly relates to the loading history.
Locally, the crack can be associated with internal stresses but globally, different types of loads result
in different patterns. This observation is of utmost importance for the maintenance of structures, as the
analysis of the visible cracking pattern can be performed non-destructively. Irreversibility of the frac-
ture process makes the cracking pattern a marker of the load history. Although the final pattern is well-
documented in many cases, its emergence from a healthy structure deserves further research.
I introduce a simple model in this talk: a reinforced brittle ring under hydrostatic pressure. Only in-
plane deformations are considered, and bonding between the rebars and the concrete is accounted for.
Following the classical Griffith theory in Fracture Mechanics, an energetic viewpoint is adopted. The
pattern is retrieved by considering sequential crack opening according to an energy minimization crite-
rion. The associated sequence of coupled boundary-value problems is studied numerically.

The energy criterion is shown to be consistent with the usual strength criterion (i.e., a crack appears
if the tensile capacity is exceeded) only in some parameter range. The pattern evolution consists of two
regimes: first, cracks appear regularly in the vicinity of existing cracks, then proceed according to a
halving rule. The effect of the amount of reinforcement on the crack evolution is presented.
1 Motivation, introduction
Studying the cracking pattern played a prominent role in structural engineering. Already the work of
Poleni investigated the cracks of St Peter’s Basilica in Rome [5] and aimed to assess how dangerous
the cracks were and how the cracking pattern affected the stability of the structure. Although it had
been well-understood for a long time that cracking is a way to ease tension in the structure by releasing
energy, A.A. Griffith’s paper was the first at the beginning of the 20th century to formalize the cracking
problem in a modern setup [3].
As of today, there are nonetheless two ways of studying cracking patterns, none of which proved
to be unanimously adopted. On the one hand, the classical bottom-to-top approach sees existing cracks
as a material defect leading to singularities in the strain and stress fields and aims at their approximate
computation. Supplementing this approach with an ad-hoc cracking criterion allows one to compute the
evolution of further cracks via iterative methods [4]. On the other hand, energetic formulations take a
top-down approach and formulate the cracking problem as an energy minimization problem in the spirit
of Griffith’s fracture. Crack opening releases energy by creating new surfaces, effectively relaxing the
stored elastic energy. Specific features of the fracturing process, such as non-interpenetration or the
irreversibility of the cracking, must be enforced as additional constraints [1]-[2].
Despite profuse literature about crack formation, the relationship between the fracture process and
the emerging cracking pattern is still unrevealed [5]. In many cases, one postulates the positions of the
existing cracks and is concerned with the growth of a single crack upon load increments [12]. Some
attempts with various methods consider particular patterns and the simultaneous evolution of numerous
14 th
cracks under loading. Still, real-world examples advocate that the visible pattern is the result of the
whole history of the structure [6]-[9].
b
Motivated by the widespread use of reinforced concrete structures, this study aims at providing a
simple model allowing for the investigation of the appearance of the cracking pattern in an axisymmet-
rical structure under hydrostatic pressure. Instead of resorting to the exact equations, we rely on dimen-
sion reduction to mimic the behavior of a slice of the structure. We understand this slice as a pressur-
if
ized, circular ring with elastic supports constrained to deform in its own plane. The bonding between
the concrete and the steel rebar is mimicked by adding additional springs linking their displacement
fields.
2 The pressurized ring model

We consider a reinforced concrete ring of radius R made out of concrete and containing steel reinforce-
ments. We model the ring as an unshearable circular beam with intrinsic curvature described in polar
coordinates. Considering a square cross-section of side length h, we denote by 𝐴𝑐 and 𝐴𝑠 the respective
area of concrete and steel in the cross-section. We let 𝐼𝑐 and 𝐼𝑠 the respective moments of inertia with
respect to the centroid of the section for the concrete and steel, and 𝐸𝑐 and 𝐸𝑠 the respective Young
modulii of each material with obvious subscripts.
Fig 1. The notations for the different displacement fields (left) and the forces acting on the me-
chanical model of the concrete ring (in grey on the left and central panel) and on the steel
ring (in black on the left and rightmost panel).
We allow this ring to deform in its plane in the following fashion. Both the rebar and the concrete
are enforced to have the same radial displacement 𝑤(𝜃) = 𝑤𝑐 (𝜃) = 𝑤𝑠 (𝜃) but are allowed to have
different tangential displacements 𝑣𝑐 (𝜃) and 𝑣𝑠 (𝜃) (see Fig. 1.). To mimic the bonding between the
rebars in the concrete matrix, the tangential displacement fields are connected by a spring-like recall
force that depends on the difference between the tangential displacement fields and has stiffness 𝑘.
Finally, we assume the concrete part of the ring to be constrained in its plane by another tangential
spring of rigidity 𝑘𝑐 that aims to keep it in its initial configuration and can be accounted for being the
foundation of the dome.
The cracking part of the problem is modeled in the spirit of Griffith’s brittle fracture. The concrete
is approximated as a perfectly brittle material; hence the cracking at any point releases an energy 𝐴𝑐 𝐺𝑐 ,
the product of the concrete cross-section area times the fracture toughness of the concrete. On the other
hand, steel is not allowed to break.
With the notations introduced above, a finite strain model [11] allows deriving the expression for
the tensile (hoop) strains in both the concrete and the steel. Further, we take into account the variation
of the intrinsic curvature of the ring. Altogether, the concrete strain, steel strain, and curvature variation
read:
𝑤 + 𝑣𝑐 ′ 𝑤 + 𝑣𝑠 ′ 𝑤 + 𝑤’’
𝜈𝑐 = , 𝜈𝑠 = , Δ𝜅 = . (1)
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅2
Where the prime denotes differenciation with respect to 𝜃. We then turn towards an energetic for-
mulation of the problem.

3 The potential energy of the ring
b
To study the appearance of the cracking pattern on the ring, we need a cracking criterion. We chose to
investigate the cracking of the concrete in the setup of Griffith brittle fracture and through an energetic
formulation. We rely on the minimization of the energy functional F.
𝐹(𝑤, 𝑣𝑠 , 𝑣𝑐 , Γ) = ∫ Φ(𝑤, 𝑣𝑠 , 𝑣𝑐 ) + 𝑃 + ∫𝐺𝑐 𝐴𝑐 𝑑𝜇 , (2)
if
Ω\Γ Γ
where Ω is the whole uncracked domain, Γ is the (unknown) set of cracks which we assume to be com-
posed of a union of singletons, and 𝑑𝜇 is the singular measure on the set Γ. With the notations intro-
duced in subsection 2, the elastic energy density for the deformed ring reads:
𝐸𝑐 𝐴𝑐 2 Es 𝐼𝑠 2 Ec Ic + Es Is 2
Φ= ν + ν + Δ𝜅 . (3)
2 c 2 s 2
With terms accounting for the tension in the concrete, steel, and the bending in both the steel and
concrete, respectively. With our assumption that the concrete and steel are connected by a spring of
rigidity 𝑘, that the concrete is constrained by a tangential spring of rigidity 𝑘𝑐 and that the whole ring
is subject to an internal, outward-pointing hydrostatic pressure p, we get the potential energy of these
forces, respectively:
𝑘𝑐 𝑣𝑐2 𝑘(𝑣𝑐 − 𝑣𝑠 )2
𝑃=∫ + – 𝑝𝑤 . (4)
Ω\Γ 2 2
Before going any further, the nondimensional energy is obtained as follows: all the terms in the
expression of F in eq.(2) are divided by 𝐸𝑠 𝐼𝑠 + 𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑐 . This leads to a set of nondimensional parameters.
𝐸𝑠 𝐴𝑠 𝐼𝑠 𝑘𝑐
𝜀= , 𝑎 = , 𝜄 = , 𝜒 = , (5)
𝐸𝑐 𝐴𝑐 𝐼𝑐 𝑘
𝑅 𝑘 𝑝 𝐺𝑐 𝐴𝑐
𝜆 = , 𝛼 = , 𝛽 = , 𝛾 = . (6)
ℎ 𝐸𝑐 𝐸𝑐 ℎ𝐸𝑐
All of which can be understood to account for some physical characteristics of the ring. Namely, 𝜀
accounts for the ratio of the Young moduli between the steel and concrete, 𝑎 is directly linked to the
amount of steel in the cross-section, 𝜄 to the position of steels in the section, 𝜒 relates the stiffness of
the concrete/steel connection to that of the support that obstacles tangential displacement of the ring
fragments, whereas 𝛼 is simply the normalization of the stiffness of the steel/concrete connection. Fi-
nally, 𝜆 is the slenderness of the ring, and 𝛽 and 𝛾 are nondimensional versions of the pressure and
fracture toughness, respectively. We will abuse notation and denote by F the nondimensional functional
as well and stick to this notation from now on:
(𝑤 + 𝑤’’)2 6𝜆2 6𝜀𝑎𝜆2
𝐹 =∫ + (𝑤 + 𝑣𝑐 ’)2 + (𝑤 + 𝑣𝑠 ’)2 +
Ω\Γ 2 1 + 𝜄𝜀 1 + 𝜄𝜀
6𝛼𝜆4 12𝛽𝜆4 12𝑅𝛾𝜆3
+ (𝜒𝑣𝑐2 + (𝑣𝑐 − 𝑣𝑠 )2 )– 𝑤 + ∫𝑑𝜇 . (7)
1 + 𝜄𝜀 1 + 𝜄𝜀 1 + 𝜄𝜀 Γ
With this in hand, we have the first piece of the energetic formulation. We derive in the next section
the stationarity equations allowing us to compute the cracking pattern.
4 Cracking criterion and energy minimization

In order to minimize this functional we follow the steps of Michel [9]. Instead of investigating special
function spaces, we explore a sequential minimization: cracks appear one after another according to the
energy minimization criterion. This artifact makes the whole evolution discrete, as when N cracks are
already present on the ring, the next crack is found by investigating all possible add-crack positions and
performing the minimization on all pre-existing fragments.
Finding the whole evolution of the ring cracking pattern then reduces to studying a set of boundary
value problems, which can be derived from the stationary conditions for the functional F. If, when
computing the pattern, the instances of the problem should be studied on intervals of lengths the length
of the unbroken fragments, the abstract mathematical problem can be studied on arbitrary interval
length L. This angular length L becomes a control parameter of the problem. The stationarity conditions
for the functional yield the following system of differential equations. Without loss of generality, these
𝐿 𝐿
are investigated on an interval [− , ]:
2 2

14 th
12𝜆2 12𝜀𝑎𝜆2 12𝛽𝜆4

(𝑤 + 𝑤’’)’’ + (𝑤 + 𝑤’’) + (𝑤 + 𝑣𝑐′ ) + (𝑤 + 𝑣𝑠′ ) − = 0, (8)
b
1 + 𝜄𝜀 1 + 𝜄𝜀 1 + 𝜄𝜀
′ ′ 2
(𝑤 + 𝑣𝑐 ) − 𝛼𝜆 ((1 + 𝜒)𝑣𝑐 − 𝑣𝑠 ) = 0, (9)
𝛼𝜆 2
(𝑤 + 𝑣𝑠′ )′ + (𝑣 − 𝑣𝑠 ) = 0. (10)
𝑎𝜀 𝑐
Unfortunately, natural boundary conditions result in a no-strain condition at cracking points on the
if
steel, which is unphysical as the rebars are expected to carry some tensile force even at points where
the concrete is cracked. To circumvent the problem, we require instead the steel strain at the cracking
point to be that of an inflated circular ring. Altogether, the boundary conditions read:
𝐿 𝐿
(𝑤 + 𝑤 ′′ ) (− ) = (𝑤 + 𝑤 ′′ ) ( ) = 0, (11)
2 2
𝐿 L
(𝑤 + 𝑤 ′′ )′ (− ) = (𝑤 + 𝑤 ′′ )′ ( ) = 0, (12)
2 2
2 2
𝐿 2𝛽𝜆 𝐿 𝐿 2𝛽𝜆 𝐿
(𝑤 + 𝑣𝑠 ′)2 (− ) − 𝑤 (− ) = (𝑤 + 𝑣𝑠′ )2 ( ) − 𝑤 ( ) = 0, (13)
2 𝑒𝑎 2 2 𝑒𝑎 2
𝐿 𝐿
(𝑤 + 𝑣𝑐′ ) (− ) = (𝑤 + 𝑣𝑐′ ) ( ) = 0. (14)
2 2
The total energy can be recomputed from solutions to such boundary value problems. Given the
solution displacement fields on an interval of length 𝐿, let us denote them with a superscript 𝑤 𝐿 , 𝑣𝑐𝐿 , 𝑣𝑠𝐿 .
The bulk energy in one piece of length 𝐿 is found to follow:
𝑘𝑐 (𝑣𝑐𝐿 )2 𝑘(𝑣𝑐L − 𝑣𝑠𝐿 )2
𝑓(𝐿) = ∫ Φ(𝑤 𝐿 , 𝑣𝑐𝐿 , 𝑣𝑠𝐿 ) + + – 𝑝𝑤 𝐿 𝑑𝜃 . (15)
]−𝐿/2,𝐿/2[ 2 2
Now with 𝑁 cracks resulting in 𝑁 fragments of respective lengths 𝐿1 , … , 𝐿𝑁 , the energy in the
whole ring can be computed as the sum of the bulk energies in all the unbroken fragments plus the
cracking energy from the 𝑁 cracks:
12𝑅𝛾𝜆3
𝐹(𝑁) = ∑ 𝑓(𝐿𝑖 ) + 𝑁 . (16)
1 + 𝜄𝜀
𝑖∈{1,..,𝑁}
The next step of energy minimization follows the steps of Michel [9]. First, the energy functional
is seen to reduce to a quadratic function whose coefficients are driven on the one hand by the size of
the fragments and on the other by the number of cracks. This allows to rewrite the previous expression
of the energy:
12𝑅𝛾𝜆3
𝐹(𝑁) = 𝛽2 ∑ 𝑔(𝐿𝑖 ) + 𝑁 . (17)
1 + 𝜄𝜀
𝑖∈{1,…,𝑁}
Where 𝑔(𝐿𝑖 ) = 𝑓(𝐿𝑖 )/𝛽2 no longer depends on 𝛽. By doing so, we effectively handle the coupling
of the cracking position with the solution displacement fields on the unbroken fragments: the coeffi-
cients 𝑔(𝐿𝑖 ) contain on their own all the information about the cracking positions and reveals that hy-
drostatic pressure on its own matters only as a trigger for the cracking and is irrelevant for the pattern
formation.
Further exploiting the sequentiality of cracking allows to compute the difference in energy associ-
ated with cracking at the relative position 𝑥 ∈]0,1[ on each piece. The (𝑁 + 1)th cracking position is
thus the solution to the global minimization over the competing cracking positions on each unbroken
piece of length 𝐿𝑖 :
min min −𝑔(𝐿𝑖 𝑥) − 𝑔(𝐿𝑖 (1 − 𝑥)) . (18)
𝑖∈{1,…,𝑁} 𝑥∈]0,1[
This method is straightforward to implement, and we follow it for computing the cracking patterns
in rings. Computational examples are given in the next section.
5 Results and applications

Following the procedure described in the previous sections, we compute the cracking pattern according
to the sequential minimization of the energy for diverse ranges of parameters.
Considering the material parameters fixed, we plot the relative position of the energy minima x
against the length of any given fragment of the ring. We plot this result for fragments of length smaller
than 2𝜋. We obtain the type of diagram shown in the first line of Fig 2. Local minima and maxima are
plotted as blue or red dots, respectively. In contrast, the global minima are figured as blue stars and give
the relative position of the apparition of the crack on the fragment, whose length is given in abscissa.
Note that this L-x diagram itself is enough to determine the whole cracking pattern of the ring. Due to
b
the rotational symmetry of the ring before any crack occurs, the first crack can be picked at an arbitrary
position, say 0. The position of appearance of the first crack is then given by looking for the position x
minimizing (18) when 𝐿 = 2𝜋. Once this operation has been performed, one knows the length of two
fragments and can apply the same method again and choose where the third crack will appear according
if
to energy minimization. The operation can then be repeated as many times as wanted when looking for
any number of cracks; the only care needed is to compare the results of the energy minimization for the
different fragment lengths. We obtain the cracking patterns presented in Fig 3.
Considering a reinforced concrete ring of radius 20 meters, a cross-section of 1 square meter with
4 circular steel reinforcements accounting for 5% of the surface of the concrete cross-section, each of
which is 5cm away from the skin of the concrete beam, we find the following set of non-dimensional
parameters. Note that neither the pressure nor the fracture toughness is needed, as they do not influence
the pattern but only the load at which the cracking will occur.
𝜀 = 10, 𝑎 = 0.05, 𝜄 = 0.5, 𝜆 = 20, 𝛼 = 103 . (19)
We investigate 𝜒 ∈ {0.1, 10} (respectively, left and right of Fig 2.) to mimic different behavior of
the beam when the support is ten times as stiff or ten times less stiff than the bonding between the
concrete and rebars, respectively.
Fig 2. On the left, positions of the (local and global) energy minima and maxima of (18) for dif-
ferent values of the fragment length L for 𝜒 = 0.1. On the right, the plot for 𝜒 = 10. The
relative position of the minimum x can be read on the vertical axis. Notice the different
regimes in the appearance of the pattern. In the left picture, all fragments possess two pos-
sible cracking positions that lead to cracks first appearing regularly disposed along the ring
then follow a halving rule (see Fig 3.). On the right picture, one sees a range of fragment
length where cracking follows a halving rule and under which cracks are pushed to the
edges of the fragments.

14 th
Fig 3.
if b
Cracking patterns obtained by the method presented before. On the left two columns, the
cracking pattern obtained at 𝜒 = 0.1. The cracks already opened are figured by blue circles,
and the newly opened crack is the red circle. On the right two columns, the pattern obtained
for 𝜒 = 10. Notice the halving rule occurring onward from the opening of the 7 th crack.
The results are in line with the on-the-field observations: the model tends to produce the typical
cracking pattern observed in dome-like axisymmetrical structures consisting of almost equidistant
cracks along the circumference of the structure. It reveals, however, that the pattern is produced first
by creating regularly disposed cracks and then by halving the so-created fragments. It is of interest to
note that even for a perfectly symmetrical structure, the resulting cracking pattern could be non-sym-
metrical. Discrepancies between the computed and predicted pattern can be accounted for variations of
the support stiffness, material characteristics, or some incident during the building’s lifetime. This is of
utmost interest for the maintenance of existing buildings, as any structural imbalance in the dome sup-
port will reflect in the pattern and is easily modeled in our framework by choosing matching features
for the spring stiffnesses constraining the ring.
One has to be cautious, though. Nothing guarantees that the pattern obtained from the model can
be uniquely linked with the load, thus requiring extra care and attention to the characteristics of the
building when modeling an existing structure. In addition, it is yet unclear how robust the pattern is to
material or structural imperfections.
6 Conclusion
We present a simplified model of an axisymmetric reinforced concrete structure using dimension
reduction. We consider a slice of the structure and model the concrete and steel parts of the structure as
two independent rings connected by a spring-like force modeling bonding. In addition, the concrete
part of the structure is constrained by a tangential spring to account for the effect of the cap of a dome,
or its foundation.
An energetic criterion is used to compute the cracking pattern appearing as the internal hydrostatic
pressure of the ring increases. The problem is shown to reduce to that of a minimization of the energy
that can be carried by solving a boundary value problem on an interval of arbitrary length, in turn
leading to the cracking pattern.
b
Using the ratio of the bonding to the support stiffnesses as a control parameter, the evolution of the
cracking pattern is showed to exhibit at least two different regimes. When the support’s rigidity is big-
ger, or of the same order of magnitude as the bonding rigidity, cracks appear first regularly disposed
then proceed according to a halving rule for all fragment length under some critical treshold. However,
if
if the support rigidity is smaller than the bonding rigidity, cracks appear first at a regular distance from
each other, then according to the halving rule, and in a third phase, tend to concentrate around pre-
existing cracks.
Acknowledgments
The research was supported by the NKFIH Grant 134199 and by the TKP2021-BME-NVA-02 program.
References
[1] Bourdin, B., Francfort, G. A., Marigo, J. J. (2008). The variational approach to fracture. Journal
of Elasticity, 91(1-3), 5–148.
[2] Francfort, G. A., Marigo, J. J. (1998). Revisiting brittle fracture as an energy minimization
problem. Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids, 46(8), 1319–1342.
[3] Griffith, A. A. (1921). VI. The phenomena of rupture and flow in solids. Philosophical Transac-
tions of the Royal Society of London. Series A, 221(582-593), 163–198.
[4] Gross, D., Seelig, T. (2018). Fracture Mechanics. With an Introduction to Micromechanics
Third Edition. Springer Verlag, Berlin.
[5] Heyman, J. (1995). The Stone Skeleton: Structural Engineering of Masonry Architecture,
Cambridge University Press.
[6] Lancioni, G., & Royer-Carfagni, G. (2009). The variational approach to fracture mechanics. A
practical application to the French Panthéon in Paris. Journal of elasticity, 95(1), 1-30.
[7] Marigo, JJ., Maurini, C., Pham, K. (2016). An overview of the modelling of fracture by gradient
damage models. Meccanica 51, 3107–3128.
[8] Masi, F., Stefanou, I., Vannucci, P. (2018). On the origin of the cracks in the dome of the Pan-
theon in Rome. Engineering Failure Analysis, 92, 587—596.

[9] Michel, S., Sipos, A.A. On the cracking patterns of brittle rings with elastic radial support under
hydrostatic pressure. Meccanica (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11012-022-01523-7.
[10] Ottoni, F., & Blasi, C. (2016). Hooping as an ancient remedy for conservation of large masonry
domes. International Journal of Architectural Heritage, 10(2-3), 164-181.
[11] Tadjbakhsh, I., Odeh F. (1967). Equilibrium States of Elastic Rings. Journal of Mathematical
Analysis and Applications, 18, 59–74.
[12] Xia, Z. C., & Hutchinson, J. W. (2000). Crack patterns in thin films. Journal of the Mechanics
and Physics of Solids, 48(6-7), 1107-1131.

if b
Effect of calcined clay minerals on hydration kinetics
b
of tricalcium silicate
Hee-Young Hwang, Jiseul Park and Sung-gul Hong
if
Department of Architecture & Architectural Engineering,
Seoul National University,
1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
Abstract
This paper investigates the role of three calcined clay (CC; kaolinite, illite, and montmorillonite) on the
early age hydration kinetics of tricalcium silicate (C3S) pastes. A phase boundary nucleation and growth
(BNG) model was applied to calorimetry data from C3S pastes, substituted with a 10-30% CC. Results
showed remarkable variation in the hydration mechanism as stated in the type of CC and the substitution
rate. This is attributed to the difference in specific surface area, pozzolan reactivity, and ion concentra-
tions that directly affect C3S dissolution and calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) nucleation and growth.
The experiments and simulations provide more details about the effect of CC minerals on the hydration
of cementitious materials.
1 Introduction
One of the most effective ways to reduce carbon footprint is replacing cement with supplementary
cementitious materials (SCMs) [1]. The use of SCMs has been shown to drastically improve the me-
chanical properties of cement in the short and long term. The effect of SCMs during hydration can be
divided into filler effect and pozzolan effect. In the early period, SCMs accelerate hydration kinetics by
serving additional surfaces for calcium-silicate-hydrate (C-S-H) nucleation. The acceleration effect (i.e.,
filler effect) is directly related to the specific surface area (SSA) of SCMs [2]. The pozzolan effect is
the reaction of SCMs with calcium hydroxide (CH) to generate C-S-H. According to the ion release of
silicon and aluminum from SCMs, the composition of C-S-H varies greatly [3].
Obviously, calcined clay (CC) has a high potential for the use of SCMs because of its abundant
reserves and accessibility [4]. Clay are aluminosilicates composed of tetrahedral SiO4 layers and octa-
hedra AlO6 layers. Clay structures are divided mainly by the arrangement of tetrahedra and octahedra
layers, as 1:1 layer (one octahedral and one tetrahedral) or 2:1 layer (one octahedral between two te-
trahedral sheets) [5]. The most commonly used clay types include kaolinite, 1:1 layer, and illite and
montromolinite, which have 2:1 layers. The characteristics of clay differ considerably, subjected to the
type and structure of the clay, the particle size distribution, the SSA, and the chemical composition.
The calcination of clays also determines the properties of clays. After heating clays, the hydroxyl groups
of octahedra layers are released, resulting in higher reactivity.
Prior studies have mainly focused on highly reactive metakaolin (MK) [6], [7]. However, given the
high costs and resource limitations of pure MK, using a single MK is not the proper way to aim high
replacement rate [8]. In order to expand the application of CC, understanding the reaction contributions
and mechanisms of individual CCs and multi compositions of clay is essential. Recently, attempts have
been conducted to understand the characteristics of various clays and their effects on cement systems
[5], [7], [8]. The hydration reactions were controlled by the amount of CCs used, particle size, and
reactivity. Especially, it has been suggested that aluminum ions released from CCs cause deceleration
of the hydration kinetics [9], [10]. However, due to material inhomogeneity and complex reactions in
cement systems, the reactions of CC and cement are not deeply understood.
In this paper, the main purpose is to broaden the comprehension of the reaction behavior between
the CCs and the cement hydration. This understanding could give clues in predicting the reaction mech-
anism of multi-phase clays. The main parameters are the type of clay and the substitution rate. The
particle size of clays was prepared similarly. The hydration kinetics of the C3S+CC system was meas-
ured using isothermal calorimetry, and ICP and TGA were used to measure ion concentration and con-
tents of hydration products. A phase and boundary and growth (BNG) model simulation was conducted,
and experimental results and simulation results were discussed together.
14 th
2 Materials and Methods
b
2.1 Raw materials and sample preparation
The prepared raw materials were C3S (Sukgyung AT, Korea), kaolinite (Sigma-Aldrich, Korea), illite
(Younggung illite, Chungcheongbuk-do, Korea), and montmorillonite (Sigma-Aldrich, Korea). The
raw clays were heated in a programmable temperature furnace at 800 °C for 2 h. The heating tempera-
if
ture was determined by considering the dehydrogenation temperature used in previous studies [5], [11],
[12]. After the furnace was sufficiently cooled to room temperature, the calcined clay was obtained.
The calcined clays were named MK (meta kaolinite), MI (meta illite), MM (meta montmorillonite).
The particle size distributions and the SSAs of the raw materials are shown in Fig. 1 and Table 1.
The size distributions were obtained by a laser scattering method (Partica LA-960V2, Horiba, Japan),
and the SSAs were measured by Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) method. The particle size of C3S was
the smallest, and the particle size of the clays was almost identical. In contrast, the difference in the
SSAs of the raw materials was significantly large. Compared with C3S, the SSAs of MK, MI, and MM
were 2.9, 1.2, and 43.0 times higher, respectively.
Table 1 Average particle size and specific surface area of each raw material.
Sample C3S MK MI MM
Average particle size [μm] 5.5 13.0 11.5 12.5
Specific surface area [m2/g] 2.6 7.6 3.1 111.9
Fig. 1 Particle size distributions of raw materials.
C3S + CC paste samples were prepared with C3S and three types of CC, and C3S was partially substi-
tuted by CCs at 0%, 10%, 20%, and 30% by mass. The sample names were labeled based on the type
and content of mass replacement of CC. (10MK, 20MK, 30MK, 10MI, 20MI, 30MI, 10MM, 20MM,
30MM). The w/s (water-to-solid ratio) of all samples was constant at 0.5, and the w/c (water-to-C3S)
ratios were 0.5, 0.56, 0.625, and 0.714 for 0%, 10%, 20%, and 30% replacements, respectively. In CH
+ CC pastes, CH was mixed 1:1 mass ratio with MK, MI, and MM, and the w/s was 1. All sample
powders were mixed for 3 minutes, and water was added and stirred at a constant speed for 2 min. After
mixing, samples were cured in a sealed condition (23 °C and RH > 99%).
2.2 Experimental methods

To monitor the kinetics of hydration of C3S and calcined clays, isothermal calorimetry was performed
using a calorimeter (TAM Air, TA Instruments, USA). A glass vial containing 5 g of fresh C3S+CC
paste was placed in the calorimeter at a constant temperature of 23 ± 0.1 °C. After the measurement,
the hydration results were normalized by the mass of C3S.
To estimate content of the hydration products quantitatively, TG analysis was conducted using a
thermogravimetric analyzer (Q500 TGA, TA Instruments, USA). The paste samples were crushed into
powders at given curing ages and placed in isopropanol for 1 d. After removal of isopropanol, the
powders were washed with diethyl-ether and filtrated before drying at 40 °C for 1 h. 30 ± 1 mg powder
b
samples were placed in an aluminum holder and heated in an N2 purge at a flow rate of 100 mL/min
and a heating rate of 10 °C/min in a temperature range of 25-1050 °C.
To determine aluminium ion release from calcined clay in the paste samples, ICP analysis was used
with an ICP-Mass Spectroscopy (7800 ICP-MS, Agilent, USA). The suspension samples were prepared
if
as same as the paste sample, except that the water-to-solid ratio was 2. After 1 h, the suspensions were
centrifuged for 10 min at 4,000 g with a centrifugal separator (XC-2415, Nasco Korea, Korea) and
filtered with 0.45 μm syringe filters. After filtration, the solution is diluted instantly 1:2 by mass with
HNO3 1% (w/w) in UPW.
3 Boundary nucleation and growth model

To simulate the hydration process of C3S and CC pastes, a boundary nucleation and growth (BNG)
model was used. This assumed nucleation occurs on solid substrate boundaries rather than randomly
distributed throughout the volume [13]. In this model, nucleation is assumed that nuclei are rapidly
created at a time (t = τ), and the number of nuclei is kept constant (i.e., called ‘site saturation’). After
the nucleation, the product grows on the substrate and does not into the substrate [14]. The effects of
agglomeration and ion-specific on hydration kinetics were not considered.
𝛼(𝑡) = 𝐵. 𝑋(𝑡) (1)

𝐹𝐷 [𝑘𝑆 (𝑡 − 𝜏)]
𝑋(𝑡) = 1 − exp [−2𝑘𝐺 (𝑡 − 𝜏) (1 − )] (2)
𝑘𝑆 (𝑡 − 𝜏)
𝑥
F𝐷 (x) = exp(-x 2 ) ∫ 𝑒𝑥𝑝 (𝑦 2 ) 𝑑𝑦 (3)
0
As a function of time, 𝛼(𝑡) is the degree of hydration of C3S, and 𝑋(𝑡) is the transformed phase
volume fraction [6], [14], [15]. 𝛼(𝑡) was determined by the calorimetry data, and the data was normal-
ized with the enthalpy of hydration of C3S (484 𝐽/𝑔𝐶3𝑆 ). B is a scaling parameter that describes the
fraction of the nucleation and growth rate in the C3S hydration kinetics [13]. 𝐹𝐷 (𝑥) is in terms of the
Dawson F-function.
1
𝑘𝑆 = 𝐺𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡) ∙ (𝜋 ∙ 𝑔 ∙ 𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 )2 (4)
𝑘𝐺 = 𝑟𝐺 ∙ 𝐺𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡) ∙ 𝑎𝐵𝑉 (5)

2
𝐺𝑝𝑎𝑟 (𝑡) (6)
𝑔=( )
𝐺𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡)
The variable 𝑘𝑠 (ℎ−1 ) and 𝑘𝐺 (ℎ−1 ) are units of reciprocal time. 1/𝑘𝑠 is the time for the extended
area of the hydrate on the substrate surface to be filled, and 1/𝑘𝑔 is the time for the hydrate to grow
roughly equal to the “reaction vessel” size. The anisotropy factor 𝑔 (unitless) is 0.25
(𝐺𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡): 𝐺𝑝𝑎𝑟 (𝑡) = 2: 1), and the ratio of growth rates into and out of the boundary 𝑟𝐺 is 0.5 in the
condition at the beginning of the hydration process [14].
𝑧𝑆𝑆𝐴𝐶𝐶
𝐴𝑀 = 1 + (7)
(100 − 𝑧)𝑆𝑆𝐴𝐶𝐶
𝑧
𝑆𝑆𝐴𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 = 𝑆𝑆𝐴𝐶3𝑆 + 𝑎𝐶𝐶 𝑆𝑆𝐴𝐶𝐶 (8)
(100 − 𝑧)
𝑆𝑆𝐴𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑
𝑎𝐵𝑉 = 𝑤 (9)
𝑐 1 1 1
{ + + ( ) }
[ 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝜌𝐶3 𝑆 100 − 𝑧 𝜌𝐶𝐶 ]

14 th
𝑁𝑛𝑢𝑐 = 𝑆𝑆𝐴𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (10)
b
An additional parameter to consider with the replacement of CC is the change in solid surface area
by a unit mass of C3S, AM (area multiplier, unitless), and the actual reaction area 𝑎𝐶𝐶 (unitless) in the
total CC surface with the mass replacement 𝑧 (unitless). The total area of the substrate, 𝑆𝑆𝐴𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 (μm2),
is calculated by adding the surface area of C3S, the reactive area of CC, with the substitution rate. The
if
area of substrate per unit volume of paste, 𝑎𝐵𝑉 (μm-1) is 𝑆𝑆𝐴𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 divided by the total system volume.
The density 𝜌 of C3S, MK, MI, and MM is 3150 kg/m3, 2550 kg/m3, 2750 kg/m3, and 1900 kg/m3,
respectively. The number of the product of nuclei per gram of C3S is 𝑁𝑛𝑢𝑐 .
The variables to be determined in the BNG model are as follows : 𝐺𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡) , 𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 , 𝑎𝐶𝐶 , 𝐵. The
parameters 𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 , 𝑎𝐶𝐶 , 𝐵 are constants to time and 𝐺𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡) is a function of time. The fitting process
consisted of 3 steps. In the first step, the hydration kinetics of the reference sample (0% replacement)
was simulated to the variables of 𝐺𝑜𝑢𝑡 , 𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 , and 𝐵. The variable 𝐺𝑜𝑢𝑡 was a constant value not a
time-dependent. In the second step, 𝐺𝑜𝑢𝑡 was fixed to the value (0.0792 μm/h) from the first step, and
the variables of 𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 , 𝑎𝐶𝐶 , 𝐵 were simulated. In the third step, other variables were kept constant,
and the time of function 𝐺𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡) was derived by using the time step of 0.01 h. The error between the
measured and simulated was within 1%, and Nelder-Mead-based simplex algorithm was used for the
optimization model.
4 Result and discussion
4.1 Hydration reactions of C3S

4.1.1 Hydration heat evolution
Fig. 2 Measured heat evolution profile for C3S + CC pastes with different types of CCs and re-
placement levels: (a), (b) heat flow, and (c) cumulative heat.
Heat flow, and cumulative heat release results in the different types of CC and substitution level for 24
h are shown in Fig. 2. In C3S+MK pastes, the acceleration of hydration was higher and occurred earlier
than in the reference sample (Ref). As the substitution rate increased, the gap with Ref became more
pronounced. The use of MK at high replacement (i.e., 20% or more) caused the diminishment of the
filler effect in prior studies [6], [15]; however, the reversal of the effect wasn’t observed in this study.
The result suggests that the filler effect is not determined simply by the replacement level. The heat
flows of the deceleration period were almost identical in the Ref and MK samples.
The use of MI hardly changed the C3S hydration kinetics, and especially the reaction curve at 10MI
was the same as Ref. At the substitution rate of 20% or more, the peak intensities were higher, but the
increase rate was still low compared to other CC pastes. These results are explained by low AM in
C3S+MI pastes. When the hydration results were compared based on similar AM, the reaction of the
10MK sample was slightly higher, but there was no obvious difference. The effect of AM on the initial
hydration was more crucial than the mineral structure of clays.
The MM+C3S pastes showed the highest increase in the cumulative heat. The heat flows were broa-
dened as the substitution rate increased, and the curves of the deceleration period showed a difference
from the Ref sample. The result suggests an additional reaction after early hydration, and the extra
effect was discussed in detail in section 4.1.2. The noticeably highest AM of C3S+MM pastes did not
cause the elevation in the main peak and the acceleration, and the use of MM even brought a reversal
effect. However, the cumulative heats of the MM+C3S pastes at 24 h were outstanding values, attributed
b
to the extra reaction after 6 h.
4.1.2 Result of TG analyses
if
Fig. 3 Results of TG analysis: C3S + CC paste samples on (a) 12h, (b) 24h, and (c) CH + CC paste
samples on 12h and 24h.
In all samples of C3S+CC pastes for 12 h (Fig. 3a), the degree of hydration and the weight of CH (i.e.,
related to weight loss at 350–500 °C) grew with the substitution level. The deviation between the results
of Ref, MK, and MI was slight, but in the case of MM, the gap was notable, especially in 20MM and
30MM. In the 24 h C3S+CC pastes result (Fig. 3b), all CCs samples had a noticeable dissimilarity from
the Ref, and the replacement and clay type affected the results. The weight loss at 50-550 °C enlarged
in the order of MI, MK, and MM, and the TG results were the same as the cumulative heat releases at
24 h.
The TG result of CH+CC paste is shown in Fig. 3c, and it was carried out to monitor the initial
pozzolanic reaction of CCs. As a result of 12 h, C-S-H production and CH consumption were observed
only in the MM sample, which means that the pozzolan reaction started very early. Additionally, it
supports that an additional peak of the heat flow curve in C3S+MM sample was the pozzolan reaction.
In the case of MK and MI, there was no change in CH content at 12 h. In the 24h sample of MK, CH
decreased slightly, but it was still neglectable. For that reason, it is determined that the effect of the
pozzolan reaction within the initial 24 h on MK and MI is insignificant.
4.1.3 Result of ICP-AEC and ICP-MS analyses
Table 2 Aluminum ion release [μg/L] in C3S+CC pastes at 1 h.

Replacement [%] MK MI MM
10 42.71 48.02 76.68
20 45.51 64.89 98.38
30 68.71 85.47 117.73
As with other experimental results, the concentration of aluminum ions and the substitution rate have a
linear relationship, as shown in Table 2. The concentration was in order MK, MI, and MM in the same
substitution. The result was quite varied from prior studies [8]; MK had a significantly higher ion con-
centration than MI and MM. It has been reported that aluminum ions adsorb on the C3S surface and
interfere with hydration kinetics [6], [9], [10]. The delays in the induction period were observed in all
C3S+CC pastes in the presence of aluminum ions. In addition, as the concentration of aluminum ions
increased, the induction period decelerated, and heat flow became broad. Although the alumina ion and
C3S hydration mechanisms cannot be explained by a single factor [9], [10], further investigation is
essential.

14th
4.2 Simulation of Hydration reactions of C3S
if b
Fig. 4 Simulation results of 𝐺𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡) in C3S+CC.
Fig. 5 Parameter of BNG model simulation in C3S+CC pastes: (a) scaling parameter, (b) reactive
area of calcined clay, and (c) product of nuclei per C3S gram.
The outward growth rate 𝐺𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡) in BNG model simulations is shown in Fig. 4, and the rate is a func-
tion of the supersaturation of C-S-H [6], [15], [16]. As the replacement level of MK increased, the
acceleration period became faster and converged to higher values. In the case of MI, there was no effect
of acceleration, but rather the growth rate almost coincided with the Ref as the substitution rate in-
creased. In other words, the alteration in the growth rate by using MK and MI was not considerable,
and the shape of the curve itself did not change. In contrast to MK and MI, MM showed a marked
difference from the Ref, implying an additional reaction was involved in the growth rate. The reaction
appears to be a pozzolan effect from the previous results obtained.
The results of the three parameters are shown in Fig. 5. Scaling factor B, which describes the degree
of hydration, was in order of MI, MK, MM, and it increased with the substitution rate. Also, the result
is consistent with cumulative heat release. For the reactive boundary of CCs, 𝑎𝑐𝑐 , MI increased, and
MK and MM decreased with the mass replacement. The reduction of the reactive area could be explai-
ned by the agglomeration of clay (i.e., especially MM) in high SSA [17]. In addition to SSA, the ag-
glomeration is caused by complex factors such as pH, particle size, and zeta potential [18], [19], thus,
further examination of this phenomenon is necessary.
The parameter 𝑆𝑆𝐴𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 , related to the reactive area 𝑎𝑐𝑐 , and the substitution rate 𝑧, inclined by
using CCs, and the gap in 𝑆𝑆𝐴𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 between clays was minor compared to the effective area 𝑎𝑐𝑐 . The
number of nuclei per C3S gram, 𝑁𝑛𝑢𝑐 , was the highest in the MK samples, which means the use of MK
was most effective in supplementing hydration boundaries. 𝑁𝑛𝑢𝑐 of MI was lower than MK due to low
𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 , although shown in the high value of 𝑎𝑐𝑐 , and the gap appeared conspicuously when the subs-
titution rate was more than 20 %. For the MM samples, 𝑁𝑛𝑢𝑐 was the lowest due to the declined value
of 𝑎𝑐𝑐 . Although the low 𝑁𝑛𝑢𝑐 in MM samples, the reason why the scaling factor was most extensive
implies that the pozzolan reaction was additionally involved in the hydration result.

5 Conclusion
b
In this study, experiments were conducted with the heat of hydration, contents of the product, and ion
concentrations. The hydration rates as functions of time and the number of nuclei per unit gram were
elucidated through BNG simulations. MK has the fastest acceleration period in CCs and shows contin-
uous acceleration linearly up to a substitution rate of 30 %. As the substitution rate increases, the en-
larged SSA of MK contributes to the acceleration of hydration, but the reactive area per MK particle
if
decreases due to the agglomeration effect. Nevertheless, MK serves the highest product of nuclei per
C3S gram, supporting that MK is most powerful in providing a substrate for the nucleation site. MI has
the least effecton the C3S hydration kinetics among CCs, resulting from the low SSA of MI. Substitution
of 20% or more is required to enhance hydration noticeably by using MI. The acceleration effect due
to MM is insignificant, considering that the SSA of MM is 10 times or more compared to other CCs.
Even the induction period is delayed with the replacement level, and the high aluminum ion concentra-
tion in MM could explain the retardation. Unlike MK and MI, which has little effect on a chemical
reaction in the initial 24 hours, the pozzolan reaction starts before 12 hours in MM+C 3S paste. The
highest result of degree of hydration among the three CCs is explained by the additional hydration
reaction. This discussion provides the effects of various calcined clays on hydration reactions in ce-
mentitious systems. This understanding is expected to present the applicability of CCs as sustainable
cement materials.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the BK21 FOUR (Fostering Outstanding Universities for Research) Pro-
ject in 2022. (No.4120200113771).
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A new testing procedure to quantify unfavourable
b
environmental effect on mechanical performance of
composite reinforcement system
if
Haji Akbar Sultani, Arvydas Rimkus, Aleksandr Sokolov and Viktor Gribniak
Laboratory of Innovative Building Structures,
Vilnius Gediminas Technical University,
Sauletekio av. 11, Vilnius LT-10223, Lithuania
Abstract
Current technology development ensures a variety of material types for reinforcing and strengthening
concrete structures. However, the absence of a uniform testing methodology complicates quantification
(and comparison) of the mechanical performance of the composite reinforcements. In addition, the ne-
cessity to quantify the long-term degradation of the mechanical resistance intricates the issue. This
research employs the equivalent residual stiffness approach to measure structural performance. It adapts
a recently developed testing layout and a simplified analytical model to analyse the residual flexural
stiffness of standardised laboratory specimens. The developed analytical model explicitly relates the
particular moment and curvature values, requiring neither iterative calculations nor the load history.
This feature allows the comparative analysis and quantification of the residual stiffness of the repeat-
edly loaded composite elements with varied reinforcement materials’ layouts. The previous short-term
tests identified the efficiency of hybrid systems employing fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) materials
and steel bars. However, the FRP components can be vulnerable to ultraviolet radiation, humidity,
freezing-thawing cycles, and elevated temperature. Thus, this study includes 34 composite beams sub-
jected to the service load. After that, the reference specimens were stored in laboratory conditions; the
alternative samples, exposed to the open air outside the building, estimated the environmental effect on
the stiffness decay. This manuscript reports the partial results of the ongoing test program.
1 Introduction
The current reinforcing technologies provide various materials for strengthening concrete structures
[1]. Fibre-reinforced polymers (FRP) are a promising reinforcement alternative to steel because of their
high strength, lightweight, immunity to corrosion, and electromagnetic transparency [2]. Still, the rela-
tively low resistance to ultraviolet radiation, high humidity, and elevated temperatures can degrade the
mechanical performance of FRP materials with time [3], [4]. In addition, different types of FRP rein-
forcement systems, i.e. internal bars, near-surface mounted (NSM) strips, and externally bonded rein-
forcement (EBR) sheets, demonstrate diverse effects on the mechanical performances of the composite
systems [5]. Studies [6], [7] showed that the FRP combination with steel reinforcement could effec-
tively solve engineering problems. However, this research was motivated by the lack of a uniform com-
parative analysis approach to quantify the efficiency of the reinforcement systems, combining different
materials.
This investigation aims to adapt the recently developed testing layout and a simplified analytical
model [7] to analyse the residual flexural stiffness of standardised laboratory specimens. The research
employs the equivalent residual stiffness approach to measure the structural performance of alternative
composite reinforcement systems. The applied analytical model explicitly relates the particular moment
and curvature values, quantifying the equivalent stresses acting in the concrete belonging to the tension
zone. The calculations require neither iterative calculations nor the load history under the assumption
of the rectangular distribution of the tensile stresses in the concrete. This assumption allows the com-
parative analysis and quantifying of the residual stiffness of the repeatedly loaded composite elements
with varied reinforcement materials’ layouts.
The considered beam specimens’ cross-section was selected in the previous study [5] to satisfy the
simplified modelling assumption (i.e. the rectangular distribution of stresses in the tensile concrete). In
other words, the corresponding ‘exact’ tension-stiffening diagram [8] has a rectangular shape typical
for slab-like flexural members. However, it is paramount to note that the simplified analytical model
14 th
does not define concrete’s constitutive law. The equivalent stresses only estimate the residual flexural
stiffness to analyse the long-term decay in the mechanical performance of the composite reinforcement.
b
This manuscript reports the partial results of the ongoing test program that employs 34 test samples
with different arrangements and combinations of composite reinforcement. First, the beam samples
were subjected to the service load. After that, the reference specimens were stored in laboratory condi-
tions; the alternative elements, exposed to the open air outside the building, estimated the environmental
if
effect on the stiffness decay. This manuscript reports the partial results of four beam specimens, illus-
trating the proposed analysis procedure.
2 Test setup
The previous studies [5], [7] developed the geometry of the bending test specimens—the experimental
layout design focused on the setup’s ability to form multiple cracks in a relatively small sample because
of the laboratory equipment limitations. This condition diminishes the cracking effect, transforming the
moment-curvature relationship into the stress-strain diagram via inverse analysis [8].
Thus, this study employs the 1000 mm long slab-shaped beams tested under the four-point bending
scheme, as Figure 1 shows. Figure 2 demonstrates the experimental setup. The specimens were sub-
jected to monotonically increasing and repeating loads using a 5 MN capacity servo-hydraulic testing
machine under displacement control and the 0.4 mm/min loading speed. Linear variable displacement
transducers (LVDT) and digital image correlation system (DIC) monitored deformations of the opposite
sides of the beams denoted as “①” and “②” in Figures 1 and 2—the DIC system monitored the de-
velopment of the cracks. However, the cracking analysis is beyond this study’s scope; therefore, this
presentation does not include these results. The LVDT L1–L3, L4–L6, and L7–L9 measured the vertical
displacements, and the indicators L10–L15 estimated deformations of the side surface ①. The data log-
ger ALMEMO 5690-2 collected the load cell and LVDT outputs every second.
The 200 × 100 mm cross-section was reinforced with various combination of the internal bars, near-
surface mounted strips and externally bonded sheets. Although this ongoing study employs 34 beams,
this manuscript reports the partial results of only four beams. Table 1 describes the geometry and ma-
terial properties of these beam specimens.
Fig. 1 The loading scheme and indicators’ distribution.
Fig. 2 The experimental setup.

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new testing procedure to quantify unfavourable environmental effect on mechanical performance of composite
Table 1 Geometry and material properties of the analysed beams.
b
Beam h b d1 d2 Ar1 Ar2 Er1 Er2 fcm t
[mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm2] [mm2] [GPa] [GPa] [MPa] [days]
B1-NSM 103 199 93 - 28.0 - 170 - 48.1 120/274
if
B5-EBR 104 198 105 - 32.8 - 230 - 48.1 119/276
B11-NSM 103 200 93 - 28.0 - 170 - 60.5 116/273
B19-2x8-EBR 100 199 83 101 100.5 32.8 202 230 60.5 97/272
The selected specimens in Table 1 represent the NSM and EBR systems; the beam B19 combines
two 8 mm steel bars, and a carbon FRP EBR sheet adhesively attached to the most tensioned bottom
surface (Fig. 1). The unidirectional carbon MapeWrap C UNI-AX FRP sheets (the equivalent thickness
of the dry material = 0.166 mm) were used as EBR. The NSM reinforcement system was composed of
a pultruded 10×1.4 mm carbon FRP strip (S&P C-Laminate); the strips were installed in the 4×12 mm
grooves milled at the bottom surface of the specimens. The two-component epoxy adhesive S&P Resin
220 filled these grooves before the strip installation. The adhesives of EBR and NSM systems were
installed at least seven days before the mechanical tests to form a reliable adhesion contact between
FRP materials and concrete. In Table 1, h and b denote the cross-section height and width; d1 and d2
stand for the effective depth of the reinforcement layers (internal bars and EBR sheet in beam B19),
and the subscript numbers have the same meaning for the reinforcement area (Ar) and modulus of elas-
ticity (Er); fcm is the compressive strength of the 150×300 mm concrete cylinder at the age of 87 days
(specimens B1 and B5) and 84 days (samples B11 and B19). Table 1 also indicates the specimens’ age
(t) corresponding to the first and second testing stages.
The beam specimens were produced in two batches using laboratory-mixed concrete. The mix pro-
portions for one cubic meter are following: the cement CEM I 42.5 R = 356 kg, water = 163 l, the
limestone powder = 177 kg, the 0/4 mm sand = 890 kg, the 4/16 mm crushed dolomite aggregates = 801
kg, the superplasticiser Mapei Dynamon XTend = 1.97% (by the cement weight), and the admixture
SCP 1000 Optimiser = 3.5 kg. The mixture also encompassed 0.9 kg of the Crackstop M Ultra synthetic
micro-fibres and 4.2 kg of the Durus EasyFinish synthetic macro-fibres to avoid a sudden failure of the
shear zone.
3 Analytical model for the inverse moment-curvature analysis

The previous study [7] verified the adequacy of this simplified analytical concept. Thus this manuscript
presents only explanations necessary for the development of regression relationships, determining the
environmental impact on the mechanical properties of the beam samples. The considered analytical
model employs the following simplifications:
▪ The Euler-Bernoulli hypothesis is valid. An interested reader can find substantiation of this
assumption for reinforced concrete beams elsewhere (e.g., [9], [10]).
▪ The concrete cracking process follows the smeared crack model. Numerous literature exam-
ples (e.g., [8], [10]) proved the adequacy of this assumption.
▪ Perfectly elastic deformation models describe the behaviour of all reinforcement materials and
compressive concrete. This assumption substantially simplifies the analytical expressions,
though non-linear material laws are feasible for iterative calculations. Reference [7] provides
an example of such an analytical procedure.
▪ The tensile stresses in the concrete have a rectangular distribution, describing the equivalent
stress value. This fundamental simplification explicitly relates the particular moment and cur-
vature values, avoiding iterative calculations [5], [7]. Thus, quantifying the residual stiffness
of the repeatedly loaded composite elements becomes possible.
Figure 3 shows the analytical model scheme, which employs the transformed section approach
combining different reinforcement types (e.g., beam B19, Table 1) in one ‘transformed’ component
(Fig. 3a). The following formulas define the corresponding effective depth dr, area Ar, and modulus Er:
14 th
x εc Fc = σc yc b 2 σc = κyc Ec σc
ε σ σ
b
yc h + yc Neutral 2 3 (e)
yc Fc
h dr Mext κ 2 axis Mext Ft – ? Mext F∗t = σ∗𝑡 h − yc b
ε∗t
Approximation ∗ Fr = σr Ar Fr
Ar y εr y σt y σ∗t y Moment
b εt point
a) b) c) d)
if
Fig. 3 Analytical model of the pure bending zone [7]: a) transformed cross-section; b) strain dis-
tribution; c) stress distribution; d) the equivalent stress approach.
𝑛
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝐸𝑖 𝐴𝑖 𝑑𝑖 1
𝑑𝑟 = , 𝐴𝑟 = ∑ 𝐸𝑖 𝐴𝑖 , 𝐸𝑟 = 𝐸1 , (1)
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝐸𝑖 𝐴𝑖 𝐸𝑟
𝑖=1
where Ei, Ai, and di are the modulus of elasticity, cross-section area, and effective depth of the i-th
reinforcement layer; n is the number of reinforcement layers. The considered example (Table 1) shows
the maximum number n = 2.
Figures 3b and 3c demonstrate the strain and strain distribution in the transformed section. The
rectangular stress approximation defines the equivalent stress value (Fig. 3d), which is the further anal-
ysis object.
The following equilibrium equations of internal forces and bending moments for the centroid of the
equivalent tensile stress diagram (Fig. 3d) determine the proposed residual stiffness model:
𝐅𝑡∗ + 𝐅𝑟 − 𝐅𝑐 = 0, (2a)
ℎ + 𝑦𝑐 ℎ + 𝑦𝑐 𝑦𝑐
𝐅𝑟 (𝑑𝑟 − ) + 𝐅𝑐 ( − ) − 𝐌𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 0, (2b)
2 2 3
where 𝐅∗𝑡 is the equivalent resultant force in the tensile concrete; Fr and Fc are the internal forces acting
on the tensile reinforcement and the compressive concrete; Figure 3 describes the remaining notations.
The solution of the above equation system relates the internal forces with corresponding stresses
(Figs. 3c and 3d). In addition, it employs the strain compatibility condition (Fig. 3b). An interested
reader can find detailed explanations in the article [7]. The resulting equation defines the third-order
polynomial of the neutral axis ordinate yc:
𝐶3 𝑦3𝑐 + 𝐶2 𝑦2𝑐 + 𝐶1 𝑦𝑐 + 𝐶0 = 0 (3a)
with coefficients
𝐸𝑐 𝑏 𝐸𝑐 𝑏ℎ 2𝐌𝑒𝑥𝑡
𝐶3 = , 𝐶2 = 1 + , 𝐶1 = ℎ − 3𝑑𝑟 , 𝐶0 = 2𝑑𝑟2 − ℎ𝑑𝑟 − . (3b)
6𝐸𝑟 𝐴𝑟 2𝐸𝑟 𝐴𝑟 𝜅𝐸𝑟 𝐴𝑟
The polynomial (3a) has three roots, and the condition 0 < yc ≤ h defines the neutral axis position:
1 1 27𝐶32 𝐶0 − 9𝐶3 𝐶2 𝐶1 + 2𝐶23
𝑦𝑐 = {2 √𝐶22 − 3𝐶3 𝐶1 cos ( cos −1 {− }) − 𝐶2 }. (4)
3𝐶3 3 2√[𝐶22 − 3𝐶3 𝐶1 ]3
The following formulas express the equivalent stress (Fig. 3d) and corresponding strain (Fig. 3b):
𝑦𝑐2 𝑏𝐸𝑐 − 2(𝑑𝑟 − 𝑦𝑐 )𝐸𝑟 𝐴𝑟
𝜎𝑡∗ = 𝜅 , (5a)
2(ℎ − 𝑦𝑐 )𝑏
ℎ − 𝑦𝑐
𝜀𝑡∗ = 𝜅 . (5b)
2
4 Beam tests and discussion of the results

This study analyses the environmental impact on the mechanical performance of the reinforced beams.
Thus, the beam specimens experienced two testing stages. In the first stage, the beams were subjected
to the service load conditions, corresponding to the 45% and 60% range of the ultimate bending re-
sistance (determined by testing the identical beam sample until failure). The beams were loaded repeat-
edly (in five cycles), fluctuating the load within the boundaries mentioned to generate a reliable data-
base. Then, the reference specimens were stored in laboratory conditions; the alternative samples were
exposed to the open air outside the building. The same tests were repeated after approximately a half
year. And the beams were returned to the past environmental conditions (until the next test round). For
example, specimen B1 (Table 1) is stored in laboratory conditions, and the remaining three selected
samples are exposed to the open environment (outside the laboratory building). Figure 4 describes the
environmental parameters; the average 35% relative humidity and 20.5 °C describe the laboratory con-
b
ditions.
As Section 3 mentioned, the analytical model explicitly relates the moment and curvature values
for deriving the equivalent stresses (Eqn. 5a). The further analysis employs the vertical displacement
monitoring results of the pure bending zone (Fig. 1). The following equation determines the curvature:
if
8∙𝛿 𝛿4 + 𝛿5 + 𝛿6 𝛿1 + 𝛿2 + 𝛿3 + 𝛿7 + 𝛿8 + 𝛿9
𝜅= 2 , 𝛿= − , (6)
𝑙𝑏 + 4 ∙ 𝛿 2 3 6
where δ is the deflection over the pure bending zone; δi is the displacement obtained by LVDT Li
(i = 1…9, Fig. 1); lb (= 600 mm) is the pure bending zone length. Figure 5 shows the corresponding
moment-curvature diagrams of the beam specimens from Table 1. The black lines correspond to the
first loading stage results; the green lines describe the beams’ outcomes during the second loading stage
(after exposing the samples to either an open environment or laboratory conditions). The looping branch
of the diagram corresponds to the repeated loading for generating the stiffness decay analysis dataset.
Finally, the red line defines the so-called ‘service’ moment, which specifies the stiffness values used to
analyse the time-dependent alteration of the mechanical performances. Figure 6 shows the equivalent
stress-strain diagrams transformed from the moment-curvature relationships (Fig. 5) using Equations
5a and 5b. The line colours remain the same, as Figure 5 assumes. Figure 7 illustrates the stiffness
decay after repeated tests.
As equations (3b)–(5a) demonstrate, the equivalent stress calculations do not require loading his-
tory knowledge. In other words, the analysis only needs a particular moment and curvature values pair
to calculate the equivalent stress. Thus, the stiffness decay analysis employs the curvature values, which
belong to the ascending diagram branch corresponding to the service moment indicated in Figure 5.
The loading procedure included five repetitions looping the moment-curvature diagrams within the
service load range. Consequently, each test generated five loading points, i.e. the very first load was
skipped to avoid the regression skewness because of excessive stiffness of the beam experiencing the
first load. Figure 7 shows these points for each of the two considered loading stages. The corresponding
regression line highlights the stiffness decay tendency.
The analysis of the trend lines in Figure 7 reveals a detectable decay of the material performance
in beam B11 representing the NSM system and exposed to the open environment. On the other hand,
beam B5 demonstrates a less evident tendency—the corresponding determination coefficients (R2)
demonstrate that the environmental exposition can explain 24.3% and 15.2% of the observed equivalent
stress scatter. This result could associate the stiffness decrease to degradation of the adhesive bond,
which total area is significantly higher in the EBR regarding NSM (compare 0.2 m2 and 0.056 m2).
Thus, the expected result is that the specimen stored in the laboratory (B1) and the beam with steel
reinforcement (B19) demonstrate no noticeable stiffness degradation. At the same time, the authors
want to point out the illustrative nature of the presented results. This research will last for several years,
and the repeated tests reveal more meaningful outcomes, and the proposed methodology will help quan-
tify the stiffness degradation.
10 100
90
5 80
70
0 60
50
-5 40
30
-10 Temperature Humidity 20
10
Temperature, °C Humidity, %
-15 0
2021-11-20 2021-12-20 2022-01-19 2022-02-18 2022-03-20 2022-04-19
Fig. 4 The environmental conditions measured outside the laboratory building.

14th
Fig. 5
if b
The moment-curvature diagrams of the beams listed in Table 1.
Fig. 6 The equivalent stress-strain diagrams corresponding to the moment-curvature relationships

shown in Figure 5.

Fig. 7
if
Conclusions
b
The equivalent stress tendencies corresponding the ‘service’ moment shown in Figure 5.
This work introduces a new testing and analysis methodology for investigating the long-term degrada-
tion of concrete beams with composite strengthening systems, combining different reinforcement com-
ponents. The manuscript reports partial results of the ongoing test program, which employs 34 slab-
shaped beam specimens. This illustrative study includes four selected beam samples subjected to the
four-point bending and achieves the following significant conclusions:
▪ The proposed testing layout ensures the adequacy of the simplifying assumption of the rectan-
gular distribution shape of the stresses in the tensile concrete, which estimates the equivalent
stresses in the concrete. However, this simplified theoretical model does not define concrete’s
constitutive law. The equivalent stresses only evaluate the residual flexural stiffness to com-
pare and analyse the long-term decay in the mechanical performance of the composite rein-
forcement layouts.
▪ The illustrative analysis, employing only two consequent loading series with a half-year open-
air exposition period, reveals a detectable decrease in the mechanical performance of the
beam samples with near-surface mounted (NSM) carbon fibre-reinforced polymer (CFRP)
strips. A lesser evident tendency is characteristic of the specimen with externally bonded rein-
forcement (EBR) CFRP sheets. The corresponding determination coefficients demonstrate
that the environmental exposition can explain 24.3% and 15.2% of the observed equivalent
stress scatter. On the other hand, the specimen stored in the laboratory and the beam with steel
reinforcement demonstrate no noticeable stiffness degradation, the expected result.
▪ This investigation will last several years, and the proposed methodology helps quantify the
stiffness degradation, deriving meaningful tendencies.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledged financial support received from European Regional Development Fund
(Project No 01.2.2-LMT-K-718-03-0010) under grant agreement with the Research Council of Lithua-
nia (LMTLT).
14th
References
b
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New protocol for the durability assessment of offshore
b
cement-based structures submitted to creep and
seawater attack
if
Marinelle El-Khoury 1,2, Emmanuel Roziere1, Frederic Grondin1, Rachid Cor-
tas3 and Fadi Hage Chehade2
1 Nantes Université, Ecole Centrale Nantes, CNRS, GeM, UMR 6183, F-44000 Nantes,
France
2 Centre de Modélisation, Ecole Doctorale des Sciences et Technologie, Université Libanai-
se, Lebanon
3 Centre de Recherches Scientifiques en Ingénierie (CRSI), Université Libanaise, Beyrouth,
Lebanon
Abstract
The failure in offshore structures can cause catastrophic circum-stances, as they are exposed to me-
chanical and chemical loadings. This study focuses on the importance of implementing inno-vative
protocol, combining experimental and numerical methods, in a durability study of cementi-tious mate-
rials in marine environments. Hence, this work has focused on the risk analysis of offshore structures
to investigate chemo-mechanical coupling. This protocol considers all the salts present in seawater and
the multiscale model analyzes separately each ion effect on phase compo-sition and mechanical prop-
erties. This study highlighted the competition between ions’ effects on the chemical reactions and on
the mechanical behavior in the long term.
1 Introduction
Offshore structures are key structures in the energy and transportation sectors. They are exposed to
mechanical and chemical loadings for long periods. As long as the efficiency of the structure remains,
its service-life increases, and the overall environmental impact decreases. The design of these infra-
structures raises many questions and problems, particularly with regard to failure, which has a cata-
strophic impact on human lives, society, economics, and the environment. Among the failures that must
be avoided are those related to the reliability and durability of materials, especially cementitious mate-
rials. The complexity of the chemical processes and the competition between the effects of seawater
ions influencing the durability of concretes in marine environments have been previously highlighted
[1]–[3], especially the effect of sulfate attack [4] and chloride diffusion [5].
The model proposed by [6] coupled damage, chemistry, and transport, and studied chloride diffu-
sion, by considering the effects of sulfate attack and temperature on chloride diffusivity in concrete, but
this model did not consider calcium leaching. Aiming for relevance in structural applications, the poro-
mechanical creep model proposed by [7] considers the following phenomena: nonlinearity, multi-axia-
lity, hydration, temperature, and drying effects. The chemo-mechanical coupling between calcium
leaching and mechanical damage of cementitious materials has been studied by [8]–[11]. The chemo-
mechanical coupling of leached cementitious materials shows a strong coupling between calcium
leaching and mechanical behaviour; as leaching develops, a loss of stiffness and strength has been ex-
perimentally observed [11]. But leached concrete becomes more ductile during chemical degradation
[11], [12].
In addition to these coupled phenomena, creep deformations are present due to sustained load over
a long period of time. The coupling between creep and leaching of concrete has been studied in [12]–
[14]. It was seen that the deformation in the combined test accelerates and reaches tertiary creep [13].
This demonstrates the effect of creep combined with leaching.
The coupling of the chemical effects of seawater attack with the mechanical assessment and the
creep deformations has not been previously studied. So, it was a challenge to propose an innovative
protocol. A new device has been developed to measure the creep displacement of mortar in seawater
and a new multiscale model has been performed. The protocol proposed takes into consideration all the
14 th
salts present in seawater. Therefore, in this work, the risk analysis of offshore structures was the main
goal to give decision support to the marine industry.
b
2 Methodology for the chemo-mechanical coupling
Mortar allows an accelerated degradation process experimentally [4], [15] because of the representative
if
volume and thus the diffusion time are lower than concrete. The phenomena occurring at the cement
paste-aggregate interface were supposed similar at the mortar scale to what happens at the concrete
scale. As for the microscopic characterization (TGA, XRD, SEM/EDS), cement pastes were adopted
allowing the identification of the phases changes. This microscopic characterization takes into account
all the ions present in the seawater and their simultaneous effects. Thus, it is not possible to distinguish
experimentally the contribution of each ion and its effect on the global mechanical behaviour of the
structure. Besides, the seawater attack is slow. Therefore, it is necessary to wait several years to reach
advanced degrees of attack. Thus, the use of complementary reliable numerical models is essential to
model the effect of each ion on the microstructure and to represent the chemo-mechanical phenomena
over long periods of exposure. Numerically, the main chemical transformations occurring in the con-
crete matrix were considered explicitly to represent mortar and cement paste, similarly to what has been
done experimentally.
2.1 Experimental procedures

Hollow and plain mortar cylindrical specimens with water-to-cement (w/c) ratio equal to 0.6 and plain
paste cylinders with w/c=0.5 were cast. The specimens were kept for 24 hours in their molds at 20°C
and 90% relative humidity then, they were demolded. To preserve one-dimensional diffusion two layers
of waterproof epoxy resin were applied to both circular ends of the specimen (the first one at the age of
24 hours, and the second one at 48 hours). At the age of 3 days, some specimens (noted ‘’Ref’’) were
immersed in tap water, and the others (called ‘’SW’’) in a laboratory reconstituted seawater. Reconsti-
tuted seawater has a salinity of 70g/L. The choice of a salinity, which is double the seawater reference
salinity, and the high W/C ratio aimed to accelerate the diffusion and therefore the attack process.
A B
Fig. 1 Microscopic characterization (Fig.1.A (left)), and Macroscopic and mechanical evaluation
of mortar specimens (Fig.1.B (right)).
Table 1 Cement composition.

Sadran’s
Cement composition Cement Properties
Index
Gyp- Other Density C3A+0.27
C3S C2S C3A C4AF Blaine
sum Constitu- [103 C3S ≤
[%] [%] [%] [%] [m2/kg]
[%] ants [%] kg/m3] 23.5
OPC 60.00 16.30 7.70 10.50 3.50 2 3,16 400 23.9 [NA]
SS 58.30 17.50 7.10 10.60 4.50 2 3,18 430 22.4 [A]

ThisNew
protocol for the durability assessment of offshore cement-based structures submitted to creep and seawater
attack
During exposure, sample degradation was assessed by weekly tracking the evolutions in length, weight,
and volume. The mechanical assessment was performed by measuring the elastic modulus and strength
b
of mortars specimens (Fig. 1.B). In order to identify the origin of these evolutions, microscopic char-
acterization of phase changes was done (SEM/EDS, TGA, XRD) at the surface and the center of the
pastes samples (Fig. 1.A). Two types of cement were examined in this study, ordinary Portland cement
(called ‘’OPC’’) and “seawater resistant” cement (noted ‘’SS’’). Their composition is presented in Ta-
if
ble 1. The qualification of seawater resistant cement type (SS) was based on Sadran’s Index (Table 1)
according to French standard NF P 15-317. As for creep assessment, a new testing device was designed
and implemented to perform creep for mortars immersed in solutions.
2.2 Multi-scale model

At the cement paste scale, the microstructure can be assumed to be formed by a heterogeneous solid
skeleton and pores. The cement paste represents a heterogeneous material composed of several ele-
ments such as C3 A, C2 S, C3 S, CH, CSH, ettringite, etc. At the mortar scale, the material is assumed to be
made of two continuous media: the cement paste, considered in this case as homogeneous and has the
mechanical properties determined using a heterogeneous cement matrix, and the sand grains. The sim-
ulation of the chemo-mechanical coupling proposed in this work considers a mechanical calculation on
a material whose microstructure has evolved chemically. Structures exposed to seawater attack repre-
sent a multilayer structure [3] representing diffusion and reaction fronts. The damage model adopted
for the cementitious phases is the one developed by Fichant et al. [16], [17]. Therefore, coupling be-
tween two codes has been realized: CemPP [18], for the simulation of hydration and chemical reactions
at the cement paste scale (model coupling hydration to seawater attack) using phase changes in multiple
layers, and the finite element code Cast3M [19] for the simulation of the mechanical behaviour, loss or
gain of elastic properties defining consequently the mechanical strength of the structure (mechanical
damage model based on [16], [17] (Eq.1), as well as creep using Kelvin Voight chains (Eq.2). Mechan-
ical properties of the cement phases have been gathered from literature and are summarized in the work
of [20]. A strong assumption was made in the creep model: all phases, except C-S-H, have a negligible
viscoelastic behaviour compared to C-S-H. Seawater exposure started at the age of 3 days. The algo-
rithm is summarized in Fig.2.A and the phases change in Fig.2.B (The white phase in reactant has been
totally consumed to form the blue product phase). Each layer will be modelled to consider the effect of
phase’s transformations on the mechanical performance of the microstructure.
Fig. 2 Multi-scale chemo-mechanical model (Fig.2.A (left)), and Phases changes in the hetero-ge-
neous OPC cement paste (Fig.2.B (right)).
 = Cd : e = (1 – D) C0 :e (1)
Marinelle El-Khoury, Emmanuel Roziere, Frederic Grondin, Rachid Cortas and Fadi Hage Chehade 387
14 th
𝑛
1 𝜅
− 𝑖𝑡
b
𝐽(𝑡) = ∑ (1 − 𝑒 𝜂𝑖 ) (2)
𝜅𝑖
𝑖=1
Where D is the scalar damage variable,  the total stress, τi the characteristic times of the Kelvin-
Voigt chains: τ1=0.1 days, τ2= 1 day, τ3=10 days, τ4=100 days and τ5=1000 days, and 𝑘𝑖 the elemental
if
rigidities of the phases.
The experimental characterization presents the originality of considering all the ions present in the
seawater solution and allows analyzing the attack of seawater on cementitious materials. Thus, distin-
guishing the effects of the ions and their effects on the microstructure and the overall mechanical be-
havior of the structure is experimentally exhaustive. Moreover, the attack of seawater is slow, so that
to reach advanced degrees of degradation, it takes several years. Thus, the use of reliable numerical
models is essential to model the effect of each ion on the microstructure and to represent the chemo-
mechanical phenomena over long periods.
3.1 Multi-scale experimental evaluation

Fig.3.A shows the difference between the thickness variation of the deposited products on the attacked
(SW) and control samples (Ref), for the hollow and plain mortars made with OPC and SS cement. Solid
products were formed and deposited on the sample surface, and their thickness increased with exposure
time. For a given cement type, hollow samples recorded the greatest amount of products formed. Mortar
samples made with OPC recorded a greater thickness of formed products than those made with resistant
cement (SS) (in both geometries). Based on the gain in thickness, an order of curves could be estab-
lished by decreasing order: Hollow-OPC > Hollow-SS > Plain-OPC > Plain-SS.
A
B C
Fig. 3 Product thickness evolution (Fig.3.A (left)), SEM image of OPC cement paste at 28 days
(Magnitude =100) (Fig. 3. B (center)), and EDS analysis of the SEM image in Fig. 3.B (Mg
in yellow and Ca in olive green) (Fig.3.C (right)).
The representation of the formed thickness evolutions as a function of time1/2 allows assuming an
evolution according to Fick's law. This could show the diffusion of ions on the surface and their reaction
with the cementitious phases to form this deposited layer. The observations of cement pastes using
SEM actually showed a magnesium-rich layer deposited at the sample surface immersed in seawater
(Fig.3.B and Fig.3.C). The brucite layer deposited on the surface of the sample can act as an insoluble
and possibly protective layer for the concrete [3] providing pore-clogging effect.
Further microscopic characterization was performed at the surface and the center of cement pastes.
XRD analysis at the sample surface after one year of exposure is presented in Fig. 4.A. It can be seen
that brucite, located at 2θ=38°, is only observed on the surface of samples immersed in seawater (SW).
This is in agreement with the results obtained by SEM-EDS analyses. On the contrary, Friedel's salt
was detected at the center and the surface of SW samples immersed in marine solutions, which could
confirm the diffusion of chloride ions from the surface to the center of the samples. The expected gyp-
sum peak at (2θ=11.4° and 2θ=20.7°) could only be detected in OPC based cement pastes immersed in

ThisNew
attack
a marine solution and at an advanced age of immersion (one year). The ettringite peak appeared in both
sets of samples, but this does not show that its formation is favored in seawater. Aragonite and vaterite
b
formed on the surface of the exposed samples, confirming the greater amount of 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 observed in
the TGA analysis on the surface of samples exposed to seawater (Fig. 4.B). Aragonite and vaterite have
been associated with C-S-H carbonation [21]. Seawater would favor the formation of aragonite among
the possible polymorphs of calcium carbonate [2]. Calcite was observed in both control and exposed
if
samples. The calcite peak was sharper in the SS cement than in the OPC cement. This appears to be
consistent with the TGA results (Fig. 4.B). In fact, more 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 was formed on the surface of the SW
specimens. This can be explained by the reaction of calcium hydroxide with carbonate from seawater:
𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 + 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑎 𝐶𝑂3 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 (1)
A B
Fig. 4 XRD results of OPC and SS cement pastes at the surface and the center of the specimen
after one year of exposure (Fig.4.A (left)), and CaCO3 evolutions examined at the samples
surface via TGA analysis (Fig.4.B (right)).
Calcium carbonate was also found on the surface of the control samples (Ref). In these samples, calcium
carbonate formed rapidly during the first 30 days and then gradually decreased or stabilized. The control
samples were kept in regularly renewed tap water. Previous studies on groundwater have shown that
calcium carbonate can be formed [22], [23]. The carbonate ions react with free calcium ions and pre-
cipitate as calcium carbonate on the surface of the sample or in the pores near the surface. Control and
attacked specimens made with SS cement have higher calcium carbonate content but lower equivalent
thickness increase than OPC (Fig. 3.A). These observations may suggest that the SS-resistant cement
samples could have benefited more from the protective effect of 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 through pore clogging and
reduction of aggressive ion diffusion.
The compressive strength, presented in Fig. 5, shows that the strength of the attacked specimens
(SW) remained equal or slightly lower than that of the control specimens (Ref), even though significant
evolutions could be observed at the microscopic and macroscopic levels as presented previously.
Chemical evolutions were mainly observed during the first weeks, then the monitored parameters
remained stable, indicating the deposition effect of the brucite and calcium carbonate-rich layer that
seems to have mitigated the subsequent macroscopic degradation of the specimens. Reference speci-
mens made with OPC and SS-based cement recorded a lower Young's modulus than those exposed to
the marine environment (SW). The control specimens made with SS-resistant cement recorded the
highest Young's modulus.
As for Young's modulus, an order could be established that would show the effect of cement and
exposure: SS-Ref> SS-SW > OPC-Ref > OPC-SW. The experimental tests allow classifying the global
strength but can not give details on the microscopic phenomena. Also, in long term, it is difficult to
measure the properties of the material immersed in seawater when the structure is submitted to constant
mechanical loading. The multiscale modeling was used to propose solutions in the completion of the
experimental tests.
14th
if b
Fig. 5 Mechanical assesment of OPC and SS cement based mortars (Compressive strength and
Young’s modulus evolutions).
3.2 Numerical assessment

Fig. 6.A shows the correlations between compressive strength and porosity evolution in the chemically
modified layers. This graph is produced from the simulations carried out at the following ages: 1, 2, 3,
4, 7, 14, and 28 days, 2, 4, and 6 months (one point per layer and per age). Strength decreases with the
increase in porosity within the cement matrix. Even with the same porosity, the strength calculated
differs from one layer to another, which highlights the ability of the model to take into account the
effect of the chemical modifications on the mechanical properties of the microstructures. Layer I, rich
in brucite, and acting like a protective layer, has a compressive strength lower than the reference layer.
Layer II, rich in CaCO3, has a lower porosity. This layer registers an improvement in strength compared
to the intact reference layer. These results highlight the positive mechanical effects of this protective
layer formed. Layer III is the layer modeling the consumption of C-S-H and the formation of
thaumasite. This layer recorded a null compressive strength. This is due to the consumption of the main
hydration product (C-S-H) providing the microstructure with strength and stiffness. The action of sul-
fate ions leading to the formation of gypsum (layer IV) reduces its strength and porosity. The reaction
of hydrated 𝐶3 𝐴 with the ions present in the seawater disrupts the behavioral law of both layers V
(ettringite-rich) and VI (Friedel salt-rich). This disruption is observed clearly in layer VI where a sudden
decrease in strength was recorded for the lowest porosity.
B
A
Fig. 6 Compressive strength evolutions with respect to porosity of each chemically modified ce-
ment pastes layer (Fig 6.A (left)), and Maximum creep compliance recorded after 3 years
of creep with respect to CSH present in the modified cement pastes layers (Fig.6.B (right)).
The graph in Fig. 6.B shows the maximum creep compliance recorded after 3 years of loading as a
function of the proportion of CSH considered in the calculation. This graph assembles the simulations
carried out at the following loading ages: 7 days, 14 days, 28 days, 2, 4, and 6 months (one point per
layer and per loading age). It can be concluded from Fig. 6.B that the adopted model restores the dif-
ferences between the chemically modified layers even with the same rate of CSH in these microstruc-
tures. This agrees with the hypothesis of the mechanical model which considers that CSH is the main
phase involved in creep. We can also conclude that the maximum creep recorded increases with loading
ThisNew
attack
age, as CSH contents increase with the hydration process. The brucite-rich layer (layer I), and the
𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3-rich layer (layer II), record a creep compliance lower than that of the intact reference micro-
b
structure. Layer III is characterized by negligible creep compliance, consistent with the absence of C-
S-H in this layer. Layer IV, modeling gypsum formation, records the smallest amount of C-S-H after
layer III, and thus the second smallest creep compliance. In addition, this layer was characterized by
the lowest porosity (Fig. 6.A). Layer V, modeling the ettringite-rich layer, has a creep compliance sim-
if
ilar to or slightly higher than the sound layer. Layer VI, modeling chloride action and Friedel salt for-
mation, has a creep compliance similar to layers I and II and lower than the reference layer.
There is also a negligible difference between the creep compliance calculated at the loading ages 4
and 6 months. The microstructure evolution was actually not significant in terms of hydration and attack
and the percentage of C-S-H did not increase significantly between these two loading ages.
Fig. 7 shows a comparison between the numerically calculated specific displacements due to creep
applied at the age of 28 days, and those experimentally monitored for OPC control and attacked hollow
mortars. It can be seen that the creep displacements for reference mortars are slightly higher than for
attacked mortar and that the effect of seawater attack-creep coupling is not predominant in the long
term. This compensation between positive and negative effects can be explained by the difference bet-
ween layers’ behavior (Fig.6.A and Fig.6.B).
Fig. 7 Creep displacement of mortars: Experimental vs. Numerical approach.

4 Conclusions and perspectives

This works participates in the risk analysis of seawater attack combined with mechanical loading, in
order to allow better material choices in marine environments. It responds to the great global trend to
develop offshore structures, especially for renewable energies. It highlighted the competition between
ions effects at the chemical and mechanical levels. The multiscale protocol includes tools to anticipate
phases changes and understand the effect of each ion present in seawater on the chemical and mechan-
ical behaviour of the structures. Finally, a patent was submitted for the experimental creep device im-
plemented and, this research is the recipient of a Carnot Funding project to develop the chemo-mechan-
ical approach at concrete scale.
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Creep and creep recovery behavior of concrete under
b
slow load cycling
Marija Docevska, Goran Markovski and Peter Mark
if
Faculty of Civil Engineering,
Ss. Cyril and Methodius University,
Blvd. Partizanski odredi 24, 1000 Skopje, N. Macedonia
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Institute of Concrete Structures,

Ruhr University Bochum,
Universitätsstraße 150, 44780 Bochum, Germany
Abstract
Additional deformation of concrete elements caused by variable repeating loads can be appreciable
depending on the ratio between the creep in the loading and the creep recovery in the unloading cycles.
This paper summarizes experimental results of concrete specimens subjected to slow load cycling that
replicate the live load variation in certain creep-sensitive structures like bridges. The following varia-
bles were involved in the experiment: level of loading and unloading cycles, drying conditions and type
of stress history. The results indicate that, regardless of the stress level, the creep recovery-to-creep
ratio has a tendency to approach unity after a number of loading/unloading cycles. Considered drying
conditions show negligible influence on the creep recovery increments, while remarkable effect on the
irreversible proportion of the creep.
1 Introduction
Concrete structures, especially bridges, are sensitive to time-dependent material properties like creep
and shrinkage. Number of cases in practice are reported where long-term deformations of bridges ex-
ceed the values predicted by application of well-established creep models. Those models are generally
derived from investigations performed under sustained stresses. Yet, in many practical cases, service
stresses vary with time either gradually or abruptly [1]. For instance, traffic loads in bridges continu-
ously produce cycles of loading and unloading which duration, in the case of city bridges, can approach
permanent’s (Fig.1).
G G+Q
Fig. 1 City bridge in Skopje under permanent load (left) and under permanent plus traffic load
(right)
Compared to the extensive work on long-term behavior under constant load, the number of systematic
studies dealing with variable loads is more limited. In the literature there are available experimental
data on concrete creep under variable loads mainly with monotonically increasing or decreasing nature
[2]. Such scenarios are useful for experimental check of applicability of the superposition principle.
However, they cannot describe the live load variation typical for some particular group of structures
like city bridges, parking garages, storages etc.
14 th
At present, there are numerous studies including rapidly fluctuating stresses with short cycle dura-
tion and thereby fatigue [3] and cyclic creep [4] are in their focus. However, studies on long-term con-
b
crete behavior under slow load cycling is only rarely investigated.
Specific for this type of load histories is that despite knowledge on creep during the loading se-
quence, information on creep recovery at unloading is of importance too. Depending on the ratio be-
tween the creep and the recovery deformation in each loading/unloading cycle, the increase in total
if
deformation due to the additional irreversible creep caused by repeated loads can be appreciable. Alt-
hough the creep recovery is very often overlooked and considered as phenomenon of secondary im-
portance, its misprediction for such type of load histories can lead to serious under- or overestimation
of the long-term deflection prediction. The question arises whether the recovery behaviour under re-
peated loads may be identified with the one extensively investigated after the completion of a usual
long-term creep test.
This paper summarizes experimental results on creep and creep recovery of concrete specimens
subjected to slow load cycling. The load histories comprise of alternating loading and full or partial
unloading cycles. The duration of one loading/unloading sequence was chosen to be one day. More
precisely, the loading cycles last 8 and 12 hours, while the rest of a day belonged to the unloading ones.
Besides, the experimental programme involves studying concrete behavior under repeated stress histo-
ries in two different drying conditions, sealed and unsealed. The experimental study in this paper aimed
at assessing the influence of the loading and drying conditions on the reversibility of concrete creep
under such realistic type of loads. Additionally, available methods in literature for predicting creep
deformations under variable stresses were adopted and extended for the stress histories considered in
the tests.
The significance of these material level experiments is twofold. Findings from them contributed in
elucidating certain limitations of some theoretical models for predicting creep deformations when ap-
plied to repeated stress histories. Moreover, these experiments present pre-tests to the ongoing full-
scale experiment on reinforced concrete beams subjected to different time-varying load histories typical
for service life of particular concrete structures. In general, the study presented in this paper is a logical
continuation of the experimental research so far performed at the FCE in Skopje [5], [6].
In the Structural testing laboratory at Ruhr University Bochum (Germany), two mutually independent
experiments on concrete cylindrical specimens (d/H=150/300mm) were organized. The stress histories
within both experiments comprised of slow load-cycling.
Table 1 Experimental details for the test series 1
Variables
Serie
R= σc/fc Stress history
SH1-1 0.45
SH1
SH1-2 0.30
SH2-1 0.45
SH2
SH2-2 0.30
SH0 0 Load - free

This document may not be copied orCreep
and creep recovery behavior of concrete under slow load cycling
Table 2 Experimental details for the test series 2
b
Variables
Serie
Drying condition Stress history
if
A1 Sealed
A
A2 Unsealed
B1 Sealed
B
B2 Unsealed
C C1/C2 Sealed Load - free
D D1/D2 Unsealed Load - free
The test series 1 (Table 1) aimed at assessing the influence of different stress-to-strength ratio at loading
and unloading (R=σc/fc) on the reversibility of concrete creep. Within the second experiment (Table 2),
two different drying conditions (sealed and unsealed) were studied while keeping the same stress his-
tories. Variables in the second experiment were chosen in order to check which creep strain components
are recoverable under repeated stresses.
Just before starting the long-term experiments, sufficient number of cylindrical specimens were
investigated under short-term tests to provide necessary information for the mechanical and defor-
mation characteristics of the concrete used (ordinary concrete C30/37).
2.1 Test series 1

First test series consists of five cylinders. Two of them (SH1) were tested under repeated stress history
consisting of 8h loading cycles followed by 16h of full unloading. One of them (SH1_1) was stressed
to 45% of tested compressive strength of cylinder, while the other (SH1_2) to 30%. The stress levels
were chosen in order to stay in linear creep ranges. For these specimens, only one hydraulic testing
machine for alternate testing was used.
Another two specimens (SH2) were subjected to partial unloading corresponding to one half of the
loading level. The duration of the loading and unloading cycles, as well as the stress-to-strength ratio
at loading, remained the same as in the case of SH1. Special test setup was developed for SH2 in order
to provide simultaneous testing of two specimens under different stress-to-strength ratios at loading and
partial unloading (Fig.2 (left)).
The last specimen served to monitor the stress-free strains during the entire test (shrinkage strains,
strains due to temperature and humidity variations etc.).
2.2 Test series 2

Second test series involves eight creep and shrinkage specimens. Two of them belong to series A and
they were simultaneously subjected to repeated stress history. One of the specimens is sealed (A1) and
the other unsealed (A2). The sealing procedure is thoroughly explained in [7]. The stress pattern is
comprised of 12h loading and 12h full and partial unloading. Other two specimens (series B), with
identical drying conditions as those in series A, were exposed to sustained stress. The stress-to-strength
ratio in all creep specimens is equal to 0.40. The rest of the specimens in this series were unstressed
and they served for establishing the stress-free strains under identical drying conditions as those for
creep specimens.
14 th
if b
Fig. 2 Test setup for the test series 1 (left) and for the test series 2 (middle and right)
The sealed and the unsealed specimens from series A were mounted on top of each other in a hydraulic
machine capable of applying the considered repeated stress pattern (Fig.2 (middle)). For the purpose of
testing standard creep behavior under sustained compressive stress followed by one single unloading,
a spring-loaded creep frame was constructed (Fig.2 (right)).
Strains in the case of creep tests under repeating stresses and shrinkage tests were recorded by the
means of 100mm long strain gauges, while for constant creep tests portable extensometer with 100mm
base was used.
3 Results
3.1 Influence of stress-to-strength ratio

The experimental results from the test series 1 are summarized in Fig. 3. Since the applied stresses are
within linear creep range, we can operate in terms of specific creep. For both group of specimens (ex-
posed to full (left) and partial unloading (right), the specific strains show that the residual strains after
unloading are somehow higher for higher stress level at loading. This may be due to some nonlinearity
under stresses equal to 45% of the compressive concrete strength that presents a limit between linear
and nonlinear creep.
Fig. 3 Specific creep strains in specimens exposed to full (left) and partial unloading (right)
Test series 1 focuses on obtaining qualitative data on the amount of creep and creep recovery under
repeated stresses and different levels of loading (30% and 45%) and unloading (full and partial). There-
fore, the creep and the recovery increments of specimens SH1 in each cycle are plotted in Fig.4. Each
individual increment is determined as a difference between the measured strains for two subsequent
load changes. Thus, the creep increment here refers to the deformation gain within the loading cycle,
while the recovery increment is considered as the deformation loss in the unloading cycle. The results
revealed that the rate of creep and creep recovery decrease with each successive cycle. This decrease is
far more pronounced in the case of creep within the first few loading cycles.

if b
Fig. 4 Creep and creep recovery increments in each cycle for specimen SH1-1 (0.45fc) (left) and
SH1-2 (0.30fc) (right)
It is also clear that the difference between the creep and the recovery magnitude becomes less pro-
nounced with an increase in the loading cycles. This can be also observed from the insets in the Fig.4
that are depicting the development of creep recovery-to-creep ratio for each cycle of loading/unloading.
Regardless of the stress level, this ratio increases over time with a tendency to approach unity. In other
words, after sufficient cycles of loading and unloading, the whole creep developed in the loading cycle
will be fully recovered in the following unloading one. This behavior is also observed by other authors
[8] dealing with variable non-cyclic stress histories. They prescribed the complete creep recovery to the
fact that when the hydration process is over, no more new bonds are developed to restrict the process
of reversibility. It is also found in other studies that the ratio creep recovery-to-creep is higher the later
the age at loading and, in fact, concrete loaded at an age of several years may have the ratio creep
recovery/creep as high as 0.8 [1].
Similar conclusion regarding the recovery-to-creep ratio were found from the results of specimens
exposed to partial unloading. Fig.5 (left) clearly indicates that this ratio is only slightly higher for the
stress level of 45% of fc. At the end of the test, the ratio is as high as 0.80 regardless of the stress level.
Fig. 5 Creep recovery-to-creep ratio for specimens SH2-1 (45%) and SH2-2 (30%) (left); creep
increments in each loading cycle for all specimens from test series 1 (right)
It should be emphasized that in this case it does not present a ratio between the total creep recovery and
the creep as it was the case with the specimens exhibiting full unloading. Due to the partial unloading,
the measured strains in this sequence presents a mix of two opposite time-dependent strains, creep
recovery due to the stress decrease and ongoing creep due to the permanent part of the stress.
The creep increments in each loading cycle for all specimens involved in this test series are sum-
marized in Fig.5 (right). It gives clear evidence that creep ability under repeating stresses is affected by
the stress level from which the load is reapplied. For both stress levels, bigger creep increments are
registered for stress histories with full unloading, despite the same stress level during the loading.

14 th
3.2 Influence of drying conditions
b
The stress-induced and stress-free strain evolution over time for the specimens from test series 2 are
summarized in Fig.6. It is clear that all unsealed specimens continuously exibite higher strains – a
behavior to be expected. However, the aim of this test series was to observe the influence of the drying
conditions on the reversibility of creep under repeated stress histories. Therefore, only creep and creep
recovery increments will be discussed further.
if
Fig. 6 Stress-induced (left) and stress-free strains for the specimens from the test series 2 (right)
Fig.7 (left) presents the creep increments in each loading cycle for sealed and unsealed specimen sub-
jected to repeated stresses, while Fig.7 (right) depicts the recovery increments. Both type of strain in-
crements are not monotonically decreasing due to the stress pattern itself that comprises of full and
partial unloading.
Fig. 7 Creep (left) and recovery increments (right) in each cycle for specimens from serie A
The results indicate that, under repeating stresses, the influence of the drying condition on the creep
behavior is evidently large. The sum of creep increments in the unsealed specimen is about 56% higher
than in the sealed one. This difference is not surprising since drying creep component, present in un-
sealed specimen, can be as high as 50 to 70% from the total creep.
However, this trend was not observed for the creep recovery. The sum of all recovery increments
from each unloading cycle in the case of unsealed specimen is only 7% higher than in the sealed one.
This minor variation in the recovery behavior for both drying conditions suggests that creep recovery
under repeating stresses is not affected by the hygral state of concrete. Additionally, from the sum of
all creep and creep recovery increments under sealed conditions, it seems that major share of the basic
creep component is recoverable to some extent.
4 Application of analytical models

At present, number of methods for predicting creep deformations under variable stresses are available.
Among them, the strong applicability for prediction of detailed strain evolution has the principle of

superposition and the more recently developed “two-function” method proposed by Yue and Taerwe
[9].
b
In many studies [9], [10], the principle of superposition and the two-function method are suc-
cessfully applied for the verification of experimentally obtained strains under sustained stresses with
single complete unloading, increasing, decreasing and alternating stresses (decreasing than increasing).
In this paper, an attempt is made to adopt these methods for more complex histories, i.e., histories
if
comprised of slow load cycling.
The superposition principle treats the creep recovery as a negative creep. The main disadvantage of
this method is that only same function for describing creep and creep recovery can be used. However,
the principle of superposition is of considerable practical value in simplifying the calculation of strain
under varying stress : few creep-time curves for a constant stress applied to concrete at different ages
would provide adequate information. Thus, the total strain at time t results to:
n
 c (t , t0 ) = J (t , t0 )   c (t0 ) +  J (t , ti )   c (ti ) (1)
i =1
Where : J(t,t0) is the creep compliance function, σc(t0) is the initial stress value and Δσc(ti) is the
stress variation at the time instant ti.
Unlike the principle of superposition, the two-function method accepts an incorporation of separate
functions for modeling creep and creep recovery. Within this method, the following equation was ap-
plied for calculation of strains developed during one cycle of loading followed by single unloading :
 c (t , t0 ) = J (t1 , t0 )   c (t0 ) + J (t , t0 ) − J (t1 , t0 )  c (t0 ) −  c (t1 )
(2)
− J rec (t , t0 , t1 )   c (t1 )
For the creep recovery compliance function Jrec, the model of the delayed elasticity from CEB-FIP
Model Code 1978 was used :
1
1 1  t − t1  4.2
J rec (t , t0 , t1 ) = +  cr (t0 , t1 )    (3)
E (t1 ) E28  t − t1 + 328 
Where : t1 is the concrete age at unloading, E(t1) is the time-dependent modulus of elasticity, E28 is
the modulus of elasticity at 28 days and φcr is the ultimate value of the creep recovery coefficient.
Summing up the total strains calculated in this way for each loading/unloading sequence, the final
strain evolution for the whole stress history will be obtained.
Comparison between the experimental and the analytical results were performed for the total stress-
induced strains and for the creep and the recovery increments in the individual cycles (Fig.8). The paper
presents results only for one stress history (specimen SH2_2).
Fig. 8 Comparison between predicted and measured strains (specimen SH2-2)

14 th
The results indicate that the principle of superposition with formulations for creep according to MC90
gives fine agreement with the total measured strains. However, both the creep and the recovery incre-
b
ments are overestimated during the entire test.
Conversely, the results obtained with the two-function method show reasonably good fitting of the
creep and the recovery increments and only seemingly good capturing of the total strains for the consi-
dered duration. Nevertheless, if the procedure is applied for longer period, then a calculative decrease
if
of total strains will occur. The reason for this lies in the recovery model used. For the same duration of
the unloading cycles, this model gives identical recovery increment. Therefore, after a sufficient num-
ber of loadings/unloadings, the recovery increments will dominate over the creep increments. This
consequently will lead to decrease of total deformations.
5 Conclusions
Based on the results from the conducted experimental and analytical study, the authors arrived at the
following conclusions:
▪ Under repeating loading, the rate of creep and creep recovery decrease with each successive
cycle, but the difference between their magnitude became less pronounced with an increase
in the number of loading cycles. As a result, after a sufficient number of loading/unloading
cycles, the creep becomes fully recoverable regardless of the stress level.
▪ The creep recovery seems unaffected by the drying conditions of the specimens. On the other
hand, the influence of the drying conditions on the irreversible proportion of the creep in each
cycle is of remarkable extent.
▪ Results from recalculations of the experiments with the well-established methods from the
literature show certain limitations of each method.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of Dr. Hussein Alawieh, Head of the Structural Testing
Laboratory KIB KON at Ruhr University Bochum, Germany.
References
[1] Neville, Adam M. 1970. Creep of Concrete: Plain, Reinforced, and Prestressed. North-Holland
Publishing Company-Amsterdam.
[2] Ross, A.D. 1958. “Creep of Concrete Under Variable Sress.” ACI Journal Proceedings 54(3),
pp. 739-758.
[3] Heek, Ahrens, Mark. 2017. “Incremental-Iterative Model for Time-Variant Analysis of SFRC
Subjected to Flexural Fatigue.” Materials and Structures 50(1):62.
[4] Kern, Oneschkow, Podhajecky, Lohaus, Anders, Haist. 2021. “Comparative Analysis of Con-
crete Behaviour Under Compressive Creep and Cyclic Loading.” International Journal for Fa-
tigue 153. Accessed July 7, 2021. doi: 10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2021.106409.
[5] Nakov, Markovski, Arangjelovski, Mark. 2020. “Influence of the Residual Tensile Strength on
the Factor for Quasi-Permanent Value of a Variable Action ψ2.” RILEM-fib International Sym-
posium on FRC (BEFIB).
[6] Arangjelovski, Markovski, Mark. 2014. “Influence of Repeated Variable Load on Long-Term
Behavior of Concrete Elements.” Journal of Civil Engineering and Architecture 8(3):302-314.
[7] Docevska, Markovski, Mark. 2019. “Experimental Investigation on the Reversibility of Con-
crete Creep Under Repeating Loads.” Materials and Structures 52(4). Accessed July 26, 2019.
doi:10.1617/s11527-019-1384-3.
[8] Mullick, A.K. 1982. “Creep and Microstructural Changes in Concrete” In: Wittmann FH (ed)
Fundamental research on creep and shrinkage of concrete, 1st edn. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers,
The Hague, pp 49-61. doi: 10.1007/978-94-010-3716-7.
[9] Yue, Taerwe. 1993. “Two-Function Method for the Prediction of Concrete Creep Under De-
creasing Stress.” Materials and Structures 26(5):268-273.
[10] Liu R., Ye, Liu Y., Zhao, Correia, Xin. 2021. “Numerical Simulation of Concrete Creep Be-
haviour Using Integral Creep Algorithm with Alternating Stresses.” Structures 29: 1979-1987.

b
Joe Tannous1,2, Thouraya Salem1,2, Sandrine Marceau3, Othman Omikrine-
Metalssi1 and Teddy Fen-Chong1
if
1 Univ Gustave Eiffel, Cerema, UMR MCD
F-77454 Marne-La-Vallée, France
2 ESITC-Paris
79 Av. Aristide Briand, Arcueil 94110, France
3 Univ Gustave Eiffel, MAST/CPDM
F-77454 Marne-La-Vallée, France
Abstract
Worldwide, a large quantity of cigarette butts is being released into the environment. The majority of
this waste is formed from cellulose acetate (CA) fibers in filters with poor biodegradability and toxic
chemicals. This paper presents a solution to recycle CA fibers in mortars. The objective is to character-
ize the CA and analyse its influence on mortars. Therefore, after characterizing CA fibers, tests are
conducted on the fresh state such as slump test. The formulations are prepared based on preliminary
workability tests where 0 wt% (standard mortar), 0.2 wt% and 1.3 wt% rates are chosen to replace sand
by CA. Mechanical and shrinkage tests are achieved on the hardened mortars. Thermal conductivity
and microstructural investigations (SEM, TGA) are performed to understand the previous results.
1 Introduction
Faced with the environmental impact of the construction sector, it is very important to reduce the envi-
ronmental footprint of its activity [1]. The challenges to be met are the preservation of natural resources
and the energy consumption decrease to ensure residential hygrothermal comfort [2]. One of the levers
is to count on the treatment of the waste by recycling it and by avoiding, as much as possible, the
consumption of natural resources. In France, legislative pressures are made to minimize buildings’ en-
ergy consumption and to invest in more efficient renovations such as the ‘Climate and resilience law’
in august 2021 and the decree of January 2021 regulating the implementation of the energy-climate law
of 2019 [3]. Using alternative materials in civil engineering and construction sectors will help reduce
environmental pollution, climate change, and greenhouse gases [4]. Also, aggregates consumption has
already surpassed the half bar of the total raw material used till now and it is expected to nearly double
worldwide by 2060 [5]. To avoid this scenario, recycling has become a fundamental concern in research
and engineering works, especially in the construction materials field [6].
Many laws and legislation are also applied to reduce tobacco use, protect people from its dangers, and
reduce environmental pollution. About 5.3 billion people are protected by at least one tobacco control
measure, applied in 75% of countries [7]. The global cigarette production is estimated to be between 4
and 5 trillion cigarettes. 1% of the world’s consumption is produced in France, which is equal to 10 000
tons [8]. Cigarette butts (CB) are a source of pollution, containing many toxic chemicals that harm the
environment once they are smoked and thrown on the ground. The filter that retains the toxic compound
is made up of (CA) fibers [9].
Researchers are studying different solutions to use CB as a new material in several construction fields.
It has been used in clay bricks [10]–[11], stone mastic asphalt [12], bricks with thermal and energy
performance improvement [6], geopolymer concrete [13], gypsum [14] and concrete blocks [15]. To
our knowledge, none of the studies worked in the incorporation of industrial-pretreated CA fibers in
mortars.
For instance, A. Mohajerani et al. reported the incorporation of CB in the formulation of clay bricks.
Therefore, they tested different addition rates of 0, 0.5, 1, 1.5 and 2% by weight in several studies
concerning clay bricks [10]–[11] –[16]. They worked on the variation of different parameters such as
14 th
the heating rates and the mixing times. The optimal replacement rates were chosen based on their pre-
vious studies and the gas emissions results. As for results, lighter bricks are obtained when adding CB,
b
and a decrease is remarked in the compressive strength: it decreases from 25.65 MPa for the reference
to 12.57, 5.22, 3, and 3 MPa respectively for 2.5, 5, 7.5, and 10 wt%. SEM tests were performed to
support the mechanical results where a porosity increase was noticed when increasing the addition rate.
Other authors [15], worked on incorporating 0, 5, 7.5, 10, 12.5, 15 and 20 kg/m 3 of CB in concrete
if
blocks. It was shown a remarkable decrease in the compressive strength, especially for the 20 kg/m 3
content with a loss of 30% in comparison to the reference. More ductile blocks are obtained when
increasing the CB content.
In this study, CA fibers collected and pre-depolluted by a special process of MéGO! company, have
been incorporated into cementitious mortars as a partial replacement of sand. First, CA fibers were
characterized by water absorption, thermal conductivity, mass density, and chemical composition tests.
Several workability tests on mortars were conducted in order to define the optimal replacement rates
depending on the slump results. Then, different tests were carried out on the manufactured mortars:
compressive and bending strengths, shrinkage, mass density, porosity and thermal conductivity. There-
fore, minimizing fibers’ water absorption and mortars’ shrinkage, the use of a damp proofing additive,
calcium stearate (CS) in the formulation was adopted. Other mortars were manufactured with the found
optimal replacement rate using a CS. Their total shrinkage was compared to that of mortars without
CS.
2.1 Materials
The materials used in the mortars’ formulations are cement CEM I 52.5 N CE CP2 NF, sand certified
CEN EN 196-1, ISO 679 whose granulometry is between 0.08 and 2 mm, and bulk density is 1713
kg.m-3. The used superplasticizer is SikaViscoCrete Tempo 653- EN 934-2. Calcium stearate (CS) is a
white insoluble powder with a molecular weight of 607.03. MéGo! company provided the CA fibers
after a specific depollution process of the collected cigarettes where the main solvent is water. The
initial water content is estimated to be 2 wt%; this was obtained by oven-drying the fibers at 60°C until
a mass variation of less than 0.1% over 24h [17].
2.2 Mortars mix design

To fix a suitable mixing protocol and to determine the optimal incorporation rate of CA fibers as sand
replacement in the cementitious matrix, preliminary tests based on observation were carried out. The
w/c ratio is set to 0.5 in all formulations. Drier mixes were obtained when increasing the replacement
rate. The use of a superplasticizer (SP) was essential in order to achieve less dry mixes than those
without it. After the preliminary tests, workability measurements were conducted on two types of
mixes: with and without SP. Based on the obtained workability results the optimal formulations were
chosen. Their results were compared to those of a reference mortar. Noticing a shrinkage increase when
adding CA fibers in the preliminary mixes, a third mix was prepared with SP using CS as an additive,
CS could have a positive influence on the shrinkage, it can ensure a water-repellent layer along pores,
reducing the permeability. CS was mixed up manually with CA fibers before introducing them into the
blend. For the mixes without CS, CA fibers were prewetted with 1/3 of the amount of water then it was
put in the mix. The three different formulations are presented as follows:
- Without SP: the mixtures are the reference mortar, 0.2, 0.3 and 0.4 wt% of CA in substitution
to sand. After workability tests, the optimal formulation was 0.2 wt% without SP.
- With 3 wt% of SP: the mixtures are 0.9, 1, 1.3 and 1.5 wt% of CA in substitution to sand.
The workability tests showed that the optimal formulation was 1.3 wt% with SP.
- With 3 wt% of SP and 1.3 wt% of CA: the mixtures contain 0.5 and 1 wt% of CS as additives
according to cement weight.
After manufacturing, all the specimens were stored in a water tank (T° = 20°C), except for shrinkage
measurement mortars. They were placed in a thermal chamber under controlled conditions (HR = 50%
and T = 20°C).

b
3.1 CA fibers characterization
3.1.1 Water absorption
The absorption was measured according to the RILEM method [17]. This parameter is established ac-
if
cording to the time where water absorption was recorded after 1 minute,15 minutes, 4 hours and 48
hours. An initial absorption rate of 500% was obtained at one minute of immersion in water. Also, an
important absorption capacity was obtained at 48 hours of about 850%. Comparing those values to the
literature, CA fibers have higher absorption values than barley, rape straw and lavender straw for ex-
ample with an initial absorption rate of 247%, 218% and 100% respectively [18].
3.1.2 Density and porosity
Three densities characterize vegetal aggregates: bulk, apparent and skeleton densities. The physical
parameters of CA fibers are presented in Table 1.
Table 1 Physical parameters of CA and comparison with other vegetal aggregates.

Physical parameters Obtained Comments Literature re-
CA values view [18] *
Bulk density [kg/m3] 39 ± 3 Without compaction 70-163, 90-
141, 50-280,
Bulk density [kg/m3] 65 ± 2 With compaction
96-160
Apparent density [kg/m3] 276 ± 49 Obtained with mercury intrusion 250-320, 374,
porosimetry (MIP) 233-690, 256
Intergranular porosity [%] 86 ± 3 Obtained by subtracting the ratio
between the bulk density and the ap-
parent density from 1.
Intergranular porosity 67 ± 7 MIP porosity is lower than the cal- 55-61, 76, 52-
(MIP) [%] culated one due to the mercury mol- 70, 49
ecule that cannot penetrate all pores
and the porous space volume that
can be decreased due to the applied
pressure.
Skeleton density [kg/m3] 1426 ± 2 Obtained by Helium pycnometer 1259-1500,
1270-1342,
1100-1200,
1162-1411
Total porosity [%] 97 ± 1 Obtained by subtracting the ratio
between the bulk density (with 55-61, 76, 52-
compaction) and the skeleton den- 70, 49
sity from 1.
* Values are respectively for Hemp shiv, flax shiv, wood chip and rape straw. This review [18] is based
on the results of 120 articles.
CA fibers appear to have densities and intergranular porosity in the same range as other vegetal aggre-
gates while they look to be more porous with a higher total porosity value. Only the obtained value for
the bulk density without compaction is a bit lower than the literature.
3.1.3 Thermal conductivity
The thermal conductivity of CA fibers was measured using the hot wire method [17]. It is equal to 0.03
± 0.001 W.m-1.K-1. Fig. 1 presents the thermal conductivity-bulk density ratio of several insulation
materials [18] in comparison to CA. These results highlight the effectiveness of CA for thermal
14th
insulation as their value is within the range of other insulation materials. In some cases, the variations
observed may be related to the disparities in environmental conditions while recording the measure-
b
ments.
if
Fig. 1 CA measured values compared to other different insulation materials reported in [18] (HS:
hemp shiv, FS: flax shiv, WC: wood chip, RH: rice husk, BS: barley straw, WS: wheat
straw, RS: rape straw, CC: corn cob, RH: rice husk, LS: lavender straw, CA: cellulose ac-
etate).
3.1.4 Microstructure
The scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of the studied CA fibers were compared to those of
non-smoked CB. The images in Fig.2 showed damaged agglomerates fibers for the recycled ones. This
result is linked to cigarette usage and the depollution process. Also, CA fibers look very dispersed
particles where large voids are observed between particles.
Fig. 2 SEM photos of CA (a) from non-smoked and (b) from depolluted CB.
3.2 Mortars characterization

In this section, the results related to the optimal formulation are presented and compared to the results
of the reference mortar: a rate of 0.2 wt% for the mixes without SP and 1.3 wt% for the mixes with SP.
3.2.1 Mechanical performances and microstructural analyses
The mechanical and porosity results of the manufactured mortars are summarized in Table 2. Replacing
sand with CA fibers leads to a slight decrease in the compressive and bending strengths for 0.2 wt%

rate. While for 1.3 wt%, the compressive strength decreases about 22% in comparison with the refer-
ence mortar. Also, for this rate, a decrease of 13% is noted in bending.
b
Several factors might have influenced the decrease of the mechanical properties such as i) the light CA
fibers replacing the sand, ii) the lack of cohesion noted in the workability tests and iii) the porosity.
Mortars’ porosity increases gradually when increasing the replacement rate as shown in Table 2. It
should be noted that a slight increase of mortars density of 1.1% is observed for the 0.2 wt% rate and a
if
density decrease of 1.7% is recorded for the 1.3 wt% rate compared to the reference. It can be deduced
that the replacing amount does not affect widely mortars density (Table 2).
Table 2 CA mortars’ properties.

Replacement rate 0 wt% 0.2 wt% 1.3 wt% (+3 wt% of SP)
Mortar properties
Compressive strength 44.03 ± 0.91 43.64 ± 0.73 34.45 ± 0.99
(MPa)
Bending strength (MPa) 7.45 ± 0.20 7.12 ± 0.31 6.45 ± 0.01
Density (by Helium Pyc- 2440.4 ± 0.004 2468 ± 2398.7 ± 0.0022
nometer) (kg/m3 ) 0.0034
Porosity from water-acces- 19.31 ± 0.11 19.34 ± 0.11 21.78 ± 0.18
sible porosity (WAPT) (%)
3.2.2 Microstructure
SEM observations are carried out on different parts of the mortar: surface, intermediate and core slices
to investigate the homogeneity of the mix and the influence of CA fibers on the microstructure and
adhesion. Interfacial transition zones are observed in the different slices and for both 0.2 and 1.3 wt%
replacement rates. As consequence, this indicates the lack of adhesion between the fibers and the matrix
and the presence of more voids in the cementitious matrix when adding CA instead of sand. These
results confirm the previous results concerning the degradation of the mechanical strength and the po-
rosity increase when increasing the replacement rate.
Fig. 3 Microscopic observations of mortars with (a) 0.2 wt% and (b) 1.3 wt% replacement of sand
by CA.
3.2.3 Chemical properties

In this section, as for the SEM observations, thermogravimetric analyses (TGA) analyses are conducted
on the three different slices (Fig.4). Four main peaks are observed, they are presented as follows:
- A peak between 30-200°C: free water loss, C-S-H and ettringite decomposition;
14th
- A peak slightly before 200°C corresponds to the existence of monosulfoaluminates (AFm);
b
- A peak between 450-550°C: dihydroxylation of portlandite Ca(OH)2;
- A peak between 650-820°C: decarbonization of Calcite CaCO3.
Regarding DTG curves (doted curves), it is noticed that by increasing the replacement rate of CA, free
water, C-S-H, ettringite and CaCO3 peaks increase. Fibers’ water absorption affects the quantity of free
if
water and the increase of the total mass variation. The fact that the mass variation Ca(OH)2 is increasing
with the increase of the replacement rate states that CA fibers enhance the hydration degree by releasing
its absorbed water.
Fig. 4 TG and DTG at 28 days for the mortars with 0, 0.2 and 1.3 wt% replacement.
3.2.4 Thermal conductivity

Thermal conductivity is a very important criterion to measure for building materials. The thermal con-
ductivity goes from 1.797 W.m-1.K-1 for the reference mortar to 1.678 W.m-1.K-1 with a decrease of 6%
for the 0.2 wt%, and to 1.343 W.m-1.K-1 for the 1.3 wt% replacement rate with a decrease of 25%
compared to the reference mortar. It appears that the thermal conductivity of mortars with CA fibers
tends to decrease with the replacement rate. This can be linked to the density decrease as shown in
Table 2 between the reference and the 1.3 wt% rate. It was demonstrated in [18] that the density de-
creases when increasing the bio-based content. Indeed, CA fibers are very porous with low thermal
conductivity and it is a lightweight material in comparison to the cementitious matrix. Replacing the
sand with CA fibers will thus enhance the thermal insulation performance of the mortar.
3.2.5 Total shrinkage
For each replacement rate, three mortars were manufactured to measure the total shrinkage. Fig. 5 pre-
sents the total shrinkage of 0, 0.2 and 1.3 wt% replacement rates of CA without CS and, 1.3 wt%
replacement of CA with 0.5 and 1 wt% (cement mass) of CS as additive. The most important variation
is observed in the first 2 weeks for all mortars due to water evaporation. The total shrinkage continues
to increase over time at a slower rate. The reference and 0.2 wt% replacement have almost a similar
variation with a total shrinkage of -617 ± 85 and -644 ± 100 µm/m respectively while the 1.3 wt% rate
increases up to -1015 ± 207 with a 65% increase in comparison to the reference. As consequence, it
will cause more cracks due to shrinkage. The use of highly water absorbent materials increases the
shrinkage. To try to solve this problem, CS was used as an additive in the 1.3 wt% CA formulations.
As shown in Fig. 5, CS curves are significantly lower than the 1.3 wt% rate without CS in the first 2
weeks: mixing the fibers with CS helped to reduce the water absorption (less water release). Moreover,
the optimal performances are seen for the 1% and 0.5% CS respectively. In [19], when adding 1 wt%
CS (of cement weight) to concrete formulation, the authors noted a shrinkage decrease of 54, 39 and
34%, after 240 days, respectively for the w/c ratios 0.4, 0.5 and 0.6 in comparison to the reference
mortar. They linked the shrinkage decrease to the concrete permeability: adding calcium stearate with
water produces wax-like compound which are water-repellent.
if b
Fig. 5 Total shrinkage of mortars with CA fibers, with and without CS.
4 Conclusion
The large amount of thrown cigarette waste raises a serious environmental problem. In this paper, a
new way is studied to recycle pre-treated cellulose acetate (CA) fibers that form the largest part of
cigarette filters. First CA fibers were characterized and their properties were deducted. Then, mortars
incorporating CA fibers, as a partial sand replacement, were evaluated with the optimal replacement
rates. The following conclusions were deduced:
- CA fibers have an important water absorption capacity of 853% and a high total porosity of 97%.
- CA fibers are considered lightweight materials with a bulk density of 65 ± 2 kg/m3 when compacted.
- CA fibers have a good thermal conductivity-bulk density ratio in comparison to other vegetal materials
used in construction.
- Based on the workability results, the optimal formulations are 0.2 wt% rate without SP and 1.3 wt%
rate with 3 wt% SP, where CA fibers were used as sand replacement.
- The mechanical properties are quite similar for the 0.2 wt% rate and the reference but it decreases for
the 1.3 wt% rate. This result is in concordance with the obtained water porosity values.
- Using TGA analyses, CA fibers appear to enhance the cement hydration due to the absorbed water
release.
- Sand partial replacement with CA fibers decreases the thermal conductivity of mortar.
- Using 0.5 and 1 wt% of CS (cement weight) helped to reduce the shrinkage by reducing CA absorp-
tion.
Further tests will be conducted to study the effect of CS on the physico-mechanical and microstruc-
tural properties. Also, further investigations must be carried out to evaluate other treatment methods for
CA fibers to reduce their water absorption and improve mortars’ microstructural properties.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank MéGO! company for its assistance in this research by providing the
fibers.
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Fine aggregate characterization by micro-computed
b
tomography – Sample size and comparability to
laboratory test results
if
Sophie Burgmann and Wolfgang Breit
Institute of Construction Material Technology,
University of Kaiserslautern,
Gottlieb-Daimler-Straße 60, 67663 Kaiserslautern, Germany
Abstract
Micro-computed tomography (µCT) offers the possibility for three-dimensional shape characterization
of fine aggregates. This study analyses the required sample size to keep effort to a minimum and trans-
ferability from µCT data to laboratory test results. Different fine aggregate samples were characterized
by laboratory tests and µCT imaging. Between 5,500 and 21,000 particles need to be captured depend-
ing on the coefficient of variance of volume distribution data to form a representative sample. High
comparability between selected size parameters calculated from µCT data and sieve analysis or laser
diffraction is observed. Calculated particle flakiness, elongation and angularity correlate strongest with
the measured flow coefficient.
1 Introduction
The demand for sand and coarse aggregate increases due to economic growth and an increasing need
for housing and infrastructure for a growing population worldwide [1]. While large resources of natural
fine and coarse aggregate exist worldwide, mining of them imposes environmental risks and is therefore
locally restricted or impossible due to inaccessibility of land [1], [2]. Increasing the use of recycled
aggregates in concrete and mortar production could contribute to an improved environmental protection
[2]. However, use in concrete or mortar requires adaption of the mix design in comparison to the use
of natural sand as the impact of crushed fine aggregate on fresh and hardened properties is significant
[3]–[7]. Detailed characterization of size and shape properties of fine aggregates is therefore a possibil-
ity to improve mixture design of concrete and mortar with crushed natural or recycled fine aggregates.
Especially with respect to particle shape characterization of fine aggregate with sieve size below 2 mm,
just few laboratory test procedures are available. Only the determination of flow coefficient following
EN 933-6 [8] is available for fine aggregate samples. Here micro-computed tomography (µCT) offers
the possibility to extent particle shape characterization beyond the level of available laboratory tests
[9]–[11]. From µCT images size and shape measurements can be calculated from the three-dimensional
representation of each particle individually. Several of these parameters have been proposed in litera-
ture [12]–[19]. However, in order to include µCT imaging in laboratory test routines several prerequi-
sites need to be met: First knowledge on the minimal required sample size is necessary in order to keep
time and effort related with µCT imaging to a minimum. A second prerequisite concerns the transfera-
bility of size and shape measurements extracted from µCT imaging to laboratory test results. Although
size and shape descriptors calculated from the 3D representation of particles offer the possibility of
extended characterization comparability and transferability to traditional laboratory test procedures en-
ables connection to existing knowledge and experiences of practitioners. This study aims at analysing
these two prerequisites. In a first step, the required minimal size of a representative subsample is ana-
lysed. In a second step laboratory test results on sieving, laser diffraction and flow coefficient are com-
pared to equivalent data extracted from µCT images and transferability is evaluated.
14 th
b
2.1 Fine aggregate samples
Samples from four different sources are analysed within this study each with particle sizes between
125 µm and 2 mm. Materials include recycled concrete (RC) and recycled masonry (RM). Further, a
sample of crushed microdiorite (CM) and as a reference material a CEN standard sand (CSS) according
if
to [20] are used. Oversized particles above 2 mm and undersized particles below 125 µm are removed
by dry sieving.
2.2 Laboratory test procedures

For µCT imaging a CT-ALPHA-240 (ProCon X-Ray) is used equipped with a reflection target made
from tungsten with a maximal power of 350 W as shown in Fig. 1 (left). The 16-bit flat-bed detector
consists of 2144 × 1760 pixels each with a size of 127 µm. From each material 15 samples are analysed.
Within this study 1,680 rotation increments are recorded following EN ISO 15708-3 [21]. Depending
on the sample analysed, voltage, current and exposure time are set to 100 kV, 70-80 µA and 0.4-0.45 s
according to EN ISO 15708-2 [22]. To reduce image artefacts and noise flat-field correction and aver-
aging is applied. A voxel size of 8 µm is chosen which is slightly above the recommendation of [23]
but the limit of the used µCT device. The projections are reconstructed using VGSTUDIO 3.2 (Volume
Graphics), see Fig. 1 (middle). Afterwards ToolIP with MAVIkit and MAVI with MAVIparticle
(Fraunhofer Institute for Industrial Mathematics ITWM) are used for image processing. First, image
noise is reduced by median and a Gaussian filter. The image is then converted to a binary image by
applying a threshold according to Otsu [24]. Particles in contact are separated by adaptive h-extrema
transformation in combination with watershed transformation. The result is shown in Fig. 1 (right).
After separation volume, surface area and length are calculated for each particle individually. Here
particle length is defined as the maximum distance between two parallel planes contacting the particle
surface [25]. In addition all materials are characterized by sieving following EN 933-1 [26] adding
further sieves of sizes 160 µm, 200 µm, 710 µm, 800 µm and 1.4 mm to the analysis. Laser diffraction
analysis is performed using a HORIBA LA-950 (Retsch) device. The flow coefficient is determined
according to EN 933-6 [8].
Fig. 1 Process of µCT imaging of a sample of recycled concrete (RC): (left) µCT imaging device
CT-ALPHA-240, (middle) 3D visualisation of the raw data before image processing, (right)
3D visualisation of particles after separation with each colour representing a label.
2.3 Statistical analysis

Statistical analysis is performed using R (R Core Team). The analysis of required sample size follows
a four-step procedure: First, a ground truth is compiled for every material which contains all particles
from the 15 µCT images recorded. Number of particles within the ground truth varies between 16,100
for CM sample and 346,000 for RM sample depending on packing density of the material. It is assumed
that this number of particles lies well above the number of particles required to form a representative
subsample. Second, a subsample of definite size is drawn randomly from the ground truth. Volume,
surface area and length distribution of this subsample are analysed and 𝑑10 , 𝑑50 and 𝑑90 values are
calculated with 𝑑𝑥 indicating the volume, surface area or length 𝑥 % of the particles fall below, see Fig.
2. This procedure is repeated 100 times. From the gathered 100 values mean and standard deviation are
calculated. In a third step, the subsample size is increased by a step size of 500. In a last step, mean and
standard deviation calculated for different sample sizes are compared to the 𝑑𝑥 values of volume, sur-
face area and length distribution from the ground truth.
results
if b
Fig. 2 Visualisation of 𝑑10 , 𝑑50 and 𝑑90 including the chosen level of tolerated deviation of 3 %
using the particle volume distribution of fine aggregate sample RM as an example.
A sample size is considered sufficiently large if the difference between the 𝑑x value of the ground truth
and mean plus standard deviation calculated from the subsample deviate less than 3 % as visualized in
Fig. 2. To describe variability of a measurement within one sample the coefficient of variation 𝑐𝑣 ac-
cording to Eq. 1 is calculated with 𝑥̅𝑤 being the volume weighted mean and 𝑠𝑤 being the volume
weighted standard deviation.
𝑠𝑤
𝑐𝑣 = (1)
𝑥̅𝑤
2.4 Calculation of size and shape characteristics

Neumann et al. [12] suggest to estimate the sieve size of particles either by the equivalent volume
ellipsoid 𝑆𝐸𝑉𝐸 or the equivalent volume box 𝑆𝐸𝑉𝐵 calculated according to Eq. 2 and 3 with 𝑉 being the
particle volume and 𝑉𝐸𝐷𝐸 being the volume of an ellipsoid with axis dimension equivalent to particle
dimension. In addition a parameter based on the equivalent volume sphere 𝑆𝐸𝑉𝑆 , is calculated following
Eq. 4 [12]. Particle length 𝑙, width 𝑤 and thickness 𝑡 are derived from a cube surrounding the particle
with minimal volume [27].
̃ 2 + 𝑡̃ 2 )
√2 ∙ (𝑤 3 𝑉
𝑆𝐸𝑉𝐸 = with 𝑑̃ = √ ∙ 𝑑, ∀𝑑 ∈ 𝑙, 𝑤, 𝑡 (2)
2 𝑉𝐸𝐷𝐸
𝑡̂ (3)
𝑤
̂, ≥ √2 − 1 3 𝑉
𝑤
̂
𝑆𝐸𝑉𝐵 = with 𝑑̂ = √ ∙ 𝑑, ∀𝑑 ∈ 𝑙, 𝑤, 𝑡
̂ + 𝑡̂
𝑤 ̂𝑡 𝑙∙𝑤∙𝑡
, < √2 − 1
{ √2 𝑤
̂
3 6∙𝑉
(4)
𝑆𝐸𝑉𝑆 = √
𝜋
In addition to sieve size parameters, several shape parameters are calculated. Four shape parameters
found suitable in [28] are calculated following Eq. 5 to 8, namely the flakiness 𝐹𝑍 [14], the elongation
𝐹𝑊 [15], sphericity 𝑆𝑊 suitable for the description of angularity [16] and a convexity measure 𝐶𝑍 [19].
Here 𝑆𝐴 refers to the surface area, 𝑆𝐴𝑆 to the surface area of a sphere with identical volume as the
particle and 𝑆𝐴𝑐ℎ to the surface area of the convex hull.
𝑡
𝐹𝑍 = (5)
𝑤
𝑙+𝑤 (6)
𝐹𝑊 =
2∙𝑡
𝑆𝐴𝑆 (7)
𝑆𝑊 =
𝑆𝐴
𝑆𝐴 − 𝑆𝐴𝐶𝐻 (8)
𝐶𝑍 =
𝑆𝐴
14 th
b
3.1 Required sample size for µCT imaging of particles
Following the procedure described in Section 2.3 the required sample size is analysed with a focus on
comparability between ground truth and subsample for volume, surface area and length distribution.
Fig. 3 shows exemplary the result for 𝑑10 , 𝑑50 and 𝑑90 of the volume distribution within the RM sam-
if
ple. Every error bar displayed in Fig. 3 is based on mean and standard deviation of the respective meas-
urement value of 100 randomly drawn subsamples from the ground truth.
Fig. 3 Mean and standard deviation of 𝑑10 , 𝑑50 and 𝑑90 derived from the volume distribution of
recycled masonry sample (RM) with errorbars based on 100 randomly drawn subsamples.
Fig. 3 shows that independent of the sample size the mean 𝑑𝑥 value from 100 randomly drawn subsam-
ples lies in close proximity of the equivalent value calculated from the ground truth and visualized by
the dashed line. However, the standard deviation increases significantly with decreasing sample size.
Large standard deviations indicate that depending on the particles selected the result of 𝑑10 , 𝑑50 or 𝑑90
value differ significantly between the 100 trials performed. Increased standard deviation for small sam-
ple sizes corresponds to the expectations. With decreasing sample size the likelihood of selecting par-
ticles with sizes corresponding to the size fractions present in the ground truth decreases. As expected
significantly more particles need to be captured in order to derive 𝑑10 and 𝑑90 values from a subsample
in comparison to 𝑑50 values. The number of particles defining the outer quantiles 𝑑10 and 𝑑90 of a dis-
tribution is low in comparison to the 𝑑50 quantile. Thus, calculation of 𝑑10 and 𝑑90 values is more sen-
sitive to sample size. Here again the likelihood of selecting prarticles with corresponding size fractions
to the ground truth increases wih increasing sample size. Same trends as for the volume distribution of
the RM sample are observed for surface area and length distribution for the other materials RC, CSS
and CM as well. Following the criterion defined in Section 2.3 the required number of particles to form
a representative subsample is evaluated and the results are summarized in Table 1. The amount of par-
ticles necessary to form a representative subsample varies among different materials as well as different
measurements. Comparatively small samples sizes are required for particle length measurement in com-
parison to volume measurement while surface area ranges in between. A possible cause could be the
increasing dimensionality from length to volume measurement.
results
Table 1 Number of particles necessary to fulfil the criterion for a representative sample size as de-
fined in Section 2.3 evaluated for volume, surface area and length distribution (𝑑10 , 𝑑50
b
and 𝑑90 ) of four different materials.
Particle volume Particle surface area Particle length
Mate-
rial 𝑑10 𝑑50 𝑑90 𝑑10 𝑑50 𝑑90 𝑑10 𝑑50 𝑑90
if
RC 8,000 5,500 12,500 4,000 2,000 9,500 1,000 1,000 2,000
RM 21,000 2,000 8,500 8,500 1,500 3,500 1,500 1,000 1,000
CSS 1,000 1,500 9,000 1,000 1,000 4,500 1,000 1,000 1,000
CM 8,000 5,000 11,000 3,000 3,500 6,000 1,500 1,500 3,000
The increase in dimensionality is accompanied with an increased range of values covered. Particle
length measurements vary less within one sample than volume measurements. Thus, representing vol-
ume distributions requires larger sample sizes. From Table 1 differences between materials become
apparent. While for example the 𝑑10 value of the volume distribution from the CSS sample could be
determined from a subsample containing 1,000 particles at least 21,000 particles would be required for
the RM sample. It is assumed that these differences come from the variation of measurements present
in a material sample. Fig. 4 shows the coefficient of variation calculated according to Eq. 1 for particle
volume in comparison to the minimum required sample size.
Fig. 4 Correlation between the coefficient of variation 𝑐𝑣 calculated from the volume distribution
data of the four materials and the required minimal sample size and linear regression line.
Here, a strong correlation is observed indicating that with increasing variation within the data increased
sample sizes are required. Low variation in a particle measure indicates that a comparably low number
of size fractions in present within this materials sample. Thus, the likelihood of drawing a subsample
containing particles from each size fraction increases leading to a decrease in required particle size.
However, reliable regression analysis would require a larger data set and is therefore not included within
this study.
The trends observed illustrate the relevance of capturing a sufficiently large amount of particles in
order to derive representative volume, surface area or length distributions from µCT images of particles.
Here a minimum required sample size of 21,000 particles is required to draw representative subsamples
suitable to determine the quantiles 𝑑10 and 𝑑90 for volume distributions. However, if only the median
𝑑50 is determined from volume distribution data a subsample size of 5,500 would be sufficient. If a test
plan for particle size and shape characterization is planned estimation of the required subsample size
could be guided by the coefficient of variation the volume, surface area or length measurements exhibit
within the material. In addition, the chosen safety level plays an important role. Here, a deviation from
the ground truth of 3 % is allowed. With decreasing level of tolerated deviation, the sample size in-
creases significantly. If the number of scans for µCT imaging is kept to a minimum sample preparation
can decisively influence the representativeness of the subsample. Drawing representative subsamples
from fine aggregates therefore requires special caution as samples for µCT imaging usually only contain
a few gram due to the size limitation of detectors.

14th
3.2 Transferability of data from µCT imaging to laboratory test results
b
Transferability of the results to standard laboratory test procedures is an important prerequisite to in-
crease the acceptance of this method. Here, different sieve size estimators are calculated from µCT
data. Comparison is made between those and the result of sieving and laser diffraction. Fig. 5 shows
the results for the four samples RC, RM, CSS and CM.
if
Fig. 5 Comparison between sieving and sieve size estimators derived from µCT imaging for re-
cycled concrete (RC), recycled masonry (RM), CEN standard sand (CSS) and crushed mi-
crodiorite (CM).
For all materials analysed here the sieve size estimator 𝑆𝐸𝑉𝐸 characterizes the particle size distribution
significantly finer than sieving or laser diffraction does. Therefore, this parameter is not further consid-
ered. The sieve size parameter 𝑆𝐸𝑉𝐵 shows the closest agreement to the results of sieving which is in
line with the observation of Neumann et al. [12]. It is also consistent with the expectations as sieving
is performed using square sieves that have a shape comparable to the equivalent volume box. Laser
diffraction is based on the assumption of spherical particle shape. This can explain the close correlation
between 𝑆𝐸𝑉𝑆 and the test result for samples CM and CSS. For recycled materials RC and RM the
parameter 𝑆𝐸𝑉𝐵 is a closer approximation. For these samples laser diffraction shows larger fine particle
fractions in comparison to sieving or the parameters 𝑆𝐸𝑉𝐵 and 𝑆𝐸𝑉𝑆 . This can be attributed to the un-
derlying assumptions of this test procedure [29]. Overall, both 𝑆𝐸𝑉𝐵 and 𝑆𝐸𝑉𝑆 seem suitable to derive
particle size distributions from µCT imaging that correspond well to the results of laboratory tests.
Fig. 6 shows the result of flow coefficient measurement 𝐸𝑐𝑠𝑚 in comparison to several size and
shape parameters. Shape parameters are calculated for every particle within the sample. The samples
are then characterized by the median value. Correlation or regression analysis would require an increa-
sed amount of data points thus the following discussion is based on qualitative observations. Fig. 6
shows that all of the calculated shape parameters 𝐹𝑍 , 𝐹𝑊 , 𝑆𝑊 and 𝐶𝑍 seem to correlate strongly with the
flow coefficient 𝐸𝑐𝑠𝑚 . Only the median sieve size estimator 𝑆𝐸𝑉𝐵 scatters more clearly. By implication,
this means that the flow coefficient is influenced by several particle shape parameters. Thus transfera-
bility from shape parameters calculated based on µCT images is difficult to achieve. However, as the
flow coefficient describes several shape characteristics of a sample, µCT imaging can offer the possi-
bility to explore in more detail the different factors influencing this measurement.
results
if b
Fig. 6 Scatterplot with linear regression line of the flow coefficient in comparison to different
shape and size parameters calculated from µCT imaging.
4 Conclusion
The analysis performed within this study shows that the coefficient of variation derived from particle
volume is suitable to estimate the required sample size. For the materials considered here a minimum
sample size of 5,500 and 21,000 particles is necessary to form a representative subsample. Comparing
results of laboratory test procedures performed on these four fine aggregate samples shows that results
of sieving and laser diffraction can be approximated by sieve size estimators 𝑆𝐸𝑉𝐵 and 𝑆𝐸𝑉𝑆 calculated
based on µCT images. The flow coefficient is however more difficult to predict from size and shape
parameters calculated from µCT data. Overall, analysis of required sample size can reduce µCT imag-
ing effort significantly while ensuring an appropriate basis for further size and shape parameter calcu-
lations. In addition, transferability from parameters calculated based on the 3D representation of the
particles is given for several laboratory test procedures.
Acknowledgements
This work was funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation)
[grant number 413140723].
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Effect of impressed current technique on the
b
mechanical behaviour of steel reinforcement in
concrete
if
Andrea Nino Consiglio, Giovanni Muciaccia, Dario Coronelli and Gianpaolo
Rosati
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Civile e Ambientale
Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, Milano (20133), Italy
Abstract
Reinforcement steel in concrete structures is often subjected to corrosion due to exposition to environ-
mental elements that affect the materials during service life. The process of corrosion takes a long time
due to the presence of concrete, that covers steel elements, and needs particular environmental condi-
tions. Many techniques available in the literature were used to reproduce these conditions and investi-
gate the degree of damage, despite it is difficult to achieve a significant degree of reinforcement corro-
sion in a short time. Accelerated corrosion by means of the impressed current technique is widely used
to evaluate durability of concrete. In this study three different current density levels were adopted to
induce corrosion in reinforced-concrete cubes. The influence of corrosion on the mechanical behavior
of reinforcement was finally evaluated performing pull-out tests after treatment period.
1 Introduction
Until the late 1970s, reinforced concrete structures were believed to be intrinsically durable, even in
absence of specific provisions when exposed to environmental conditions normally considered aggres-
sive for steel structures. Recently, following the increase in cases of deterioration, with a consequent
impact on structural safety and increased risks for safety, the need for maintenance or repair pushed
designers to consider different approaches. Today, many professionals show a different sensitivity to-
wards the issue of degradation of reinforced concrete works and its prevention. If not suitably protected,
concrete can be attacked by chlorides present in the sea water and in the air in proximity of the coasts,
from acids of industrial fumes, as well as affected by an uncontrolled penetration of carbonation. Steel,
if not adequately protected by a layer of concrete is subjected to corrosion. When reinforcing bar are
corroding, corrosion products, having a volume higher than the original steel, induce pressures which
cause concrete cracking; consequently, bond between reinforcing bars and concrete experience a loss
of the confinement action due to concrete cracking. Additionally, changes in roughness of steel surface
at the steel-concrete interface lead to a degradation in the profile of the bar ribs [1]. This aspect causes
a reduction in the bond behavior with a potential premature slip. If the bond reduction occurs in the
anchorage zone of the bars, serious consequences can occur from a structural point of view, with an
impact on the flexural behavior of the connected member, also in terns of capability to dissipate energy
under load cycling.
Several authors carried out investigations in this field [2] [3] [4]. Blomfors et al. [5] developed a
model to assess the anchorage capacity of corroded steel bar, taking into account the confinement ef-
fects of concrete, transverse reinforcement and the changes of these effects at the point where corrosion
cracks the concrete cover. This model gives the full local bond stress-slip relation and helps professional
engineers to estimate anchorage capacity of corroded concrete structures. Prieto et al. [6] formulated a
model developed by applying multiple linear regression to a database containing the results of over 650
bond tests that takes into account many variables affecting bond strength, such as bar diameter, concrete
compressive stength, concrete cover, anchorage length, confinement ratio and corrosion induced cross-
sectional loss. Testing and modelling of bond of corroded bars in reinforced concrete structures are
discussed to work out the indicators of bond conditions in a deteriorating structure. When the final
crack has been reached, the ultimate bond capacity may be calculated by the model formulated by
Cairns and Abdullah, once the confinement capacity has been assessed [7]. Coronelli introduced some
modifications to consider the effects of the corrosion attack and to predict bond strength as a function
14 th
of the corrosion level and pressure, of the confinement around the bar, and of the degradation of the rib
profile and interface properties [8]. A relation between corrosion and bond that considers concrete co-
b
ver, bar diameter, concrete splitting tensile strength, attack penetration depth, stirrup section, yield
stress of the stirrups, distance between stirrups was formulated. Bond strength is a key parameter in the
assessment of the carrying capacity of a structure, especially in the failure mode in a deteriorated struc-
ture.
if
Corrosion of steel in concrete is a slow process. Due to the protective nature of concrete, it takes a
reasonably long time for initiation and progress of reinforcement corrosion even in the case of severe
corrosive exposure conditions. The impressed current technique is commonly used for accelerating
reinforcement corrosion [9] [10]. This acceleration of corrosion introduces differences with respect to
slower corrosion rate which should be taken into account considering that the maximum value observed
in real condition is around 100-200 μA/cm2 [11]. This is done to induce a significant degree of corrosion
of reinforcing bars embedded in concrete in limited available time. The impressed current technique
has been frequently used to study the effect of reinforcement corrosion on the cracking of concrete
cover, bond behavior, and load-bearing capacity of reinforced concrete structural members.
The effect of corrosion is directly related to the behaviour of structural elements in terms of ductility
and ultimate capacity due to the bond properties between steel and concrete. The transversal section of
steel reinforcement is reduced, and the corrosion products cause a volume increase and internal stresses
with cracking or splitting of concrete.
The impressed current technique allows to control the corrosion rate, which varies with resistivity,
oxygen concentration and temperature. Each change of these variables can be compensated to maintain
the desired corrosion rate. This type of test is valid to study the corrosion process of steel in concrete,
and its own effects of damage caused to the concrete cover. The scope for which corrosion is carried
out with this method is to reduce drastically the depassivation period from several years to a few weeks
or months – depending on the level to be reached, in such a way as to pass in time at the desired level
of corrosion. For the corrosion carried out with this technique the advantage of corroding the bars at
high speeds, inducing the current in this way cannot perfectly simulate the induced corrosion naturally.
This method consists in inducing corrosion on a reiforcement bar by applying a certain electrical
potential or a determined current density, using the steel bar in the concrete as an anode and a slab or a
stainless steel bar as a cathode. The degree of corrosion can be controlled by varying the current density
and the period of the impressed current.
After the corrosion period the pull-out test is carried out to evaluate the mechanical behaviour of
steel reinforcement. The comparison with reference specimens not influenced by corrosion condition
is fundamental to quantify the loss of capacity and the effects on a real structure.
The aim of the work is to study the effects of artificial corrosion on the bond properties between steel
and concrete through experimental tests. Concrete specimens were artificially corroded at the same
level, but with different corrosion rate, using the galvanostatic method. After the corrosion phase pull-
out tests were performed to evaluate the residual bond strength of reinforcing bars.
2.1 Materials and specimens

Cubic concrete specimens of class C25/30 with side equal to 150mm with a longitudinal φ12 reinforc-
ing bars were used. Chlorides (3% of cement weight) were added in the concrete mix. The bond length
of the rebar is equal to 100mm. The debonded part was protected by insulating tape and a silicone layer.
The rebars were in class B450C according to Eurocode 2 [12]. The specimens are represented in Fig.1,
the sides were identified with letter a/b/c/d for lateral sides and f/r for the other two sides, f refers to the
side with the longer portion of the rebar.

if b
Fig. 1 Concrete specimens with reinforcing bars.
2.2 Test procedures and setup

2.2.1 Impressed current technique
Concrete specimens were positioned inside plastic tanks and supported by small wood blocks. A steel
stainless plate that works as a cathode was located under the cube, while the rebar works as an anode.
Two groups with 2 specimens and one group with 4 specimens were set for three different current rates.
To accelerate the corrosion, direct current was impressed on the steel reinforcing bars by means of four
power supplies, one for each group as represented in Fig.2. The bowls were filled with distilled water
mixed with chlorides to obtain a solution of 0.5% sodium chloride, in contact with the specimen lateral
surface. The concrete cubes were rotated at fixed time intervals as reported in Table 1, with each side
1, 2, 3 and 4 facing the cathode in turn, in order to obtain a nominally uniform attack on the whole bar
surface.
Fig. 2 Scheme of the electrical circuit used to accelerate the corrosion.
14th
The current intensity was selected to achieve a desired theoretical degree of corrosion equal to 2%
weight loss of the steel within a certain time frame. Faraday’s law was used to determine the theoretical
b
mass loss. Groups S (slow), M (medium), H (high) were subjected to current densities of 1, 20 and 100
A/m2, respectively.
𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑡 = 𝑇 ∗ 0,0116 ∗ 𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 (1)
if
where patt = corrosion depth (mm); T = period (years); Icorr = current density (μA/cm2). The current
intensty icorr is obteined from the product between the current density Icorr and the lateral surface of the
embedded rebar.
𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑙𝑏 ∗ 𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 (2)
Table 1 reports the input parameters for testing.
Table 1 Input parameters for three corrosion groups.

Group Corro- Speci- Bond area Current Current Time inter- T
sion de- mens of rebar density Icorr intensity val for cu- (hours)
gree Marks (-) (mm2) (μA/cm2) icorr bes rotation
(%) (mA)
S 1.64 7, 9 ,10 3770 100 3,8 3 days 911
(+192)
M 1.57 1, 3, 4 3770 2000 75,4 1 day 46
H /EH 2.10 / 2, 5 / 6, 8 3770 10000 377 50 minutes 9 / 41
6.32
The current intensity was monitored by a tester during the corrosion phase. For the S group, an extra
time duration of 192 hours was considered to reach a reasonable corrosion level due to many potential
drops occurred during threatment. For the group H, two specimens were conditioned for 41 hours to
reach a significant corrosion level; such group is labelled EH (Extra-High). All specimens were peri-
odically observed to evaluate the crack pattern on the cube sides.
2.2.2 Pull-out test
The bond strength was determined by means a pull-out test. Assuming that the shear stresses are uni-
formly distributed along the bar with length equal to l [13] embedded in the concrete, on the basis of
the applied force F, the bond stress is evalueted by the equilibrium to translation as:
𝐹
𝜏= (3)
𝜋∗𝑑∗𝑙
During the test the relative displacement between steel and concrete is recorded and the relation with
load represents the bond model [14].
At the end of the conditioning phase, the specimens were prepared for pull-out tests. An electrome-
chanical Shenck machine located in the Materials and Structures Testing Laboratory of Politecnico di
Milano with a load capacity of 1000 kN was used. The specimen was positioned on a steel base plate
that is connected to the upper part of the frame, which can vertically move at a costant displacement
rate. The load was recorded by an internal load cell and the relative displacement of rebar was measured
by a LVDT transducer in contact with the cross section of the rebar at its unloaded end side. The test
setup is represented in Fig.3.

if b
Fig. 3 Shenck machine for pull-out tests on cast-in rebars.
3 Results
The measurement of corrosion depth X in mm is related to the current intensity icorr, monitored with a
tester. The theoretic corrosion attack was calculated using Faraday’s law in accordance with equation
1. The ratio between the reduction and the initial cross section corresponds to the gravimetric loss, in
the following indicated as corrosion level (%). It is possible to plot the corrosion level as a function of
time for the several specimen groups, as reported in Fig. 4.
7,0
6,0 slow
medium
5,0
high
Corrosion [%]
4,0 extra high
3,0
2,0
1,0
0,0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Time [day]
Fig. 4 Corrosion level for specimen groups.
For each group cracking was measured for all three specimens. The crack opening on the front f and
back r sides were periodically measured with a manual crack meter. The presence of cracks was caused
by the oxides accumulation in the interface zones between steel and concrete that induced radial forces.
The evolution of cracks for two specimens is represented in Fig. 5.
14th
2,0
b
Specimen 9
1,6 Specimen 10
Crack opening [mm]
1,2
if
0,8
0,4
0,0
1,00 1,10 1,20 1,30 1,40 1,50 1,60
Corrosion [%]
Fig. 5 Crack opening vs corrosion level and specimen n.9 during crack opening measurement.
For groups M, H and EH this phenomenon did not occur. The spillage of corrosion products is clearly
visible in Fig. 6.
Fig. 6 Samples n.8 and n.6 of group EH, oxides flow out of the cube.
For each load level, bond stress is calculated as the average stress between reinforcing bar and sur-
rounding concrete along the embedded portion of the bar. Comparisons of bond strength at different
levels of corrosion can be made in terms of a limiting slip or in terms of maximum load; the latter is
used in the following. The relationships between failure load and the values of free end rebar slip are
shown in Fig. 7, the scale of vertical axis is different for S group due to limited ultimate load values
reached during testing. The relationship between bond strength, calculated using the maximum load
and Equation 3, and the corrosion level is shown in Fig. 8a. Fig.8b shows the bond strength measured
in relation to the current density used in the test.
The flow of oxides is shown in Fig. 9. The specimens were opened after the pull-out tests. For
specimen n.9 of group S the oxides are located near the bonded length of rebar; the concrete and silicon
clynders around the bars in the debonded zones are clean; the oxides flow in the crack around the bar
and up to the surface is evident [15]. In specimen n.8 of group EH the oxides are distributed along the
bonded length and out of the embedded part of the rebar; the reinforcement is covered with corrosion
products along the path followed to flow out of the front and rear faces (see Fig.6).

if b
Fig. 7 Load vs displacement for pull-out tests, group S and groups M, H and EH.
15,0 15,0
SLOW SLOW
12,0 MEDIUM 12,0 MEDIUM
HIGH HIGH
EXTRA HIGH EXTRA HIGH
Bond strength [MPa]
Bond strength [MPa]

9,0 9,0
6,0 6,0
3,0 3,0
0,0 0,0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 3000 6000 9000 12000
Corrosion [%] Current Density [μA/cm2]
Fig. 8 (a) Bond strength vs corrosion level and (b) bond strength vs corrosion rate.
Fig. 9 Oxides flow for low and extra high corrosion level groups.
4 Discussion
The corrosion cracking phenomena took place only for the slow rate specimens. The cracking of the
cover reduced the bond to a low residual value. Similar results have been obtained in the literature for
pull-out tests.
The medium and high corrosion rates did not allow the accumulation of corrosion products and the
pressure build-up causing cracking. The oxides flowed along the reinforcement and out of the specimen.
The bond strength measured is that of bar with a reduced cross section, a surface roughened by corro-
sion. Possibly the oxides in the debonded zones provided some friction and a contribution to the maxi-
mum pull out force, this is mostly visible when the corrosion degree is elevated for group EH. The bond
strength values are lower but comparable to those that could be obtained for small diameter bars in a
pull/out test with a thick cover and short embedment length. This can be estimated with expressions
such as 2.5 fc1/2 and an upper bound of 0.5 fc obtaining values in the range 10-12 MPa.
14 th
5 Conclusion
b
An experimental campaign to evaluate the effect of different rates of artificial corrosion obtained with
impressed current technique on the bond strength of cast-in rebar was carried out. The following con-
clusions can be drawn: (I) During the with slow corrosion rate the specimens were cracked; crack open-
ings were periodically monitored and strongly affected the ultimate bond strength (II) The bond strength
is related to che corrosion rate for M and H groups: the higher the corrosion rate and the more the oxides
if
flow; the bond strength measured did not correspond to the conditions of reinforcement corroding
within a sizeable concrete cover. (IV) The oxides flow has been evaluted after the pull-out tests, the
specimens showed a different distribution of corrosion products along the embedded part of the rebar,
for group S the oxides are located near the bond length and inside the cracks, while for group H the
oxides flowed out of the embedded part along the reinforcement.
These conclusions indicate that reliable results for bond of artificially corroded specimens require
the use of slow corrosion processes. Fast corrosion rates change the mechanical interaction of the bar
with the surrounding concrete with the related cover cracking. These results complement similar con-
clusions obtained through electrochemical studies [11].
Acknowledgements
Authors wish to acknowledge the technical staff of Testing, Materials and Structure Laboratory of
Politecnico of Milan.
References
[1] C. Alonso, C. Andrade, J. Rodriguez, and J. M. Diez, “Factors controlling cracking of concrete
affected by reinforcement corrosion,” Mater. Struct. Constr., vol. 31, no. 211, pp. 435–441,
1996.
[2] J. G. Cabrera, “Deterioration of concrete due to reinforcement steel corrosion,” Cem. Concr.
Compos., vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 47–59, 1996.
[3] S. Ahmad, “Reinforcement corrosion in concrete structures, its monitoring and service life
prediction - A review,” Cem. Concr. Compos., vol. 25, no. 4-5 SPEC, pp. 459–471, 2003.
[4] Y. Yuan, Y. Ji, and S. P. Shah, “Comparison of two accelerated corrosion techniques for
concrete structures,” ACI Struct. J., vol. 104, no. 3, pp. 344–347, 2007.
[5] M. Blomfors, K. Zandi, K. Lundgren, and D. Coronelli, “Engineering bond model for corroded
reinforcement,” Eng. Struct., vol. 156, no. October 2017, pp. 394–410, 2018.
[6] M. Prieto, P. Tanner, and C. Andrade, “Multiple linear regression model for the assessment of
bond strength in corroded and non-corroded steel bars in structural concrete,” Mater. Struct.
Constr., vol. 49, no. 11, pp. 4749–4763, 2016.
[7] J. Cairns and R. Bin Abdullah, “Bond strength of black and epoxy-coated reinforcement - A
theoretical approach,” ACI Mater. J., vol. 93, no. 4, pp. 362–369, 1996.
[8] D. Coronelli, “Corrosion cracking and bond strength modeling for corroded bars in reinforced
concrete,” ACI Struct. J., vol. 99, no. 3, pp. 267–276, 2002.
[9] S. Ahmad, “Techniques for inducing accelerated corrosion of steel in concrete,” Arab. J. Sci.
Eng., vol. 34, no. 2 C, pp. 95–104, 2009.
[10] T. A. El Maaddawy and K. A. Soudki, “Effectiveness of impressed current technique to
simulate corrosion of steel reinforcement in concrete,” J. Mater. Civ. Eng., vol. 15, no. 1, pp.
41–47, 2003.
[11] C. Andrade, “Initial steps of corrosion and oxide characteristics,” Struct. Concr., vol. 21, no.
5, pp. 1710–1719, 2020.
[12] T. Della Norma, “Design of steel structures - Parte 1-1 : General rules and rules for buildings
- UNI EN 1993-1-1,” 2005.
[13] R. A. Cook, “BEHAVIOR OF CHEMICALLY BONDED ANCHORS By Ronald A. Cook, l
Member, ASCE,” vol. 119, no. 9, pp. 2744–2762, 1994.
[14] T. . Tassios, “Properties of bond between concrete and steel under load cycles idealizing
seismic action,” Bulletin d’information du CEB. pp. 65–122, 1979.
[15] D. Coronelli, K. Z. Hanjari, and K. Lundgren, “Severely Corroded RC with Cover Cracking,”
J. Struct. Eng., vol. 139, no. 2, pp. 221–232, 2013.

Experimental tests and finite element analyses of
b
reduced-scale post-tensioned concrete bridge girders
Simone Galano, Giacomo Miluccio, Daniele Losanno and Fulvio Parisi
if
Department of Structures for Engineering and Architecture,
Via Claudio 21, 80125 Naples, Italy
Abstract
A large number of Italian existing bridges were built using post-tensioned concrete. According to recent
studies, the performance of these structures may be affected by technological defects and degradation
of strands due to partial or failed injection of ducts. This paper investigates the response of fully injected
1/5 scaled post-tensioned concrete bridge girders via experimental testing and numerical simulations.
The specimen provides a benchmark for a forthcoming experimental program of a number of post-
tensioned beams including partial and complete lack of duck injection in combination with different
levels of initial prestress in tendons. Each specimen was subjected to four-point bending test up to
failure to investigate the nonlinear flexural behaviour. An experimental–numerical comparison is also
shown addressing crack initiation and propagation till failure of post-tensioned beam. Experimental and
numerical results allow shedding some light on the performance levels of post-tensioned concrete
bridge girders under increasing flexural loading.
1 Introduction
The Italian road network consists of thousands of bridges, with a large percentage of reinforced concrete
(RC) and prestressed reinforced concrete (PC) structures. These constructions were mainly built start-
ing from the very aftermath of the Second World War, following the global economic and technologic
expansion. Thus, an expected service life of 50 years appears to be overtaken in an increasing number
of cases. In Italy, during the last 5 years, different cases of bridge collapse were sadly recorded [1].
The response of PC bridges have been studied under vertical loads [2]. However, the service life of
a PC structure appears to be greatly affected by degradation phenomena and construction defects. Cor-
rosion of prestressing steel [3], partial ducts injection [4], different level of initial prestressing [5] as
well as local defects or damage of strands [6], are all phenomena that could affect the performance of
PC structures.
With the aim of studying such phenomena, the authors designed an experimental test campaign on
scaled PC bridge girders. This paper presents the results of the first two specimens tested under different
levels of initial prestress. Four-point bending tests were conducted in order to study the PC girders’
flexural response. The same PC girders were also investigated through analytical formulations and two
different numerical approaches, i.e., the Finite Element Method (FEM) and the Applied Element
Method (AEM).
2 Experimental tests
2.1 Description of the tested samples

The two 1/5 scaled post-tensioned PC girders under study had the same geometry (Fig. 1) and
material properties, as follows:
• T-shaped cross section with top flange width b1 = 480 mm, top flange thickness h1 = 60 mm,
web height h2 = 380 mm, and web thickness b2 = 150 mm.
• Total length L = 6.60 m.
• Mild steel reinforcement consisting of both longitudinal rebar and stirrups with nominal diam-
eter of 8 mm, and a welded wire mesh in the top flange with nominal diameter of 6 mm and
mesh size equal to 200 mm. The stirrup spacing was equal to 100 mm.
14th
• Two 7-wire mono-strand tendons with equivalent area of 150 mm2 each one. The two tendons
have a parabolic shape within the girders, except for a 1-m-long straight segment at the mid-
b
span.
The mechanical properties of the materials are given in Table 1. The mean compressive strength of
the concrete was obtained testing six cubic samples. Tensile tests on reinforcing and prestressing steel
samples provided the values of yielding stress, ultimate stress and Young’s modulus listed in Table 1.
if
Table 1 Mechanical properties of the tested specimens.
fc Ec fsy fsu Es fpy fpu Ep
[MPa] [MPa] [MPa] [MPa] [MPa] [MPa] [MPa] [MPa]
30 30000 450 540 210000 1782 1969 203400
The two specimens were designed under different levels of initial prestressing force. The initial
prestress of the first specimen was set equal to 150 kN for each tendon, while in the second specimen
this threshold was halved (i.e., 75 kN for each tendon). Herein, such specimens are identified as Spec-
imen 1 – High Prestress (S1-HP) and Specimen 2 – Low Prestress (S2-LP), respectively. Due to pre-
stressing losses at the time of testing associated with initial deformation of the strand anchorages, fric-
tion, creep and shrinkage, the initial prestressing forces in the bottom and upper tendons reduced to 111
kN and 104 kN (S1-HP) and to 36.3 kN and 51.6 kN (S2-LP), respectively.
3300
500 2800
158,9 170
55
Ast
43
Ø8/100 mm 480 480

Welded Mesh
Ø8 200x200
60
Strand
158,9 170
440
Ap (Strand Type 0,6'')
328,9
anghorages
98
150 As (n. 3+3Ø8) 150

43
20
Fig. 1 Geometry of the two PC girders: half longitudinal section, mid-span and header cross sec-
tions.
2.2 Experimental test setup

The PC girders were tested in a four-point bending configuration, using a displacement-control quasi-
static loading protocol with constant rate of 0.05 mm/s up to failure. Each girder was simply supported
on two rubber bearings and the two end cross sections were laterally restrained with L-shaped steel
elements. The vertical force F was applied through a rigid steel beam with two loading points having
a clear distance of 850 mm, thus resulting into a shear-span length Lv = 2875 mm and a bending mo-
ment M = 0.5F  Lv .
Fig. 2 shows the test setup, which was based on the use of a universal loading machine able to apply
both monotonic and cyclic loading, either in tension or compression. The machine consists of a rigid
steel basement (1.0 × 4.0 m2), four columns fixed at the base and a moving crossbar on top that can
slide either upward or downward. A vertical actuator placed on the crossbar can load specimens with
both displacement control (max stroke 150 mm) and force control (max compression load 3000 kN,
max tensile load 2400 kN).
The girder deflection at mid-span cross section was measured using a vertical Linear Variable Differ-
ential Transducer (LVDT) and a load cell was installed to measure the vertical load.
426 Bridges, dams and tunnels

FRONT
VIEW
b
4 contrast columns
Actuator
Load cell Loading support
Rubber bearing
if
PC girder
850
6600
850 480
60
440
380
263
LVDT
220
150
435
1600
Lateral
Concrete blocks restraints
used as supports
Fig. 2 Setup of four-point bending test.
2.3 Experimental results

Fig. 3 (left) shows the force–displacement curves at midspan cross section of the specimens. The dif-
ferent levels of initial prestress affected the response of the two PC girders. Both curves start from a
counter-deflection due to prestressing that was approximately -4 mm in case of S1-HP specimen and -
2 mm in case of S2-LP specimen.
As expected, the two PC girders developed the same initial stiffness prior to cracking. A first crack
was observed close to midspan cross section of S2-LP specimen under F = 24.9 kN (Fig. 3 center). As
for S1-HP specimen, the first crack was recorded under F = 44.8 kN at midspan cross section (Fig. 3
right). Such values of vertical force were related to bending moment equal to 35.8 kNm and 64.4 kNm
for S2-LP and S1-HP specimens, respectively.
After the first crack formed, the vertical stiffness of the two specimens reduced accordingly. The
cracked stiffness of the two PC girders (herein evaluated as the slope of the post-cracking branch of
force–displacement curve at mild-steel yielding) was slightly different due to lower contribution from
tension stiffening in case of low prestress.
The ultimate behavior of the PC girders appeared to be independent from the initial level of pre-
stress. The maximum force values were found to be equal to 156 kN (corresponding to M u = 224 kNm)
and 161 kN (corresponding to M u = 231 kNm) under high and low initial prestress levels, respectively.
The PC girder S1-HP was tested up to a vertical displacement of 119 mm, which was lower than the
maximum displacement of S3-LP specimen (171 mm) due to setup configuration. In case of S3-LP, a
temporary restraint during loading phase was adopted through external cables resuming the full stroke
of the actuator by translating downwards its moving head. Due to the achievement of the maximum
stroke, both specimens reached near-collapse condition.
Fig. 3 Experimental results: force and bending moment versus deflection (left) and first observed
cracks on S2-LP (center) and S1-HP specimens (right).
14 th
3 Analytical investigation
b
The flexural behaviour of the midspan cross section of both specimens was analytically investigated.
First, the vertical stiffness of the simply supported PC girders was calculated under four-point bending
loading, considering both uncracked (K1) and cracked (K2) conditions. These values can be obtained
using the following equations:
if
48Ec I G ,1 48Ec I G ,2
K1 = K2 = (1)
f ( L, Lv ) f ( L, Lv )
where I G ,1 and I G ,2 are the second order moment of inertia with respect to the center of gravity of the
section in uncracked and cracked condition, respectively, f ( L, Lv ) is a function of geometry yielding
L3 when Lv → L / 2 (i.e. three point bending test).
In Fig. 4, two straight lines corresponding to the above-mentioned values of vertical stiffness are
compared to the experimental force–displacement curves of both specimens, highlighting a perfect nu-
merical-analytical agreement. Specifically, dotted lines in Fig. 4 indicate the uncracked stiffness,
whereas dashed lines indicate the cracked stiffness. S1-HP specimen provided a stiffer response in the
post-cracking phase than analytical prediction due to higher contribution from tension stiffening (Fig.
4 left). However, in both cases the analytical results fit the experimental outcomes with good agreement.
With the analytical approach, the noticeable values of bending moment have been calculated in
order to compare with the experimental findings: (i) cracking of the concrete, i.e. Mcr, (ii) first yielding
of mild steel, i.e. Mys and (iii) concrete failure, i.e. Mcu. In this approach, materials properties have been
set following the experimental materials features and the following stress-strain laws:
• Parabola-rectangular uniaxial concrete compressive stress-strain behaviour, with a compres-
sive strength equal to 30 MPa and an elastic modulus of 30,000 MPa. Conventional yielding
strain and ultimate strain are assumed equal to 0.002 and 0.0035, respectively.
• Linear uniaxial pre-cracking concrete tensile stress-strain behaviour, with a tensile strength
equal to 2.9 MPa. No tensile stress is considered for post-cracked concrete.
• Elastic-plastic with hardening uniaxial stress-strain response for mild steel, with yielding stress
and ultimate stress equal to 450 MPa and 540 MPa, respectively. The elastic modulus was set
equal to 210,000 MPa. Accordingly, the yield strain is 0.0021, while the ultimate strain was
set equal to 0.0675 (IMIT 2018).
• Elastic-plastic with hardening stress-strain constitutive law for prestressing steel, using a yield
stress and an ultimate stress of 1782 MPa and 1969 MPa, respectively. The Young’s modulus
is 203,400 MPa, the yielding strain is equal to 0.0088 and the ultimate strain is 0.06.
Table 2 shows the analytical – experimental comparison on the different thresholds of bending
moment. As can be seen, an excellent agreement has been found between analytical and experimental
values, with a maximum percentage difference of 3%. In addition, expected ultimate bending moment
is equal for both specimens due to achievement of ultimate concrete strain being ultimate tensile strain
in prestressing not achieved. This outcome confirmed that lower level of prestress would not affect
ultimate girder capacity.
Fig. 4 Comparison between experimental force–displacement curves and analytical predictions of

verti-cal stiffness in both uncracked and cracked conditions: (left) S1-HP, (right) S2-LP.

Table 2 Comparison between analytical and experimental values of resisting bending moment (a =
analytical, e = experimental).
b
M cre M ue
M cra M cre [kNm] M ua M ue
Girder M car M ua
if
[kNm] [kNm] [-] [kNm] [kNm] [-]
S1-HP 64.1 64.4 1.01 231 224 0.97
S2-LP 35.3 35.8 1.01 231 231 1.00
4 Numerical investigation
Two different numerical methods were used to simulate the flexural response of the PC girders, i.e.,
FEM and AEM. In both numerical analyses the materials were modeled consistenly with the specifica-
tions given in Section 2.1 and Section 3. Fig. 5 shows the constitutive laws implemented in both nu-
merical approaches.
In the following sub-sections, details of each method are given.
Fig. 5 Constitutive diagrams for numerical analyses: (upper left) nonlinear compressive behaviour
and elastic (uncracked) tensile behaviour of concrete [8], (upper right) cracked tensile be-
haviour of concrete [8], (bottom left) bi-linear behaviour of prestressing steel, (bottom
right) bilinear behaviour of mid steel [7].
4.1 Finite Element Analyses

FEM simulations were carried out using Abaqus FEA [9]. Concrete behaviour was modeled using the
Concrete Damage Plasticity Model (CDPM) available in the software ([10], [11]). The CDPM is a
continuum, plasticity-based, damage model where two main failure mechanisms are assumed for con-
crete: tensile cracking and compressive crushing. In this model, the main features of the concrete be-
havior are described by compressive and tensile uniaxial stress–strain response curves implemented in
the software. In the tensile region, the stress–strain response is linear up to the peak tensile stress (2.9
MPa in Fig. 5 upper left), and then characterised by a post-peak softening branch that describes the
onset of micro-cracks in the concrete material (Fig. 5 upper right). The compressive constitutive law
14th
consists of an initial elastic branch up to yield stress and a plastic regime with hardening until the
ultimate strength (30 MPa in Fig. 5 upper left) and a final softening. The CDPM allows explicitly
b
monitoring concrete damage through the damage variable dt (damage tension) and dc (damage com-
pression), defined as scalar degradation variables of the initial (undamaged) Young’s modulus of the
material.
The eight-node first-order element with one reduced integration rule (element C3D8R in Abaqus
if
library) was used for concrete elements.
The embedded interaction technique was used for rebars (i.e., longitudinal bars and stirrups) and
tendon steel, simulating the perfect bonding condition with surrounding concrete. Two-node truss ele-
ments (element T3D2 in Abaqus library) were used to model both ordinary and prestressed steel.
A thermal distortion approach was used to apply the initial prestress to the tendons, i.e. the values
at the load cells at girder’s end section. This method developed by Huang [12] has been shown to
accurately simulate the prestressing force. For one-dimensional rod element, the effective tendon initial
prestress could be obtained using the following equation:
 p,i = E p   p  T (2)
where  p is the thermal expansion coefficient of prestressing steel, T is the thermal variation and
E p is the Young’s modulus of prestressing steel.
4.2 Applied Element Analyses

Extreme Loading for Structures (ELS) software was used to carry out AEM simulations. The AEM
takes into account the nonlinear behaviour of the material, starting from the elastic stage up to collapse
of each element [13]. The entire modeled girder is discretized into a number of elements depending on
the mesh size; thus, a number of normal and shear nonlinear springs are assigned to the contact surfaces
of elements [14].
The AEM approach allows taking into account the failure of each spring based on either stress
criteria or strain criteria. Moreover, when stress and/or strain of the single spring reach their capacity
thresholds, cracks are formed (i.e., defined as “open cracks” in ELS software).
Both reinforcing bars and strands with the corresponding prestressing force were modeled through
specific springs. The “custom RFT” tool was used to generate user-defined reinforcement layout in-
cluding customization of prestressing tendons and mild steel. Prestress in tendons was then applied as
initial force along the strands.
4.3 Numerical–experimental comparison

Fig. 6 shows the force – displacement curves obtained from the two numerical software compared with
the experimental ones. In both cases, the numerical simulations return predictions in very good agree-
ment with the experimental results. Both types of numerical analyses are able to predict the overall
response of the PC girders, starting from the prestressing upward displacements to post-cracking and
plastic regime. In Table 3 a direct comparison between numerical and experimental outcomes are given
on the same significant values of the bending moment seen in Section 3. An excellent agreement has
been found, with a maxmum percentage difference of 6% between numerical simulation and experi-
mental tests. Also, comparing Table 2 and Table 3, the same excellent agreement can be detected be-
tween numerical and analytical results, with a maximum percentage difference of 3.7% and of 5.5% in
terms of cracking and ultimate bending moment, respectively.

if b
Fig. 6 Experimental versus numerical force–displacement response curves: (left) S1-HP, (right)
S2-LP.
Table 3 Comparison between experimental and numerical resisting bending moments.
M cre M cre M ue M ue
M cre M crAb M crELS M ue M uAb M uELS
Girder M cFrEM M cArEM M uFEM M uAEM
[kNm] [kNm] [-] [kNm] [-] [kNm] [kNm] [-] [kNm] [-]
S1-HP 64.4 61.8 1.04 62.4 1.03 224 216 1.04 217 1.03
S2-LP 35.8 33.6 1.06 33.9 1.05 224 219 1.02 219 1.02
4.4 Remarks on numerical approaches

Both numerical approaches selected in this study were able to simulate the PC girder response with
good accuracy, so the user may choose any of such approaches to get satisfactory results. However,
some differences have been detected as outlined below:
• A significantly different computational burden is related to the two methods. A single FEM
analysis takes at least one hour to be run, while just 3 minutes are enough to obtain the same
outputs through AEM analysis. This difference is related to how equilibrium equations of
single elements are written in the two cases, as well as to the different type of numerical solver.
• The CDPM provides direct results on the concrete element damage, while this type of output
can be solely estimated in AEM analysis based on the equivalent strain of the nonlinear spring.
• FEM allows explicitly modelling contact properties between two or more parts of the assem-
bly, whereas AEM automatically generates interaction between elements in contact.
The softening and collapse response of the structures are implemented in ELS, both in static and
dynamic analyses. In Abaqus, this type of analyses would require further computational burden and
explicit dynamic analysis.
Given the high level of accuracy of both numerical methods, FEM appears to be a more powerful
tool when considering local response and modeling defects and degradation phenomena. In case global
response and ultimate behavior are of interest, AEM ensures a faster efficient analysis.
5 Conclusions
In this paper, the flexural response of two reduced-scale PC bridge girders has been studied through
three different approaches, namely experimental, analytical and numerical.
Four-point bending tests were conducted on two specimens with different levels of initial prestress.
The most relevant values of the vertical force and corresponding bending moment were obtained for
each PC girder. It was found that the initial level of prestress affects the un-cracked and post-cracking
response of the girders, while showing minor influence on ultimate response.
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The experimental results have been then compared to outcomes of both analytical and numerical
approaches. In the analytical investigation, the cross section of each PC girder was studied, evidencing
b
an excellent numerical-analytical agreement in terms of resisting bending moments.
Two numerical approaches were used, namely, the Finite Element Method and Applied Element
Method. In both cases, resulting into a satisfactory agreement between numerical and experimental
results. Even though both numerical approaches provided very accurate results, different features have
if
been highlighted depending on the target of the numerical simulation.
Acknowledgements
This study was carried out in the framework of PON INSIST (Sistema di monitoraggio IN-telligente
per la Sicurezza delle infraSTrutture urbane) and FIRMITAS (multi-hazard assessment, control and
retroFIt of bridges for enhanced Robustness using sMart IndusTriAlized Solutions) research projects,
funded by the Italian Ministry of University and Research. The assistance by the technical staff of the
Testing Laboratory of the Department of Structures for Engineering and Architecture at University of
Naples Federico II is gratefully acknowledged.
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in Lecco: Limits and reliability of current techniques” Construction and Building Materials,
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[2] Miluccio G, Losanno D, Parisi F, Cosenza E. 2021. Traffic-load fragility models for prestressed
concrete girder decks of existing Italian highway bridges. Engineering Structures; 249, 113367
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and Corrosion 53:591-601.
[4] Minh, H. and Mutsuyoshi, H. and Niitani, K. 2007. “Influence of grouting condition on crack
and load-carrying capacity of post-tensioned concrete beam due to chloride-induced corrosion”
Construction and Building Materials 21 (2007) 1568-1575.
[5] Lehký, D. and Pan, L. and Novák, D. and Cao, M. and Šomodíková, M. and Slowik, O. 2017.
“A comparison of sensitivity analyses for selected prestressed concrete structures” Structural
Concrete 20:38-51. doi: 10.1002/suco.201700291.

[6] Wang, L. and Zhang, X. and Zhang, J. and Dai, L. and Yongming, L. 2017. “Failure analysis
of corroded PC beams under flexural load considering bond degradation” Engineering Failure
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[7] DM 17/01/2018. Aggiornamento delle "Norme tecniche per le costruzioni". Italian Ministry of
Infrastructures and Trans-portation, Rome, Italy, 2018 (in Italian).
[8] Fédération internationale du béton. 2013. Fib model code for con-crete structures 2010.
Lausanne, Switzerland: Ernst & Sohn, a Wiley brand.
[9] Smith, M. 2009. ABAQUS/Standard User’s Manual, Version 6.9. Dassault Systèmes Simulia
Corp. United States.
[10] Lubliner J. and Oliver J. and Oller S. and Onate E 1989. "A plastic–damage model for concrete".
International Journal of Solids Structures. 25 (3) 299–326.
[11] Lee J. and Fenves G.L. 1998. "Plastic–damage model for cyclic loading of concrete structures".
Journal of Engineering Mechanics. 124 (8) 892–900.
[12] Huang Y (2012) Finite Element Method for Post-tensioned Prestressed Concrete Structures”,
A dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Oklahoma in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of philosophy in Civil Engineering, Norman, Oklahoma
University, USA.
[13] Meguro, K., Tagel-Din, H. 2000. "Applied element method for structural analysis: Theory and
application for linear materials". Structural Engineering/Earthquake Engineering, 17(1).
[14] Tagel-Din, H., Meguro K. 2000, "Analysis of a small-scale RC building subjected to shaking
table tests using Applied element Method", Paper presented at the 12th World Conferenc on
Earthquake Engineering, Auckland, New Zealand, Sunday 30 January - Friday 4 February 2000.

Challenges on the shear behavior of existing
b
continuous precast girder bridges
Mohammed S. Ibrahim1, Yuguang Yang1, Marco Roosen1,2 and Max A.N. Hen-
driks1,3
if
1 Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences,
Stevinweg 1, 2628 CN ,
Delft, the Netherlands
2 Rijkswaterstaat, Ministry of Infrastructure and Water Management,

Griffioenlaan 2 3526 LA ,Utrecht, the Netherlands
3 Department of Structural Engineering,

Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU),
Rich. Birkeland vei 1A, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
Abstract
There are a large number of precast girder bridges in the Netherlands that are made continuous utilizing
cast in situ layers and cross beams. When controlled by the Eurocode minimum shear reinforcement
requirement, the majority of these bridges that were constructed before the 1970s have insufficient
amount of transverse reinforcement, which could make them shear critical. Furthermore, when the con-
tinuity is created at intermediate support, the prestressing strands in the precast beams are usually lo-
cated in the compression zone. This may limit the positive effect of the prestress to the shear capacity
of members without transverse reinforcement. The aforementioned concern is not considered by the
standard shear design approach of Eurocode. Because of its empirical nature, the shear capacity of these
bridges cannot be rationally assessed by the code. Currently, an experimental campaign on full-scale
15m long specimens is underway at Delft University of Technology to investigate the existing chal-
lenges. In this paper, the effect of the above-mentioned concerns is illustrated using the predictions of
Eurocode and the Dutch Guidelines for the Assessment of Existing Bridges (RBK). Moreover, the dif-
ficulties and insights gained from the design and execution of the experiments are discussed.
1 Introduction
Precast concrete girders are extensively used for the construction of bridges. Typically, the precast
girders are designed as simply supported members and pre-tensioned with strand located in the bottom
flange. As an alternative, the simply supported girders can be made continuous at the intermediate
support by using cast in situ top layer and cross beam. This approach is used to build a large number of
continuous precast bridges in the Netherlands.
In this system, the bridge girders function as a simply supported member to support their own
weight. After establishing continuity at the intermediate supports, all other load types are carried as a
continuous system. Hence, the maximum positive moment at mid-span can be reduced and the slender-
ness of the bridges can be increased due to the continuity. Fig.1 illustrates the construction sequence
and shows the qualitative bending moment diagram for a continuous inverted T girder precast bridge.
Fig. 1 also shows the interface reinforcements (hereafter referred as hairpin) that are used for the inter-
face's shear strength.
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Fig. 1
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(a) Precast inverted T girder before continuity (b) Continuous precast girder (c) response
to traffic loading (UDL) (d) Strain distribution near the intermediate region
Although the reduced span moment and increase in slenderness are excellent advantages, there are
several drawbacks to using this type of bridge. The primary problem is related to the assessment of the
shear behavior. Before the 1970s, precast bridges were designed for shear by limiting the principal
tensile stress in the web. Consequently, the girders were provided with a small amount of web rein-
forcement. When compared with the Eurocode [1] minimum shear reinforcement requirement, the ma-
jority of these bridges were constructed with an insufficient amount of transverse reinforcement, which
could make them shear critical.
Additional to limited web reinforcement, when the bridges were made continuous, the prestressing
strands on precast beams is located in the compression zone of the cross-sections near the intermediate
support region(see Fig 1d). This may limit the positive effect of the prestress to the shear capacity of
members without transverse reinforcement. Due to the mismatch between the location of the strands
and flexural cracking zone, it will be difficult to answer to what extent the positive effect of the prestress
on the shear capacity shall be considered.
Generally, the shear strength of the precast girders is evaluated by comparing the action effect
against the shear resistance namely flexural shear or shear tension capacities. For example, Eurocode
[1] provides two separate equations for shear assessment based on whether the section is cracked by
bending. A similar approach is also used by ACI 318-19 [2] as the nominal shear capacity is taken as
the lesser of flexural shear or web shear strength. Given that only the precast girders are prestressed in
the current continuous members (not the topping layer), the section near the intermediate support region
is expected to be cracked by bending. As a result, the focus of this paper is solely on the assessment of
these bridges for flexural shear capacity. The shear tension (web shear) assessment is required for
sections that are not cracked by bending, and further discussion on the subject is beyond the scope.
In this paper, using a representative precast member, the difficulty in assessing the shear capacity
using Eurocode as well as the Dutch Guidelines for the Assessment of Bridges (RBK) [3] will be
demonstrated. Guided by the knowledge gap and urgency of the challenge, a comprehensive experi-
mental campaign on full-scale specimens is currently underway at Delft University of technology. The
paper will present the challenges and insight gained through the design, construction, and execution of
the large-scale experiments.

2 Shear assessment of the intermediate support regions
b
2.1 Code formulations
The shear capacity of continuous precast girders can be evaluated using the Eurocode formula. The
code uses an empirical equation for the flexural shear capacity of members without shear reinforcement
and a variable angle truss model for members with sufficient reinforcement.
if
In the Netherlands, the shear assessments of concrete bridges is carried out according to the Dutch
Guidelines for the Assessment of Existing Bridges (RBK) [3]. RBK uses the general Eurocode expres-
sion for the flexural shear capacity provided by the concrete and it combines the concrete term with the
contribution of the stirrups to evaluate the ultimate capacity. In contrast to Eurocode, which employs a
variable angle for strut inclination, RBK uses a fixed strut angle. To facilitate the subsequent discus-
sion, the summary of the shear equations is presented in Table 1 and additional details can be referred
from the codes ([1] and[3]).
Table 1 Summary of the code equations.

Description EUROCODE RBK
VRd ,c  0.18  0.12kcap k (100l fck ) 3 + 0.15 cp  bwgen d
1
k (100 l f ck ) 3 + 0.15 cp  bd
1
  
 c  (2)
(1)
Asw
VRd , s Asw
zf ywd cot  (3) zf ywd cot  (4)
s s
1  cot  2.5  = 30 for prestressed members
VRd ,c + VRd , s (6)
VRd  VRd , c  w  min 
 
  (5)
VRd , s  w  min 
 
Before delving into examination of the codes, it is vital to discuss the background of the Eurocode shear
equation, particularly the concrete contribution. The Eurocode equation (see equation 1) is an empirical
formula calibrated using experimental data of members that are simply supported, both with and with-
out prestressing [4]. In the formulation, the basis for the positive effect of prestress is attributed to the
assumption that the prestressed member can be considered a reinforced concrete member when the
decompression moment is reached. This rationale is used to support the empirically derived shear con-
tribution of the prestress through an equivalent central prestress (see Table 1).
Although the application of Eurocode equation seems straightforward, there will be a mismatch in
the model assumption for intermediate zones when the strands are located in the compression zone (see
Figure 1d). The stress state that is assumed in the code cannot be found near the intermediate region
and this makes it questionable to consider the substantial capacity that can be contributed from the
prestress part.
Due to the incompatibility in the assumption and to have a safe shear capacity estimation, structural
engineers are currently required to use crude engineering judgments, such as disregarding the positive
effect of the prestress. This type of assumption is not rational and it usually provides an overly con-
servative assessment.
2.2 Detail analysis of the codes

The effect of the above-mentioned challenges is further illustrated using the capacity prediction curves
of the codes (see Fig. 2 and 3). The following assessment will be done using a typical precast type and
concrete grade that is commonly used in the construction of continuous precast girders.
An inverted T-girder section with a web width of 300 mm and height of 1070 mm is chosen (see
Fig. 2b). The effective depth of the girder is 900 mm and cast from a concrete grade of C55/67. The
selected section is located in the intermediate support region in which the prestress strands are located
in the bottom flange. The reinforcement in the cast-in-situ layer is considered to act as the tensile rein-
forcement. Furthermore, the shear and tensile reinforcement are ribbed bars with a grade of B500B.
Mohammed S. Ibrahim, Yuguang Yang, Marco Roosen and Max A.N. Hendriks 435
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Fig. 2a presents the relationship between normalized shear capacity and the amount of longitudinal
tension reinforcement. Both Eurocode and RBK essentially give the same response for members wi-
b
thout shear reinforcement. As a result, only the Eurocode prediction is shown for various levels of
prestress.
0.25
0.225
if
0.2
0.19
[-]
0.15
0.1
0.10
0.05 b = 300 mm
d = 900 mm
fck = 55 MPa
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
ρl [%]
(a) (b)
Fig. 2 (a) shear capacity against reinforcement ratio for varying prestress level (b) Inverted T
girder section
To observe the difficulty of assessing intermediate regions, consider a member with prestressing level
of 4.5 MPa and 1.5% tension reinforcement. The presented plot indicates the normalized capacity of
the section is 0.19. As described earlier, the assumption used in the code is incompatible with the con-
dition at the intermediate support. If the prestress is neglected, the normalized capacity for the regions
in the intermediate support is 0.10, which is 52 percent of the initial capacity with the prestress. In most
cases, this type of crude assumption will make the member be classified as shear critical. Because
higher prestress levels result in higher shear capacity, neglecting the prestress penalizes those members
the most.
1 0.8
0.7
0.8
0.6
θ without limit RBK
0.6 0.5
[-]
[-]
0.4
0.4
0.3
b = 300 mm
b = 300 mm 0.2 d = 900 mm
θ with limit
0.2 d = 900 mm fck = 55 MPa
Eurocode with limit fyk =500 MPa
0.13 fck = 55 MPa 0.1
fyk =500 MPa ρl = 1.5%
0 0
0.11 0.21 0.31 0.41 0.51 0.61 0.11 0.21 0.31 0.41 0.51 0.61
ρw [%] ρw [%]
Fig. 3 (a) Eurocode analysis with and without considering the limit (b) RBK against Eurocode
with the limit
The primary difference between the Eurocode and RBK can be observed for members with shear rein-
forcement, particularly for members with small amounts of reinforcement. The Eurocode equation for
members with shear reinforcement is independent of longitudinal reinforcement amount. Because the
concrete and reinforcement contributions are combined in RBK, a longitudinal reinforcement design
must be chosen to ensure a consistent comparison between the codes.
Fig. 3 presents plots indicating the relationship between the shear reinforcement ratio and norma-
lized shear capacity using Eurocode and RBK. The shear reinforcement ratio begins with the smallest
shear reinforcement allowed by the code and similar to the previous analysis the plots are prepared for
different levels of prestress.
The shear capacity in Eurocode can be determined by using the compression field angle that results
in the crushing of the strut. Furthermore, the code restricts the calculated angle of the distributed struts
b
to be between 21.8 to 45 degrees. Although the strut angles are evaluated for selected reinforcement
ratios, in most cases the calculated angle is less than 21.8 degrees and the minimum limit will govern
the assessment. The implication of the minimum imposed limits on the capacity prediction is presented
in Figure 3a. The plot presents two analyses, one considering the limit ( θ  21.8 ), while the other is
if
without considering the code limitation.
As it can be seen from Fig. 3a, when the code restriction is considered, the prestress level will not
have any effect on members with small amount of shear reinforcement. On the contrary, if the limit is
not followed and smaller angles( θ  21.8 ) are allowed, the prestress slightly affects the response. In
addition, when compared with the analysis with the strut angle limit, it gives a higher shear capacity.
Another interesting observation can be found by comparing Figure 3a with Figure 2a. Consider a
member reinforced with the minimum shear reinforcement, 1.5% longitudinal rebar, and presstress
level 6 MPa. According to Eurocode analysis with limit, the normalized capacity is 0.13. If the shear
reinforcement is not considered, Fig 2a indicates the normalized capacity of the member is 0.225, which
is more than 70% higher. According to the comparison, in some instances the code demonstrates a
member without shear reinforcement can have a higher capacity than a member with at least the mini-
mum reinforcement. This behaviour conflicts with the rationale behind providing minimum shear rein-
forcement. Observing the analysis for the member with and without limit (see Fig 3a), it will be obvious
that the reason for this discontinuity is the code's restriction on minimum strut inclination. While the
limitation serves other purposes, it also creates discontinuity for such situations.
Fig. 3b compares Eurocode and RBK for members with at least minimum shear reinforcement. The
plot is prepared by considering a longitudinal reinforcement ratio of 1.5%. Since the concrete contribu-
tion is included, the RBK gives a higher capacity for members with minimum reinforcement, and the
capacity increases with the increase of the prestress. For higher shear reinforcement ratio, the Eurocode
gives higher capacity regardless of the prestress level. This decline in the capacity of the RBK is mainly
attributed to the fixed angle that is used for strut inclination (see Equation 4).
Even though the prestressing strands are located in the flexural compression zone, it is plausible to
assume that there still is certain positive effect from the prestress. However, the empirical nature of the
code formulation on the other hand makes it difficult to analyse this type of situation rationally. The
difficulty of shear assessment is also further exacerbated by the scarcity of representative full-scale
experiments. There are limited sets of experiments done on continuous girders to study the behavior at
the intermediate support. These investigations are mainly focused on either the flexural behavior of the
system [5] or addressed specimens with sufficient amount of shear reinforcement [6]. While these sem-
inal works enhanced the understanding of continuous girders, the experiments are not comparable to
the current existing precast girders with limited shear reinforcement.
As demonstrated from the above comparisons, the shear assessment of the continuous girders at the
intermediate support is complicated and this calls for further investigation. Therefore, to address the
difficulties and knowledge gaps, a comprehensive experimental campaign is currently underway on
precast continuous girders with limited amount of shear reinforcement.
3 Challenges of conducting large scale experiments on continuous girder
3.1 General description of the specimens

The shear behavior of continuous precast girders is being investigated using full-scale specimens. The
specimens are inverted T-girders with a web width of 300 mm and a depth of 900 mm. When the
continuity is created, the total length of the specimen is 15 m, and they weigh more than 26 tons (See
Fig. 4a and b).
The continuity at the intermediate support is created using a cast in situ topping layer with a thick-
ness of 160 mm and a crossbeam with a width of 1250 mm (see Fig. 4a). Consistent with past practices,
the interface shear transfer is maintained by using a rough surface and hairpin reinforcement. Since the
prestressing strands are located in the bottom flange, once the continuity is formed at the intermediate
zone, the prestressing effect will be on the flexural compression zone.
The experimental campaign aims to investigate the shear responses of these continuous members
with and without sufficient shear reinforcement. Since the main aim of the current paper is to describe
the challenges of designing and executing large-scale experiments, particular details pertaining to each
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specimen will not be discussed here. Rather, the unique challenge presented by the specimen and the
difficulties and insights gained from the design and execution of the experiments will be emphasized.
b
The unique challenges are divided into aspects during the design of the specimens and execution. Both
challenges will be discussed in the following section.
if
(a)
(b)
Fig. 4 (a) Specimen details (all dimensions are in mm) (b) Specimens before connection (note
the location of the strands and the hairpins)
3.2 Design challenges

In the experiment, the main investigated region is located between the intermediate support and span
loading point (see Fig. 5). The loading will be applied using two hydraulic jacks located in the main
span and the cantilever region. During the experiment, besides the shear failure at the support region,
other premature failures may arise in the continuous girder. These include flexural and shear failure
near the mid-span and flexural failure in the support region. During the design of these type members,
sufficient over strength against premature failure must be provided to ensure the anticipated shear fail-
ure near the intermediate support region.
The investigated region will have a constant shear force during the experiment. This may result in
competing shear failures that may occur near the support or close to the main span loading zone (see
Fig. 5). Because of the position of the prestressing strands, the shear capacity of the mid-span zone is
expected to be higher than the support end. On the contrary, the presence of the hairpin near the support
region may increase the member's shear capacity. Although the hairpins are provided for interface shear
strength, a study on dowel spliting by Chana [7] indicated suppressing the dowel splitting can enhance
the shear capacity of members. Therefore, to avoid this type of shifting in shear failure from support to
the span, a detailed nonlinear analysis is conducted for the specimens. This type of prior analysis helps
to anticipate and propose a solution for possible premature failure during the experiment.
Investigation region
Fig. 5 Competing shear failure modes on the continuous girder
Generally speaking, designing large-scale experiments requires satisfying many constraints. The pri-
mary challenge is to accurately represent the characteristics of the existing girders. Since it is not
possible to replicate the whole behaviour, on a scaled experiment, different competing failure modes
may occur that are unique to the laboratory specimen. These competing failure modes shall be ade-
quately assessed before the detailed design and casting of the specimens.
b
3.3 Construction and execution challenges
The inverted T-girder specimens are individually cast in a precast factory and later they are connected
after a certain period. Between the girder casting and testing in the laboratory, there will be time-de-
if
pendent prestress losses. Previously, researchers utilized concrete strain gauges on precast girders to
monitor the concrete strain during prestress transfer [8]. The strain gauges are usually attached to the
concrete surface and during the prestress release, the strain variation along the length can be monitored.
Although the method is suitable to monitor transfer length, it would be difficult to monitor the prestress
loss during the time between casting and testing. Furthermore, this method can only be reliably used in
a laboratory setting for relatively smaller specimens. For specimens that are cast in a precast factory, in
most cases, the surface of the specimens is not accessible to monitor using surface strain gauges.
In the current research, to monitor both the prestress transfer and time-dependent loss, smart rebar
with fiber optics sensors are embedded in the specimens. The smart rebar can be used to monitor the
strain change in the concrete resulting from mechanical or time-dependent actions. Because the sensors
are embedded, they are also well protected from the damages arising from the subsequent process such
as lifting, transportation, and continuity creation.
Before establishing continuity at the intermediate region, special attention must be given to the
support condition. The boundary conditions of the test specimen should be similar to those of existing
bridges. Furthermore, the boundary conditions that are used during continuity (casting) should also be
maintained until the specimens are tested in the laboratory. The main reason for maintaining the bound-
ary conditions is the interface that exists between the girders and the topping layer. The interface be-
haviour highly affects the in-plane shear response of the specimens near the intermediate support. Ac-
cidental or intentional changes in support conditions can result in unmonitored cracking of the interface.
To avoid interface cracking, a special frame is designed and constructed. The steel frame is designed
to protect the specimens during the lifting, and transportation of the specimens from the casting to the
laboratory support location.
The protection frame will be clamped to the girder at the support location near the cross beam and
outside of the investigated region with high-strength prestressing bars. The frame is also constructed
with an additional clamp in the middle of the girder. The middle clamp will only be used after the
testing of the specimens to assist in the safe disposal of the specimens.
The lifting of the specimen will be done through additional bottom supports that are placed between
the bottom clamping sections. The frame together with the continuous girders is shown in Fig. 6 and
by employing this method the specimens can be safely lifted, transported, and tested while maintaining
the same boundary condition.
Fig. 6 Specimen with the protection frame
4 Conclusion
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The shear assessment of continuous members is increasingly becoming very important. Although the
application of the current Eurocode and RBK codes seem straightforward, the assessment of the inter-
b
mediate region is complicated by several factors. Since the codes are empirical by their nature, gross
assumption is usually taken during the assessments of these types of members. The outcome of the
assessment usually indicates the member to be shear critical. However, without a proper understanding
of the shear behaviour, the analysis obtained from the code predictions is unreliable. To address the
if
knowledge gaps, a comprehensive experimental campaign on large-scale members is currently under-
way. Some of the conclusions on lessons learned during the assessment of the design codes and execu-
tion of the full-scale experiments include:
▪ The Eurocode and RBK are not suitable to assess the intermediate region of precast contin-
ues members when the strands are located in the flexural compression zone
▪ In some extreme situations, Eurocode provides an irrational higher shear capacity for a pre-
stressed member without shear reinforcement than for the same member with minimum
shear reinforcement.
▪ For continuous precast experimental specimens, the presence of an interface necessitates
maintaining the same boundary condition from continuity until the testing phase. An exter-
nal protection device that is used in the current campaign can reduce uncertainties that may
affect the shear behavior of the specimen.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to express their gratitude and sincere appreciation to the Dutch Ministry of Infra-
structure and the Environment (Rijkswaterstaat) for financing this research work. We owe a debt of
gratitude to A. Bosman and J. Pawlowicz for their laboratory work, development of the girder han-
dling method, and test setup design.
References
CEN. 2005. Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete Structures―Part 1-1 General Rules and Rules for
[1]
Buildings. NEN-EN 1992-1-1:2005. Brussels, Belgium, 229 pp: Comité Européen de Norma-
lisation.
[2] ACI 318-19. 2019. Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete and Commentary.
American Concrete Institute. doi: 10.14359/51716937.
[3] Rijkswaterstaat. 2013. “Guidelines Assessment Bridges—Assessment of Structural Safety of
an Existing Bridge at Reconstruction, Usage and Disapproval (in Dutch), Richtlijnen beoorde-
len kunstwerken ,RTD 1006:2013 1.1,” Utrecht, the Netherlands, 117 pp.
[4] European Concrete Platform ASBL. 2017. Eurocode 2 Commentary (rev A 31-03-2017) Latest
version EUROCODE 2 COMMENTARY. Brussels, Belgium,: European Concrete Platform
ASBL.
[5] P. H. Kaar, L. B. Kriz, and E. Hognestad. 1960. “Precast-prestressed concrete bridges: 1. Pilot
tests of continuous girders,” Journal of the PCA Research and Development Laboratories 2(2):
21–37.
[6] A. H. Mattock and P. H. Kaar. 1960. “Precast-Prestressed Concrete Bridges: 3. Further Tests
of Continuous Girders,” Journal of the PCA Research and Development Laboratories 2(3): 51–
78.
[7] P. S. Chana. 1987. “Investigation of the mechanism of shear failure of reinforced concrete
beams,” Magazine of Concrete Research, vol. 39, no. 141, pp. 196–204.
[8] U. Kytölä, O. Asp, and A. Laaksonen. 2021, “Negative bending tests on precast prestressed
concrete beams made continuous,” Structural Concrete, vol. 22, no. 4, pp. 2223–2242, doi:
10.1002/suco.202100043.

Numerical analysis of Precast Concrete Segmental
b
Bridges for high-speed railway bridges
Javier Cañada Pérez-Sala and Ana M. Ruiz-Teran
if
Imperial College London,
Imperial College Road, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
Abstract
The number of Precast Concrete Segmental Bridges (PCSBs) in high-speed railway lines remains lim-
ited, although, in recent times, important projects have adopted this technology. The aim of this work
is to study the behaviour of these bridges under high-speed train loadings and to propose specific design
recommendations. For this purpose, it is essential to develop a numerical model capable of reproducing
the characteristics of PCSBs while remaining computationally affordable. The results of this work offer
guidance on the applicability of simplified methods for the design of PCSBs. In addition, the influence
of key parameters such as the level of prestressing and the proportion of internal to external prestressing
is studied, which in turn will permit establishing optimised design criteria for this type of bridges.
1 Introduction
Precast Concrete Segmental Bridges (PCSBs) have become a popular alternative for road, light and
urban rail in recent decades [1]. These bridges generally take the form of a box girder in which the deck
is divided into smaller segments that are fabricated at a precast plant and then transported and erected
to their final position. Different construction methods can be employed to erect PCSBs, each with a
particular domain of application: cantilever construction, span-by-span and progressive placement [2].
Once in their final position, the segments stay in place thanks to the friction between the surfaces of
adjacent segments generated by the forces of post-tensioning and aided by interlocking shear keys pro-
filed on these surfaces. Depending on whether epoxy resin is used, the joints are classified as wet or
dry. The structural behaviour of these bridges is conditioned by the absence of continuous conventional
reinforcement through the joints [3]. When the sections decompress, the joints open to a certain height
that depends on the global equilibrium of forces in the bridge. The only elements carrying the tension
forces are the prestressing tendons, either external, internal, or both.
Nowadays, the number of PCSBs in high-speed railway lines remains very limited. The first PCSB
in a high-speed line was the Kakogawa bridge in Japan in 1972 (Fig. 1) [4]. Twenty years later, another
PCSB was built over the Guadiana river [5] in Spain. The Avignon Viaducts were built in France in
1999 [6]. More recently, also in France, precast segmental construction was used for seven viaducts of
the South-Europe-Atlantic (SEA) Tours-Bordeaux high-speed line between 2013 and 2015 [7]. At the
moment, at least two more viaducts using precast segmental technology are being constructed or
planned as part of the High-Speed 2 project in the United Kingdom.
Fig. 1 Kakogawa bridge in the San-Yo Shinkansen line in Japan.
14 th
Considering that the Worldwide Railway Organisation (UIC) quantifies over 56,000 km of high-speed
lines in operation around the world, and around 75,000 more in different stages of construction or plan-
b
ning [8], efficient construction systems such as PCSBs have an enormous potential.
These bridges provide significant advantages that derive from the use of precasting and include:
faster construction, higher quality control at the precast plant, flexibility of alignment, and independ-
ence of the construction from the environment [2]. The higher efficiency achievable through precasting
if
can have a positive impact in the sustainability of the construction processes through the reduction of
the use of resources and greenhouse gas emissions [1]. However, they require stricter geometric control
and significant investment in the precast plant and the erection equipment.
The wider application of this technology to high-speed lines is being prevented by a lack of
knowledge on the effect of joints on dynamic behaviour and fatigue. In this regard, design codes and
standards generally only provide limits to the opening of the joints under different load combinations.
For instance, Eurocode 2 Part 2 (EC2-2) [9] limits the open height of the joint to half of the depth of
the deck at the Ultimate Limit State (ULS). Even stricter limitations have been imposed in the design
of some of the last PCSBs for HSR, as in the viaducts of the SEA high-speed line, where joints were
required to remain closed at the ULS [10]. The current trend in the design of these bridges is to include
both external and internal prestressing [11].
The objective of this work is to study the behaviour of PCSBs under the loads of high-speed trains,
paying special attention to the effect of joints and proposing new design approaches for this type of
bridge. In order to do so, it is essential to propose a numerical model capable of reproducing the char-
acteristics of PCSBs and the loadings of high-speed trains.
2 Background
Existing research on PCSBs focuses on road applications, and although several models have been pro-
posed for these bridges, none has addressed the effects of the loads generated by high-speed trains. The
numerical models for PCSBs found in the literature range from one-dimensional models using bar ele-
ments to very complex models with solid elements.
A model using one-dimensional fibre beam elements was proposed by Ramos and Aparicio [12].
This model used an unreinforced concrete element at the joints. The length of this element was chosen
after a parametric analysis and was taken equal to the depth of the beam. This model was used to study
the stress increments in external tendons in PCSBs [13]. The ultimate capacity of the bridges was found
to be higher than that obtained from a linear analysis due to the moment redistribution associated with
the opening of the joints. Later, Yan et al. [14] developed this model to dissociate its behaviour from
the length of the unreinforced concrete element and studied the effects of shear-lag in PCSBs.
Veletzos and Restrepo [15] also proposed a model using one-dimensional elements for seismic
scenarios. The contact between the segments was modelled with several hook-gap elements in the thick-
ness of the slabs and web. Veletzos and Restrepo [16] conducted experimental tests to study the influ-
ence of unbonding of internal prestressing tendons at the joints. They proposed the use of an equivalent
unbonded length for tendons at the joints which was dependent on their area.
Turmo et al. [17] studied the behaviour of segmental beams using two-dimensional Finite Element
(FE) models validated against experimental tests. Shell elements were employed for the concrete gird-
ers and bar elements for the prestressing tendons. Different models were created with and without the
detailed profile of the shear keys and considering or not the diagonal cracking at the joints observed in
experimental tests. It was concluded that flat joints permitted reproducing adequately the experimental
results, and that diagonal cracks affected the accuracy of the model. These models were later adapted
to study the behaviour of simply supported [18] and continuous [19] PCSBs. The results from these
models showed that the design of simply supported road bridges was governed by the ULS, whereas
for continuous bridges the decompression condition at the Service Limit State (SLS) became critical.
Specker and Rombach [20] studied the behaviour of PCSBs under shear and torsion using 3D FE
models with shell elements reproducing the concrete girder and bar elements for the prestressing ten-
dons. Cracking of concrete under tension was not considered as it was expected to be substituted by
opening of the joints. The results were compared with FE models using solid elements reproducing the
shear keys at the critical joints. Both simply supported and continuous bridges were studied. Joint open-
ing was observed at mid-span in both cases and only at one joint next to the support for the continuous
bridge. The opening of the joint near the support was smaller than for those located at mid-span, which

implied a higher contribution of the keys in the transfer of shear through the joint. Failure occurred in
both cases in the mid-span region due to crushing of the concrete.
b
Megally et al. [21]-[22] conducted experimental tests and developed FE models to analyse the be-
haviour of PCSBs under seismic actions both in the mid-span region and close to the supports. The
models used solid elements for concrete and flat joints. The effect of combining external and internal
prestressing was studied. The results pointed out to lower ultimate strength but higher ductility with
if
only external prestressing. It was concluded that the combination of internal and external prestressing
was not well adapted to seismic loads due to a higher loss of prestressing and sudden failure.
An even more complex model was proposed by Yuen et al. [23], using solid elements for the con-
crete segments, and accurately reproducing the keyed profile at the joints. The model was used to ana-
lyse the impact of variations in the initial force of prestressing on the behaviour of PCSBs. Halder et
al. [24] expanded these analyses to investigate the influence of the span-to-depth ratio and to calibrate
expressions to obtain the stress increments in external tendons. Halder et al. also identified three differ-
ent behaviours at failure for PCSBs depending on the initial force of prestressing.
Models employing one-dimensional elements, although highly efficient, may be limited to repre-
sent the spatial behaviour of these bridges and may not consider the effect of elements such as dia-
phragms, which have a significant impact on their dynamic behaviour. On the other hand, complex
models using solid elements may prove too computationally expensive for demanding analyses such as
those required to study the dynamics of PCSBs for high-speed trains.
Regarding modelling of the train loads, it must be taken into account that high-speed trains produce
loads on bridges that differ from those typical of road bridges [25]. The different strategies to reproduce
the dynamic loads of high-speed trains on bridges can be classified depending on their complexity [26],
ranging from the simplest models using moving point loads, to complete vehicle models represented
with systems of masses connected through springs and dampers. Introducing the train loads on the
bridge also requires defining the interactions between the wheels and the tracks, the combined response
of track and structure, and the influence of the irregularities of the track [27].
3 Methodology
The bridge chosen to inspire the benchmark case for the study of PCSBs for HSR is the viaduct of La
Boëme, on the SEA high-speed line in France [7]. This viaduct consists of ten precast concrete seg-
mental spans that were put in place by the progressive placement method. The cross section of the box
girder, shown in Fig. 2 has an area of 8.6 m2. For the development of the benchmark case, the profile
of the viaduct has been simplified, reducing the number of spans to three: two lateral spans of 37 m and
a central span of 47 m. The layout of the prestressing also had to be adapted to the simplified configu-
ration. Moreover, the ballasted track in the original bridge has been substituted by a slab track.
Ten on 6
Ten n 5
6,45
Ten n 1
Ten on 4
Ten on 3
Ten on 2
Ten
d
d
d
do
don
do
Tendon Top 2
Tendon Top 1
9
0,31
0,22
0,4
3,84
Tendon 11 Tendon 11'
Tendon 12 Tendon 12'

Tendon 6'
Tendon A Tendon A'

Tendon C Tendon C'
Te
Te on 9
Te on 2
Te on 5
Tendon D Tendon D'

0,25
nd
nd
nd
nd
Tendon F Tendon F'

Tendon G'
on '
Tendon G 2,77
4'
'
'
Fig. 2 Cross section of the benchmark case bridge over the supports (left) and at intermediate
deviators (right), adapted from [7]-[28].
A FE model of this benchmark case has been created in ABAQUS 2018 [29] (Fig. 3). The model uses
first order quadrilateral shell elements with reduced integration (S4R) with a global seed of 0.5 m for

14th
the concrete box girder, and quadratic beam elements (B31) for internal and external tendons. Dia-
phragms and deviators are also included in the model with shell elements (S4R). Two orthogonal layers
b
of embedded reinforcement are included in the definition of the concrete shell elements. The tracks are
introduced in the model as beam elements (B31). The model for the track has been adapted from the
work of Pring [27]. The track is connected to the girder by means of springs and dampers representing
the effect of the railpads and the mass of all the track elements is added to the model. Boundary condi-
if
tions are applied to nodes of the bottom slab under both webs at the abutments and over the supports,
covering a width of 0.8 m on each side and restricting vertical and horizontal movements (Fig. 3).
Abutment 0 Pile 1 Pile 2 Abutment 3
Longitudinally Fixed Bearing

Free Bearing
Free Bearing
Fig. 3 Boundary conditions and mesh of the FE model showing the box girder (grey), the dia-
phragms (blue), internal (red) and external prestressing (orange), and tracks (green).
The model employs node-to-node contact elements (GAP) at the joints between the segments. These
elements have null length and use hard contact formulation. Friction is taken into account through a
Coulombian model with a friction coefficient of 0.6. At the top and bottom slabs, two contact elements
are used above and below the reference surfaces of the shells. The duplication of the contact elements
allows the transfer of bending moments through the slabs once the joints have opened and is related to
the location of the resultant of compressive forces in the concrete.
The end points of external tendons are linked to the diaphragms over the abutments and supports.
At the intermediate deviators, the tendons are allowed to slip tangentially to their profile through the
use of connector elements (SLOT). Friction between the tendon and the duct at the deviators is taken
into account with a friction coefficient of 0.15. The mesh of the internal tendons is compatible with that
of the concrete girder. Its nodes are constrained to have the same displacements as the adjacent concrete,
except for a certain length at both sides of the joints, as proposed in [16].
The concrete smeared cracking material model [29] is employed for the top and bottom slabs of the
box girder, where failure of the concrete is expected to happen. The behaviour of the concrete in uni-
axial compression is described by an elastic branch up to 40% of its mean compressive strength (58
MPa), with a Young’s modulus of 37.3 GPa. This is followed by a plastic branch with a non-linear
stress-strain relation, as proposed in EC 2-1 [30], with a strain at peak stress of 2.45‰ and an ultimate
strain of 3.5‰. The default yield surface proposed in [29] is employed. The behaviour of concrete under
tension is defined through a stress-strain relationship representing tension stiffening. The tensile
strength of concrete is taken as 9% of its compressive strength. After cracking, the stress reduces line-
arly down to zero as the strain across the crack increases to ten times the strain at failure. At the webs
of the girder, plastic behaviour, not considering cracking or failure, is employed.
An elastic-perfectly plastic stress-strain relationship represents the behaviour of conventional rein-
forcement in the model, with an elastic modulus of 200 GPa and a yield stress of 500 MPa. For the
prestressing tendons, first an elastic branch with a modulus of 195 GPa is defined, followed by a non-
linear stress-strain relationship based on the Power Formula as proposed by Mattock [31]. The yield
and ultimate strength for tendons are 1640 and 1860 MPa respectively. The stress-strain relationship is
converted to true stress and strains for its use in ABAQUS [29]. The external and internal tendons are
prestressed initially to 1476 MPa, the maximum allowable stress at the anchorages [30]. Initial and
long-term prestress losses are considered in the model.

The density of all the elements in the model is defined to account for their mass and self-weight.
Additional masses are included for the track and railings. Static loads from trains covered in [32] are
b
applied on the tracks, and temperature effects, including uniform and difference temperature compo-
nents, are considered in the analyses. Different load combinations are studied, with different positions
for the traffic loads: lateral span, central span and both; and different thermal effects: contraction and
expansion, and heating and cooling gradients. Following Pring [27], the dynamic effects of a real train
if
(Siemens Velaro) passing over the bridge are also considered using a complete vehicle model with the
corresponding mass and stiffness, and modelling the contact between the wheels and the tracks.
The modelling approaches described here were validated under static loads by comparing the results
of the model with the experimental tests by Takebayashi et al. [33] (Fig. 4, left) and Fouré et al. [34]
(Fig. 4, right). The FE model showed very good agreement with the experimental results.
Fig. 4 Comparison of experimental results from the literature and the proposed FE model.
4 Results
The analysis of the benchmark case for PCSBs in HSR lines has been done following EC 1-2 [32]. It
was found that the effects of the static load model LM71, enhanced by the corresponding dynamic
factor, were more unfavourable than those of the dynamic analysis using the loads of the real train.
Consequently, it is possible to design the bridge at the SLS and ULS using static loads, except for the
required verifications regarding peak deck accelerations. This result should be considered with caution
for other dynamic load models for high-speed trains which are beyond the scope of this work.
Using the prestressing layout adapted from the Viaduct of La Boëme [28] as a starting point, the
area of all tendons was reduced so that the joints would remain closed under ULS loads. This reduction
was necessary considering that the weight of the slab track is smaller than that of the ballasted track
used in the original bridge, and that wind and accidental loads have not been considered in this work.
The areas of the different types of prestressing for the benchmark bridge are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1 Reference areas of prestressing for the benchmark case.
Type of prestressing Central span Supports Lateral span
External straight 146 cm2 146 cm2 73 cm2
External draped 338 cm2 338 cm2 338 cm2
Internal top slab - 38 cm2 -
Internal bottom slab 257 cm2 257 cm2 102 cm2
Using these areas as a reference, the quantities of prestressing required to keep the joints closed under
other load combinations or to comply with different design requirements have been determined (Table
2). The models with these new levels of prestressing have then been loaded up to the characteristic SLS,
followed by an increase of permanent, live and thermal loads with their respective partial factors to
reach the ULS. Then, only the live loads continued to increase until the failure of the model. The live
14th
load factor at failure presented in Table 2 corresponds to the multiplier of the live loads with respect to
their characteristic values attained at the moment of failure of the model.
b
Table 2 Prestressing requirements for different design criteria.
Area of Live load factor Joint Opening (mm)
if
Design criteria
prestress at failure SLS ULS
EC2-2 ULS (Joint opening 0.5h) 72% 4.0 - 0.8
Joint opening at Characteristic SLS 70% 3.9 - 0.9
Joint opening at Frequent SLS 57% 3.6 0.3 2.0
Joint opening at Quasi-permanent SLS 35% 1.6 2.5 10.2
Model failure at ULS 30% 1.34 4.1 22.0
These results show an increase in the ultimate resistance of the bridge as the prestressing force grows,
in line with [18]-[23]. The models showed opening of the joints at mid-span and next to the supports.
Failure occurred by crushing of the concrete at the bottom slab over the supports, except for the model
with 30% of the original prestress in which internal bonded tendons attained their ultimate stress. Even
when the joints opened, the friction resistance of the remaining compressed section was not exceeded.
The results point out that exploiting the ultimate capacity of the bridge would allow reducing the
prestressing to one third of that required to keep the joints closed at the ULS. However, the opening of
the joints may be unacceptable from a durability point of view. Avoiding the opening of the joints at
the SLS would allow reducing the prestress by almost 30%. If joint opening was limited following
criteria like those proposed for cracking in EC2-2 [9], depending on the exposure class, this reduction
could reach up to 40%. Moreover, in these cases, the joints are not expected to open under the passage
of trains. For the static loads generated by real trains, the joints only open if the prestressing is reduced
to 40% of the original. The dynamic behaviour of the bridge is only significantly affected by the reduc-
tion of the prestress when the joints open under the passage of the train (Fig. 5).
Fig. 5 Peak accelerations along the bridge under the passage of a train at 325km/h.
Comparing the model of the PCSB benchmark case with an equivalent model without joints, it has been
observed that the redistribution of moments provoked by the joints can reach up to 20% at the SLS
when the ultimate capacity of the bridge is reached at the ULS, whereas this redistribution is only 1%
at the ULS when the bridge is designed for the joints to open under characteristic service loads.
The models have also been used to investigate the effect of combining external and internal pre-
stressing tendons in different proportions. The behaviour of a model with 30% of the original prestress-
ing under vertical live loads applied on the middle span was analysed. The model with 100% external
prestressing showed the highest ultimate capacity and displacement. Failure in the models with 100%
external or internal tendons happened due to crushing of the concrete at the bottom slabs over the sup-
ports. However, the model with the original proportions of internal and external prestressing (35-65%)
failed due to rupture of the internal tendons at the joints.
if b
Fig. 6 Load-deflection curve for different combinations of internal and external prestressing.
5 Conclusions
A FE model capable of reproducing the key features of PCSBs for HSR has been presented. The model
has enabled an assessment of the behaviour of these bridges, showing that potential reductions of the
prestressing can be achieved if joints are allowed to open under service load combinations, without
significant impact on the dynamic behaviour of the bridge. It has been verified that the current design
approaches for these bridges ensure a behaviour analogous to conventional box girder concrete bridges.
Moreover, the effect of combining internal and external prestressing has been analysed, showing the
potential failure of the bridge due to tendon rupture when both types of prestressing are combined.
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[31] Mattock, A. H., 1979, “Flexural Strength of Prestressed Concrete Sections by Programmable
Calculator,” PCI J., vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 32–54, doi:10.15554/pcij.01011979.32.54.
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2: Traffic loads on bridges.” 2003.
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Test of a Precast Segmental Box Girder Bridge With Dry Joints and External Tendons.,”
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doi:10.1680/istbu.1994.26780.
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de modélisation du comportement des poutres en béton à précontrainte extérieure,” Ann.
l’ITBTP, vol. 491, pp. 46–95.

A pushover method for seismic design of Integral
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Abutment Bridges
Andrea Marchi and Paolo Franchin
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Via Antonio Gramsci 53, Rome (00197), Italy
Abstract
In the last decades a new type of jointless bridge has been introduced in Europe, namely the one with
integral abutment. In integral abutment bridges deck displacements cannot occur freely of the abut-
ments and its backsoil and engage the flexibility of the soil-foundation system. The resulting behavior
is strongly influenced by the soil-structure interaction which makes the analysis more complex. To date,
there are no widely accepted codified design methods for these bridges, in particular with regard to
seismic action. Therefore, a previously proposed non-linear dynamic model is extended and used for
calibrating an equivalent static design method. In particular, a nonlinear static model is proposed for
displacement-based seismic design of reinforced concrete integral abutments. The non-linear model is
based on the description of the soil-structure interaction by means of Winkler beams on non-linear
springs while static impedances are used for the piled foundations. The nonlinear analysis is force-
controlled, i.e. the structure is pushed against one abutment with predefined inertia forces. Equilibrium
is ensured by the joint action of the backfill and foundation reactions. A parametric study is performed
to assess the sensitivity on each input parameter and to evaluate the robustness of the proposed method.
Predictions of the two key response parameters are shown to be almost unbiased and characterized by
small scatter with respect to those from dynamic model.
1 Introduction
In the last 60 years, for low to medium span bridges, a new typology with integral abutments has been
developed. An integral abutment bridge (IAB) is characterized by full continuity of deck and abutments,
thus eliminating expansion joints and bearing devices resulting in lower construction and maintenance
costs [1]–[4]. For this reason, first in the United States and then in Europe, this type of structures has
become increasingly popular [5], [6]. From a design point of view, the main problem that a IAB presents
is that the global behavior of the structure is strongly influenced by the soil-structure interaction. In
fact, already for the seasonal thermal deformation cycles, the deck causes displacements in the abut-
ments and foundation piles and this leads to soil-structure interaction phenomena [7]–[10]. These prob-
lems are even more amplified in the case of dynamic analysis and, in particular, in the case of seismic
analysis. For this reason, to date, there is no shared and codified analysis method for the seismic design
of IABs. In fact, the regulations in force in the various countries for the design of integral bridges are
often limited to static actions and based on empirical evidence [11]–[13]. In this context, an analysis
method for the seismic design of IABs is proposed based on the description of the soil-structure inter-
action by means of Winkler beams on non-linear springs.
2 Brief summary of Non-Linear Dynamic Model

This section summarizes the nonlinear dynamic model from which the nonlinear static one is derived.
The model uses beams on a nonlinear Winkler subgrade to account for soil-structure interaction. In
addition, the shear behavior of the soil deposit is explicitly modeled, again using nonlinear elements.
This model, initially developed by Franchin P. and Pinto P. E. in 2014 [14], has been extended in
[15] and calibrated versus higher order finite element analysis in [16].
The model has therefore non-linear elements that approximate the behavior of the soil. In particular,
soil-column elements that describe the dynamic shear behavior of the soil deposit and interface ele-
ments that describe the mobilized soil during the earthquake by the deformation of the structure (see
Figure 1).
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Fig. 1 Non-Linear Dynamic Model (NLDM).
Structural elements are modeled using linear elastic elements since this is a design model and, for this
type of structures, it is required that the elements remain substantially within the yield limit. This model
describes, in particular, the longitudinal (along 𝑥 axis) behavior of straight frame-abutment bridges
with a single row of piles under the abutments (no foundation slabs).
Soil-column elements are used to describe the shear behavior of homogeneous layered deposits, for
this reason they have only the degree of freedom along 𝑥 axis. The Bouc-Wen constitutive model, as
modified by Gerolymos & Gazetas [17], is used in these elements to approximate the soil behavior (see
Figure 2c).
Fig. 2 Constitutive laws used in the elements that describe the soil behavior (interface elements
and soil-column elements). BW stands for the classical Bouc-Wen model, while BWGG
stands for that modified by Gerolymos & Gazetas [17].
The constitutive law considered is defined by the following equation (note that the hardening slope
ratio 𝛼 is set to zero):
𝐹(𝑢) = 𝑘0 𝑢𝑦 𝜁(𝑡) (1)
where the internal function 𝜁(𝑡), that characterize the model hysteretic behavior, is defined by the fol-
lowing ordinary differential equation:
𝜁(𝑡) 𝑢̇ (𝑡)
=𝜃 {1 + |𝜁(𝑡)|𝑛 [𝛾 + 𝛽 sng(𝑢̇ (𝑡) 𝜁(𝑡))]} (2)
𝜕𝑡 𝑢𝑦
where the usual Bouc-Wen parameter 𝐴 = 𝛾 + 𝛽 is set to unity. The 𝜃 function approximates soil deg-
radation during plasticization and is defined as:

𝑠1 + 𝛼(𝜇𝑟 − 1) + 𝑠2
b
𝜇𝑟 > 𝑠2
𝑠1 + 𝜇𝑟
𝜃= (3)
{ 1 𝜇𝑟 < 𝑠2
if
where 𝑠1 is a dimensionless parameter that controls the stiffness degradation upon stress reversal, 𝑠2 is
a characteristic value of "strain ductility" 𝜇 = 𝛾/𝛾𝑦 beyond which the effect on stiffness degradation is
activated, and 𝜇𝑟 is a reference strain ductility defined for every unloading or reloading cycle as the
ratio of half the difference in strain 𝛾 between two previous reversals over the reference strain 𝛾𝑦 .
The constitutive parameters of this model (𝑛, 𝛾, 𝛽, 𝑠1 , 𝑠2 and 𝛾𝑦 ) are taken from Drosos et al. [18]
as a function of soil type (through the plasticity index PI) and confinement pressure 𝜎0 . Mechanical
parameters introduced in Figure 2 are 𝑢𝑦 = 𝛾𝑦 Δ𝑧 and 𝑘0 = 𝐺0 (𝑧) 𝐴𝑠 /Δ𝑧, where 𝐴𝑠 is the area of soil-
column elements, 𝐺0 soil low-strain shear modulus and Δ𝑧 the element height.
The input motion is applied to the base of the soil columns through velocity time series applied to
dampers that describe the absorbing behavior of the model base toward incident shear waves [19]. The
force applied to the base is equal to:
𝜕𝑢(𝑡, 𝑧𝑏 )
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑐𝑏 𝑢̇ (𝑡, 𝑧𝑏 ) = [𝜌𝑏 𝑉𝑠,𝑏 𝐴𝑠 (𝑧𝑏 )] (4)
𝜕𝑡
where 𝜌𝑏 and 𝑉𝑠,𝑏 are the density and shear wave velocity at the model base, respectively, while 𝐴𝑠 (𝑧𝑏 )
is the area of the soil-column at its base [20]. The function 𝑢̇ (𝑡, 𝑧𝑏 ) = 𝜕𝑢(𝑡, 𝑧𝑏 )/𝜕𝑡 represent the out-
crop soil horizontal displacement velocity as described in Joyner & Chen [21].
The interface elements are the most important in the model definition, because they are the ones
that actually describe the soil-structure interaction. In the proposed model they present a piece-wise
linear compression-only constitutive relation with different thresholds to account for active and passive
limit conditions. Furthermore, the constitutive model presents two different stiffnesses for positive and
negative deformations to account for the different stiffness between active and passive sides (see Figure
2a and 2b). The soil limit conditions (active and passive) are described by means of the pressure coef-
ficients (𝐾𝑎 and 𝐾𝑝 respectively) described in the work of Lancellotta [22]. The stiffnesses in the active
and passive sides are defined by the characteristic active and passive lengths 𝑙𝑎 and 𝑙𝑝 defined in the
work of Becci & Nova [23], which forms the basis for nonlinear Winkler analysis of flexible diaphragm
earth-retaining structures.
3 Equivalent nonlinear static model

Extensive use of the NLDM summarized in Section 2 has revealed that the maximum dynamic defor-
mation ad associated internal forces in the structure occur when the bridge deck pushes against one
abutment. Equilibrium is ensured by the joint reaction of the foundation and the backfill. The backfill
reacts with pressures that are intermediate between the at-rest (𝐾𝑜 ) and passive limit condition (𝐾𝑝 ).
The static model is based on the idea of representing the system in the configuration where the maxi-
mum internal forces are attained. In particular, a non-linear static model (NLSM) that presents the same
deformed state as the complete system at the instant of dynamic maximum is developed.
To reduce a dynamic model into an equivalent static one it is necessary to introduce explicitly the
inertia forces on the structural elements (deck and abutments). In the proposed static models this action
is assumed as a distributed load equal to the distributed mass multiplied by the plateau acceleration 𝑆𝛼
of the design spectrum, amplified to account for the site-response analysis. This approximation is fur-
ther justified in the parametric study described in the following section and is based on the repeated
observation that the major contribution to internal forces comes from low-period "structure-related"
modes of vibration that usually fall in the range of maximum spectral acceleration [15].
The static model is derived from a truncation of the complete system at the piles head (elements
with 𝑧 < 0 are removed). In order to have the same behavior in the truncated model as in the complete
one, static impedances from literature [24] are inserted to account for the removed elements.

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Fig. 3 Static impedances definition and soil stiffness analytical descriptions.
Static impedances of a single foundation pile (Figure 3a) can be modelled with linear springs and are
given, for a constant stiffness (𝐸𝑠 = const) profile (Figure 3b), as:
𝐸𝑝 0.21
𝐾𝐻𝐻 ≃ 𝐸𝑠 𝑑 ( )
𝐸𝑠
𝐸𝑝 0.75
𝐾𝑀𝑀 ≃ 0.15 𝐸𝑠 𝑑3 ( ) (5)
𝐸𝑠
𝐸𝑝 0.50
𝐾𝐻𝑀 = 𝐾𝑀𝐻 ≃ −0.22 𝐸𝑠 𝑑2 ( )
𝐸𝑠
while for non-constant stiffness profiles, impedances values are equal to (for a nonlinear increase of
soil modulus according to 𝐸𝑠 (𝑧) = 𝐸̃𝑠 √𝑧/𝑑 where 𝑧 is the depth as illustrated in Figure 3c):
𝐸𝑝 0.28
𝐾𝐻𝐻 ≃ 0.8 𝐸̃𝑠 𝑑 ( )
𝐸𝑠
𝐸𝑝 0.77
𝐾𝑀𝑀 ≃ 0.15 𝐸̃𝑠 𝑑3 ( ) (6)
𝐸𝑠
𝐸𝑝 0.53
𝐾𝐻𝑀 = 𝐾𝑀𝐻 ≃ −0.24 𝐸̃𝑠 𝑑2 ( )
𝐸𝑠
where 𝐾𝐻𝐻 is the pile horizontal stiffness, 𝐾𝑀𝑀 the flexural stiffness, and 𝐾𝐻𝑀 = 𝐾𝑀𝐻 the stiffness of
the two coupled degrees of freedom (rocking), 𝐸𝑠 is the Young's modulus of the soil, 𝐸𝑝 that of the pile,
and 𝑑 the diameter of the pile. Non-linear piles group behavior is not considered in this context and the
global impedances for the piles are taken from the previous equations multiplied by the piles num-
ber 𝑛𝑝 .
In order to describe correctly the system deformations this model uses, like the dynamic model,
interface elements to represent the embankment soil behavior. In particular the description of the soil
embankment towards which the structure is going (i.e. the one in the direction of the inertia forces) is
fundamental. In fact, this soil limits the longitudinal deformation of the bridge reducing its internal
actions during the earthquake. Compared to the full nonlinear dynamic model it has no soil-column
elements and the interface springs are placed between abutment and fixed nodes (see Figure 4). The
action (i.e. the inertia forces) is either taken from of a separate 1D seismic response analysis or, for a
codified design, from a code-based response spectrum for the appropriate soil category.

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Fig. 4 Non-Linear Static Model (NLSM).
4 Validation versus dynamic results

In order to validate of the proposed static model, a parametric analysis was performed to cover a rep-
resentative range of integral abutment overpasses in terms of length, abutment height and soil profile.
All cases are subjected to three seismic intensity levels (low, medium and high) and the dynamic model,
for each intensity level, is subjected to 7 spectrum-matching ground motions.
4.1 Parameters space

The parameters varied are the number of spans, the soil profile, the main span length 𝐿 and the abutment
height 𝐻. In the three-span bridges the side spans have length of 0.5 𝐿. Table 1 shows all cases consid-
ered. The shortest bridge is 38 m long (single span) and the longest one 100 m (three-span).
Soil profiles used are characteristic for the sites of Milano, Napoli and L'Aquila taken as repre-
sentative of low, moderate, and high seismicity, respectively for the Italian territory. Soil profiles data
are taken from geotecnical data on the three sites and expressed, in Figure 6, in terms of elastic modulus
𝐸𝑠 to be consistent with the definition of the static impedances in equations (5) and (6). Seismic ground
motions were selected to match the Italian code spectra on rock/stiff soil at each of the three sites. For
the purpose of static analysis, i.e. in order to determinte 𝑆𝛼 , these ground motions have been used as
input to one-dimensional site response analysis with the chosen profiles. The acceleration spectra of the
selected GMs, together with their average spectrum, are compared to the code target spectrum in Fig-
ure 5. The code spectra refer to a return period 𝑇𝑅 of 975 years, appropriate for highway overpasses, on
rock (soil A according to Eurocodes classification).
Fig. 5 Acceleration response spectra of the outcrop motions for the three sites.
For the definition of the static impedances used in the static model, the parabolic profiles for soils 1 and
3 and the constant profile for soil 2 were taken; as shown in Figure 6. Note that the impedance profiles
(in black) are fitted only in the shallow part of the profile; for a depth equal to the piles length 𝐿𝑝 .

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Table 1 Cases considered for the parametric study. Soil deposit profile of Milano is indicated with
number 1, Napoli with number 2 and L’Aquila with number 3.
b
Case Span n. Soil 𝐿 (m) 𝐻 (m)
01 1 1 50 8
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02 1 1 50 5
03 1 1 38 8
04 1 1 38 5
05 1 2 50 8
06 1 2 50 5
07 1 2 38 8
08 1 2 38 5
09 1 3 50 8
10 1 3 50 5
11 1 3 38 8
12 1 3 38 5
13 3 1 50 8
14 3 1 50 5
15 3 1 38 8
16 3 1 38 5
17 3 2 50 8
18 3 2 50 5
19 3 2 38 8
20 3 2 38 5
21 3 3 50 8
22 3 3 50 5
23 3 3 38 8
24 3 3 38 5
Fig. 6 Soil profiles and fitted impedances profiles (black) for the three soil profiles (gray).
Table 2 lists the values of the plateau acceleration 𝑆𝛼 . The first row reports 𝑆𝛼,bedrock , which is the
value on rock/stiff soil, i.e., the value from the target spectra used in GM selection. The remaining three
rows report the average of the spectral acceleration values obtained after site-response analysis for each
of the selected ground motion. The average is performed over the range of periods [𝑇𝐵 , 𝑇𝐶 ] of the target
code spectrum, and it is thus the best estimate of 𝑆𝛼 at the surface, i.e., the value to be used for static
analysis. Each entry in Table 2 correspond to a combination of soil profile and site seismicity. Bold
b
values on the main diagonal represent cases where seismicity and profile are from the same site (Milano,
Napoli, L'Aquila). Off-diagonal cases are added to increase the number of explored combinations.
Overall, a total of 3 seismicity levels for 24 bridges (for 7 nonlinear dynamic, 1 nonlinear static and 1
modal analyses) lead to a total of 648 analyses.
if
Table 2 Plateau acceleration for the three sites considered and after the site-response analysis.
Site: MI NA AQ
𝑆𝛼,bedrock 0.17 g 0.53 g 0.82 g
Soil 1 (MI) 0.31 g 0.99 g 1.49 g
Soil 2 (NA) 0.21 g 0.71 g 1.17 g
Soil 3 (AQ) 0.29 g 0.99 g 1.56 g
4.2 Modal analysis results from the dynamic model

Figure 7 shows the vibration periods of the first 10 modes calculated using the NLDM. As it can be
seen, apart from the period of the first mode, which correspond to the fundamental soil deposit mode,
higher ones fall within the [𝑇𝐵 , 𝑇𝐶 ] range of periods at which plateau acceleration occurs for the target
spectra used in input ground motions selection (i.e. 𝑇𝑖 ∈ [0.1 𝑠, 0.35 𝑠] 𝑖 = 2,3,4,5). Since the struc-
tural response of this type of bridges is more influenced by the higher modes (since in the first mode
shape the bridge tend to translate with the soil deposit with relatively small curvature in the abutments
top cross-sections) this corroborates the proposal of using 𝑆𝛼 in the static methods.
Fig. 7 Vibration periods calculated through the NLDM for the cases listed in Table 1. Plateau
range of periods is indicated with shaded area.
4.3 Global results

Figure 8 shows the relationships between the maximum bending moment at deck-abutment joints:
𝑀𝑗 = max [max|𝑀left joint (𝑡)|, max|𝑀right joint (𝑡)|] (7)
𝑡 𝑡
and the piles head moment:
𝑀𝑝 = max [max|𝑀left piles (𝑡)|, max|𝑀right piles (𝑡)|] (8)
𝑡 𝑡
obtained using the dynamic model (NLDM) and static model (NLSM) over all cases. The figure shows
on the abscissae the NLDM results and, on the ordinates, those computed via static model. The 1:1 line
indicates a perfect agreement between the models in terms of response parameters 𝑀𝑗 and 𝑀𝑝 . Red,
black and blue markers are associated with the seismic intensity level.

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Fig. 8 Comparison in terms of 𝑀𝑗 and 𝑀𝑝 (maximum bending moments at deck-abutments joints
and at piles head) between the dynamic model (NLDM) and the static one (NLSM).
As it can be seen from the figure 8 there is a good match between NLSM and NLDM.
Table 3 shows the statistical parameters of the ratio 𝑀static model /𝑀dynamic model. In this table 𝐶𝑉
is the coefficient of variation 𝐶𝑉𝑋 = √Var[𝑋]/𝐸[𝑋], where 𝑋 is a random variable, 𝐸[𝑋] its expected
value (first moment) and Var[𝑋] its variance (second moment); the correlation is calculated by the
Pearson correlation coefficient:
𝐶𝑂𝑉(𝑋, 𝑌)
𝜌𝑋𝑌 = (9)
𝜎𝑋 𝜎𝑌
where 𝐶𝑂𝑉(𝑋, 𝑌) is the covariance between 𝑋 and 𝑌 and 𝜎𝑋 , 𝜎𝑌 are the two standard deviations. The
correlation is calculated between dynamic and static model results.
Table 3 Statistics of the parametric analysis results in terms of 𝑀static model /𝑀dynamic model ratio
and correlation coefficient.
median 𝐶𝑉 correlation
𝑀𝑗 1.04 0.16 0.93
𝑀𝑝 0.90 0.31 0.87
5 Conclusions
A dynamic nonlinear model for the seismic evaluation of bridges with integral abutments is briefly
described. This model, developed initially by Franchin and Pinto in 2014 [14], aims at describing the
longitudinal behaviour by means of Winkler beams to account for soil-structure interaction. This model
was extended and validated against a higher-order one by Marchi as part of his PhD thesis [15]. From
this model, a simplified non-linear static model has been developed for the design of IABs. A paramet-
ric analysis is performed to compare the static model against dynamic one in terms of maximum bend-
ing moments at the deck-abutment joints and at the piles head. This parametric study is conducted on
three sites of the Italian territory characterized by low, medium and high seismicity varying the number
of spans, the bridge length and the abutment height. From the results of this analysis a good match
between the two models can be noticed and this ensures the validity of the static model for design
purposes.

References
b
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Structural fire design and assessment of bridges: State
b
of the Art
Marco Gallo, Donatella de Silva, Laura De Falco and Emidio Nigro
if
Department of Structures for Engineering and Architecture, Di.St,
Via Claudio 21, Napoli (80125), Italy
Abstract
The issue of fire risk is progressively becoming more important even in the case of transport infrastruc-
tures.This paper aims to investigate the technical and research state of the art about the structural fire
behaviour of bridges. A methodology which allow the selection of the cases in which the fire resistance
is relevant is proposed extending the methodology to the performance based approach. Thus, the nov-
elty of this research is to provide a correlation between the fire performance level of brigdes, proposed
in this paper, with both fire scenarios and strategic importance of the examined infrastructure. Finally,
the proposed procedure is applied to real bridge types by performing both advanced thermo-fluid-dy-
namic and thermo-mechanical analyses. The result of these analyses represented both in the tempera-
ture, resistance and displacement domains.
1 Introduction
The literature review clearly indicated that there are very few information about the bridge fires oc-
curred over time. Only the major fire accidents are well documented, and the data about the causes of
fires, the traffic status at the fire beginning, the duration of the fire, the bridge features, etc vary signif-
icantly from one source to another. Even in the cases where data are available, there is a lack of statis-
tical models that represent the interaction between the different parameters, linking them to the proba-
bility of fire-induced collapse. However, based on available statistical data, an estimation of the prob-
ability of a bridge fire and the of the structural collapse can be obtained thanks to some assumptions
that simplify the above-mentioned complex relationship between the parameters, using reliable infor-
mation on the number of accidents and on losses associated with fires. This approach is based on as-
sumptions like those used by other researchers to estimate the probability of building fires. According
to the National Fire Protection Assciation (NFPA) [1], there were 195,600 vehicle fire accidents on all
US roadways in 2011. Based on the data collected, applying the principles of the Poisson distribution,
the probability of a vehicle fire occurring each year estimated by the NFPA is P=37%. In addition,
assuming that 5% of the total traffic crashes occur near bridges, the probability of a bridge fire is esti-
mated to be 2.27%. According to NFPA [2], a hazard having the probability between 0.1% and 10% is
classified as "probable". In addition, Wardhana and Hadipriono [3] published statistical data on the
total number of highway bridges and on the number of collapsed bridges in the United States over an
11-year period (1989-2000). They also reported that in those years the total number of highway bridges
was 691,060 and the one of collapsed bridges, due to various extreme loading conditions, was 503 and
16 of these collapses were caused by fires. The assessed probability is 4.9% in agreement with the value
of 3.2% estimated by Scheer [4]. Using the same procedure again, the probability of at least one bridge
collapsing due to fire over a 10- and 50-year period is 27.3% and 79.8%, respectively. This clearly
shows that there is a high probability of collapse induced by fire in a bridge considering a period of 50
year. In order to compare the magnitude of the fire in bridges with the one in buildings, the Poisson
distribution is also applied to analyze the fires in buildings. In 2006, there were 118 million buildings
in United States. In 2012, approximately 480,500 fires in buildings occorred and about 1,375,000 fires
were reported in total [2] estimating a building fire probability of occurrence equal to 29.5%. Although
there is no reliable data on the total number of buildings that collapsed in 2002, Wardhaua and Had-
ipriono reported that the total number of collapses from various catastrophic events, including fire, was
225. Thus, the probability of a fire-induced building collapse is 12.1%. The above statistical data
clearly show that the probability that a fire occurs in a building, as well as the probability of a fire-
induced collapse in the building, is much higher than that of bridges. In addition, the U.S. Department
of Homeland Security [5] and Eldukair and Ayyub [6] estimated that the economic consequences of
14 th
residential building and bridge fires were $7199 and $959 million, respectively. The consequences of
fire risk in buildings are reported in current codes and, therefore, structural elements in buildings must
b
be designed according to fire resistance requirements, since occupant safety is paramount. On the other
hand, even if the fire risk assessment of infrastructures is becoming crucial there are no requirements
for design or verification of briges in the current codes and standards. For this reason, this paper aims
to investigate the structural behaviour of bridges in fire conditions in order to propose a systematic
if
methodology for the identification of the most vulnerable bridges to fire and for the rational fire design
of them.
2 State of the Art
2.1 Key features and factor description

The statistical studies show that considering fire risk for infrastructure in a similar way to earthquake
risk would lead to major economic disadvantages. However, the fire risk can’t be neglected altogether
because of the consequences in terms of costs of repairing or replacing structures and the indirect eco-
nomic and social costs induced by service interruption could be significant. Kodur and Naser [7] de-
veloped a methodology for determining animportance factor for the classification of bridges, according
to the fire risk. Even if this factor was specifically developed for bridges, the principles of this approach
can be extended to develop a similar importance factor for the classification of tunnels. This importance
factor takes into account the vulnerability to fire of the bridge structural elements, as well as the criti-
cality of the bridge to traffic flow. The fire vulnerability of a bridge depends on the geometric dimen-
sions, material properties, design features of its structural elements and the probability of fire nearby.
Based on past bridge real fires, these aspects have been found the main factors contributing to the state
of fire bridge vulnerability. The key features that define the importance of a bridge, such as fire vulner-
ability and critical nature, are grouped into five classes as shown in Fig. 1. Each class covers various
parameters of influence that contribute to the calculation of the importance factor, which is evaluated
through a weighted factors approach. Within each parameter there are various sub-parameters that de-
termine the condition of a specific bridge [7]. Based on engineering judgment and recommendations
from previous studies [8], [9], [10], [4], weightage factors are assigned to the different sub-parameters.
The weightage factors, assigned on a scale of 1 to 5, carry subscripts that define the relevant class and
parameter. The overall class coefficient λ is used to assign the fire risk grade to the bridge under con-
sideration. This is done by comparing the value of λ with the numerical scores reported in Table 1 [7],
thus determining the importance factor 𝐼𝐹. The fire risk associated with bridges can be grouped into
four risk grades: low, medium, high and critical. The importance factor indicates the susceptibility of
a bridge to fire hazard. For example, a bridge with an importance factor of 1.5 represents the most
critical bridge related to fire hazard and, therefore, requires a certain level of fire protection measures
to mitigate the negative impact of the fire. The weightage factors described before, were obtained by
considering different types of bridges (highway, rail, etc.). Generally, the weightage factors are as-
signed in ascending numerical order and the largest value indicates the highest risk of fire. In the fol-
lowing, the criteria for assigning these factors to the sub-parameters of each classes are described:
1. class I - Geometrical features, material properties, design characteristics: these factors
that contribute to a bridge vulnerability arise from the type of structural system, material
type, girder span, number of lanes, age, bridge category and special features of service;
2. class II - Hazard fire likelihood: the likelihood of fire occurrence is another key factor
affecting the vulnerability of bridges. Fires can occur due to accidental or human-induced
fires. The hazard likelihood is primarily influenced by four parameters: response time,
historical/architectural importance, threat perception and possible fire scenario;
3. class III – Traffic demand: traffic demand is a key factor governing the importance of a
bridge from the perspective of traffic flow in the region. Two main parameters are iden-
tified, namely the Average Daily Traffic (ADT) and the facility location;
4. class IV – Economical impact: as a result of a fire event, both the structural integrity of
the bridge and the efficiency of the traffic network are compromised. For example, after
a fire, the damaged bridge must be closed for inspection and necessary repairs. This re-
quires traffic deviation to nearby roads, leading to additional delays in travel times and

delivery of goods, which can impact business operations. On the contrary, economic con-
sequences can be minimal in the event of fire on bridges located in remote areas, serving
b
very low traffic volumes, or that may have multiple alternate routes;
5. class V – Expected fire losses: in case of fire there are not only human and material losses,
but also considerable environmental damage. However, it should be noted that statistical
data on human/material losses, as well as environmental damage, are not yet available,
if
therefore, a qualitative assessment and technical engineering judgment may be helpful.
Geometry, material properties,
design (structural system,
Material type, Span, No. of
lanes, Age, Current taring,
Additional service features)
Fire vulnerability
Fire probability (response

time, Historical
significance, Threat
perception, Fire scenario)
Bridge Fire Risk
Traffic demand (ADT,
facility location)
Economical impact
(Closeness to alt. routes,
Critical nature time expected for repair,
Cost expected for repair)
Possible losses (Life losses,

Env. damage)
Fig. 1 Key characteristics affecting fire risk in a bridge.
Table 1 Risk levels and importance factors

Risk Level λ Importance Factor IF
Critical ≥0,95 1.5
High 0,51-0,94 1.2
Medium 0,21-0,50 1.0
Low <0,20 0.8
Table 2 quantifies the impacts of the fire on bridges in terms of structural damage, traffic disruption
and human casualties, also describing the recommended fire resistance requirements for different fire
risk categories. For example, severe fires expected to occur on bridges classified with the "high" risk
rating, are expected to cause significant damage to the bridge structural elements (partial/total collapse),
partial stop of operation and possible injuries/victims. Therefore, it is recommended that the structural
elements of these bridges have at least one hour of fire resistance. If, on the other hand, the fire risk
grade is "critical" it may result in the immediate collapse of the structure with complete loss of func-
tionality. Further expected consequences are human casualties and permanent closure of the bridge. In
this case, the structural elements must guarantee from 1 to 2 hours of fire resistance.
14th
Table 2 Descriptions and recommendations for fire risk categories
b
Fire risk cat- Importance fac- Recommended fire proofing to
Impact of fire on bridge
egory tor structural memberd
Negligible impact on integrity of bridge or operation
Low 0.8 No need of fire proofing
of facility, with no human losses
if
Minor impact on structural member of bridge and op-
Medium 1.0 eration with no human losses. Some investments are No need of fire proofing
necessary to restore bridge following fire incident
Significant impact on structural members of bridge
At least one hour fire proofing
with partial/complete collapse of main structural ele-
High 1.2 should be provided tomain struc-
ments, partial shutdown of operation with possible
tural elements
human injuries/losses
Immediate/severe impact on bridge (loss of carrying
One-to-two hour(s) fire proofing
load capacity and total collapse) and complete loss of
Critical 1.5 should be provided to main struc-
operation. Expected human casualties and permanent
tural elements
closure of highway/bridge
2.2 Proposed approach

The steps to be followed in the proposed approach to mitigate fire risk in bridges are shown in Fig. 2.
In the first step, the fire risk grade is quantified for the considered bridge through the evaluation of its
importance factor. In order to do that, relevant data on the characteristics of the bridge must be collected
and analyzed. Based on the value of the importance factor, the fire risk associated with bridges is
grouped into four risk grades (low, medium, high, and critical). If the bridge under consideration falls
under a "low" or "medium" risk rating, such as a concrete bridge located in rural areas that serves a low
volume of traffic, then it is considered that the bridge is less susceptible to fire damage or collapse and,
therefore, additional measures may not be necessary to improve the fire safety. However, if the bridge
falls under a "high" or "critical" risk rating, such as in the case of a steel suspension bridge that serves
a large volume of traffic and is located above a river, then the bridge is considered a bit or very suscep-
tible to damage/collapse caused by fire and, therefore, additional measures are required to minimize the
fire risk on that bridge. In general, structural elements in steel bridges that are classified with "high" or
"critical" risk grade often have an intrinsic fire resistance of much less than 45 minutes. Therefore,
appropriate strategies must be developed to reduce the fire risk of these bridges to "medium" or, better,
"low." This can be done through the development of relevant strategies to improve the fire resistance
(FR) of main bridge structural elements. One useful strategy is the application of fire protection (insu-
lation) to main structural elements of a steel bridge. The applied fire protection should provide 60 ÷
120 minutes of fire resistance to the selected bridge structural elements, significantly reducing the risk
of damage/collapse of the bridge. Also, several mitigation strategies can be implemented to improve
fire performance and reduce the effects of fire. These measures are, generally, planned during the design
phase of a bridge or implemented during maintenance. The effect of mitigation strategies on the fire
risk can be quantified by evaluating again the importance factor. Specifically, these measures can be
accounted through Class VI and the reduction in the importance factor value is a function of the number
and type of mitigation strategies implemented for the bridge. The different mitigation strategies are
grouped under three main parameters:
- security: monitoring systems, guards, restricted access zones, fire detection systems;
- laws and regulation: provide distinguished exits for large fuel tanker, limit operation timings,
limit vehicle speed, limit transport size (20.000l);
- fire protection and insulation features: on site firefighting equipment, use of flooding agents
and/or foam deluge systems, 1 or 2 hours of insulation to main structural members, imple-
menting structural fire design of bridge.

Fig. 2
if b
Steps of the proposed approach for mitigating fire hazard in bridges
3 Fire resistance assessment and performance levels

In the case of structures, the performances required to the structural elements can be classified into five
performance levels (see Table 3), which are valid whether a prescriptive or a performance approach is
chosen. The performance level that must be ensured depending on the intended use of the buildings,
thus the new national code [11] allows to select one of the following possible approaches:
- compliant solutions: i.e. prescriptive approach. No further technical evaluation is required
and it is an indirect verification because each level of performance must be linked to a REI/R
requirement. This means that the load-bearing capacity (R), integrity (E) and insulation (I)
requirements must be guaranteed for a fixed period of time;
- alternative solutions: i.e. performance approach. In this case the performance level is as-
signied to the examined structure by evaluating resistance and displacement during the fire
event.
Table 3 Performance levels

Performance level Description
I No external consequences of a structural collapse
Maintaining the fire resistence requirements for a period of time sufficient for the evacuation
II
of occupants
III Maintaining the fire resistance requirements for the natural fire duration
IV Limited damage of the structure after fire duration
V Complete serviceability of the structure after fire exposure
14 th
For structures included in performance level I, no fire resistance performance is required, except, how-
ever, verifying the presence of an appropriate separation distance on open space towards other con-
b
structions. Structures with performance level II must comply with what is defined for the performance
level I and maintain, in addition, the fire resistance requirements for a period sufficient to allow the
evacuation of occupants to safe zone. This period of time, in the case of a prescriptive approach, is
equal to 30 minutes. The performance level III consists of the satisfaction of a resistance verification in
if
fire conditions:
𝐸𝑓𝑖,𝑑,𝑡 < 𝑅𝑓𝑖,𝑑,𝑡 (1)
where 𝐸𝑓𝑖,𝑑,𝑡 and 𝑅𝑓𝑖,𝑑,𝑡 are the design value of the relevant effects of actions and the design value of
the resistance of the member in the fire situation at time t, respectively. Following the performance-
based approach, in order to achieve the performance level III, the structure must satisfy this verification
throughout the entire duration of the fire while, according to the prescriptive approach, the verification
must be satisfied for a fixed period of time. This performance level can be considered adequate for all
constructions intended for activities subject to the control of the Fire Department, except those for
which levels IV are required explicitly. For levels IV and V, on the other hand, performances are re-
quired that guarantee a limited damage to the structures, maintaining the total functionality of the them
during and after fire (e.g. hospitals). These levels imply the satisfaction of deformability verifications
at serviceability limit state:
𝑓𝑓𝑖,𝑑,𝑡 < 𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑚,𝑡 (2)
where 𝑓𝑓𝑖,𝑑,𝑡 is the design value of the deflection in the fire situation at time t and 𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑚,𝑡 is the maximum
acceptable deflection value according to the required performance level. In particular, performance
level IV corresponds to a limited damage of the structure, i.e. a limiting deflection of 𝐿/100, while level
V implies no damage, i.e. a limiting displacement at 𝐿/250, where L is the length of the structural
element. These values of limiting displacements should be compared with the values of displacements
recorded at the end of the fire, in the case of the performance approach, or at a fixed time (which is the
time for which the load-bearing capacity has to be guaranteed), in the case of a prescriptive approach.
4 Advanced thermo-mechanical analyses

To illustrate the response of a steel-concrete composite bridge exposed to fire, parametric analyses were
carried out using the FEM computer program SAFIR. The results of these analyses, simulating a fire
typical of a highway bridge, allowed investigating the different aspects of fire vulnerability of road
bridges. In particular, the selected bridge is 55 m long (27.5 m each span) and 10 m wide (7 m the
roadway and 1.5 m the two lateral quays), see Fig. 3. To highlight the differences between the two
approaches and to identify how to optimize the bridges fire design, the analyses were carried out fol-
lowing both the prescriptive and the performance-based approach. For the first one the standard fire
curve which better represents fires on bridges, i.e. the hydrocarbon fire curve, was selected and the
analyses were carried out on four different structural schemes, variable for constraint conditions (iso-
static simply-supported beam and hyperstatic continuous beam) and exposure to fire (for the continuos
beam case, one or two span were exposed). Natural fire curves were obtained using the software CFAST
according to the performance-based approach, considering five different vehicles: an HGV, a truck, a
school bus, a car with internal combustion engine (ICE) and an electric car (EV). The unprotected beam
collapsed in about 5 minutes for the analyses carried out according to the prescriptive approach, mean-
ing that the performance level achied was typically the II. Thus, the protection design was necessary to
ensure the minumun time resistance as previously explained. A sprayed fire protection is choosen and
its thickness is dependent on the performance level which must be reached for the verification.
Fig. 3 Cross-section of the bridge

Hydrocarbon HGV Truck Schoolbus ICE EV
b
Scheme 1 X
Scheme 2 X
Scheme 3a X X X X X X
Scheme 3b X
if
Fig. 4 Matrix of the different configuration considered
Three thickenesses were selected and used to assess the fire performance for each static scheme and
exposure conditions selected. In the performance-based approach the unprotected bridge exihibited an
higher performance level, which was IV or V, for a fire natural curve evaluated by considering the Heat
Release Rate curves (HRR) of a School-bus, an ICE and an electric car. The achieved performance
level was the II in the case of HGV and truckfire curves. This demonstrates that the performance-based
approach can allow to take into account more realistic conditions by better modelling the fire be-
ahaviour and evaluating structural elements temperatures lower than the hydrocarbon ones. This result
also allows to optimize the protection design thickness. These performance levels defined for the build-
ings could be usefull to define the ones for the infrastructure, considering, for example, the importance
factor as a measure of the fire risk of any bridges as, how it has been said, there is no economical
benefits to fire retrofitting any bridges.
Considering this typical steel-concrete bridge located in an urban area, according to the Kodur clas-
sification [7], it has an importance factor of 1.2 so its structural members have to guarantee a fire re-
sistance of 60 minutes under the hydrocarbon fire curve then the failure time (t R,SAFIR ) were obtained
with SAFIR mechanical analysis as shown in table 3.
In order to increase the fire performance of the analysed bridge, a passive protection with a spray
applied fire resistive material (SFRM) was designed. The nomogram can be used to design the protec-
tion thicknesses needed to guarantee the prescriptive requirements. The results of the thermo-mechani-
cal analyses of the protected bridges, in terms of failure time t R,SAFIR , are also shown in Table 4.
Table 4 Failure times recorded in SAFIR in the four structural systems (protected and unprotected)
t R,SAFIR (min) tL/30 (min)
System Unprotected Unprotected 8mm (R60) 16mm (R120) 22mm
1 6.9 5.8 71.3 >120 >120
2 15.6 5.4 >120 >120 >120
3a 5.0 - 46.6 91.0 >120
4a 5.1 45.7 89.0 >120
14 th
5 Conclusions
b
Based on the information presented in this paper, the following conclusions can be drawn:
- fire can represent a severe hazard in bridges and can lead to significant damage or collapse
of structural members. The adverse effects of fire on bridges can be mitigated by providing
appropriate fire resistance to structural members;
- the probability of fire breaking out in bridges is lower than the buildings one. However, the
if
impact of such fires on bridges can be much more devastating due to lack of adequate fire
protection features and firefighting measures in bridges;
- to date, there is no specific regulatory framework for the fire design of bridges and the meth-
odology proposed by Kodur could be a valid guideline in case of prescriptive approach ap-
plication. This methodology takes into account the level of vulnerability and the critical na-
ture of the bridge to evaluate its importance factor.
FEM analyses were carried out in SAFIR to evaluate the response of a steel-concrete composite
bridge under fire conditions. The results of these analyses showed that:
- following the prescriptive approach and considering the hydrocarbon fire curve, the collapse
was achieved, regardless of the constraint conditions, in about five minutes. To satisfy the
prescriptive resistance requirements, a fire protective must be applied to the element. Alt-
hough in this way the collapse is avoided, it does not always allow to limit the level of dam-
age;
- simplified fluid-dynamic analyses in CFAST allowed to obtain natural fire curves to be used
in the performance-based approach. In case of the most common light vehicles fires, the un-
protected bridge doesn’t collapse for the entire duration of the fire with limited or no damage.
In case of fires involving heavy vehicles, the application of protective thicknesses is required,
ensuring limited damage;
- an advanced analysis carried out following the performance-based approach allows to con-
sider more realistic and less sever fire conditions, thanks to the use of natural fire curves,
leading to an optimization of the protective system design;
- it would be necessary to define proper performance levels for bridges which would be able
to consider the specific features of this type of construction.
References
[1] NFPA, U.S. 2008. Vehicle Fire Trends and Patterns, 1 Batterymarch Park, Quincy, MA 02169-
0217471.
[2] NFPA 551, 2007. Guide for the Evaluation of Fire Risk Assessments.
[3] Wardhana K., Hadipriono F., 2003. Study of recent building failures in the United States, J.
Perform. Constr. Facil., 17, ASCE, p. 151–158.
[4] Scheer J., 2010. Failed Bridges: Case Studies, Causes and Consequences, John Wiley & Sons,
USA.
[5] U.S. Fire Administration Fire Estimates, U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2014. Natio-
nal Fire Data Center, Emmitsburg, Maryland, 21727.
[6] Eldukair A., Ayyub B., 1991. Analysis of recent U.S. structural and construction failures, J.
Perform. Constr. Facil. 5, 57–73.
[7] Kodur V.K.R., Naser M.Z. 2013. Importance Factor for Design of Bridges Against Fire, Engi-
neering Structures 54, 207-220 pp.
[8] Garlock M., Paya-Zaforteza I., Kodur VKR, Gu L. 2012. Fire hazard in bridges: review, as-
sessment and repair strategies. Eng Struct; 35:89–98.
[9] Elhag T., Wang Y. 2007. Risk assessment for bridge maintenance projects: neural network
versus regression techniques. J Comput Civil Eng ASCE.
[10] Dwaikat M., Kodur V.K.R. 2011. A performance based methodology for fire design of restrai-
ned steel beams. J Construct Steel Res, 67:510–24.
[11] Ministero dell’Interno, Dipartimento dei Vigili del fuoco, del Soccorso pubblico e della Difesa
civile, Direzione centrale per la Prevenzione e la Sicurezza tecnica, 2022. Norme tecniche di
prevenzione incendi.

Design of longitudinal tunnel lining joints -
b
experimental investigation on partially loaded
reinforced concrete blocks
if
Fabian Morger and Walter Kaufmann
Institute of Structural Engineering (IBK),
ETH Zurich,
Stefano-Franscini-Platz 5, 8093 Zürich, Switzerland
Abstract
Precast concrete segmental linings are frequently used in modern tunnelling. In such linings, the longi-
tudinal segment joints, transferring the circumferential loads, typically have a reduced contact surface
compared to the full segment cross-section and hence, often govern the design.
Most current design approaches for longitudinal joints consider either the beneficial effect of the load
dispersion or that of a transverse confinement reinforcement, but not both combined, leading to overly
conservative designs.
This paper summarises the results of an experimental campaign investigating the effect of the loading
width, reinforcement and concrete strength on reinforced concrete blocks subjected to strip loading,
simulating the situation of longitudinal tunnel lining joints. Additionally, the experimental results are
compared with current design approaches.
1 Introduction
Excavating long and deep tunnels with tunnel boring machines (TBM) is a popular construction method
due to its time and cost-efficiency. Tunnels built with a TBM often use precast concrete tunnel lining
segments installed almost immediately after excavation. The longitudinal joints between segments
transfer the loads during construction and the entire service life in one-pass lining systems. In tunnels
with significant overburden or in squeezing grounds, large normal compressive forces combined with
relatively small bending moments typically result. The contact surface in the longitudinal joints is gen-
erally reduced compared to the full cross-section of the segments to ease installation, avoid spalling
and to place watertight gaskets. As a result, the joints often govern the design, i.e., they require a higher
lining thickness, which significantly impacts cost and sustainability as a thinner lining would not only
use less construction material but – more importantly – also reduces the required excavation.
In longitudinal tunnel lining joints, the load dispersion is predominantly unidirectional. It can thus
be reasonably idealised as strip loading, a type of partial area loading where a member is subjected to
concentrated compressive loads applied over a relatively narrow strip, eventually spreading over the
whole cross-section. Due to the load dispersion, transverse compressive stresses immediately below the
loaded area (confined region) and transverse tensile stresses further away from it (bursting region) re-
sult. Accordingly, failure of longitudinal tunnel lining joints can either be caused by crushing of the
concrete in the confined region or by tensile failure in the bursting region. For a thorough overview of
the subject, the reader is referred to [1].
It is well-known that the compressive strength at the load introduction area for partially loaded
reinforced concrete members can be several times higher than the uniaxial compressive strength. First
investigations of partial area loading date back nearly 150 years, when Bauschinger [2] investigated its
effect on stone blocks. The strength increase is due to a combination of the beneficial effect of (i) the
load dispersion and (ii) confining reinforcement (if provided). However, when designing longitudinal
tunnel lining joints according to current standards, these effects may not be superimposed, resulting in
a conservative design. This observation motivated a broader research program at ETH Zurich focusing
on improving the design of tunnel lining joints, aiming at more efficient and sustainable tunnel con-
struction. As the available experimental data on reinforced concrete members subjected to strip loading
is scarce, an experimental campaign with 21 concrete blocks was conducted within this project to assess
the influence of the governing parameters, i.e., the reinforcement content and type, the concrete
14 th
strength, the load application area and its eccentricity. This paper presents the 13 centrally loaded spec-
imens without fibre reinforcement tested within this campaign and compares the results to the design
b
according to current standards.
2 Current design approaches
if
To determine the concrete compressive strength increase, most current design approaches for longitu-
dinal tunnel lining joints rely on the so-called square-root equation, proposed by Spieth [3] in 1961
based on tests on centrally loaded plain concrete blocks:
A
qx , u = f c 0  c 2 (1)
Ac1
The equation relates the average bearing capacity qx,u of the loaded area to the product of the uniaxial
compressive strength fc0 and the square root of the ratio between the total area available for load dis-
persion Ac2 and the loaded area Ac1. This formula is purely empirical, and consequently, standards re-
strict using Eq. (1) by several conditions: geometrical similarity of Ac1 and Ac2, limitation of the strength
increase to a factor of three, and a requirement of transverse reinforcement to account for the bursting
stresses. The first condition strongly limits the strength increase for longitudinal tunnel lining joints and
will be neglected when comparing the square-root equation to test results presented in this paper. This
is motivated by the findings of Schmidt-Thrö et al. [4] that geometrical similarity of Ac1 and Ac2 is not
required; however, they suggested reducing the computed bearing capacity depending on the reinforce-
ment type (reduction to 65% for stirrups but no reduction for welded grids). Neglecting geometrical
similarity, Ac2 = d2∙b2 can be set equal to the full specimen cross-section (d∙b), provided the block is
long enough for load spreading. The required resistance of the bursting reinforcement can be reliably
determined from a simple strut-and-tie model proposed by Mörsch [5]; this can be considered a solved
problem. Eq. (1) does not consider the beneficial effect of transverse reinforcement located in the con-
fined region, nor that of a bursting reinforcement exceeding the minimum amount required.
Alternatively to the square-root equation, longitudinal tunnel lining joints can be designed as struc-
tural members with confinement reinforcement, e.g. using the Swiss code for concrete structures
SIA 262 [6]:

qx ,u = f c 0 + 4  1 (2)
 s   s 
with 1 = c  f c 0  1 − x   1 − x 
 bc   d c 
 A f Asz  f s 
c = min  y = sy s ; z = 
 bc  s x  f c0 d c  sx  f c 0 

z x dc d sx
y
bc
b
Fig. 1 Definition of input parameters for Eq. (2). Adapted from [6].
However, this approach neglects the beneficial influence of load dispersion; as its main use is generally
in column design. The fib model code [7] and the EC draft [8] both allow considering confinement
reinforcement with slightly different provisions than those of Eq. (2) regarding the effectively confined
area and to what extent confinement increases the bearing capacity.
3 Experimental campaign
An overview of the 13 specimens described in this paper is given in Table 1.
3.1 Specimens, materials and casting
b
All specimens were geometrically identical concrete blocks with the dimensions d∙b = 350∙550 mm2 in
transverse (y-) and longitudinal (z-) directions and h = 525 mm in axial (x-) direction. The width of the
loaded area (d1) varied between 140 mm and 210 mm, corresponding to 40% and 60% of the block
width, respectively. The length of the loaded area was b1 = 450 mm (i.e. 82% of the block length), and
was kept constant for all tests. The block geometry with the loaded area is illustrated in Fig. 2a.
if
The specimens were either made of normal strength concrete (NC) or high strength concrete (HC).
The maximum aggregate size was Dmax = 16 mm for both concrete types, and the clear concrete cover
of the reinforcement was 30 mm. A sufficient number of standard cylinders were cast simultaneously
with the specimens. All specimens and cylinders of the same concrete batch were tested at the age of
more than 28 days and within as short a period as possible to minimise the influence of concrete ageing.
The measured uniaxial cylinder compressive strengths are reported in Table 1. The specimens were
reinforced with bent ties (BT), welded grids (WG) and double-headed bars (HB) continuously placed
in the transverse and longitudinal direction over the full height. Bent ties and double-headed bars are
state of the art reinforcement, while welded grids are less common in load-bearing structures. However,
welded grids are becoming more popular in the construction industry as they can be produced by a
machine while guaranteeing the required welding quality. This allows for time and resource savings,
especially for producing tunnel lining segments with a high degree of repetition.
The diameter of the horizontal reinforcement was Ø12 mm for all three layouts. Four vertical sub-
sidiary bars (Ø10 mm) ensured the vertical reinforcement spacing and were placed outside the loaded
area. The welds between the transverse and longitudinal reinforcing bars of the grids were produced by
machine, with a nominal shear strength factor of at least 0.5, i.e., SF50 according to [9]. Hence, two
longitudinal bars were required on each side to anchor a transverse bar fully. Due to the welding ma-
chine, the minimum centreline distance of two bars was 50 mm. The longitudinal bars were placed as
far to the outside of the transverse bar as possible. The double-headed bars were of the type ancoPLUS,
produced by the company Ancotech, with a head diameter of approximately 2.5 times the nominal bar
diameter. In order to enable a direct comparison of the different reinforcement types, all reinforcement
layouts (bent ties, welded grids and double-headed bars) had the same centreline spacings in the trans-
verse and vertical direction for equal geometric reinforcement ratios. Fig. 3 shows a reinforcement
layout of each type. The reinforcing steel of all three layouts was of class B500B, whereby only the
double-headed bars exhibited a distinct yield plateau. Table 1 summarises the yield and ultimate stresses
of the reinforcement. Besides the different reinforcement layouts, the geometrical reinforcement ratio
of the specimens varied in the transverse and longitudinal directions: between 1.31% and 4.26% in the
transverse direction and between 0.90% and 4.88% in the longitudinal direction. The longitudinal rebars
of the welded grids were, besides the normal force, loaded in shear and bending due to the transverse
bars. Due to the complexity of the interaction and to be conservative, the longitudinal reinforcement
ratio of the welded grids was generally higher than the one of the bent ties and double-headed bars.
All specimens were cast in lubricated formwork on a vibrating table. The specimens were cast
upside down to obtain a smooth concrete surface for the load introduction. The casting surface was
mechanically ground to ensure coplanar surfaces and to avoid unplanned eccentricities.
(a) d = 350 (b) (c)
d1
b1 = 450
y
z
x
loaded area h = 525
b = 550
Fig. 2 (a) Specimen geometry [mm], (b) test setup, (c) concrete block after testing with steel
bricks.

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3.2 Test setup
b
All tests were conducted with a 20 MN Amsler compression testing machine at Empa in Dübendorf,
Switzerland. The specimens were loaded quasi-statically in compression by controlling the machine
displacement, which was monotonically increased at a rate between 0.2 mm/min and 0.3 mm/min until
the peak load was passed and the specimens were unloaded. Specimen WG-NC-5 was loaded in three
stages, keeping the load constant for several hours to investigate the creep behaviour. Another two
if
specimens (WG-NC-1 and WG-NC-3) were partially unloaded before the peak load in order to facilitate
fibre optical strain measurements. The creep investigations and the optical fibre measurements are ex-
cluded from this paper. The load was applied to the specimens by small steel bricks, capable of follow-
ing lateral movements of the loaded concrete (Fig. 2c). In comparison to a steel plate, which hinders
the horizontal concrete expansion due to its high stiffness and resulting in confinement of the concrete,
this load introduction system simulates the load transfer between two tunnel lining segments more re-
alistically. For a more in-depth discussion about the effect of the load introduction system, the reader
is referred to [10].
Table 1 Overview of the experimental campaign.

d1 fy fu fc0 sx ωy ωz Nx,u qx,u,exp/fc0
Specimen
[mm] [MPa] [MPa] [MPa] [mm] [-] [-] [MN] [-]
BT-NC-1 140 545 610 46.5 90 0.15 0.11 5.37 1.83
BT-NC-2 140 545 610 50.8 85 0.24 0.10 6.61 2.07
BT-NC-3 140 545 610 50.8 85 0.24 0.21 7.44 2.32
BT-NC-4 140 545 610 50.8 85 0.24 0.26 7.72 2.41
BT-NC-5 210 545 610 46.5 85 0.26 0.22 7.84 1.78
BT-HC-1 140 545 610 76.6 90 0.09 0.06 7.59 1.57
BT-HC-2 140 545 610 76.6 85 0.16 0.14 8.33 1.73
WG-NC-1 140 551 602 46.5 90 0.16 0.21 6.12 2.09

WG-NC-2 140 551 602 50.8 85 0.24 0.21 7.57 2.36
WG-NC-3 140 551 602 50.8 85 0.24 0.31 8.59 2.68
WG-NC-4 140 551 602 46.5 50 0.50 0.58 11.03 3.76
WG-NC-5 210 551 602 46.5 85 0.26 0.34 9.66 2.20
HB-NC-1 140 552 626 46.5 50 0.51 0.39 10.50 3.59
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 3 Reinforcement layouts: (a) Welded grids (ρy = 2.23%, ρz = 2.87%), (b) bent ties
(ρy = 2.23%, ρz = 1.91%), (c) double-headed bars (ρy = 4.26%, ρz = 3.25%).

4 Results
b
In the following sections, the influence of various parameters on the load-bearing behaviour is illus-
trated in a figure containing two plots for each parameter. Each of these figures shows (a) the average
axial stress qx,exp normalised by the concrete strength fc0, plotted versus the penetration δx, and (b) the
normalised bearing capacity qx,u,exp/fc0, plotted versus the parameter of interest. The normalised bearing
if
capacities qx,u,exp/fc0 are also summarised in Table 1.
4.1 Influence of load concentration ratio

The load concentration ratio, i.e. the ratio between the loaded area Ac1 and the area available for load
dispersion Ac2, is the main parameter for partial area loading and the only effect accounted for by the
square-root equation (Eq. (1)). Fig. 4 illustrates the effect of different load application widths d1
(140 mm and 210 mm) on the load-bearing behaviour. The specimens compared were reinforced with
welded grids and bent ties but otherwise had similar properties. A smaller load concentration ratio
caused an increase in the horizontal confinement due to the load dispersion, resulting in a higher bearing
capacity qx,u,exp (Fig. 4b) and a stiffer behaviour (reduced penetration δx) at peak load (Fig. 4a). These
observations apply to both reinforcement layouts. Note that despite the increase of the bearing capacity
qx,u,exp with reduced loading width, the peak load decreases due to the smaller loaded area.
(a) (b)
WG-NC-3
BT-NC-3
WG-NC-5
BT-NC-5
Fig. 4 Influence of load concentration ratio for specimens with different load application widths
and reinforcement layouts: (a) normalised average axial stress qx,exp/fc0 versus the penetra-
tion δx, (b) normalised ultimate average axial stress qx,u,exp/fc0 versus the load concentration
ratio (d1∙b1)/(d2∙b2).
4.2 Influence of the reinforcement

Fig. 5 presents the results of specimens differing in the mechanical reinforcement ratio (ωy and ωz var-
ying simultaneously) and the reinforcement layout. All specimens were loaded over a width d1 of
140 mm, and the concrete compressive strengths were similar (46.5 MPa or 50.8 MPa). It is evident
that a higher reinforcement ratio leads to higher bearing capacities (Fig. 5b). The reinforcement ratio
did not affect the initial stiffness, but the penetration δx at peak load increased with higher reinforcement
ratios (Fig. 5a). Fig. 6 illustrates the effect of changing the longitudinal reinforcement ratio ωz (while
keeping ωy constant) on the load-bearing behaviour for different reinforcement layouts but otherwise
equal properties (ωy = 0.24, fc0 = 50.8 MPa, d1 = 140mm). It can be seen that despite the predominantly
two-dimensional load dispersion, the longitudinal reinforcement ratio affected the bearing capacity. A
higher amount of longitudinal reinforcement resulted in a higher bearing capacity (Fig. 6b). This can
be explained by the fact that a substantial strength increase of concrete requires a triaxial compressive
stress state, which can only be achieved with adequate longitudinal reinforcement providing passive
confinement. The initial axial stiffness of the specimens was nearly identical, and apart from the sample

14th
b
(a) WG-NC-4 (b)
HB-NC-1
18.1/3.6
if
WG-NC-3
BT-NC-3
WG-NC-1
BT-NC-1
Fig. 5 Influence of the reinforcement for specimens with different reinforcement ratios and lay-
outs. (a) normalised average axial stress qx,exp/fc0 versus the penetration δx, (b) normalised
ultimate average axial stress qx,u,exp/fc0 versus the reinforcement ratio ωy.
with the lowest longitudinal reinforcement ratio, the penetration δx at peak load varied by merely
0.4 mm (Fig. 6a). Fig. 5 and 6 also compare the performance of welded grids and bent ties. While the
peak load of the two specimens with ωz = 0.21 with welded grids and bent ties differed by less than 2%,
the specimens with higher longitudinal reinforcement ratios seem to indicate a tendency to higher bear-
ing capacities with welded grids. In particular, the specimens reinforced with welded grids shown in
Fig. 5 exhibited a higher bearing capacity than those with bent ties for the same transverse reinforce-
ment ratio. However, the amount of longitudinal reinforcement varied for these specimens, making it
difficult to draw substantiated conclusions on the reinforcement layout efficiency beyond the observa-
tion that welded grid reinforcement was at least equally efficient as bent ties regarding the load-bearing
capacity.
(a) (b)
WG-NC-3
BT-NC-4
WG-NC-2 BT-NC-3
BT-NC-2
Fig. 6 Influence of the reinforcement for specimens with different reinforcement ratios in the z-
direction and layouts. (a) normalised average axial stress qx,exp/fc0 versus the penetration δx,
(b) normalised ultimate average axial stress qx,u,exp/fc0 versus the reinforcement ratio ωz.

4.3 Influence of the concrete strength
b
Fig. 7 compares NC and HC specimens reinforced with bent ties and two different geometrical rein-
forcement ratios (ρy = 1.31%, ρz = 0.90% and ρy = 2.23%, ρz = 1.91%), which were loaded over a width
d1 of 140 mm. The HC specimens sustained higher average stresses qx,exp than the NC specimens, but
the normalised bearing capacities qx,u,exp/fc0 were higher for the NC specimens. The fact that both the
reinforcement ratio as well as the concrete strength affected the bearing capacity highlights that the
if
(normalised) bearing capacity of partially loaded areas cannot be reliably predicted by merely consid-
ering the load concentration ratio, as done by the square-root equation (Eq. (1)).
(a) (b)
BT-NC-3
BT-NC-1 BT-HC-2
BT-HC-1
Fig. 7 Influence of the concrete strength for specimens with different reinforcement ratios. (a)
normalised average axial stress qx,exp/fc0 versus the penetration δx, (b) normalised ultimate
average axial stress qx,u,exp/fc0 versus the concrete compressive strength fc0.
5 Comparison with current standards

In Fig. 8, the ratios of the experimentally observed bearing capacities qx,u,exp to those predicted by mod-
els implemented in current standards qx,u,model (Eq. (1) and (2)) are plotted versus the mechanical rein-
forcement ratio ωc. For the square-root equation Eq. (1), it can be seen that the reliability of predictions
decreases with increasing reinforcement ratios, while partly unsafe predictions are obtained for low
reinforcement ratios. Note that the condition on geometric similarity was neglected, considering it
would result in significant underpredictions for most experiments. The transverse reinforcement to cope
Fig. 8 Comparison between experimental data and different models as a function of the mechani-
cal reinforcement ratio ωc.

14 th
with the bursting stresses is never governing for the presented specimens. Based on these experimental
results, reducing the load-bearing capacity for stirrups (bent ties), as suggested by [4], cannot be justi-
b
fied, but a reduction for high-strength concrete would need to be considered. Using Eq. (2), the effect
of the reinforcement ratio is captured, but this approach consistently underestimates the bearing capac-
ity (in the range of 32% to 68%) since the impact of load dispersion is not considered. Note that the
yield stress fy was used with Eq. (2), as similar experiments showed that the ultimate strength of the
if
reinforcement could not be activated [10].
6 Conclusion
This paper presents the results of an experimental campaign investigating the load-bearing behaviour
of longitudinal tunnel lining joints. Concrete blocks were subjected to strip loading, varying the width
of the loaded area, the reinforcement ratio, the reinforcement layout and the concrete strength. As ex-
pected, reducing the loaded width reduced the peak load but increased the ultimate stress. Increasing
the reinforcement ratio in both horizontal directions was beneficial for the bearing capacity, with
welded grid reinforcement exhibiting similar load-bearing behaviour as bent ties and double-headed
bars, thereby proving to be an efficient alternative. The normalised bearing capacity decreased with
higher concrete strength.
Models underlying current standards underestimate the experimentally observed bearing capacities.
For a more efficient design of longitudinal tunnel lining joints, the influence of load dispersion and
reinforcement ratio should thus be considered conjointly. The recently proposed, mechanically con-
sistent Dual-Wedge stress field [11] allows taking both effects into account. Its application to moderate
load concentration ratios as common in longitudinal tunnel lining joints is currently being investigated
by the authors.
Acknowledgements
This study was partially funded by the Swiss Federal Roads Office and the Swiss Federal Office of
Transport (Project AGT 2019/001). The authors acknowledge the support of SABAG Biel AG for
providing the welded grids and ANCOTECH AG for sponsoring the double-headed bars.
References
[1] Markić, Tomislav, Walter Kaufmann, and Ali Amin. 2018. “Stress field solution for strip
loaded reinforced concrete blocks.” Engineering Structures 171: 911–920. Accessed August
26, 2018. doi: 10.1016/j.engstruct.2018.03.027.
[2] Bauschinger, Julius. 1876. “Experimentelle Untersuchungen über die Gesetze der Druckfestig-
keit.” Mitteilungen aus dem Mech. -Tech. Lab. der K. Polytechnischen Schule München 6.
[3] Spieth, Hans Peter. 1961. “Das Verhalten von Beton unter hoher örtlicher Pressung.” Beton-
und Stahlbetonbau 56 (11): 257–263.
[4] Schmidt-Thrö, Gerald, Mario Smarslik, Bassem Tabka, Wolfgang Scheufler, Oliver Fischer,
and Peter Mark. 2019. “Experimental analysis of concrete elements under partial area strip
loading.” Civil Engineering Design 1: 28–38. Accessed April 23, 2019.
doi:10.1002/cend.201900001.
[5] Mörsch, Emil. 1924. “Über die Berechnung der Gelenkquader.” Beton Eisen 23 (12): 156–161.
[6] SIA. 2013. Swisscode SIA 262: Concrete Structures. Zurich, Switzerland: Swiss Society of En-
gineers and Architects (SIA).
[7] International Federation for Structural Concrete. 2013. fib model code for concrete structures
2010. Berlin: Ernst & Sohn.
[8] prEN 1992-1-1:2021. 2021. Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures - Part 1-1 : General
rules and rules for buildings. Brussels: CEN.
[9] DIN. 2006. Schweißen - Schweißen von Betonstahl - Teil 1: Tragende Schweißverbindungen
(ISO 17660-1:2006). Berlin: Beuth Verlag.
[10] Markić, Tomislav, Fabian Morger, and Walter Kaufmann. 2022. “Partially loaded areas in re-
inforced concrete: experimental campaign and model validation.” submitted to Engineering
Structures.
[11] Markić, Tomislav, Fabian Morger, and Walter Kaufmann. 2022. “Partially loaded areas in re-
inforced concrete: mechanical modelling.” submitted to Engineering Structures.

Experimental study of the bond degradation in
b
concrete due to reinforcement corrosion
Thomas Van Beirendonck, Charlotte Van Steen and Els Verstrynge
if
Departement of Civil Engineering,
KU Leuven,
Kasteelpark Arenberg 40, Heverlee (3001), Belgium
Abstract
Corrosion can be considered as the most common damage mechanism in reinforced concrete (RC)
structures. The corrosion process leads to concrete cover cracking and sectional loss of the reinforce-
ment, which both result in bond degradation. A better understanding of the bond behaviour is desirable,
as the bond strength is essential in the assessment of existing corroded RC structures. Therefore, this
paper presents the results of an extensive experimental campaign that investigated the bond degradation
in RC samples due to reinforcement corrosion. A total of 117 samples were tested with the main varying
parameters being corrosion level, reinforcement type (ribbed and smooth), presence of stirrups, con-
crete cover thickness, and corroding length. Corrosion activity was accelerated by partial immersion of
the samples in a sodium chloride solution and the use of an impressed current. Bond behaviour of the
corroded RC samples was investigated by means of pull-out tests at target corrosion levels. Results
show the influence of corrosion on both bond strength as well as failure mode. The obtained bond
strength increased at low corrosion levels, which was more pronounced for corroded smooth rebars. A
significant decrease in bond strength was obtained for corroded ribbed rebars when a longitudinal cor-
rosion-induced splitting crack was present. Hence, a shift from pull-out failure to splitting failure was
observed for increasing corrosion level.
1 Introduction
The bond between reinforcement and concrete is fundamental in the composite behaviour of RC. There-
fore, it is important to have a good understanding of the impact of various degradation mechanisms on
the bond behaviour, both for RC structural design as well as the assessment of existing degraded RC
structures. As corrosion can be considered as the most common degradation mechanism in RC, this
paper focuses on the effect of reinforcement corrosion on the bond between steel and concrete. Three
different mechanisms are responsible for the bond behaviour at the steel-concrete interface (SCI). These
are chemical adhesion, friction and mechanical interlocking, where the last is only present in case of
ribbed reinforcement. As corrosion changes the appearance and characteristics of the SCI, its effect on
the bond behaviour is undeniable. A general consensus in the literature is that the bond strength in-
creases for low corrosion levels and decreases for higher ones [1][2]. This results from early improved
frictional properties for low corrosion levels and, later, degradation of the surrounding concrete by
induced tensile splitting stresses leading to concrete cover cracking for higher corrosion levels. How-
ever, the individual effects of various parameters on the bond strength are not yet clearly defined.
This paper discusses the results of an extensive experimental campaign that investigated the bond
degradation in RC samples due to reinforcement corrosion. Careful sample design allowed to single out
the effect of important parameters. Results in this paper can be interpreted for a better understanding of
the corrosion-induced cracking process and underlying bond mechanisms used to deduce empirical
models, or used to improve numerical models by parameter calibration or validation.
2 Experimental Procedure
2.1 Materials and sample preparation

In total, 117 samples were tested in three test series with varying geometrical properties such as cover
depth, corroding length and reinforcement setup. The corroding part of the rebar was located in the
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middle of the sample to avoid crevice corrosion at the entrance point of the rebar in the concrete block
b
and to represent a part of a rebar that is embedded in an actual structure. For each configuration and
corrosion level, three replicate samples were cast. Fig. 1 schematically shows the layout and dimensions
of the samples of the three test series. Parameters depicted in red could vary in the same test series (TS).
The arrow on top indicates the casting direction. More information about each sample can be obtained
if
by analysing the accompanying nomenclature, which is built as:
In the first test series (TS1), acoustic emission monitoring was applied as described in [3]. TS1 samples
contained a centrally placed smooth or ribbed rebar with a corroding length of 100 mm. For TS1, the
nomenclature deviates from the above-defined values as CL1 corresponds to 1.5% ML. Test series 2
(TS2) was designed to evaluate the effect of a shorter corroding length (42 mm) and the presence of
stirrups in the sample. These stirrups could be coated (cs) to prevent corrosion or be connected to the
rebar (s). The third test series (TS3) was designed with an excentric rebar to obtain more realistic values
for the concrete cover depth. The corroding length was kept the same as in TS2 and only ribbed rebars
were considered. In addition, three samples were cast with the rebar located at the bottom of the mould
and tested without corrosion to investigate the influence of the casting direction on the bond strength.
For these samples, a letter ‘b’ was added to the nomenclature for the reinforcement setup. Casting and
curing of the samples were performed in agreement with EN 12390-2 [4]. Conditions in the curing
room were 20 ± 1°C and 90 ± 3%RH.
Fig. 1 Dimensions for sample preparation for all test series.
The cement used in the experiments was normal Portland cement CEM I 42.5N. The proportions (in
weight) in the concrete composition were chosen to represent existing RC structures as 1:1.8:3.6 ce-
ment, sand and gravel respectively. The water to cement ratio was 0.47 and an additional 2% by weight
of the cement was introduced into the mix as salt (NaCl) to accelerate the corrosion process. The con-
crete class of C35/45 was determined by standardized compressive and bending tests on samples of the
same mix according to the related standards EN 12390-3 [5] and EN 12390-5 [6].
2.2 Accelerated corrosion process

An impressed direct current method was used to accelerate the corrosion process. Therefore, samples
were partially immersed in a 5% NaCl solution which operates as the electrolyte in the electrochemical
cell. The rebar serves as the anode and an external stainless steel plate acted as the cathode. The forced
oxidation reaction of the steel was imposed at a constant current density of 100 µA/cm² which corre-
sponds to the maximum values recorded for highly chloride-contaminated RC in natural conditions [7].
However, it should be mentioned that the formed corrosion products and distribution in this setup might
476 Retrofitting and assessment of existing structures
differ from what would be expected in naturally corroding RC [8]. During the process, longitudinal and
b
transverse splitting cracks (Fig. 2) were formed and measured weekly at 9 different locations along the
concrete surface using a crack meter with an accuracy of 0.04 mm.
The time to reach the target corrosion levels was estimated by Faraday’s law. Afterwards, the actual
CLs were experimentally determined by measuring the ML of the rebar. Therefore, corrosion products
were cleaned from the rebar’s surface without significant removal of the intact iron in accordance with
if
ASTM G1-03 [9]. In this paper, CL is always expressed as a percentage of ML.
Fig 2. Longitudinal (red) and transverse (green) cracks after the accelerated corrosion process.
2.3 Pull-out tests

Two different testing machines were used to perform pull-out (PO) tests. However, the working prin-
ciple of the PO setup is the same in both cases. TS1 was carried out on a testing machine with a capacity
of 2500 kN (MFL) while TS2 and TS3 used a smaller (better in proportion) testing machine with a
capacity of 100 kN (Shimadzu). In both cases, the rebar was fixed at the bottom while the support plate
beneath the sample moved upwards, hence realizing PO of the rebar. The slip was recorded at the free
end of the rebar with a linear variable differential transformer (LVDT). The tests were displacement-
controlled with a displacement rate of 0.3 mm/min. For TS2 and TS3, two additional LVDTs were
installed to monitor the slip in the grip system and the deformation of the loading frame. All LVDTs
and the testing machine were connected to an automatic data logger recording the measured displace-
ments [mm] and load [kN] every 0.01 seconds. The test setup was presented in [3]. The bond stress
could be calculated from the measured PO-force as:
𝐹
𝜏= , (1)
𝐷∙𝜋∙𝐿
where 𝜏 is the bond stress [MPa], F is the PO-force [N], D is the diameter of the main rebar [mm]
and L is the bond length [mm].
3.1 Accelerated corrosion process

After testing, the actual CL of the rebars was determined by weighing the cleaned rebars and compared
to the target in Table 1. A general trend can be observed that Faraday’s law underestimates the corrosion
level in an early stage and overestimates the mass loss for higher corrosion levels. This observation is
in line with previous studies and is often assigned to the wrong assumption that all electron flow origi-
nated from the dissolution of iron(II) in the electrochemical reaction [10]. However, in later stages
iron(III) might dissolve in the solution or other processes may occur. Furthermore, when a stirrup was
connected to the rebar (Rs or Ss), the measured CL for the rebar was lower. Here, the corrosion process
preferentially took place on the stirrup due to a lower concrete cover and thus lower electrical resistivity.
This was confirmed by the formation of larger transverse cracks for these samples.
The expansive nature of the corrosion reaction induces tensile splitting stresses in the concrete sur-
rounding the corroding rebar. When the tensile strength of the concrete is exceeded, a radial crack forms
that propagates outwards towards the concrete surface. A longitudinal crack (parallel to the rebar) over
the entire surface was observed for the samples with the highest corrosion levels (CL2 and CL3). The
crack width was measured weekly and the average crack width per sample is shown as a function of
time in Fig. 3 for the different TS. To avoid overcomplicating the figure, standard deviations are not
shown. Two outliers were identified: first, CL3-1-S-2 presented a crack on a different surface than the
one immersed in the solution. Since this is not expected, it is identified as an outlier. Second, the split-
ting crack of CL3-2-Rcs-2 reached much higher values than other samples in TS2 (0.72 mm). This is
attributed to the formation of only a longitudinal crack, while the other samples in the same series also
14th
developed a transverse crack. Finally, it should be mentioned that crack widths measured for samples
b
CL2-3-R before 14 days were omitted. Immediately after demoulding, cracks of 0.04 mm could be
observed on the surface. However, these were dedicated to shrinkage rather than the corrosion process.
Table 1 Comparison between target and measured corrosion levels for all different samples.
if
TS1 Target Measured TS3 Target Measured
CL [%] CL [%] CL [%] CL [%]
CL1-1-R-1;-2;-3 1.5 2.66; 1.25; 2.35 CL1-3-R-1;-2;-3 1 1.22; 1.12; 1.42
CL2-1-R-1;-2;-3 5 3.97; 5.55; 3.64 CL2-3-R-1;-2;-3 5 3.43; 3.68; 4.01
CL3-1-R-1;-2;-3 10 8.18; 8.97; 7.56 CL1-3-Rs-1;-2;-3 1 0.86; 0.99; 0.63
CL1-1-S-1;-2;-3 1.5 2.94; 2.62; 2.71 CL2-3-Rs-1;-2;-3 5 3.16; 2.50; 2.74
CL2-1-S-1;-2;-3 5 1.83; 5.45; 3.52
CL3-1-S-1;-2;-3 10 6.07; 6.55; 7.41
TS2 (Ribbed) Target Measured TS2 (Smooth) Target Measured
CL [%] CL [%] CL [%] CL [%]
CL1-2-R-1;-2;-3 1 1.24; 0.87; 0.79 CL1-2-S-1;-2;-3 1 2.31; 1.89; 2.22
CL2-2-R-1;-2;-3 5 4.00; 3.62; 2.60 CL2-2-S-1;-2;-3 5 5.19; 4.08; 3.13
CL3-2-R-1;-2-3 10 6.71; 7.37; 5.59 CL3-2-S-1;-2-3 10 5.86; 5.80; 6.45
CL1-3-Rs-1;-2;-3 1 1.09; 1.55; 1.08 CL1-2-Ss-1;-2;-3 1 1.82; 1.54; 1.47
CL2-3-Rs-1;-2;-3 5 3.51; 2.27; 2.33 CL2-2-Ss-1;-2;-3 5 1.55; 1.87; 1.89
CL3-3-Rs-1;-2;-3 10 4.01; 3.98; 2.66 CL3-2-Ss-1;-2;-3 10 4.56; 3.49; 2.81
CL1-2-Rcs-1;-2;-3 1 1.39; 1.71; 1.75 CL1-2-Scs-1;-2;-3 1 2.55; 1.91; 2.29

CL2-2-Rcs-1;-2;-3 5 3.68; 3.75; 3.99 CL2-2-Scs-1;-2;-3 5 2.81; 2.65; 5.60
CL3-2-Rcs-1;-2;-3 10 6.97; 7.96; 4.63 CL3-2-Scs-1;-2;-3 10 5.69; 6.21; 5.28
Fig. 3 Average crack width measured with a crackmeter versus time.

A first observation is the general lower crack widths for samples with a smooth rebar. For TS2, none
b
of the samples containing a smooth rebar cracked due to the corrosion process despite CLs reaching as
high as 6.45%. The angular shape of a ribbed rebar and the associated tensile stress concentrations
could explain these observations. Second, the passive confinement provided by stirrups result in smaller
longitudinal crack widths. This was confirmed by comparing the crack widths obtained for the samples
with and without a coated stirrup. Samples containing a corroding stirrup always showed lower longi-
if
tudinal crack widths. However, this could be attributed to the shift in corrosion process from the rebar
towards the stirrup, so results of these tests are not conclusive on the influence of the stirrups.
Finally, the significant influence of passive confinement in the cracking process can be revealed by
comparing the obtained average crack widths in the different test series. Literature shows that large
crack widths exceeding 0.50 mm are not exceptional for the considered CLs (0-10% ML) [2][10]. How-
ever, a common practice in these experiments is the use of a long corroding length L relative to the size
of the sample (as in TS1). When a smaller corroding length L is implemented, such as in TS2 and TS3,
generally lower average crack widths are obtained. This is caused by the relative higher confinement
effect of the surrounding concrete when the corroding length L is smaller, resulting in an increased
resistance to cover cracking. This effect is shown graphically in Fig. 4.
Fig. 4 shows the obtained CL versus average crack width for samples with ribbed ad smooth rebars.
Results were added from Lin et al. [11] (red squares) to have comparable results of samples with a
small cover (c) and long bond lengths (L), which is not included in TS1, TS2 or TS3. The used symbols
refer to the cover-to-diameter ratio (c/d), circles and squares represent respectively high (c/d=4.86 –
5.75) and low (c/d = 2 – 2.1) ratios. Conversely, the color determines the bond length-to-diameter ratio
(L/d), higher ratios (L/d = 8.33 – 10) are depicted in red, whereas a lower ratio (L/d = 3) is shown in
yellow. The figure highlights the substantial difference in obtained average crack width between long
(red) and short (yellow) bond lengths and that the influence of the c/d-ratio appears subordinate to the
L/d-ratio. Results clearly show the importance of the corroding length on the obtained crack width for
both smooth and ribbed rebars. When the corroding length of the rebar is longer, a relative smaller
volume of the surrounding concrete is providing passive confinement to resist tensile stresses, leading
to larger crack widths [12]. Therefore, this is an important parameter to take into account for models
predicting crack widths in corroding structures.
Fig. 4. Corrosion level versus average crack width for samples with ribbed (left) and smooth (right)
rebars (Additional data from [11] depicted as ◻).
3.2 Pull-out tests

After the corrosion process, the bond behaviour of the samples was tested by means of PO-tests. Slip
and PO-force were continuously monitored, resulting in bond-slip diagrams. Fig. 5 shows the obtained
relation between bond stress and slip for the different samples. Samples that were pre-cracked due to
the corrosion process are shown with a dash-dotted line. The bond strength of uncorroded samples
(CL0, green) is clearly higher for a ribbed rebar in comparison with smooth rebars. The bond strength
of smooth rebars is only based on chemical adhesion and friction, whilst ribbed rebars also provide
mechanical interlocking. When rebars are corroded, the role of confinement is critical in understanding
the bond behaviour. Initially, the expansive nature of the corrosion products leads to rebars that are
14th
more confined resulting in higher bond strength and stiffness. This effect is more pronounced for cor-
b
roded smooth rebars. However, when the rust expansion becomes too large and the surrounding con-
crete is cracked, confinement is lost and bond strength again decreases. This is clearly visible in the
results obtained for the CL2-2-R-series, where two of the three samples were pre-cracked due to the
corrosion process, hence showing a lower bond strength.
if
Fig. 5 Relation between bond stress and slip of samples obtained during PO-tests.

Further, a shift from PO-failure to splitting failure was observed for increasing corrosion levels. The
b
stresses resulting from the bearing action during PO together with the splitting stresses due to the ex-
pansive corrosion process lead to cracking of the concrete cover. This is a rather brittle process resulting
in a sudden drop of the bond stress after reaching the maximum value. Results show that stirrups do not
influence this process. However, their effect becomes evident in the post-peak behaviour in the splitting
failure mode where they provide higher residual bond stress values. When the failure mode of the sam-
if
ple is PO, the influence of stirrups is negliable.
The obtained bond strength can be further compared in Fig. 6, which shows the relative bond
strength versus the corrosion level. The relative bond strength is calculated by dividing the bond
strength of the corroded sample by the average bond strength of the corresponding uncorroded uncon-
fined reference. For ribbed rebars, the same trend as before is visible. The bond strength increases for
low CLs and decreases again for higher CLs. The transition coincides with the CLs that lead to cracking
(CL ≈ 3% ML) due to the corrosion process, indicated by the shaded area. For smooth rebars, the in-
crease in bond strength is much more significant. However, the increase appears to reach a plateau that
prevents further improved bond behaviour. When large longitudinal cracks are present, the bond
strength also decreases, but the relative bond strength remains well above 1. In this test campaign, no
decrease in bond strength was obtained for corroded smooth rebars up to a corrosion level of 7.41%
ML.
Fig. 6 Relative bond strength versus corrosion level for ribbed and smooth rebars.
In Fig. 7, the relative bond strength is plotted against the average crack width of the sample measured
after the accelerated corrosion process. These results show that a potentially better correlation can be
found for the decreasing bond strength with the average crack width when compared to the CL. This
finding is also suggested in [13]. However, to be conclusive, more samples should be tested with higher
average crack widths.
Fig. 7 Relative bond strength versus average crack width for ribbed and smooth rebars
14 th
4 Conclusion
b
In this paper, the results of an extensive experimental campaign on bond behaviour of corroded RC
were discussed. Crack widths were monitored during an accelerated corrosion process and bond-slip
diagrams were shown with the results of the PO tests. First, it was established that the bond length-to-
diameter ratio (L/d) is a very important parameter in predicting or evaluating corrosion-induced crack
if
widths. The influence of the cover depth-to-diameter ratio (c/d) was subordinate to the L/d-ratio and
stirrups were indicated as an important tool to control the cracking process and limit crack widths.
Further, the results clearly show the impact of reinforcement corrosion on the bond strength of RC
samples. The increase in bond strength for low corrosion levels is more pronounced for smooth rebars
and can be observed for a larger range of corrosion levels when compared to ribbed rebars. Moreover,
corrosion plays an important role in the shift of failure mode during PO-test. A shift from PO-failure to
splitting failure was observerd for increasing corrosion levels due to the induced tensile stresses in the
concrete cover.
Finally, the results of this experimental campaign indicate that the corrosion-induced crack width
might be a better indicator in the assessment of the bond degradation than the corrosion level itself.
This is an important finding as it promotes the ability of in-situ assessment of corroding structures.
Crack widths are easier to obtain non-destructively than the CL of the rebar.
References
[1] J.G. Cabrera, Deterioration of concrete due to reinforcement steel corrosion. Cement and Con-
crete Composites, 1996. 18(1): p. 47-59.
[2] H.W. Lin, Y.X. Zhao, P. Feng, H.L. Ye, J. Ozbolt, C. Jiang, and J.Q. Yang, State-of-the-art
review on the bond properties of corroded reinforcing steel bar. Constr Build Mater, 2019. 213:
p. 216-233.
[3] C. Van Steen, E. Verstrynge, M. Wevers, and L. Vandewalle, Assessing the bond behaviour of
corroded smooth and ribbed rebars with acoustic emission monitoring. Cement Concrete Res,
2019. 120: p. 176-186.
[4] European Committee For Standardization, EN 12390-2: Testing hardened concrete - Part 2:
Making and curing specimens for strength tests. 2019: Brussels.

Compressive strength of test specimens. 2019: Brussels.
Flexural strength of test specimens. 2019: Brussels.
[7] C. Andrade and C. Alonso, Corrosion rate monitoring in the laboratory and on-site. Constr
Build Mater, 1996. 10(5): p. 315-328.
[8] S. Robuschi, A. Tengattini, J. Dijkstra, I. Fernandez, and K. Lundgren, A closer look at corro-
sion of steel reinforcement bars in concrete using 3D neutron and X-ray computed tomography.
Cement Concrete Res, 2021. 144.
[9] American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM G1-03: Standard Practice for Preparing
Cleaning and Evaluating Corrosion Test Specimens. 2017: West Conshohocken.
[10] C. Andrade, C. Alonso, and F.J. Molina, Cover cracking as a function of bar corrosion: Part
I-Experimental test. Mater Struct, 1993. 26: p. 453-464.
[11] H. Lin, Y. Zhao, J. Ožbolt, and H.-W. Reinhardt, Bond strength evaluation of corroded steel
bars via the surface crack width induced by reinforcement corrosion. Eng Struct, 2017. 152: p.
506-522.
[12] A.A. Torres-Acosta and A.A. Sagues, Concrete cracking by localized steel corrosion - Geo-
metric effects. Aci Mater J, 2004. 101(6): p. 501-507.
[13] M.W.T. Mak, P. Desnerck, and J.M. Lees, Corrosion-induced cracking and bond strength in
reinforced concrete. Constr Build Mater, 2019. 208: p. 228-241.

Analytical and numerical approaches
b
for the deformation capacity assessment
of corroded concrete beams
if
Alberto Stella and Anna Saetta
Department of Architecture and Arts,
IUAV University of Venice,
Dorsoduro 2206, 30123, Venice, Italy
Abstract
Reinforcement corrosion can strongly affect both strength and deformation capacity of reinforced con-
crete (RC) members. Effective approaches for deformation capacity assessment of corroded members
are strongly needed, especially when a performance-based assessment of deteriorated structures should
be carried out. In this work, analytical and numerical approaches for the analysis of corroded RC beams
are considered, highlighting the role of various modelling choices on the simulated response, especially
in terms of deformation capacity. A set of RC beams tested at University of Rome “Tor Vergata” was
simulated, paying particular attention to modelling corrosion effects on the characteristics of steel bars.
Adopted models are able to predict failure mode changes and reductions in deformation capacity as
corrosion level increases, even if the adoption of different strategies to model the characteristics of
corroded bars leads to a considerable variability of the results.
1 Introduction
Deformation capacity is a fundamental characteristic for RC members. It allows redistribution of inter-
nal actions in structures and it provides them with the ability to withstand imposed inelastic deformation
demands, such as those due to settlement of supports [1]. Moreover, deformation capacity becomes a
design-governing parameter when RC structures should be able to survive strong seismic events with-
out reaching collapse. Indeed, the performance of a structure when subjected to strong earthquakes is
associated to its ability to withstand the induced deformation demands at members, exploiting their
deformation capacity, rather than to its strength performance [2]. Detailing for assuring deformation
capacity of members, combined with the application of capacity design principles and a good global
conceptual design, allows also a better structural response against other kind of extreme actions, such
as blast loading [3], providing the entire structure with the necessary robustness characteristics.
In the assessment of structural performances of existing RC members, one relevant aspect to be
considered regards the effects of deterioration mechanisms on the structural response. Indeed, it is
widely recognized that degradation of structural properties due to various phenomena, such as rein-
forcement corrosion, freeze-thaw cycles, alkali-aggregate reaction, can have significant negative im-
pacts on the structural behaviour. Among the various degradation mechanisms, the corrosion of steel
rebars is one of the most relevant and widespread. It affects not only reinforcement geometry and me-
chanical characteristics, but also the behaviour of surrounding concrete and steel-concrete interface [4],
[5]. Consequences on the behaviour of RC members involve the change of resisting mechanism and
failure mode and, in many cases, reduction of both strength and deformation capacity of the members
[6], [7].
For the assessment of RC members affected by degradation processes, a strategy often adopted in
practice involves the use of modelling and calculation approaches originally developed for the analysis
of undamaged structures, extended for taking into account degradation effects by modifying geomet-
rical and/or mechanical parameters. This kind of approach, however, has raised some concerns since it
may not always represent an effective solution [8]. Some care should then be taken when using models
which were developed considering undamaged members. As a matter of fact, they should be always
validated in advance, in order to prove their effectiveness for the analysis of deteriorated elements. Or,
when extensions of existing models are proposed, they should be done by enhancing the original ap-
proaches for correctly considering the specific effects of reinforcement corrosion [9].
14 th
The research presented in this work aims at evaluating the performances of some practice-oriented
modelling approaches herein adopted for the assessment of structural response of corroded RC beams,
b
with a particular emphasis on the evaluation of failure modes and deformation capacity. In detail, an
analytical approach for sectional analysis is tested and a numerical analysis procedure is evaluated for
the modelling of corroded RC members.
In modelling response of corroded RC elements, several consequences of the deterioration phenom-
if
ena should be considered. In particular, focusing on the aspects which affects the sectional deformation
capacity, two of the most relevant are the spread of cracking in the concrete which surrounds the cor-
roded rebars and the loss of confinement effectiveness due to the corrosion of the stirrups [10]. Indeed,
in the case of failure modes associated to concrete crushing, the sectional curvature capacity would be
strongly reduced since both the aforementioned phenomena can compromise the strain deformation
capacity of concrete in compression and foster the buckling of the longitudinal reinforcement. On the
other hand, an additional corrosion consequence which can strongly influence the sectional curvature
capacity is the rupture of longitudinal steel rebars. This can occur for corroded members characterized
by significant mass loss and presence of pits along the rebars, in which a significant reduction of ulti-
mate tensile strain of rebars can occur because of stress concentrations [11], [12].
The proposed research focuses in particular on this latter aspect, and the adopted modelling strate-
gies are conceived to take into account for corrosion effects on reinforcement properties in terms of
reduction of both cross-sectional area and ultimate tensile strain of rebars. To tests the models perfor-
mances, data from an experimental campaign on both uncorroded and corroded RC beams are consi-
dered. In section 2 the reference experimental campaign is briefly recalled, summarizing the most si-
gnificant results. Section 3 and section 4 present respectively the adopted modelling approaches and
the modelling results, discussing the models performances and highlighting capabilities and limitations.
The main findings are briefly summarized in the conclusions presented in section 5.
2 Data from experimental tests on reinforced concrete beams

Data obtained from a set of experimental tests performed at University of Rome “Tor Vergata” [13]
have been considered for the analysis of the analytical and numerical modelling strategies. The set
consisted of six doubly reinforced concrete beams, with a total length Ltot = 3.7m and a cross section
with width b = 20cm and height h = 30cm. Beams were tested in a four-point bending configuration,
for which a schematic picture of the setup is illustrated in Fig. 1. The type of supports could suggest
the presence of some friction between the bottom surface of the beams and the supports.
Bottom and top longitudinal reinforcement of the beams were both made by two rebars having
diameter ϕ0 = 20mm. Longitudinal rebars were bent at 90° at both beam ends, to improve the anchorage
effectiveness. Transverse reinforcement consisted of closed two-legged stirrups having diameter ϕw0 =
8mm, with spacing sw = 10cm in the shear span and of sw = 20cm in the central portion of the beam. A
net cover cnet = 2cm was adopted, measured for the stirrup boundary to the section edges.
Longitudinal and transverse reinforcements were made of hot rolled Tempcore® steel rebars clas-
sified as B450C steel according to the Italian standard NTC18 [14], with characteristic values of yield-
ing strength and peak strength respectively equal to fyk = 450MPa and fyk = 540MPa. The employed
concrete was required to belong to class C35/45, defined according to EN206-1 [15].
Two of the beams (RC-1 and RC-2) have been tested in non-corroded conditions as reference cases,
while the other four beams have been subjected to an accelerated corrosion process before testing [13].
Only the bottom longitudinal rebars have been corroded, while the top longitudinal rebars and the stir-
rups have been treated with a special epoxy paint prior to casting in order to avoid corrosion. After the
tests, corroded bars have been extracted from specimens and average mass loss Δm has been measured,
obtaining the following values: Δm = 7.55% (beam RC-C1), Δm = 13.12% (beam RC-C2), Δm = 17.85%
(beam RC-C3), Δm = 22.94% (beam RC-C4).
For the uncorroded beams RC-1 and RC-2, as well as for the corroded beam RC-C1, the tests con-
tinued till the displacement at midspan reached a value of approximately 120mm and no strength drops
have been recorded during testing of these specimens. For beam RC-C2 a sudden drop of strength has
been detected at a midspan displacement equal approximately to 70mm, probably due to a partial
debonding and loss of end anchorage of longitudinal bottom rebars. A significant reduction in ultimate
strength and deformation capacity has been observed in beams RC-C3 and RC-C4, for which the failure
was associated to rupture of a steel rebar.

Analitical and numerical approaches for the deformation capacity assessment of corroded concrete beams
Fig. 1
3.1
if b
Testing setup and loading scheme adopted in the experimental tests described in [13].
Modelling approaches
Modelling the response of beam members

In modelling the response of sound and corroded beams, it is of primary interest to determine the flex-
ural failure mode of the beam sections which are prone to reach failure first. In this work, the analytical
approach presented in [16] is adopted, which allows to build graphs for the identification of flexural
failure mode of analyzed beam sections. Two types of graphs are built: i) considering as limit condition
for concrete that of beginning of cover spalling (i.e., ε = εspalling on the outer fiber of concrete cover); ii)
considering as limit condition for concrete that of core crushing (i.e., ε = εcu on the outer fiber of con-
crete core). Using these graphs, it is respectively possible to determine whether or not the section can
reach the onset of cover spalling, and which is flexural failure mode. Regarding material constitutive
laws, an elastic-perfectly plastic law has been adopted for steel, while a parabolic law followed by a
linear softening branch till zero-strength has been assumed for unconfined concrete in compression.
Values of material parameters adopted in the analytical modelling are the following: steel yielding
strength fy = 520MPa; steel elastic modulus Es = 206000MPa; steel ultimate tensile strain εsu = 120‰;
concrete compressive strength fc = 45MPa; concrete compressive strain at peak strenght εc0 = -2‰;
concrete compressive strain at onset of cover spalling εspalling = -4‰; concrete ultimate compressive
strain εcu = -8‰, also assumed as the strain at the end of the softening branch (i.e., at zero strength). As
an example, graphs of domains obtained for beam RC-C3 are presented in Fig. 2, predicting a flexural
failure of the section due to rebars rupture occurred after the beginning of cover spalling.
To simulate the member response of RC beams, nonlinear finite element analyses using fiber beam-
column elements have been performed, using the OpenSees framework [17] with the pre- and post-
processing environments of the software STKO [18]. The Steel 02 uniaxial material (based on the Me-
negotto-Pinto law [19]) has been adopted for modelling steel rebars, using a hardening ratio b = 0.0065.
For concrete in compression, Concrete 04 uniaxial material (based on Popovics model [20]) has been
used. A linear law with an exponential softening branch was used for concrete in tension, with the
following parameters: tensile strength fct = 2MPa, ultimate strain εct = 0.0005; strength at ultimate strain
fctu = 0.2MPa. Remaining material parameters have been adopted equal to those used for analytical
analyses. A suitable boundary condition has been set at supports to simulate the friction between sup-
ports and the beam, which generates an axial load due to the restrained elongation of the beam after the
shift of the neutral axis. A friction coefficient equal to μ = 0.3 has been adopted.
14th
if b
1 Onset of cover spalling reached, with bottom steel yielded in tension and top steel yielded in compression
2 Onset of cover spalling reached, with bottom steel yielded in tension and top steel elastic
3 Onset of cover spalling reached, with bottom steel yielded in tension and top steel yielded in tension
4 Steel rupture reached before the onset of cover spalling, with top steel yielded in compression
5 Steel rupture reached before the onset of cover spalling, with top steel elastic
6 Steel rupture reached before reaching concrete peak strength, with top steel elastic
7 Core crushing reached, with bottom steel yielded in tension and top steel yielded in compression
8 Core crushing reached, with bottom steel yielded in tension and top steel elastic
9 Steel rupture reached after reaching of εcu on cover outer fiber, with top steel elastic
10 Steel rupture reached before reaching of εcu on cover outer fiber, with top steel yielded in compression
11 Steel rupture reached before reaching of εcu on cover outer fiber, with top steel elastic
12 Steel rupture reached before reaching concrete peak strength, with top steel elastic
Fig. 2 Graphs of domains for the identification of sectional failure mode for beam RC-C3. A gen-
eral description of the underlying analytical formulation is reported in [16].
3.2 Modelling corrosion effects on the characteristics of steel rebars

In modelling corrosion effects on steel rebars, it is important to consider the maximum reduction of
cross-sectional area and of ultimate tensile strain. In Fig. 3 different formulations are compared, for the
evaluation of minimum residual area [21], [22] and for the evaluation of ultimate strain of rebars [4],
[23], [11]. In the adopted calculation, the mass loss evaluated as average on the whole beams has been
used to estimate the generalized corrosion penetration x. Then, the maximum penetration p is obtained
by multiplying the generalized corrosion penetration by a pitting factor α. The minimum residual cross-
sectional area Ares,min is calculated from the maximum penetration considering a model for the shape of
the residual cross-section. The ultimate strain for corroded rebars εsu,corr can be obtained using one of
the aforecited models, which use as input parameter the ratio between minimum residual cross-sectional
area and sound area of rebars. In Fig. 4 the minimum residual area normalized to the sound area is
compared for different values of the pitting factor.
In the present work, corrosion effects on compressed concrete surrounding the rebars have been
neglected, since corrosion is present only in tensioned longitudinal bars. Regarding the bond deteriora-
tion, considering the aim of the present investigation it has not been considered at this stage of the
research, even if it could have affected the response of the analyzed beams, especially of those showing
high values of average mass loss.
Fig. 3 Modelling reduction of minimum residual area Ares,min in corrosion pits and ultimate tensile
strain of corroded bars εsu,corr with a value εsu = 0.120.
if b
Fig. 4 Variation of ratio between minimum residual area and original area of rebars as a function
of average mass loss, considering two models and different values of the pitting factor.
4 Results
A first set of analyses has been conducted considering a pitting factor α = 10 [24] and using the models
from Val & Melchers [22] and Finozzi et al. [11] for the calculation of residual minimum area and
ultimate strain of rebars, respectively. In Table 1 the predicted failure modes obtained with the analyt-
ical approach for sectional analysis are presented. A good agreement with experimental response is
obtained for beams RC-C3 and RC-C4, which experienced rupture of steel rebars. Results for specimen
RC-C2 have been included despite in this case, due to the presence of bond loss, the comparison be-
tween experimental and analytical results are of limited relevance. In Fig. 5 numerical and experimental
force-displacement curves are compared. It can be seen that a fairly good estimation is obtained for
peak strength, while deformation capacity of beams with steel rupture is overestimated.
A second set of analyses have been carried out for beams RC-C3 and RC-C4, involving a sensitivity
study performed varying the value of pitting factor α, the model adopted for the shape of residual area
and the model for the definition of the ultimate strain of rebars. Using the model from Coronelli and
Gambarova [4] for calculation of ultimate rebar strain, the maximum value of the parameter (1 - Ares,min
/ A0) has been assumed equal to 0.5. Fig. 6 shows the obtained values for rebars ultimate strain, while
Fig. 7 depicts the results of the parametric analyses in terms of predicted deformation capacity normal-
ized to the experimental one. A significant variability of results can be observed.
Table 1 Overview of behaviour for tested beams with comparison between observed and analyti-
cally predicted failure modes obtained using analytical failure mode domains.
Experimentally observed Analytically predicted
Beam Δm [%]
ultimate condition sectional failure mode
RC-1 Concrete crushing at midspan Core concrete crushing, with tensile re-
- with tensile reinforcement bars yielded and compressive rebars
RC-2 yielded elastic
Concrete crushing at midspan Nearly contemporary core concrete
RC-C1 7.55 with tensile reinforcement crushing and rupture of tensile rebars,
yielded with compressive rebars elastic
Partial debonding and loss of Rupture of tensile rebars after the reach-
end anchorage of longitudinal ing of ultimate concrete compressive
RC-C2 12.13
bottom rebars strain in the outer fiber of cover, with
compressive rebars elastic
Rupture of bottom steel rebars Rupture of tensile rebars after the begin-
RC-C3 17.85 at midspan after the beginning ning of concrete cover spalling, with
of concrete cover spalling compressive rebars elastic
Rupture of bottom steel rebars Rupture of tensile rebars before the be-
RC-C4 22.94 at midspan before the begin- ginning of concrete cover spalling, with
ning of concrete cover spalling compressive rebars elastic

14 th
if b
Fig. 5 Comparison between experimental and numerical response for analyzed beams.
Considering results obtained with the area model from Val and Melchers [22], the deformation
capacity is almost always overestimated, particularly for specimen RC-C4 and using mid-to-low values
of the pitting factor, regardless of the adopted model for residual ultimate steel strain. Using the area
model from Rodriguez et al. [21], conservative estimations of ultimate deflection are obtained in some
cases and a lower variability with the pitting factor is recorded. Regardless of the used area model, the
considered modelling strategy may overestimate ultimate deflections, by not allowing to represent pos-
sible localization of curvatures. Overall, some care is always suggested to be adopted when choosing
the pitting factor and the models for evaluating residual area and ultimate tensile strain of corroded
rebars, in order to avoid rough under- or overestimations of deformation capacity.
5 Conclusions
The use of simplified practice-oriented modelling strategies should be done with some care in the as-
sessment of existing RC members affected by reinforcement corrosion. Even considering only corro-
sion effects on characteristics of corroded rebars, a significant variability of results can be obtained by
varying formulations and model parameters. Traditionally suggested models for area reduction and
values for the pitting factor which can be adequate to predict strength reduction, may not be as well
suitable to simulate reduction of deformation capacity.
Acknowledgements
Authors wish to acknowledge assistance and supervision by Dr. Luisa Berto and Dr. Diego Talledo.
Fig. 6
if b
Ratio between ultimate tensile strain of corroded and sound steel rebars, for different mod-
els and different values of the pitting factor, with εsu = 0.120.
Fig. 7 Ratio between modelled and experimentally measured deformation capacity of highly cor-
roded beams, for different models and different values of the pitting factor.

14th
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[22] Val D. V. and Melchers R. E. 1997. “Reliability of deteriorating RC slab bridges.” Journal of
Structural Engineering 123:1638–44.
[23] Biondini F. and Vergani M. 2012. “Damage modeling and nonlinear analysis of concrete
bridges under corrosion.” Paper presented at the 6th International IABMAS Conference, Stresa,
Italy, July 8-12.
[24] Rodriguez J. and Andrade C. C. 2001. CONTECVET: A validated Users Manual for assessing
the residual service life of concrete structures.
Dependency of pitting corrosion spatial variability on
b
crack pattern of prestressed concrete members
Lorenzo Franceschini, Beatrice Belletti, Javier Sanchez and Francesco Ton-
dolo
if
Department of Engineering and Architecture,
University of Parma,
Parco Area delle Scienze 181/A, Parma (43124), Italy
Abstract
The assessment of the residual life of corroded concrete structures is strategic to plan maintenance
activities and to limit sudden collapses. However, limited works investigate the uncertainties in the
correlation between the damage induced by corrosion and the structural resistance of members. The
present work studies several strands retrieved from naturally corroded prestressed concrete beams sub-
jected to chloride-induced corrosion. Firstly, the surface defects were mapped, and indirect measure-
ments of corrosion were performed. Then, 3D-models of corroded strands were developed and GOM
Inspect software was adopted to measure pit depths. Finally, an experimental correlation between the
pitting corrosion spatial variability of strands and splitting cracking of concrete, expressed in terms of
maximum pit depth and number of pits per meter, is proposed.
1 Introduction
Nowadays, the corrosion deterioration of reinforcements induced by carbonation or chloride attack in
existing reinforced concrete (RC) and prestressed concrete (PC) structures is worldly recognised as one
of the main causes of the reduction of service life and significant strength decay of corroded members,
especially in structures exposed to aggressive environments [1].
In the last decades, the behaviour of deteriorating RC and PC structures has been widely investi-
gated. Several works studied the change in failure mode of corroded RC and PC members [2], and
investigated the residual mechanical behaviour of steel rebar and prestressing strands [3]–[5]. Moreo-
ver, the scientific literature devoted many efforts in identifying the relationship between the level of
corrosion and the surface crack width. In particular, different models were proposed by using experi-
mental, analytical and numerical methods, [6], [7].
From the structural engineering point of view, the technical assessment of the residual life of cor-
roded structures and infrastructures by means of an early detection of surface damages may avoid high
costs of maintenance and may significantly limit sudden collapses, traffic disruptions and fatalities. In
this framework, the study of surface defects in the structural element such as longitudinal splitting
cracks, swellings, and spalling of concrete cover plays a fundamental role since it facilitates the identi-
fication of the presence of a corrosion deterioration process. However, referring to PC members, a lack
of scientific studies investigating the uncertainties in the correlation between the surface damages and
the variability in the chloride-induced corrosion attack penetration for cracked and un-cracked zones
has been observed. To this aim, the present work establishes a correlation between the maximum pen-
etration depth of corroded strands and the presence of longitudinal splitting cracks of concrete in the
case of naturally corroded PC beams.
2 Methodology
Six naturally corroded PC beams, coming from a refrigeration tower of a thermal power plant and
subjected to 10 years of wet-dry cycles by using sea-water - that caused chloride-induced corrosion -,
were analysed. The full-scale PC beams had a total length equal to 5.21 m and a rectangular cross-
section equal to 150 mm x 300 mm. The bottom side of the beam was reinforced with two seven-wires
strands with an equivalent diameter of 12.9 mm, whereas the top side was reinforced with two ribbed
bars having a diameter equal to 5 mm; furthermore, no transversal reinforcement was provided. Details
concerning geometrical features and failure modes of the investigated PC beams can be found in pre-
vious works of the Authors [8].
14th
Hereafter, the beams were identified with a code - (PBx) - where PB stands for prestressed beam
followed by a number - 9 to 14 - indicating the name of the beam. Similarly, the retrieved prestressing
b
strand samples were classified using the same identifying code but adding a letter L or R to specify the
left or right strand cross-section position and numbers in brackets representing the initial and final ab-
scissa (expressed in cm) at which the sample was retrieved - (PBx-L(yy-zz) or PBx-R(yy-zz)).
if
2.1 Characterisation of corroded PC beams
2.1.1 Mapping of surface defects and indirect measurements of corrosion deterioration
Before testing, each PC beam was visually inspected in order to detect areas potentially affected by
corrosion damages. In general, surface defects consisted in (i) swelling, (ii) spalling of concrete cover,
and (iii) longitudinal cracks induced by splitting of concrete, as shown in Fig. 1(left). Moreover, beam
end sides showed the absence or the lack of an adequate thickness of the concrete cover, causing the
uncovering of prestressing reinforcements and significantly facilitating the penetration of chloride ions
during the wet-dry cycles, as highlighted in Fig. 1(right). Fig. 2 reports the crack pattern of each inves-
tigated PC beam. From one hand, beams PB9, PB12, PB13 and PB14 showed longitudinal cracks in
correspondence of prestressing reinforcement at one or both beam edges, characterised by various crack
length. On the other hand, beam PB10 showed the longitudinal crack at mid-span. Additionally, spalling
of concrete cover was observed at one or both edges of beams PB9, PB10, and PB12, whereas a notice-
able swelling was detected at the top-right and top-left side of beam PB11 and PB13, respectively. It is
worth noting that the crack opening was not measured before testing.
Fig. 1 Surface defects: (left) example of swelling, spalling of concrete cover, and longitudinal
cracks induced by splitting; (right) focus of beam end side - uncovering of reinforcements.
Concurrently, indirect measurements of corrosion such as (a) mapping of the corrosion potential, Ecorr,
(b) ohmic drop, and (c) corrosion rate, Icorr, were carried out on PC beams at the prestressing strand
depth by using GECOR10 instrument; whereas (d) chloride moisture content, Cl-, was evaluated adopt-
ing the procedure described in Chinchón-Payá et al. [9]. The main outcomes are shown in Fig. 2 and
Fig. 3. The corrosion potential of a prestressing steel stands represents the electromotive force or the
voltage conducted by its surface and it is considered as a useful parameter in identifying areas poten-
tially affected by corrosion deterioration. Generally, Ecorr values higher than -200 mV stands for prob-
ability of absence of corrosion greater than 90%, Ecorr values ranging between -200 mV and -350 mV
corresponds to a probable presence of corrosion, whereas Ecorr values lower than -350 mV stands for a
corrosion probability greater than 90%. In the present work, green colour is used for the areas with the
lowest probability of corrosion, orange for areas with an intermediate probability of corrosion, and red
for areas with high probability of corrosion. As it is visible in Fig. 2, a high probability of corrosion
was measured along the overall length of each corroded PC beam (orange or red colours); moreover,
the presence of cracks corresponded to the areas with the highest probability of corrosion. Table 1
reports the experimental values of Ecorr measured at three distinct positions: one at mid-span and the
remaining in correspondence of the left and right edge of the beam, respectively.
PB9
(iii) Beam 1 (i)
b
PB9-L(12-82) PB9-L(426-496)
(ii)
PB9-R(15-60) PB9-R(428-473)
(iv)
PB10
if
PB10-L(445-515)
Beam 2
PB10-R(32-102) PB10-R(287-332)
PB10-L(138-208)
PB11
PB11-L(5-75)
Beam 3
PB11-R(6-51) PB11-L(196-266) PB11-R(273-318)
PB12
PB12-L(12-82)
Beam 4
PB12-R(100-170) PB12-L(124-169) PB12-R(358-403)
PB13
PB13-L(1-46)
Beam 5
PB13-R(70-115) PB13-L(108-148)
PB13-R(0-70)
PB14
PB14-L(10-55) PB14-L(455-500)
Beam 6
PB14-R(2-72) PB14-R(77-122)
Fig. 2 Corroded prestressed concrete beams: (i) crack pattern, (ii) corrosion pattern of strands from
visual inspection after testing - where blue, green and red colour stand for low, medium and
high level of corrosion -, (iii) identification of prestressing strand sample position, (iv) Ecorr
mapping along the overall length of the corroded PC beam - where orange and red colour
stand for intermediate and high probability of corrosion.
Table 1 Ecorr values for three distinct locations.
Beam Sample Ecorr left-side Ecorr mid-span Ecorr right-side
PB9 -577.70 -296.80 -450.80
PB10 -480.10 -644.30 -414.00
PB11 -431.40 -282.50 -233.30
PB12 -530.30 -382.30 -457.70
PB13 -514.60 -364.10 -401.60
PB14 -511.50 -330.00 -390.80
Referring to the same locations, the values of ohmic drop, corrosion rate, and chloride moisture content
were experimentally measured. Fig. 3(top-left) shows that most of the ohmic drop values were between
5 kΩ and 15 kΩ, except for beam PB11 with values higher than 30 kΩ. Since the geometry of the ohmic
drop measurements was similar for all beams, this parameter is directly related to the resistivity of
concrete. The differences in the values can be attributed mainly to the moisture content in the concrete
itself.
14 th
10.0
Corrosion rate, Icorr [μA/cm2]

35 5.0
b
30
Ohmic drop [kΩ]
1.0
25
0.5
20
15
if
0.1
10 0.05
0 0.01
PB9 PB10 PB11 PB12 PB13 PB14 PB9 PB10 PB11 PB12 PB13 PB14
Chloride moisture content, Cl- [%cem]
Prestressed concrete beam (top-left) Prestressed concrete beam (top-right)

10
8
mid-span
6
left-edge right-edge
0
PB9 PB10 PB11 PB12 PB13 PB14
Prestressed concrete beam (bottom-left)

Fig. 3 Indirect measurements of corrosion: (top-left) ohmic drop, (top-right) corrosion rate, and
(bottom-left) chloride moisture content.
Considering corrosion rate trends, expressed in logarithmic scale in Fig. 3(top-right), it is worth noting
that values higher than 0.2 μA/cm2 were generally measured, that results beyond the established thresh-
old of corrosion activation equal to 0.1 μA/cm2, except for beam PB11. In detail, by comparing the
crack pattern - reported in Fig. 2 - with the values of corrosion rate measurement performed on each
corroded PC beam, Icorr values higher than 0.5 μA/cm2 were observed in correspondence of the presence
of longitudinal cracks. Consequently, a more severe level of corrosion deterioration was expected for
strand samples belonging to these zones. Finally, Fig. 3(bottom-left) reports the chloride content at
strand depth in relation to the cement content. The measured values were close to 2.5%cem, except for
two values with concentrations close to 8%cem. These anomalous measurements, which were detected
in correspondence of the left edge of beam PB9 and at mid-span of beam PB10, respectively, might
have been caused by the presence of a remarkable surface defect - i.e. longitudinal crack - that allowed
chlorides to penetrate directly and to concentrate at the level of prestressing strands.
2.1.2 Classification and pit depth analysis of corroded prestressing strands
After testing, the prestressing strands were extracted from their reference beam and classified through
a visual inspection in order to obtain the corresponding corrosion pattern along the overall beam length,
as reported in Fig. 2. To this aim, the strands were firstly subdivided in pieces 500 mm long. Secondly,
each piece of strand was classified according to three different corrosion levels: blue colour for the
absence or a low level of corrosion, green colour for a medium level of corrosion, while the red colour
for a high level of corrosion. Finally, a twenty-four strands (20 corroded and 4 un-corroded) - four for
each tested beams - were retrieved to be analysed. The samples were selected to be representative of
the three corrosion levels previously identified. For the sake of clarity, in Fig. 2 the identifying code
and the position at which each sample was retrieved are reported.
Thereafter, the corrosion damage of each strand was detected by using a 3D structured light scanner
of the GOM ATOS series. Finally, through the principle of superimposition, the 3D models of un-
corroded and corroded samples were compared. To this aim, the pitting spatial variability of each sam-
ple characterised in terms of number of pits, distribution along the sample length, and penetration depths
were evaluated by carrying out a sectional analysis every 10 mm by using GOM Inspect software.
Concurrently, the maximum penetration depth of each external wire making up the strand as well as
their location along sample length were measured and identified. Therefore, an average penetration
depth, Ppit,av, was measured for each sample as the mathematical average of the scanned pits, according
to Eq.(1). For more details on the 3D scanning procedure and GOM Inspect software approach refer to
Vecchi et al. [10].
n
 Ppit
b
(1)
Ppit ,av = 1
n
if
In this section, the main outcomes of the study will be discussed. Firstly, the dependency of pitting
spatial variability as a function of the presence of surface defects and the possible chloride ions ingress
is studied. Then, a measurement-based-correlation between the maximum penetration depth and the
number of pits per meter considering surface defects of concrete will be provided.
Table 2 summarises the main outcomes deriving from the pitting spatial variability analysis. To
compare samples having different size (12 strands 450 mm long - group A - and 12 strands 700 mm
long - group B), the number of pits was divided for the scanned length of each group. The scanned
lengths were equal to 250 mm and 500 mm for group A and group B, respectively, due to the limitations
provided by grip elements of the 3D scanner. Then, the dimensionless value Ppit,max/r and Ppit,av/r were
calculated as the ratio of the maximum and average penetration depth, respectively, by the un-corroded
radius of external wire, r, which was equal to 2.13 mm.
3.1 Pitting spatial variability investigation

To accurate investigate the pitting spatial variability of the corroded strands, the samples were further
subdivided into two groups, Table 2: (i) samples from cracked zones and (ii) samples from un-cracked
zones, according to their position along the overall length of the corresponding PC beam, see Fig. 2.
3.1.1 Distribution of corrosion pit in absence of external surface defects of concrete
2.00 2.00
PB9-L(426-496)_variability PB11-L(196-266)_variability
(top-left) PB9-L(426-496)_Maximum Pit (right) PB11-L(196-266)_Maximum Pit
1.75 1.75 PB12-L(124-169)_variability
PB10-L(445-515)_variability PB12-L(124-169)_Maximum Pit
1.50 PB10-L(445-515)_Maximum Pit PB12-R(100-170)_variability
1.50
PB11-L(196-266)_variability PB12-R(100-170)_Maximum Pit
PB11-L(196-266)_Maximum Pit PB13-L(108-178)_variability
1.25 1.25
Ppit/r [-]
PB11-R(6-51)_variability PB13-L(108-178)_Maximum Pit

Ppit/r [-]
PB13-R(70-115)_variability
1.00 PB11-R(6-51)_Maximum Pit PB13-R(70-115)_Maximum Pit
PB10-L(138-208)_variability 1.00 PB14-R(77-122)_variability
0.75 PB10-L(138-208)_Maximum Pit PB14-R(77-122)_Maximum Pit
0.75
0.50
0.50
0.25
0.25
0.00
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 0.00
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Prestressing strand length [mm] Prestressing strand length [mm]
2.00
(bottom-left) PB11-R(273-318)_variability (top-left) Low corrosion deterioration
1.75 PB11-R(273-318)_Maximum pit
PB13-L(1-46)_variability (right) Medium corrosion deterioration
1.50
PB13-L(1-46)_Maximum Pit
1.25 (bottom-left) High corrosion deterioration
Ppit/r [-]
1.00
0.75
Medium pit trend line
0.50
0.25
0.00
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Prestressing strand length [mm]
Fig. 4 Pitting spatial variability in absence of evident surface defects: (top-left) low corrosion,
(right) medium corrosion, and (bottom-left) high corrosion. Grey dots represent general pit
depths, while red dots represent maximum pit depths for each external wire of sample.
Combining the corrosion levels with the pitting spatial variability measured by GOM Inspect software,
the following observations can be drawn: (i) samples characterised by a low corrosion level show the
presence of small and localised pits with a dimensionless average penetration depth (green-dashed line
in Fig. 4), Ppit,av/r, of about 0.10 and a dimensionless maximum penetration depth, Ppit,max/r, equal to
0.66, Fig. 4(top-left); (ii) samples characterised by a medium corrosion level show the presence of
14 th
bigger and widespread pits with a dimensionless average penetration depth, Ppit,av/r, of about 0.17 and
a dimensionless maximum penetration depth, Ppit,max/r, equal to 0.86, Fig. 4(right); while (iii) samples
b
characterised by a high corrosion level show the presence of deeper and oversize pits, that cover a large
region of the external strand surface with a dimensionless average penetration depth, Ppit,av/r, of about
0.25 and a dimensionless maximum penetration depth, Ppit,max/r, equal to 0.74, Fig. 4(bottom-left).
if
3.1.2 Distribution of corrosion pit in case of external surface defects of concrete
section of analysis maximum pit depth maximum pit depth section of analysis
2.00 2.00
PB10-R(287-332) PB10-R(287-332)_variability Cl-
1.75 1.75 Cl-
PB10-R(287-332)_Maximum Pit 2.00
1.50 1.50 Cl- Cl-
1.75 Cl-
1.25 1.25 1.50
Ppit/r [-]
Ppit/r [-]
PB9-R(15-60) Cl-
1.00 1.00 1.25
0.75 0.75 1.00

Cl- Cl-
Cl-
0.50 0.50 0.75
0.50
0.25 0.25
0.25
0.00 0.00
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 0.00
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
0 50 100 150 200
Prestressing 250length
strand 300 [mm]
350 400 450 500
Prestressing strand length [mm]
PB9-L(12-82)_variability
PB9-L(12-82)_variability PB9-L(12-82)_Maximum PitPit
PB9-L(12-82)_Maximum
PB9-R(15-60)_variability PB9-R(15-60)_Maximum
PB9-R(15-60)_Maximum PitPit
PB12-L(12-82)_variability PB12-L(12-82)_Maximum PitPit
PB13-R(0-70)_variability PB13-R(0-70)_Maximum Pit
PB14-L(10-55)_variability PB13-R(0-70)_Maximum Pit Pit
PB14-R(2-72)_variability PB14-L(10-55)_Maximum
PB14-R(2-72)_MaximumPit
Pit
Fig. 5 Pitting spatial variability as a function of crack pattern and chloride ions penetration: (left)
mid-span longitudinal crack only, and (right) longitudinal crack at the edge and chloride
ions penetration from the lateral face of the beam. Grey dots represent general pit depths,
while red dots represent maximum pit depths for each external wire of sample.
Referring to Fig. 5, it is evident how the presence of longitudinal cracks led to a significant increase in
corrosion deterioration in terms of measured maximum penetration depth and uniformity of the damage
pattern along the entire length of the corroded strand - that means higher average penetration depth.
Since the prestressing strands in correspondence of the beam edges were not properly protected,
Fig. 1(right), a further distinction is highlighted for samples with longitudinal cracks at mid-span or at
beam edges. In fact, considering the first scenario, chloride ions can rapidly diffuse towards the pre-
stressing strands only through the presence of the longitudinal crack without any barrier provided by
the concrete cover. On the other hand, referring to the second scenario, chloride ions had the possibility
to diffuse both through the longitudinal crack and from the end side of the PC beam through the direct
contact of ions with the prestressing reinforcement. As a results, a uniform damage pattern is observed
for the sample belonging to the first scenario, Fig. 5(left). Conversely, the second scenario - reported
in Fig. 5(right) - shows a non-uniform damage pattern along the entire length of the corroded strand
with deeper pits localized near beam edges due to the combined effect previously described. Anyway,
the presence of longitudinal cracks led to a dimensionless average penetration depth equal to 0.25 and
0.35 for the first and second scenario (green- dashed line in Fig. 5), respectively, and a dimensionless
maximum penetration depth of about 1.25. Moreover, different from the distributions of corrosion pits
in absence of external surface defects, no sections were found to be free of chloride-induce corrosion
deterioration, underlining the greater aggressiveness of the corrosion process.
3.2 Measurement-based-correlations
3.2.1 Correlation between number of pits and maximum penetration depth
Based on the experimental outcomes reported in Table 2 and referring to the distinction of cracked and
un-cracked region, the dimensionless value of the maximum penetration depth, Ppit,max/r, is predicted
as a function of the number of pits per meter through the correlations proposed in Eqs. (2)-(4). Two
samples - PB10-L(445-515) and PB13-L(108-178) - are not considered due to outliers. As shown in
Fig. 6, a trilinear trend is defined and characterised by three branches denoted as (i) un-cracked, (ii)
transition, and (iii) cracked stage, respectively. The good fitting of results of un-cracked and cracked
phases is confirmed by the obtained coefficient of correlation, R2, equal to 0.877 and 0.961.
b
2.00
samples from un-cracked zones
Un-cracked phase:
1.80 samples from un-cracked zones - transition phase Ppit ,max npit
samples from cracked zones = 0.0061
if
1.60 Proposed model Un-cracked PC beam r m
(2)
1.40 npit
y = 0.0061x  85
R² = 0.8772 m
Ppit,max/r [-]
1.20
Transition phase:
npit
1.00
y = 0.0017x Ppit ,max
0.80 = 0.00037 + 0.47
R² = 0.961 r m
(3)
0.60 npit
85   350
0.40 Cracked PC beam m
0.20 Cracked phase:
Ppit ,max npit
0.00 = 0.0017
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 r m
(4)
Number of pits / m [-] npit
 350
m
Fig. 6 Relation between the number of pits/m and Ppit,max/r
Table 2 Main pitting features.

Strand Sample Length [mm] cracking n°pit/m [-] Ppit,max/r [-]
PB9-L(12-82) 500 ν 550 0.80
PB9-L(426-496) 500 x 22 0.20
PB9-R(15-60) 250 ν 576 1.31

PB10-L(138-208) 500 x 16 0.28
PB10-R(287-332) 500 ν 250 1.35
PB11-L(196-266) 500 x 130 0.66
PB11-R(6-51) 250 x 40 0.46
PB11-R(273-318) 250 x 68 0.59
PB12-L(12-82) 500 ν 476 0.73
PB12-L(124-169) 250 x 200 0.58
PB12-R(100-170) 500 x 148 0.47
PB13-L(1-46) 250 ν 340 0.69
PB13-R(0-70) 500 ν 522 0.65
PB13-R(70-115) 250 x 212 0.47
PB14-L(10-55) 250 ν 592 1.05
PB14-R(2-72) 500 ν 354 0.58
PB14-R(77-122) 500 x 60 0.25
In general, the proposed model highlights how the number of pits per meter as well as the maximum
penetration depth evolves in the case of the absence or the presence of surface defects of concrete. Since
the strand is made up of seven-wires, a maximum of six pits - one for each external wire - can be
potentially measured at the each section. So a high number of pits is observed for high corrosion levels.
14 th
At first stage, the diffusion of chloride ions towards the prestressing reinforcements is inhibited by
the presence of the un-cracked concrete cover, leading to the formation of localized and small pits with
b
Ppit,max/r ranging from 0.0 (before the starting of corrosion deterioration) to 0.5 (that stands for ¼ of the
diameter of external wire). At the transition stage, the ingress of chloride ions is facilitated by the onset
of concrete cracking, causing a pronounced increase in the number of pits per meter in a range of
Ppit,max/r between 0.5 and 0.6. In this stage, the corrosion deterioration tends to affect more sections of
if
the prestressing strand, while the maximum penetration depth increases less sharply. Finally, at fully
cracked stage the deteriorated concrete cover cannot provide any restriction to the diffusion of chloride
ions. Therefore, the latter can accumulate uniformly and directly corrode the prestressing strand, cau-
sing the rapid increase of Ppit,max/r as well as the number of pits per meter. An upper bound of Ppit,max/r
equal to 2.0 is set, that corresponds to the deterioration of the entire external wire.
4 Conclusion
Generally, higher values of corrosion rate and chloride concentration was measured in correspondence
of surface defects of concrete, such as longitudinal cracks induced by splitting.
Based on the obtained results, the pitting spatial variability of samples changes due to the severity
of corrosion damage. Considering the presence of surface defects, a significant increase of measured
maximum penetration depth and uniformity of damage pattern along the overall length of the corroded
strand was observed. In this context, a fundamental role is played by the presence of an adequate thick-
ness of the concrete cover and the possible pathways through which chloride ions can diffuse and reach
the prestressing reinforcement.
Thereafter, a measurement-based-correlation was proposed to predict the value of the dimension-
less maximum penetration depth, Ppit,max/r, starting from quantities measurable during in-situ inspection
by using a portable laser scanner - i.e. number of pits per meter. Although the proposed correlation
between surface defects and the strand level of corrosion should be further validated, the results con-
tribute to analyse the key parameters and to preliminary describe the different behaviour of cracked and
un-cracked PC members.
Finally, future research will be devoted to the refinement of the proposed relationships through the
analysis of additional samples and to the application of the described procedure to corroded members
subjected to different environmental exposure conditions.
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Seismic retrofitting of a reinforced concrete building
b
with strongly different stiffness in the main directions
Giada Frappa and Margherita Pauletta
if
Polytechnic Department of Engineering and Architecture,
University of Udine,
via delle Scienze 206, Udine 33100, Italy
Abstract
The displacement capacity of the existing reinforced concrete building under study does not satisfy the
seismic Italian Code requirements. The modal analysis highlights that the structure has strongly differ-
ent stiffnesses along its main directions and, in the stiffer one, translation is coupled with torsion. To
improve the seismic behavior of the building, it is proposed to install an external steel frame with stiff
braces along the side of the structure which is the most deformable due to torsional effect. Conversely,
in the orthogonal direction, where the ductility demand is much higher, external steel frames with dis-
sipative braces are used. The effectiveness of the proposed solution is checked by push-over analysis.
1 Introduction
In Italy, before the introduction of the first seismic code, in 1974, the structures were designed only for
gravity loads. Since Italian existing buildings, including many Reinforced Concrete (RC) structures,
were built mostly before 1974, it follows that most of them are highly vulnerable to earthquakes. In
particular, the weaknesses of existing buildings are generally due to poor lateral stiffness and resistance,
low torsional stiffness, irregular structural patterns in plan and/or in elevation and absence of seismic
detailing of structural members.
Being the Italian territory characterized by high seismic hazard, it can be concluded that most of
the Italian existing buildings are affected by high seismic risk. Therefore, nowadays one of the main
challenges of structural engineers is the design of seismic retrofit interventions for the building heritage.
The most used strategies are based on seismic isolation [1] and energy dissipation [2].
In this work an existing RC school building, located in the province of Teramo, Italy, with irregular
structural pattern both in plan and along the height is considered. The building was designed and built
at end of the ‘60s in accordance with the provisions of the first Italian building Code [3]. The capacity
of the as-built structure to withstand horizontal actions is assessed by means of nonlinear static analysis,
performed according to the current Italian Building Code [4].
For the seismic improvement of the building a solution with steel frames equipped with stiff and
dissipative steel braces placed side by side to the existing RC frame is proposed. In dissipative braces,
energy dissipation is due to the nonlinear behavior of Buckling-Restrained Axial Dampers (BRAD’s).
Some structural verifications of the retrofitted structure do not fulfill Code requirements even after
the installation of the external braced frames. Hence local strengthening interventions consisting in the
Active Confinement of Manufacts (CAM) [5] are also proposed.
2 Building description
2.1 Geometrical and structural characteristics of the building

The building plan, shown in Fig. 1, is composed of two rectangular units with approximate dimensions
of 10x39 m2 and 10x25 m2, respectively. In elevation the building has two stories above ground and a
basement below the entrance hall. The inter-story height is 3.75 m, except for the basement, whose
height is 3.6 m.
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Fig. 1
if b
Plan of the building ground floor.
The bearing structure is made by bidirectional RC frames oriented in the main directions of the building
plan, X and Y in Fig. 1. Columns have a rectangular section of 20x60 cm 2 with the larger side parallel
to the X axis, except in the entrance hall where the columns are rotated 90°. The longitudinal reinforce-
ment consists of 4Φ16 at the corners, while the transverse reinforcements is made by Φ6 stirrups, 16
cm spaced. Beams have a section of 20x60 cm2 (widthxdepth), except for the beams of the internal
frames parallel to the Y direction, which have a section of 30x20 cm2. The amount of reinforcements
varies with the magnitude of the loads transferred by the floors and span length.
The reinforcements of the beams and the columns are made by smooth bars.
Floors are made of RC joists having a depth of 16 cm, a 4 cm thick RC slab, at the top, and ceiling
bricks as lightening elements.
With reference to [4], the building is irregular both in plan and in elevation. The irregularity in plan
is due to the asymmetrical distribution of mass and lateral stiffness, with respect to the two orthogonal
axis passing through the center of gravity of the building plan. The irregularity in elevation is related
to the great stiffness and strength increase passing from the basement to the ground floor, due to the
increase in the number of columns.
2.2 Materials
Materials’ strengths are derived from an experimental campaign of destructive tests carried out on
drilled cores and pieces of reinforcement extracted in situ, as carried out in [6]. In particular, it is ob-
tained that the mean value of actual concrete cylindrical compressive strength is equal to 16.6 MPa and
the mean value of actual yield strength of steel reinforcement is equal to 391 MPa.
According to [7], the level of knowledge of the building is classified LC2, which entails a Confi-
dence Factor FC=1.2. Therefore, the design concrete compressive strength to be used for ductile mech-
anisms’ verifications is 16.6 MPa/1.2=13.8 MPa, while for brittle mechanisms is 16.6
MPa/(1.2x1.5)=9.2 MPa. As regards the steel reinforcement, the design yield strength for ductile mech-
anisms’ verifications is 391 MPa/1.2=325 MPa, while for brittle mechanisms is 391
MPa/(1.2x1.15)=283 MPa.

The concrete elastic modulus is calculated according to [4], resulting equal to 25,612 MPa. Accord-
ing to the instructional code [7], the steel reinforcement elastic modulus is assumed equal to 210,000
b
MPa.
3 Modeling and analyses of the building
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3.1 Finite Element Model
The Finite Element (FE) model of the building structure is made using the software SAP2000 [8].
Beams and columns are modeled through frame elements and floors are assumed to behave as rigid
diaphragms. The non linear behaviour of the structure due to plastic hinges’ formation at the ends of
the structural elements is taken into account. In particular, for beams, hinges’ nonlinear behavior is
modeled defining bilinear moment-chord rotation relationships.
In columns, the nonlinear behavior for combined actions of flexure and axial force is modeled
through fiber hinges. To each fiber, the nonlinear constitutive law of concrete or steel is assigned, de-
pending on whether it represents an area of the concrete cross section or a longitudinal reinforcement.
For the concrete Mander’s law is adopted, which assumes that concrete tensile strength is null, while
for steel bars Park’s law is used [8].
The effect of cracking, already studied in [9], is here considered by reducing the inertia moments
and the shear areas of the beams sections by 50%, according to [4]. As regards the columns, in linear
analyses cracking is considered reducing by 30% the flexural and shear stiffnesses of the non-cracked
members, while in the nonlinear analyses the effects of cracking are considered by the nonlinear be-
havior of hinges.
3.2 Modal analysis

The results of the modal analysis performed on the FE model of the building are summarized in Table
1, where the period and the participating mass ratios in X and Y directions and around the vertical axis
Z of the most significant vibrational modes are reported.
Table 1 Periods and participating mass ratios of the main vibrational modes of the structure.
Mode Period Participating mass ratios

[s]
UX UY RZ
1 0.591 0.00 0.91 0.00
2 0.451 0.35 0.00 0.48
3 0.291 0.52 0.00 0.39
From Table 1 it can be seen that the first mode is purely translational in Y direction, as shown in Fig.
2, while modes 2 and 3 show a significant coupling between rotations around Z axis and translation
along X axis (Fig. 2). The coupling is due to the eccentricity between the center of mass and the center
of rigidity of each building floor. Furthermore, comparing the vibrational periods of modes 1, 2 and 3,
it can be observed that the building has strongly different translational stiffnesses in X and Y directions,
since the period of mode 1 is much greater than periods of modes 2 and 3. Moreover, it can be seen that
the building has a low torsional stiffness since mode 2 has a participating mass ratio RZ greater than
that of mode 3.
3.3 Nonlinear static analysis

The nonlinear static analysis of the structure is performed according to [4] and [7]. In both directions
the distribution proportional to the floor masses (uniform response acceleration) and that proportional
to the floor forces derived from the linear dynamic analysis are used.
Torsional effects due to different location of the masses with respect to their nominal position are
considered by applying to the center of mass of each floor an accidental eccentricity, calculated accord-
ing to [4].
The control displacement is taken at the center of mass of the building roof.
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Eight push-over curves are obtained for each main direction. The curves are cut in correspondence
of the first attainment in a plastic hinge of the rotation capacity prescribed by [7] for the safeguard life
b
limit state, in italian Stato Limite di salvaguardia della Vita (SLV). The curves are shown in Fig. 3
(left) for X direction and in Fig. 3 (right) for Y direction.
if
Fig. 2 Plan view of the deformed shapes of the building FE model for the first three vibrational
modes.
Each push-over curve, obtained from a specific analysis case, is identified by a label, which begins with
“PUSH” and is followed by letters shown in the following order:
▪ “G1” or “G2”, which indicate the lateral force distribution used: G1 for the distribution pro-
portional to the floor forces derived from the linear dynamic analysis, and G2 for the distribu-
tion proportional to the floor masses;
▪ “X” or “Y” preceded by the sign “+” or “-”, which indicate the direction and the versus of the
lateral forces;
▪ “e” preceded by the sign “+” or “-”, which indicates the position of center of mass eccen-
tricity with respect to X and Y axes.
Fig. 3 Capacity curves cut at the first attainment of the SLV rotation capacity in a plastic hinge,
in X (left) and Y (right) directions.
4 Safety evaluation of the building

According to [4], the safety level of the building with respect to seismic actions is expressed by the
safety index ζE, defined as the ratio between the peak acceleration of the site bearable by the structure
and the peak acceleration corresponding to the SLV used for the design of a new building with the same
characteristics of the existing one. Therefore, the calculation of ζE requires the individuation of the
b
acceleration response spectrum characterized by the smallest return period which causes the attainment
of the capacity at the SLV in a structural element, considering both ductile and brittle failure mecha-
nisms.
For school buildings of importance class III, as the considered one, with a safety index ζE<0.6, the
if
seismic improvement of the building requires that the retrofitted building attains a value of ζE=0.6.
To determine the displacement capacity of the structure from the push-over curves, structural veri-
fications with respect to brittle mechanisms are performed. The peak acceleration of the site bearable
by the structure for the SLV is the one involving a control displacement equal to the building capacity
at this limit state. To determine this acceleration, the return period of the seismic action at the SLV used
for the design of a new building is gradually reduced, until the displacement demand equals the building
capacity. The corresponding peak acceleration of the site is the numerator of the safety index ζE.
According to [7], the displacement demand can be determined using two different methods, called
A and B. Method A is used in the following.
4.1 Brittle mechanisms verifications

Brittle failure mechanisms are those due to shear in beams, columns and beam-column joints and to
flexure combined with high compression axial force in columns.
With regard to shear in beams and columns, the Italian Building Code [4] and its instructions [7]
provide that verifications are performed separately for each main inertia direction of the rectangular
cross section.
4.2 Safety index

The values of the safety indexes ζE, relative to ductile and brittle failure mechanisms for the analyses
in X and Y directions, are reported in Table 2 and Table 3, respectively.
Table 2 Safety index values for ductile and brittle failure mechanisms, derived from the push-over
analyses in X direction.
Analysis case ζE – ductile ζE – brittle Analysis case ζE – ductile ζE – brittle

G1_(+X, +e) 1.21 0.34 G2_(+X, +e) 0.99 0.24
G1_(+X, -e) 1.04 0.21 G2_(+X, -e) 0.88 0.22
G1_(-X, +e) 0.88 0.43 G2_(-X, +e) 0.89 0.42
G1_(-X, -e) 0.75 0.37 G2_(-X, -e) 0.77 0.38
Table 3 Safety index values for ductile and brittle failure mechanisms, derived from the push-over
analyses in Y direction.
Analysis case ζE – ductile ζE – brittle Analysis case ζE – ductile ζE – brittle
G1_(+Y, +e) 0.46 0.25 G2_(+Y, +e) 0.46 0.17
G1_(+Y, -e) 0.45 0.19 G2_(+Y, -e) 0.46 0.18
G1_(-Y, +e) 0.52 0.14 G2_(-Y, +e) 0.48 0.19
G1_(-Y, -e) 0.56 0.20 G2_(-Y, -e) 0.55 0.12
As regards the X direction, from Table 2 it can be seen that ζE accounting for ductile mechanisms is
already higher than 0.6 for all performed analyses. Conversely, the values of ζ E accounting for brittle
mechanisms are always lower than 0.6, with the minimum equal to 0.21, which corresponds to the shear
failure of a beam. It can be derived that the lack of capacity in X direction is due to the low strength of
structural elements against shear failure mechanisms. This low shear strength is generally due to poor
transverse reinforcement. On the other hand, ductility capacity is higher than the demand, thanks to the
high translational stiffness of the building in X direction, as observed in Section. 3.2.
14 th
As regards the Y direction, from Table 3 it can be seen that ζE accounting for ductile mechanisms
is lower than 0.6 for all performed analyses, with the minimum equal to 0.45, which corresponds to the
b
flexural failure of a column. This result can be explained considering the significant deformability of
the building in Y direction, as highlighted in Section. 3.2.
Also the values of ζE accounting for brittle mechanisms are always lower than 0.6, with the mini-
mum equal to 0.12, which corresponds to the shear failure of a beam. It can be gathered that the lack of
if
capacity in Y direction is due both to the low strength of structural elements against shear actions and
the low ductility of plastic hinges.
The values of ζE to consider for the safety evaluation of the building in X and Y directions are the
lower obtained between ductile and brittle failure mechanisms in each direction. It follows that the
values of ζE to consider are 0.21 and 0.12 for X and Y directions respectively. According to the Italian
Building Code [4], to achieve the improvement of the building seismic behavior, the retrofitting inter-
vention has to be designed in such a way to increase the ζE value up to at least 0.6 in both the building
main directions.
5 Seismic improvement intervention

The retrofitting techniques are chosen on the basis of minimal invasiveness and rapid execution criteria,
in order to reduce as much as possible the interferences with the school activities.
5.1 Description of the intervention

The different behavior of the building in X and Y directions, in addition to its low torsional stiffness,
addresses to the adoption of different intervention strategies in the two directions.
In order to reduce the coupling between translation along X and torsion, and shear actions in the
structural elements, it is proposed to place an external steel frame with stiff braces, side by side to the
existing frame, along the most deformable side of the structure in the X direction, as shown in Fig. 4
(left).
Conversely, in the Y direction, where the ductility demand is higher than the structure capacity, the
solution based on external steel frames with dissipative braces equipped with BRAD devices is adopted,
as shown in Fig. 4 (left).
The steel frames are intended to absorb part of the horizontal forces acting on the structure, in
relation to their own stiffness.
A 3D view of the FEM model of the retrofitted building is shown in Fig. 4 (right).
For the choice of BRADs, the catalogue in [10] is used. Since the total shear force in building stories
decreases with the height, two types of BRAD devices with different stiffness are used for the ground
and the first story. In particular, BRADs of 34/30-b type are installed on the ground floor and BRADs
of 14/30-b type are installed on the first level. In the steel frames with three levels, BRADs of 14/30-b
type are installed on all levels.
In SAP2000 BRAD devices are modelled through the Nlink “Plastic wen”, whose behavior is de-
scribed by the force-displacement relationship defined by the following parameters: elastic stiffness,
yield strength, post yield stiffness ratio and yielding exponent. For BRADs 34/30-b these parameters
are equal to 194,000 kN/m, 301 kN, 0.01 and 1, respectively. For BRADs 14/30-b they are equal to
79,000 kN/m, 119 kN, 0.01 and 1, respectively.
With regard to the external steel frames the following profiles of grade S275 are used: HEB280 for
columns and beams, hollow profiles of diameter 355 mm and thickness 6.3 mm for the braces in X
direction and hollow profiles of diameter 219 mm and thickness 5.9 mm for the braces in Y direction.
The steel profiles of braced frames are designed to remain elastic.
The steel frames are connected to the building RC structure by means of steel profiles at the level
of beams. The design of the connections is performed taking into account that the RC columns are
protruding from the facades parallel to Y direction, while they are not protruding on the facade parallel
to X direction, as it can be seen in Fig. 1. In particular, for the frames parallel to Y direction, the con-
nections between the steel beam web and the RC beam are made by 2 U-profiles with the webs put next
to each other, as shown in Fig. 5 (left). For the frame parallel to X direction, the connections are made
by welded I-profiles, as shown in Fig. 5 (right).
The web of the HEB280 beams is connected to the U-profiles and I-profiles by means of high
strength bolts of grade 8.8 and nominal diameter 12 mm (M12). Bolts are arranged in two horizontal

rows with pitch 400 mm. Bolts of a row are not aligned in the vertical axis with those of the other row,
according to a checkerboard pattern.
Fig. 4
if b
Retrofitting intervention with external steel frames having stiff or dissipative braces, (left)
plan view and (right) three-dimensional view of the FEM model.
Fig. 5 Details of the connections between the external steel frames to the existing RC structure in
the Y direction (left) and X direction (right).
U-profiles and I-profiles are connected to the RC beams of the building by means of high-performance
anchors for dynamic loads type Hilti HIT-Z-D TP [11] post-installed in the RC beam of the existing
building. The anchors are arranged in two horizontal rows with 400 mm pitch. In order to avoid that
stresses transmitted to concrete by an anchor adds to those transmitted by the adjacent anchors of the
other row, anchors in the two rows are not on the same vertical axis, as the bolts in the HEB280 profile
web.
For the external steel frames new RC beam foundations are designed, connected to the foundations
of the existing building. Due to the low compression axial force acting in the steel columns, loaded only
14th
by their weight, the lateral forces cause high tensile forces in the columns. In order to guarantee the
transfer of these forces to the ground, the new beam foundations are anchored by micropiles.
b
5.2 Modal analysis of the retrofitted building
The results of the modal analysis of the retrofitted building are summarized in Table 4.
From this table it can be seen that the introduction of the external steel frames makes the structure
if
stiffer, since all the periods of the main vibrational modes are smaller than those of the as-built structure
(Table 1). The seismic behavior of the structure benefits from the introduction of the steel frames, in
fact modes 2 and 3 are decoupled, being mode 2 translational in X direction and mode 3 rotational.
Furthermore, comparing the periods of modes 1, 2 and 3, it can be observed that the retrofitted
building has similar translational stiffness in X and Y, and its torsional stiffness is greater than transla-
tional ones.
Table 4 Periods and participating mass ratios of the main vibrational modes of the retrofitted struc-
ture.
Mode Period Participating mass ratios
[s]
UX UY RZ
1 0.377 0.00 0.92 0.00
2 0.304 0.85 0.00 0.05
3 0.284 0.06 0.00 0.86
5.3 Nonlinear static analysis and safety evaluation

The effectiveness of the proposed seismic improvement intervention is assessed through a nonlinear
static analysis. The capacity curves obtained for X and Y directions are shown in Fig. 6 (left) and Fig.
6 (right) respectively. The curves are cut in correspondence of the first attainment in a plastic hinge of
the rotation capacity prescribed by [7] for the safeguard life limit state (SLV).
Fig. 6 Capacity curves of the retrofitted structure cut at the first attainment of the SLV rotation
capacity in a plastic hinge, in X direction (left) and in Y direction (right).
The safety evaluation of the retrofitted structure is performed using the method A provided by [7] for
the determination of the displacement demand.
Considering only ductile mechanisms, it is obtained that ζE is higher than 0.6 for all performed
analyses in both X and Y directions. In particular, in X direction the values of ζE range from 1.87 to
2.15 and in Y from 0.91 to 1.13. Thus, for ductile mechanisms the safety target of ζE=0.6 is achieved.
As regards brittle failure mechanisms, verifications are made considering the actions corresponding
to ζE=0.6. Shear verifications of beams and columns are not satisfied by 7 out of 197 beams and 2 out
of 124 columns. Conversely, about half of the beam-column joints do not satisfy shear verifications.
The low strength of joints is mostly due to the unusual geometry of the structural elements, in particular
to the dimension of the beam’s width and of the smaller side of the column cross section, both equal to
b
20 cm. Consequently, the effective area of the beam-column joint resisting to seismic actions results to
be very small. In addition, also the low compressive strength of concrete and the absence of confining
reinforcements in the joint contribute to the low shear strength of beam-column joints [12]-[13].
From the above, it follows that, to achieve the seismic improvement of the considered school build-
if
ing, also local strengthening interventions are needed.
5.4 Local strengthening interventions

5.4.1 Shear strengthening of beams and columns
The upgrade of beams and columns shear strength is achieved by means of the CAM system, based on
the use of steel ribbons, i.e. steel narrow strips, which are wrapped around structural elements. The
ribbons used are made of stainless steel of quality C1000, complying with standard UNI EN 10088-4
[14], having characteristic yield and ultimate strengths greater than 700 MPa and 1000 MPa, respec-
tively. Ribbons of thickness 0.9 mm and width 19 mm are used.
For the beam with the worst strength deficiency, ribbons are disposed with a pitch of 180 mm and,
in each tie, they are overlapped in a number of 5. For the others beams the strengthening is generally
made by single ribbon ties with pitch 300 mm.
The columns strengthening is obtained with ties constituted by 5 ribbons, disposed with a pitch of
300 mm.
5.4.2 Strengthening of beam-column joints
For the strengthening of beam-column joints with respect to the two collapse types, i.e. collapse for
excessive tensile or compression stresses, the CAM system is adopted.
For the joint with the worst tensile strength deficiency, ribbons are disposed with a pitch of 130
mm, overlapped in a number of 4 in each tie. For the joint with the worst compressive strength defi-
ciency, ribbons are disposed with a pitch of 90 mm, overlapped in a number of 5 in each tie.
6 Conclusions
In the present work the capacity under horizontal actions of an existing RC school building, designed
for gravity loads only, is assessed by means of a nonlinear static analysis. The building has an irregular
structural pattern, both in plan and in elevation.
The modal analysis of the structure highlights that the building has strongly different translational
stiffness along its main directions, greater in Y direction and lower in X, and low torsional stiffness.
The safety indexes ζE, obtained from the structural verifications with respect to ductile and brittle
failure mechanisms show that the building lacks displacement capacity along both its main directions.
In X direction, the lack of capacity is due to the low shear strength of the structural elements. In Y
direction, it is due to both the low shear strength of structural elements and the low ductility of sections
in plastic hinge regions.
For the improvement of the building seismic behavior, an external steel frame with stiff braces is
placed side by side to the most deformable side of the structure, in X direction, and external steel frames
with dissipative braces equipped with BRAD devices are placed in Y direction. Thanks to the steel
frame in X direction, the building torsional stiffness is greatly increased and shear actions in the beams
and columns along this direction are much reduced. Thanks to the steel frames in Y direction, both the
ductility demand and the shear actions in beams and columns are greatly reduced. Hence, the proposed
solution, besides being little invasive, is also very effective.
The technical solution to connect the external steel frames to the existing RC structure is provided.
Since a few structural elements do not satisfy shear verifications even after the retrofit, to locally
strengthen these elements the CAM system results a feasible intervention that allows to fulfill the Code
requirements.
Acknowledgements
The research has been funded by Italian Department of Civil Protection (within the framework of Ex-
ecutive Projects DPC_ReLUIS 2019–2021), whose support is greatly appreciated.

14th
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b
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A simplified framework for the loss assessment of
b
alternative seismic retrofit options of reinforced-
concrete buildings
if
Lucia Praticò1, Marco Bovo2 and Marco Savoia1
1 Department of Civil, Chemical, Environmental, and Material Engineering (DICAM),
Viale Risorgimento 2, Bologna (40136), Italy
2 Department of Agricultural and Food Sciences – Agricultural Engineering (DISTAL),

Viale Fanin 48, Bologna (40127), Italy
Abstract
The evaluation of the seismic losses is a wide field of research involving multi-criteria methodologies,
which may be complex to challenge and sound discouraging to neophytes. In this context, there is an
increasing need of deriving simplified methodologies to provide tools for practitioners and decision-
makers. To this aim, the paper presents a simplified time-based performance assessment method to be
adopted at the conceptual design stage of the seismic retrofit of an existing concrete building. A com-
prehensive method is proposed, aimed at calculating different loss terms and the benefit-cost ratio to
evaluate the convenience of the intervention with respect to the initial cost of investment and the ex-
pected annual losses.
1 Introduction
The current rigorous procedures for the estimation of the seismic losses and the assessment of the per-
formance of a building (e.g., the PEER methodology) are rather intricate and onerous for routine im-
plementation in professional practice, as recognized by Cosenza et al. [1]. Considering both the time
and budget constraints typical of the work of the engineer, the application of a fully probabilistic per-
formance assessment for the comparison of different seismic retrofit alternatives would be not feasible.
However, the assessment of the performance and expected losses of few retrofit options, at the concep-
tual design stage, may provide valuable information for decision makers to select the optimal feasible
solution. In this context, the application of a simplified displacement-based performance assessment
methodology was investigated in the present research, to be adopted in the decision-making phase of
the seismic retrofit of a building. This design process is inherently complex due to the large number of
alternatives and the multitude of criteria to be evaluated, enhancing the need to develop streamlined
methods. Following the principles of the Direct Displacement Based seismic Assessment (DDBA),
initially proposed in Welch et al. [2] and modified after Ligabue [3], a comprehensive methodology is
outlined. The goal is to provide a method addressing all the phases of the evaluation, from the structural
analysis to the calculation of different loss terms and the benefit-cost ratio of different interventions, in
order to evaluate the convenience of each retrofit with respect to the initial cost of investment.
The entire method proposed in this paper was applied to a case study RC frame building. To assess
the effectiveness of different seismic retrofit, the building was evaluated in the As-Built condition and
after the application of different local retrofit interventions on the columns, which may have a signifi-
cant effect in increasing the global ductility of the structure and, thus, the resilience to seismic actions.
This framework may be adopted to evaluate the seismic performance and the expected losses of
various alternatives of intervention on an existing RC building, starting with the implementation of
non-linear static analyses (pushover analyses). Different quantitative performance and loss metrics are
introduced in the loss evaluation, to be used in the decision-making step. The methodology relies on
simplified assumptions, and thus it should not be intended as a rigorous assessment procedure. Loss
estimates are obtained through an analytical procedure, hence, the outcomes are deemed suitable for
comparisons among different retrofit alternatives at the preliminary design phase of a project.
14 th
2 Outline of the method
b
The entire framework proposed was adopted to evaluate the direct losses expected for a specific struc-
ture within a defined time frame (i.e., a time-based assessment according to FEMA P-58 [4]), as a result
of the hazard at the building site. The losses are defined as monetary costs, i.e., the amount an owner
could expect to pay, on average, in one year, to repair the seismic damage or replace the building con-
sidering all possible earthquakes at the site and their probabilities of occurrence. Indirect losses due to
if
possible business disruption and downtime, or injuries and casualties, are presently not considered.
The method adopted in this study is based on the principles of the DDBA to evaluate the perfor-
mance of existing structures [5] [6]. In its original version, the procedure started with an analytical
evaluation of the likely inelastic mechanism to identify the displaced shape at different limit states. In
this extended and modified version, the evaluation of the seismic performance is presently carried out
with a pushover analysis. This is in line with the purpose of simplification, since nowadays the non-
linear static analysis is intuitive and easy to use for practitioners, being implemented in most of FEM
softwares for structural design. Nevertheless, it constitutes a step forward allowing to monitor the evo-
lution of the damage in the plastic hinges modelled. The software Midas GEN [7] was used for the non-
linear finite element modelling of the structure. By combining the results of the numerical analyses and
the costs of the different components of the building, the expected annual loss (EAL) was calculated.
Moreover, a simplified probabilistic calculation was conducted to evaluate the collapse tendency of the
structure As-Built and after the retrofit, following the concepts defined in Ligabue et al. [8] to define
the annualized Probability of Collapse (POC). Finally, the cost-benefit analysis was performed to de-
rive the terms of comparison to support the decision-making phase, such as the critical time (𝑡𝑐𝑟 ) and
the Benefit-Cost Ratio (BCR). Fig. 1 reports a scheme of the entire framework.
Fig. 1 Framework of the time-based methodology applied.
2.1 Expected Annual Losses (EAL)

In a time-based assessment framework, different limit states were selected to perform a piecewise linear
approximation of the total loss curve. According to Welch et al. [2], at least four performance levels
(PL) should be considered, corresponding to: Zero Loss (ZL), Yielding (Y), Life safety (LS) and Near
collapse (NC). However, another level was introduced here considering the Residual Inter-story Drift
Ratio threshold of 1.5% (RIDR 1.5%). This fifth performance level corresponds to an unacceptable
level of residual deformation according to FEMA P-58 [4]: once this level is reached, the building is
more likely to be demolished than repaired. In old existing RC buildings, in which the collapse is likely

to be induced by a soft-storey mechanism, the damage is mainly concentrated at one story. If the resid-
ual deformation in the soft-storey overcomes the threshold before the attainment of an ultimate rotation
b
in the plastic hinges, the limit state RIDR 1.5% may be reached before the NC one.
Following the DDBA approach, the properties of an equivalent SDOF system were estimated at
each performance level, together with the intensity measure, which is the spectral acceleration 𝑆𝑎 (𝑇1 )
at the fundamental period of the structure required to reach or exceed the PL. Based on the displaced
if
shape derived with the non-linear static analysis, it was possible to determine the characteristics of the
SDOF systems: the displacement capacity, the effective mass, the effective height, the effective stiff-
ness, the effective structural period and the equivalent viscous damping term. At each limit state, the
Engineering Demand Parameters (EDP) were estimated: the Inter-storey drift ratios (IDR), the Peak
floor accelerations (PFA) and the Residual inter-storey drift ratios (RIDR). The damage to the structural
components is usually assumed to be related to the IDR experienced by the building, while PFA and
IDR are considered responsible for damage to the non-structural components and the buildings contents
[9]. The IDR were evaluated from the results of the pushover analysis, while the simplified approaches
introduced in Welch et al. [2] were adopted to evaluate the PFA and the RIDR.
Thus, the expected losses of the structure were evaluated at each PL, associated to the correspond-
ing intensity measure (IM). The expected costs derive from three different contributions: repair, demo-
lition and collapse. Hence, both collapse and demolition were considered as possible outcomes of a
seismic event. These three contributions were summed to compute the total loss at a certain performance
level 𝐸[𝐿 𝑇 |𝑃𝐿], following [10].
𝐸[𝐿 𝑇 |𝑃𝐿] = 𝐸[𝐿 𝑇 |𝑁𝐶 ∩ 𝑅, 𝑃𝐿] ∙ {1 − P(𝐷|𝑁𝐶, 𝑃𝐿)} ∙ {1 − P(𝐶|𝑃𝐿)}
+𝐸[𝐿 𝑇 |𝑁𝐶 ∩ 𝐷, 𝑃𝐿] ∙ {P(𝐷|𝑁𝐶, 𝑃𝐿)} ∙ {1 − P(𝐶|𝑃𝐿)} (1)
+𝐸[𝐿 𝑇 |𝐶, 𝑃𝐿] ∙ {P(𝐶|𝑃𝐿)}
where: P(𝐷|𝑁𝐶, 𝑃𝐿) is the probability of demolition given that the structure did not collapse but exhib-
its a residual drift such that is deemed irreparable; {1 − P(𝐷|𝑁𝐶, 𝑃𝐿)} is the probability that the struc-
ture did not collapse and it is not demolished; P(𝐶|𝑃𝐿) is the probability of collapse; {1 − P(𝐶|𝑃𝐿)} is
the probability that the structure did not collapse. Thus 𝐸[𝐿 𝑇 |𝑁𝐶 ∩ 𝑅, 𝑃𝐿] is the repair cost,
𝐸[𝐿 𝑇 |𝑁𝐶 ∩ 𝐷, 𝑃𝐿] is the loss in case of demolition and 𝐸[𝐿 𝑇 |𝐶, 𝑃𝐿] is the loss in case of collapse. The
repair costs were evaluated adopting the storey-based fragility functions introduced by Ramirez and
Miranda [9]. These functions correlate the structural parameter (EDP) with the decision variable (DV),
which corresponds to the monetary cost. The EDP chosen in this study are the IDR and the PFA: drift-
sensitive structural components, drift-sensitive non-structural components and acceleration sensitive
non-structural components were considered. Thus, the EDP-DV functions provided for mid-rise build-
ings with non-ductile RC moment resisting frames were adopted. To evaluate the expected losses due
to demolition or collapse, the corresponding fragilities were determined. Concerning the first, the ap-
proach proposed in [10] was adopted: the authors defined a function correlating the probability of de-
molishing a building that did not collapsed and the RIDR. This fragility follows a lognormal distribution
with median 0.015 and dispersion 0.3. Moreover, following the FEMA P-58 [4] approach, the site
clearance from debris was assumed to have an impact on the building replacement cost of the 20%,
raised to the 30% to consider the demolition of the residuals. Concerning the collapse, a judgment-
based fragility was adopted following [3]: the median value was the 𝑆𝑎 associated to the development
of the NC limit state, and a dispersion of 0.6 was assumed due to the regularity of the structure.
Finally, for the determination of the Expected Annual Losses (EAL), which is the main result of the
time-based seismic loss assessment, the area enclosed by the total loss curve was computed. In order to
assign a Mean Annual Frequency (MAF) at each performance level, the hazard curve was determined
with the hazard data given in [11]. Thus, the hazard curve was defined with discrete points and approx-
imated with the exponential fit law reported in [3]. Since the procedure does not account for any source
of uncertainty, the empirical formulas expressed in [2] may be adopted to incorporate the uncertainties
by increasing the EAL as a result of an increase of the mean annual frequencies.
2.2 Annualized Probability of Collapse (POC)

The evaluation of the annualized POC of the structures allows performing comparative considerations
on the effectiveness of the interventions. In particular, it is possible to determine the seismic retrofit
that mostly reduce the collapse risk of the existing building. The procedure for the assessment of the
expected average annualized POC followed the time-based framework described in Ligabue et al. [12].
14 th
To this aim, a simplified static-incremental analysis was implemented based on the Capacity Spec-
trum method. The collapse fragility curve was evaluated starting with the selection of 20 ground-motion
b
records performed with an ad-hoc algorithm, filtering those compatible with the elastic demand spec-
trum and taking into consideration the seismic hazard parameters and the source mechanisms, and li-
miting the scaling factor of the spectra. It is worth saying that this step may be easily conducted with
the software REXEL [13] specifically developed for the selection of the seismic records. Thus, the 20
if
corresponding response spectra were gradually scaled in the ADRS format in order to match the ulti-
mate point of the capacity curve of the structure. The cumulative fraction of points representing collapse
at different values of the intensity measure was counted, and the continous collapse fragility function
was defined by fitting the data through a linear regression procedure. The fragility was expressed in
terms of spectral acceleration at the fundamental period 𝑇1 of the entire building. The hazard curve
allowed assigning a Mean Annual Frequency (MAF) to each value of 𝑆𝑎 .
Finally, the average annual POC of the structure was evaluated as the area enclosed by the total
curve, obtained by combing the fragility function with the hazard curve, being probability of collapse
versus mean annual frequency.
2.3 Benefit-Cost Ratio (BCR)

Once the losses are computed for the As-Built structure and the structures with different retrofit solu-
tions, the cost-benefit analysis can be performed. The aim is to estimate the adimensional parameter
named Benefit-Cost Ratio (BCR) to find the retrofit solution that minimises the Net Present Value
(NPV). The NPV is the value of expected loss after a specific period of time: it is commonly referred to
cosidering the life-time of the structure, which is 50 years for ordinary buildings according to Codes.
Thus, the expected loss was calculated with the following Equation from [14]:
(1 − e−λ𝑡 ) (2)
𝑁𝑃𝑉 = 𝐸𝐴𝐿 + 𝐶𝑅
λ
where: EAL is the expected annual loss in €; λ is the discount rate (to convert the losses to the net
present value) assumed equal to 3% [2]; t is the life of the building assumed equal to 50 years for the
case-study building; and 𝐶𝑅 is the cost for the installation of the retrofit.
Hence, the BCR was calculated with the following formula from [15]:
(𝑁𝑃𝑉𝐴𝑠−𝑏𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑡 − 𝑁𝑃𝑉𝑅 ) 1 − e−λ𝑡 (3)
𝐵𝐶𝑅 =
𝐶𝑅 λ
where: 𝑁𝑃𝑉𝐴𝑠−𝑏𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑡 is net present value of the original building; 𝑁𝑃𝑉𝑅 is the net present value of the
retrofitted building. Moreover, Bradley et al. [14] introduced the following equation to calculate the
critical service life (𝑡𝑐𝑟 ) of a structure, which is the time after which a retrofit alternative becomes
economically convenient:
−1 λ 𝐶𝑅 (4)
𝑡𝑐𝑟 = ln (1 − )
λ (1 − α) 𝐸𝐴𝐿𝐴𝑠−𝑏𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑡
where: α = 𝐸𝐴𝐿𝑅 ⁄𝐸𝐴𝐿𝐴𝑠−𝑏𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑡 is the ratio between the expected annual losses of the retrofitted struc-
ture and the As-Built one. The comparative evaluation of 𝐶𝑅 , 𝐵𝐶𝑅 and 𝑡𝑐𝑟 for different possible inter-
ventions gives additional significant information for the decision-making.
3 Application to a case-study building

The entire procedure is applied to an existing frame building not conform to the actual seismic regula-
tions. The results are presented for the As-built condition and after the application of different local
interventions on the columns: the fiber reinforced polymers (FRP), the active confinement (CAM) and
the concrete jacketing with steel rebars (CJ). The second system was developed in Italy for the structural
rehabilitation of existing masonry buildings, and lately adapted to RC frame structures. A scheme of
the frame in the As-Built condition and with the different retrofit is shown in Fig. 2. Different structural
interventions were simulated, and only the three most effective ones have been reported.
The non-linear FEM models feature bilinear flexural plastic hinges at the extremities of beams and
columns. The shear resistance was verified with the formula prescribed in Codes [11] accounting for
the cyclic shear resistance. The models of the retrofitted structures aim at reproducing the effect of the
different techniques (increase of ductility and/or load capacity), by defining equivalent sections or equi-
valent amount of stirrups in the elements following the expression given in the ReLUIS guidelines [13].
b
Since the objective of the work is to outline a comprehensive method to investigate the seismic losses
of alternative retrofit options, the non-linear behaviour of beam-column nodes was not considered in
the models. This simplified assumption is acceptable within the scope of this comparative method,
although the modelling of hinges located at the joints would likely anticipate the damage mechanisms
if
in all the structures modelled ([8], [16]). Moreover, the foundation elements are not considered in this
application of the method, even if the CJ-intervention at the lower floor could require a retrofitting of
the foundation and raise the costs.
AS-BUILT FRP CAM CJ
Fig. 2 Scheme of the frame and layouts of the retrofit interventions.
3.1 Seismic performance

The As-Built structure is a regular RC frame building of four floors built in the 70’s without seismic
prescriptions, made of concrete C20/25 and steel FeB44K. The height of the first floor is 3.1 m, while
the height of the upper floors is 3.5 m. The five beam spans are symmetric, with average beam length
of 6.6 m. The transversal reinforcement of the columns is poor and is insufficient to achieve ductility.
It is worth noting that there is a decrease of the sections of the columns at the third floor, which is likely
to entail a soft-storey damage mechanism.
The plastic hinges were modelled adopting the formulations given in Codes [11] for the calculation
of the yielding and the ultimate rotations. The evolution of the axial load in columns at the different
steps of analysis was taken into account. The pushover analysis was performed by prescribing increas-
ing horizontal displacements proportional to the first mode of vibration of the frame. The masses were
modelled in the seismic combination, as prescribed by Codes. P-Δ effects were also taken into account
in the analyses, even if they are not particularly relevant for this structure. The global performance
levels were identified considering an empirical rule based on the development of the seismic damage
and the decrease of the stiffness in the case-study structure: the attainment of the yielding rotation in
the first plastic hinge (ZL), the formation of plastic hinges at the bottom and top sides of three aligned
columns (Y), the formation of plastic hinges at the bottom and top sides of five aligned columns (LS),
the last step before collapse (NC), the attainment of a residual drift of 1.5% (RIDR 1.5%).
The results of the pushover analyses are reported in Fig. 3a. The curves of the As-Built, CAM- and
FRP-strengthened structures have a similar maximum base shear (around 800kN), while quite different
ultimate displacements. Indeed, the two retrofit techniques allow improving the ductility of the existing
structure, leading to a higher displacement capacity. The curve of the CJ- one is characterized by a
higher value of base shear (about 1100 kN), and an ultimate displacement similar to that of the CAM-
curve. In the As-Built structure, the first plastic hinge formed in one of the top columns of the fourth
storey, while all the subsequent damage mechanisms were registered in the third storey, producing a
column-sway mechanism in the frame. The same damage sequence was attained in the structures ret-
rofitted with FRP and CAM, while in that with CJ there was a concentration of the damage in the plastic
hinges of columns of the fourth storey. These results can be directly observed in Fig. 3b, showing the
IDR registered at each storey at the NC limit state. It is worth noting that the retrofitted structures could
reach higher inter-storey drift ratios before collapse, compared to those in the As-Built structure.
Thus, the frame was transformed into an equivalent SDOF system at each limit state to perform the
simplified loss-assessment analysis. The 𝑆𝑎 was computed through the demand spectrum at the effective
period of vibration of each SDOF. Hence, the economic losses due to repair, collapse and demolition
were computed, expressed as a fraction of the total replacement cost of the building, assuming a value
of 1300 €/mq of surface in plan. The storey cost distribution of the three different components was
assumed equal to that presented in [9]. The non-structural drift sensitive components are the interior
elements, such as the partitioning, the doors, the finishing, and the ceiling. The non-structural acceler-
ation sensitive elements are the services, like the plumbing, the conveying and electrical lines [17]. The
expected losses at each performance level were computed to obtain the total loss curve reported in Fig.
14th
3c. The area under the curve is the EAL, which is equal to 1.73% in the As-Built condition, 0.80% for
the FRP-strengthened structure, 0.50% for CJ- and 0.57% for CAM-. The EAL of the FRP-strengthened
b
structure is higher compared to those of the other solutions since the MAFs, at Y and LS limit states,
are higher due to a longer effective structural period of the equivalent SDOFs, leading to lower intensity
measures with a higher frequency of occurence.
Based on the equivalent elastic spectral displacement and the effective period at each performance
if
level, the spectral acceleration of capacity was computed. Thus, the ratio between the capacity and the
demand provided a factor named new building standard (NBS). This parameter is used in the New
Zealand structural regulations (see [8]) to indicate the percentage of the design earthquake that the
existing building can sustain without exceeding a selected limit state. The NBS was assessed at the life
safety limit state: the As-Built building has nearly 45% NBS, thus it is in potential earthquake risk
(33%<NBS<67%). This value did not change after the application of the FRP retrofit, and increased
with CAM and CJ, being equal to 56% and 61%, respectively. This is an indication of the decreased
seismic vulnerability of the building.
Finally, the average annual probability of collapse was estimated. Following the procedure des-
cribed previously, the curve defining the probability of collapse versus the mean annual frequency was
assessed by combining the fragility curve and the hazard curve of the site (𝑆𝑎 -based). Fig. 3d illustrates
the final curves obtained: the area enclosed is the annual POC, equal to 1.15% for the As-Built condi-
tion, 0.17% for the FRP-strengthened structure, 0.19% for CJ-, and 0.13% for CAM-. The effect of the
local interventions in delaying the structural collapse of the building is highly reflected in these values.
a) b)
c) d)
Fig. 3 a) Capacity curves; b) IDR at the Near Collapse limit state; c) Expected annual loss curves;
d) Curves of annualized probability of collapse.
3.2 Cost-effectiveness analysis

In the final step of the study, the analysis of the costs of investment and the cost-benefit evaluation were
performed for the different retrofit options. Following the regional pricelists of the structural works, the
initial cost 𝐶𝑅 of each intervention on the entire As-Built structure was estimated: nearly 175 k€ for
CAM-based intervention, aroud 250 k€ for FRP- and 257 k€ for the CJ-based. The NPV was assessed
in a time frame of 50 years, and the critical return time (𝑡𝑐𝑟 ) of the initial investment was evaluated.
The 𝑡𝑐𝑟 allowed comparing the convenience of the different retrofit solutions, considering that the low-
est critical time indicates the most convenient option. Another significant measure is the benefit-cost-
b
ratio (BCR), which is inversely proportional to the critical time. Indeed, the highest index indicates the
most economically advantageous solution.
The evaluation of the critical time is reported in Fig. 4a: 𝑡𝑐𝑟 = 2.3 years for CAM-based interven-
tion, 3.3 years for CJ- and 4.2 years for FRP-. In the Figure, the initial cost of investment is marked by
if
a dark dot at the intersection of the retrofit curve with the vertical axis, and it is quite similar for FRP-
and CJ-. The NPV after 50 years of life is in general smaller for the retrofitted structures compared with
the As-Built one, and the lowest comparable losses can be detected for the CAM- and the CJ- solutions.
Fig. 4b illustrates a summary of the main results obtained for the different scenarios. Following the
Codes, by only computing the safety index of each structure (i.e., the NBS) one would likely chose the
CJ- option for the seismic retrofit of the existing building. However, the high initial cost of investment
of the CJ- option may discourage the selection of this solution, as well as the FRP- one. The evaluation
of the annualized terms, the EAL and the POC, may lead to assess that CJ- and CAM- are the best
solutions, even if the structure with CJ- has a slightly higher POC compared with those of the other
structures. The cost-benefit analysis, giving 𝑡𝑐𝑟 and BCR, allows identifying the most cost- and time-
effective solution which is likely to be the CAM technique in this case. Indeed, the CAM solution
corresponds to quite low EAL, the lowest value of POC, a moderate increase in NBS with respect to the
As-Built solution but, most significant, the lowest values of 𝐶𝑅 and 𝑡𝑐𝑟 and the highest BCR (82%).
Even if a simple case study was presented here, it is clear that a comprehensive loss assessment proce-
dure should account for all these aspects to give broad indications for the evaluation of the most effec-
tive design solution for the seismic retrofit of an existing building.
a) b)
Fig. 4 a) Evaluation of NPV and 𝑡𝑐𝑟 ; b) Comparison of different loss terms.
4 Concluding remarks
The vulnerability assessment of an existing RC building is commonly achieved, following the Codes,
by computing a performance index representing the capacity to sustain a seismic action comparable to
that adopted in the design of a new building in the same location. This procedure follows a deterministic
approach, which is not able to describe the seismic performance of the building at different damage
states, nor to consider the contribution of different components. In this context, the simplified method
proposed herein constitutes a new comprehensive framework that allows evaluating not only the seis-
mic vulnerability of a structure, but also the seismic losses expected in one year. The method described
in this research constitutes a novelty contribution since it allows to address all the stages of the evalua-
tion, from the structural analysis to the loss assessment and the cost-benefit analysis, providing different
indicators of the seismic performance. The method should not be intended as a robust tool for assessing
the EAL of a building, even if a good matching with the results obtained with the software PACT [4]
has been observed in the preliminary work of Ligabue [3]. Indeed, this method is devoted to the relative
comparison between different retrofit options and, as such, it should be used to get indications on the
economic convenience of different solutions.
However, the definition of some input parameters such as the collapse and the demolition fragility
of the SDOF systems may require further refinement. Moreover, the FE models could be improved, for
instance verifying the fragile behavior of joints in the RC frame. It is worth noting that a more detailed
14th
analysis of the costs of the retrofit should be performed to obtain realistic and comparable results in the
phase of cost-benefit evaluation, since those considered in this work are approximated. However, in the
b
everyday work of practitioners this can be achieved through a simple preliminary estimate of the costs.
Nevertheless, the application of the procedure confirmed that the EAL is affected mostly by the
losses at the low-intensity ranges which have a higher frequency of occurrence, suggesting that the
serviceability limit states should be taken into account for an extensive seismic performance assess-
if
ment. Indeed, a reduction of the expected losses or the MAF at the first performance levels lead to a
consistent decrease of the EAL. The comparative consideration of the annualized POC, the EAL, the
NBS, and the BCR allows performing a multifaceted evaluation of different structural to economical
parameters in the decision-making phase. Among these, the EAL could be considered to provide an
indication of the resilience of the building [6], while the annualized POC to provide an indication of
the collapse tendency.
References
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risk classification of constructions: technical principles and validation.” Bulletin of Earthquake
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[2] Welch D.P., Sullivan T.J., Calvi G.M. 2014. “Developing direct displacement-based procedures
for simplified loss assessment in performance-based earthquake engineering.” Journal of E-
arthquake Engineering, 18(2):290-322. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13632469.2013.851046
[3] Ligabue V. 2015. “Cost-effectiveness of alternative retrofit options to support decision making.”
PhD diss., University of Bologna.
[4] FEMA - Federal Emergency Management Agency. 2018. FEMA P-58-1: Seismic performance
assessment of buildings: volume 1 – methodology. Second Edition. Washington, DC.
[5] Priestley M.J.N., Calvi G.M., Kowalsky M.J. 2007. Displacement-based seismic design of
structures. Pavia: IUSS Press.
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205:110081. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2019.110081

Experimental investigation on confinement of columns
b
with TRC: a comparison between basalt and carbon
textile fabrics
if
Giorgio Mattarollo1,2, Randl Norbert1, Margherita Pauletta2 and Edoardo
Rossi1
1 Carinthia University of Applied Sciences, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture,
Villacher Straße 1, 9800 Spittal an der Drau, Austria
2 Polytechnic Department of Engineering and Architecture,

Università degli Studi di Udine
Via delle Scienze 206, 33100 Udine, Italy
Abstract
The use of Textile Reinforced Concrete (TRC) is a promising solution in the confinement of RC col-
umns. Based on an experimental campaign on 15 short cylindrical RC columns, this work aims to get
a better understanding about the performance of basalt textile in the confinement of short RC columns
by comparing basalt and carbon TRC. Furthermore, the impact of mixing short steel fibers in the TRC
concrete matrix (F/TRC) is investigated. The test results show that columns confined with basalt textile
and carbon textile are, in terms of strength and, to some extent, post-elastic behaviour, comparable.
Basalt textile seems to be a valid alternative to carbon, without significant loss of performance, and it
provides less environmental impact. Columns reinforced with F/TRC show that adding 2.5 Vol.-% of
short steel fibers has a beneficial effect in the confinement.
1 Introduction
Ageing, deterioration of steel and concrete materials, change in structural layout or purpose, increase
in loads, and accumulation of damage are phenomena that lead to the necessity of structural retrofit.
When the intervention involves the retrofitting of Reinforced Concrete (RC) columns, jacketing is a
common practice [1], [2]. The best known techniques used to retrofit columns are: reinforced con-
crete/mortar jacketing, steel jacketing and Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) jackets [3]–[5]. Lately, the
most common technique to retrofit columns is by wrapping FRP sheets around the column. The success
of this technique is mainly due to the high strength to weight ratio of the material and the minimal
impact on the original geometry [1], [6]. However, there are some drawbacks on the FRP, which are
mainly related to the organic matrix: rather poor behaviour at high temperature and on wet surfaces and
potential incompatibility with certain substrate materials [1]. More recently, also to overcome such
limitations, the organic matrix was replaced by an inorganic one in combination with textile fabrics,
which ultimately led to the development of a new material called Textile Reinforced Concrete (TRC).
In literature TRC is also named Fabric Reinforced Cementitious Matrix (FRCM) or Textile Reinforced
Mortar (TRM) [1], [7], [8].
The most common textile fabrics used in TRC retrofitting are made of carbon, glass, PBO, steel
and basalt fibres. The mechanical performances and the low environmental impact of basalt fibres com-
pared to those of the more common materials such as carbon and glass are some of the main reasons
for the interest showed on this material. Basalt fibres are also characterized by good resistance in alka-
line environment [9] and resistance at high temperature [10].
Recent studies investigated about the influence of admixing short fibres in the cementitious matrix
of TRC reinforcement [11]–[23] leading to a new material called Fibre/Textile Reinforced Concrete
(F/TRC). Compared to traditional TRC, which performances are limited by the relatively low tensile
strength of the matrix, this material is capable of achieving better performances.
Application of Basalt-Textile Reinforced Concrete (B-TRC) has already been investigated on ret-
rofitting of non-reinforced concrete columns (i.e. concrete cylinders) by Garcia et al. [11] and on ma-
sonry columns by Yilmaz et al. and Wang et al. [24], [25]. However, to the best of the Authors’
knowledge, the effect on the compressive capacity of RC columns retrofitted with B-TRC and Basalt-
14 th
F/TRC (B-F/TRC) has not been investigated yet. In the present work, an experimental investigation
through axial compressive tests on 15 columns is carried out. The variables considered are: type of
b
textile fabric (basalt and carbon) and presence of short steel fibres in the cementitious matrix.
if
2.1 Test specimens
Short cylinder columns are characterized by circular cross section with a diameter of 200 mm and a
length of 675 mm. The longitudinal and transversal steel reinforcement is made by 4Ø12 rebars, and
Ø8 stirrups spaced at 170 mm, respectively. In order to prevent premature failure in the load application
zone two additional stirrups, spaced by 40 mm, are situated on top and on bottom of the columns. The
concrete cover is 20 mm on all surfaces.
The 15 columns are distinguished according to the type of retrofitting: 3 reference columns without
TRC reinforcement, 3 columns retrofitted with two layers of Carbon-Textile Reinforced Concrete (C-
TRC), 3 columns retrofitted with two layers of Carbon-Fibre/Textile Reinforced Concrete (C-F/TRC),
3 columns retrofitted with two layers of B-TRC and 3 columns retrofitted with two layers of B-F/TRC.
Since the columns differ only on the type of retrofitting, the ID specifies the type of retrofit: B or C
indicate the material of the textile fabric (C for carbon and B for basalt), P indicates the cementitious
matrix without steel fibres and Pf indicates a cementitious matrix with steel fibres. The last numbers
(1,2 or 3) are to distinguish the three columns characterized by the same retrofitting. For example, the
ID BP-1 indicates the first column of three identical specimens retrofitted with Basalt-TRC.
2.2 Mechanical characteristics

The reinforcement is made by a B550 B grade steel, with a characteristic yield strength of 550 MPa and
a mean value 10% higher, namely 600 MPa. The concrete strength class is C20/25, and besides the cast
of the columns, 150x150x150 mm cubes and 150x300 mm cylinders were cast to test the concrete com-
pressive strength, 100x100x400 mm prisms to test the elastic modulus and 100x200 mm cylinders to
determine the concrete tensile strength through a splitting tensile test. The average compressive cube
strength obtained from tests is 32,41 MPa (standard deviation 1,1 MPa). From tests on cylinders, the
average compressive strength is 28,1 MPa (standard deviation 0,7 MPa). From splitting tests the aver-
age tensile strength derived on concrete is 3,0 MPa (standard deviation 0,3 MPa). The average elastic
modulus of the concrete is 25181,4 MPa (standard deviation 1437,8 MPa). These values of mechanical
properties of the concrete were obtained by tests performed on specimens at the beginning and at the
end of the test campaign, which means the age of the concrete was 132 and 206 days. The age of the
concrete core and the cementitious matrix of the retrofit of the tested columns was between 139 and
190 days and between 58 and 70 days, respectively. The cementitious matrix employed in this research
consisted in a fine-grained premix [26] which received a technical approval in Germany for being used
to produce TRC strengthening solutions [27]. The matrix was mixed with short steel fibres with 2,5%
by vol. to produce F/TRC. The short steel fibres are 5 mm long and with a diameter of 0,15 mm with
an aspect ratio of 33,3. From compressive test on 100x100x100 mm cubes the average compressive
strength of the TRC cementitious matrix is 103,8 MPa and 94,6 MPa with and without fibres respec-
tively. The textile fabrics used in both TRC and F/TRC reinforcement are made of carbon [28] or basalt
[29] fibres. The grid opening and the reinforcement cross section area per meter of the rovings are:
22 mm and 71 mm2 for the carbon textile and 20 mm and 65 mm2 for the basalt textile. The choice of
these textile fabrics is mainly based on the availability in the market. The grid size was chosen also in
order to allow the cementitious matrix admixed with short steel fibres to get between the rovings of the
textile fabric. Mechanical performances of the TRC and F/TRC layer are obtained through uniaxial
tensile tests. Three identical specimens, 15 mm thick, 120 mm wide and 600 mm long composed by
one layer of textile fabric inserted in the middle of a layer of cementitious matrix, were tested for each
combination of basalt and carbon textile fabric embedded in a cementitious matrix with and without
short steel fibres. The tensile strength of this layer is 5,8 MPa, 4,9 MPa, 5,4 MPa and 2,9 MPa for C-
F/TRC, C-TRC, B-F/TRC and B-TRC respectively.
2.3 Retrofit and test procedure

24 hours after the cast, columns and accompanying specimens were removed from their formworks. In
order to improve the bond between the substrate and the strengthening material, the lateral surface of
ThisExperimental
documentinvestigation
on confinement of columns with TRC: a comparison between basalt and carbon textile
fabrics
the columns was roughened via water-jetting. The top and bottom faces of the columns have been made
as parallel and smooth as possible to reduce accidental eccentricity and to increase the uniformity of
b
the load application. To do so, a smooth and thin layer of rapid setting grain concrete was applied on
the surfaces. The column retrofit procedure presented here was adopted in order to best simulate the in-
situ procedure. Therefore, during all the process, columns were placed vertically on a support. The
lateral surface of columns, which is covered by the retrofit layers, was sprayed with water in order to
if
avoid that capillary absorption remove reaction water from the cementitious matrix of the TRC retrofit.
The retrofit of the columns consists in the application of a layer of cementitious matrix with a thickness
of 6 mm, then the textile fabric, which is assumed to be 3 mm thick, is applied to the cementitious
matrix and wrapped around the column. The next step is to repeat the operation by applying another 6
mm thick layer of cementitious matrix on the textile and then continuing to wrap the textile around the
cementitious matrix. Finally, a 6 mm thick layer of matrix is applied as a cover. The TRC retrofit is
applied along all the height of the columns except for the last 10 mm both on top and bottom (Fig.1a,
Fig.1b). This was done in order to ensure that the vertical load would not be directly applied to the TRC
layers but only to the concrete core of the column. This would make the TRC reinforcement principally
subjected to the lateral expansion of the RC columns induced by vertical deformation.
(a) (b)
Fig. 1 Retrofitting of a column with B-TRC (a) and detail of a B-F/TRC retrofitted column (b).
The overlap length of the textile is 150 mm and 250 mm for carbon and basalt textile fabrics, respec-
tively. Both values are obtained by increasing the overlap length suggested by the producers by 50 mm.
For every column retrofitted, additional 100x100x100 mm cubes of cementitious matrix were cast to
measure the cube compressive strength and were tested the same day of the relative column. The age
of the concrete core and the cementitious matrix of the columns during the test campaign was between
139 and 189 days and between 58 and 70 days, respectively.
Tests are done in displacement control, with a speed of 0,5 mm/min. The displacement of the ma-
chine is measured by two laser sensors placed in two diametrically opposed positions at the base of the
test machine.

In Figure 2 force-displacement curves of the tested columns are shown. Table 1 summarizes the
following parameters: average of maximum load, average of displacement at the maximum load and
average of index of inelastic displacement μ. This index is the ratio between the equivalent yielding
displacement δy, and the ultimate displacement δu. Due to phenomena such as the nonlinear behaviour
of materials as concrete or the possibility to have the yield of reinforcements in different positions of
the structure, values of δy and δu may not be clearly distinguishable on the force-displacement curve.
In this study, the equivalent yielding displacement δy corresponds to that of an equivalent elasto-plastic
system, characterized by a secant stiffness at 75% of the maximum force and ultimate displacement δu
as the post-peak displacement corresponding to a decrease of 20% of the maximum load as defined in
[30].
From Figure 2 it is possible to observe how retrofitted columns behave differently compared to
reference columns. The elastic branch of the force-displacement curve is stiffer on retrofitted columns
from the beginning of the test until approximately 1 mm of axial displacement, showing an effect of
the TRC and F/TRC layers from the beginning of the test. Subsequentely TRC retrofitted columns show
a rapid decrease of stiffness, while F/TRC retrofitted columns showed a more gradual decrease of stiff-
ness.
14 th
The difference, in terms of average of maximum loads, between TRC and F/TRC retrofitted col-
umns is about 200 kN. Columns retrofitted with B-F/TRC and B-TRC reached 1352 kN and 1145 kN
b
respectively, while on columns retrofitted with C-F/TRC and C-TRC 1368 kN and 1177 kN are reached
respectively.
if
Fig. 2 Force-displacement behaviours for carbon retrofitted specimens (on the left) and basalt ret-
rofitted specimens (on the right).
Furthermore, a different shape of the plateau is observed between TRC and F/TRC retrofitted columns.
Columns with F/TRC retrofit are characterized by one load peak, while TRC retrofitted columns are
characterized by two. This different behaviour could be explained by the presence of short steel fibres
in the cementitious matrix which distribute more uniformly stresses around the retrofit. However, this
behaviour of these TRC retrofitted columns needs to be investigated more deeply. Difference of less
than 3% are observed between the average maximum load reached by columns retrofitted with carbon
and basalt textile fabric in both TRC and F/TRC retrofit. Therefore, taking into account the strength
and the cross-sectional ratio of basalt and carbon textile fabrics, it can be said that the contribution of
the basalt fabrics to the specimens performance is comparable to that of the carbon fabrics. The retro-
fitting of columns affects also the index of inelastic displacement μ. In fact, μ increases of 162%, 73%,
85% and 38% for columns retrofitted with C-TRC, C-F/TRC, B-TRC and B-F/TRC respectively. Such
higher values of μ for TRC retrofitted columns may be consistent with the crack pattern at failure. In
fact, these columns, compared to the F/TRC retrofitted columns, present a greater number of thin cracks
around the columns that may justify larger deformation before the failure. However, more investiga-
tions are needed in order to validate or contradict this hypothesis.
Table 1 Maximum load, displacement at the maximum load and ductility of the tested columns.
Column ID Average Max Load [kN] Average Displacement [mm] Average μ
Ref 854,8 2,3 1,9
BP 1145,4 3,3 3,5
BPf 1352,9 2,6 2,6
CP 1177,1 4,3 4,9
CPf 1367,8 3,5 3,2
4 Analytical formulation
Through analytical expressions it is possible to estimate the maximum load F attained by the columns
during the tests. For the reference columns, F is defined by the equation (1) whose first term represents
the contribution of the confined core, and the second term represents the contribution of the longitudinal
reinforcement.
𝐹 = 𝑓𝑐𝑐 ∙ (𝐴𝑐 − 𝐴𝑠 )+𝑓𝑦𝑠 ∙ 𝐴𝑠 (1)

Where fcc is the confined concrete compressive strength, Ac is the area of the core section enclosed
by the center lines of the perimeter stirrup, fys is the yield strength and As the area of this reinforcement.
ThisExperimental
fabrics
The contribution of the concrete cover is not considered since it is assumed that it would spall off when
the maximum load is reached. Consequently, the load carrying capacity of the concrete cover would
b
not affect the maximum load L. In order to calculate fcc , the formulations proposed by Mander, Priest-
ley and Park [31] are used. The calculated theoretical maximum load is 830 kN, which is 2,9% lower
than the average maximum load, 854,8 kN, obtained from the tests. The load capacity of the retrofitted
columns is estimated by the following equation.
if
𝐹′ = 𝑓′𝑐𝑐 ∙ (𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑡 − 𝐴𝑠 ) + 𝑓𝑦𝑠 ∙ 𝐴𝑠 (2)
Where F’ is the maximum load, f’cc is the concrete confined compressive strength of the retrofitted
column and Atot is the concrete cross section area of the inner column, including the concrete cover.
From literature f’cc can be estimated through the following relationship [32].
𝑓′𝑐𝑐 𝑓𝑙 𝛼
= 1+𝑘( ) (3)
𝑓𝑐𝑜 𝑓𝑐𝑜
Where fco is the concrete strength without confinement, fl is the lateral pressure and k and α are
numerical constants. In this work two formulations with different values of these constants are used.
The first formulation, named “Th.A”, is proposed in [33] for RC columns confined by FRCM and
provides k=2,6 and α=2/3. The second formulation, named “Th.B”, is proposed in [32] for concrete
cylinders confined by basalt fibres preimpregnated with epoxy resin and then bonded with a cement-
based mortar and used in [34] to estimate the compressive strength of confined masonry columns with
TRC, which provides k=3,35 and α=0,85. It is important to point out that the formulation from CNR
[33] makes use of design values of concrete compressive strength, while in this work values of average
strength from compressive tests on 150x300 mm concrete cylinders are used. Furthermore, the value of
the lateral pressure fl is obtained with equation (4), which might differ from the expressions used in the
formulations from [32], [33]. Equation (4) is obtained by the equilibrium of the half TRC subjected to
internal pressure equal to fl.
2 ∙ 𝑓𝑇𝑅𝐶 ∙ 𝑡 𝑇𝑅𝐶
𝑓𝑙 = (4)
𝐷
Where fTRC corresponds to the 85% of the ultimate strength of the TRC [35] obtained from uniaxial
tensile tests on both TRC and F/TRC specimens, and tTRC is the thickness of the overall TRC retrofit. It
is relevant to point out that multiplying the tensile strength of the TRC by a thickness different from
the one used in the uniaxial tensile test could lead to an underestimation of the TRC contribution. Re-
sults from the two formulations are reported in Table 2 which also reports in the last two columns the
values of the maximum load obtained by using design values of the concrete compressive strength and
the yield tensile strength in accordance with the Eurocode 2, the values in brackets represent the per-
centage difference between the calculated and measured values [36].
Table 2 Comparison between experimental, theoretical and design maximum load (values in kN).
Col. Average Th.A k=2,6; Th. B k=3,35; Th.A-Design Th.B-Design
ID Max Load α=2/3 α=0,85 k=2,6;α=2/3 k=3,35; α=0,85
CPf 1367,8 1453,4 (6,3%) 1374,5 (0,5%) 874,9 (-36,0%) 839,8 (-38,6%)
CP 1177,1 1421,7 (20,8%) 1344,8 (14,2%) 850,2 (-27,8%) 813,2 (-30,9%)
BPf 1352,9 1439,3 (6,4%) 1361,2 (0,6%) 864,0 (-36,1%) 827,9 (-38,8%)
BP 1145,4 1339,9 (17,0%) 1272,4 (11,1%) 786,2 (-31,4%) 748,4 (-34,7%)
Figure 3 shows a comparison between the average maximum load of the tested columns reported in
Table 2 and the maximum loads calculated with the theoretical formulations. From Table 2 and Figure
3 the formulation Th B [32] shows the lowest difference between experimental and theoretical values.
This formulation is more accurate on columns retrofitted with F/TRC (CPf and BPf), with differences
of 0,5% and 0,6% compared to the experimental values. The difference between theoretical and exper-
imental values on columns retrofitted with TRC are higher and equal to 14,2% and 11,1% respectively
on CP and BP specimens. This could be explained by the different behaviour of the concrete matrix
14 th
with and without the short steel fibres. In fact, the columns reinforced by the concrete matrix with these
fibres show a crack pattern different from that of columns with matrix without fibres. In absence of
b
fibres, many poorely opened cracks appear at the failure, while, in the presence of fibres, fewer cracks
appear. These different crack patterns outline that in the presence of the two different type of mortar
different distributions of stresses and deformations arise. Results obtained with design values for con-
crete and steel reinforcement show an underestimation of the maximum load about 30% lower than the
if
experimental values, which can be considered adequately on the safe side.
Fig. 3 Comparison of average maximum load between experimental and theoretical results.
5 Conclusions
In this work, the retrofitting of short RC columns with Textile Reinforced Concrete (TRC) and Fi-
bre/Textile Reinforced Concrete (F/TRC) is investigated through an experimental test campaign. The
variables considered herein are the type of textile fabric (carbon and basalt) and the presence of short
steel fibres mixed in the cementitious matrix. A method to predict the retrofitted column strength is
proposed. From the analysis of the experimental test’ results and the obtained numerical predictions,
the following conclusions can be drawn:
• TRC and F/TRC provide improvement in the post-elastic displacement and maximum
load capacities of the columns. Increase up to 162% and 38% of the average index of
inelastic displacement are observed, respectively. The increase of the average maximum
load is between 34% and 38% for TRC retrofitted columns and between 58% and 60%
for F/TRC retrofitted columns.

• Admixing short steel fibres in the cementitious matrix improves the performances of the
retrofitted columns in terms of average maximum load. An increase of about 18% be-
tween columns retrofitted with B-F/TRC and B-TRC and about 16% between columns
retrofitted with C-C/TRC and C-TRC are observed in this work.
• Basalt is a valuable alternative to carbon in retrofitting structural elements. In this work,
the performance in terms of average maximum load reached by retrofitted columns differs
less than 3% between basalt and carbon textile reinforcement.
• The analytical expressions used to estimate the maximum load reached by columns with-
out retrofit (reference columns) prove to be accurate. Indeed, a difference of less than 3%
is attained between experimental and theoretical values.
• The proposed equilibrium equation and the formulations “Th.A” and “Th.B” are valuable
tools to estimate the maximum load of retrofitted columns. Indeed, the difference between
theoretical and experimental results is lower than 1% for F/TRC retrofitted columns and
15% for TRC retrofitted colums, by using formulation “Th.B”. The difference is lower
than 6,5% and 21% for F/TRC and TRC retrofitted columns, respectively, by adopting
formulation “Th.A”.
• The use of design strength values for concrete and steel in the analytical expressions
“Th.A” and “Th.B” lead to safe predictions of the columns load carrying capacity. Indeed,
the maximum loads predicted by these formulations are between 27,8% and 38,8% lower
than the experimental results.
• Formulations used in this work estimate the maximum load reached by F/TRC retrofitted
columns with a better accuracy than the load reached by TRC retrofitted columns. Future
studies on these analytical expressions may better investigate the influence of presence
or absence of short steel fibres on the cementitious matrix.

ThisExperimental
fabrics
Acknowledgements
b
The authors acknowledge Austrian Research Promotion Agency (FFG) [Grant Number 8668811] by
their funding support, PAGEL Spezial-Beton GmbH & Co. Kg, Essen, Germany, Hitexbau GmbH -
Albani Group GmbH & Co. KG, Augsburg, Germany, for providing the carbon textile fabrics and
Kimia S.p.a, Perugia, Italy, for providing the basalt textile fabrics.
if
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Numerical modelling of bond behaviour in Fabric
b
Reinforced Cementitious Matrix strengthened
reinforced concrete members
if
Maria Concetta Oddo, Lidia La Mendola and Giovanni Minafò
Dipartimento di Ingegneria,
Università degli Studi di Palermo,
Viale Delle Scienze, 90128 Palermo, Italy.
Abstract
Fabric Reinforced Cementitious Matrix (FRCM) composites are widely seen as offering advantages in
structural retrofitting of existing buildings. In spite of their reputed effectiveness, FRCM systems typi-
cally suffers from several drawbacks related to the mechanical characterization due to complex stress
transfer mechanicisms that can develop at fiber-matrix and FRCM-substrate interface. Numerous ex-
perimental studies focus on this topic, but few numerical studies are addressed to better understand the
variables involved in the problem. This paper aims to propose a simple 1D numerical model to predict
the shear bond behaviour of FRCM applied on concrete substrate, providing support to deduce reliable
criteria for design procedures.
1 Introduction
In the recent decades, the scientific community has increased its interest for the structural rehabilitation
of existing buildings. Numerous experimental studies focus on the effective use of innovative strength-
ening systems to increase and upgrade the load carrying capacity of Reinforced Concrete (RC) mem-
bers. In this background, Fabric Reinforced Cementitious Matrix (FRCM) systems have gained popu-
larity among the composite materials for structural retrofitting. The FRCM materials are a combination
of fiber grids from various nature (e.g. carbon, glass, basalt and poli-phenylene benzobisoxazole (PBO)
and inorganic matrices (e.g. cement/lime based mortar, polymer-modified and fibre-reinforced mor-
tars). They are an interesting alternative to the already widely used Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP)
materials, because the inorganic matrix replacing the epoxy resin, offers numerous advantages in terms
of sustainability, cost, no toxic exposures, compatibility with the substrate, reversibility and resistance
to relatively high temperatures. Available experimental studies have shown the effectiveness of external
reinforcements with FRCM in the case of RC column confinement [1], [2], shear and flexural strength-
ening of RC beams [3], slabs [4], and seismic retrofitting [5]. The success of FRCM systems substan-
tially depends on the bond performance with the substrate and the interaction between the two constit-
uent materials, i.e. fabric and mortar. For this reason, Italian [6] and American [7] guidelines recom-
mend tensile and shear bond tests to deduce the main mechanical properties useful for designing the
retrofit systems with FRCM composites. Generally, a large scatter of experimental results is observed
due to the numerous variables involved in the mechanical response [8], such as test set-up, nature and
treatment of fabric, mortar grade, influence of bond length [9], substrate characteristics [10]. Recently,
several theoretical studies are proposed in order to identify the most significant parameters to be taken
into account, but a reliable theoretical model is still missing. Available 3D numerical models [11] or
micromodels [12] ensure a detailed prediction of FRCM constitutive behaviour, but they often require
long computational time and the definition of unknown parameters, often hard to establish experimen-
tally, including a certain unreliability. By contrast, simplified analytical models [13] provide an approx-
imative response neglecting the complex interface mechanisms that significantly affect the performance
and failure mode of the FRCM composites.
This study aims to set out a simplified 1D numerical model to simulate the shear bond behaviour
of FRCM systems applied on concrete support. The approach is similar to the one proposed by Monti
et al. [14] for FRP anchored in cracked and uncracked concrete zones. The proposed numerical model
consists of one-dimensional truss elements connected by zero-length springs that require easily deduct-
ible parameters. The model is able to reproduce the global shear bond behaviour, on one hand, and the
14 th
local effects, on the other hand. The effectiveness of the proposed model is validated against experi-
mental benchmarks from the literature.
b
2 Experimental dataset
if
The proposed 1D numerical model was validated against experimental benchmarks from D’Antino et
al. [10]. The examined experimental study focuses on shear bond behaviour of FRCM composite ma-
terials applied on concrete block, evaluating the influence of different parameters such as bond length
(Lb), bond width and concrete substrate mechanical properties. The considered specimens are renamed
as function of their intrinsic characteristics with an alpha-numeric code DS_X_Y_(U or W)_Z, where
X and Y indicates the FRCM bond length and width in mm, respectively; U indicates the untreated
concrete surface; W is for relatively low strength of concrete support; and Z specifies the specimen
number. The FRCM systems consist of a bidirectional unbalanced PBO fiber grid, with equivalent
thickness of 0.092 mm, embedded within two thin layers (4 mm of thickness) of polymer-modified
cement-based mortar. The PBO-FRCM composite strips are applied on two types of concrete supports
with different mechanical properties (i.e. concrete batch 1 and concrete batch 2 with a lower strength).
The main mechanical properties of materials are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1 Mechanical properties of materials.

Compressive strength Tensile strength Elastic modulus
Material
fc [MPa] ft [MPa] E [GPa]
Concrete batch 1 33.5 3.0 -
Concrete batch 2 26.9 - -
Mortar 28.4 3.5 -
PBO fiber grid - 3014.0 206.0
Single-lap shear bond tests were performed in displacement control mode adopting a constant rate equal
to 0.00084 mm/min. The experimental results are in terms of load-slip curves, as explained in the fol-
lowing sections. Various failure modes were observed as function of geometric and mechanical prop-
erties of specimens. In details, samples of series DS_330_60_U fail due to the detachment of the entire
FRCM strip from the concrete substrate. However, a mixed failure mode is observed for samples with
a lower strength concrete substrate (i.e. DS_330_60_W), where the detachment of a small portion of
FRCM from substrate occurs following by debondig at fiber-mortar interface. Failure mode by debond-
ing at fiber-mortar interface is observed for the remaining series DS_330_80_U, DS_450_60_U and
DS_450_80_U.
3 Numerical modelling
The present theoretical study proposes a 1D numerical model to simulate the shear bond behaviour of
FRCM strips applied on concrete support. The proposed numerical model has been implemented by
using the open-source code OpenSeesPy [15], importing Python libraries into OpenSees [16] Finite
Element (FE) framework. A simplified truss model schematize shear bond test set-up, as shown in Fig.
1. It includes truss elements and tangential non-linear springs to simulate complex stress transfer mech-
anisms that can develop at the fiber-matrix and FRCM-substrate interface levels.
The FRCM constitutive layers (i.e. fiber and mortar) separately modelled as truss elements require
to specify the cross-section area and the material properties. In details, pure brittle constitutive law is
assumed in both for fiber and mortar, just assigning the elastic modulus and the corresponding maxi-
mum strain. For sake of simplicity, an infinitely elastic behaviour characterizes the concrete block,
because the system rarely achieves the failure of support. Each layer (fiber, mortar and support) is
discretized in a minimum number of 10 truss elements with length of 33 mm for series DS_330_60_U,
DS_330_60_W and DS_330_80_U and 45 mm for series DS_450_60_U and DS_450_80_U. The mod-
elling approach enables the introduction of “brittle hinges” to connect the extremities of mortar truss
526 Retrofitting and assessments of existing structures

members
elements allowing the simulation of damage in the mortar layers due to crack opening. Brittle hinges
are modelled as axial springs assigning the length lh equal to 0.06∙lm, where lm is the length of mortar
b
truss element. Two node link elements with a linear-elastic behaviour properly connect the lower mortar
layer with the support. Finally, a non-linear set of two node link elements are placed at the fiber-mortar
interface level, assigning the typical cohesive behaviour experimentally observed. Controlled displace-
ment mode is adopted to perform the analysis, applying constant displacement increments at the free
if
extremity of the fiber up to the ultimate value of 3.5 mm. The convergence of the numerical analysis is
achieved by assuming the Newton-Raphson algorithm with norm test of unbalance.
Fig. 1 Schematization of the numerical model.
3.1 Calibratrion of interface

Stress transfer mechanisms at the fiber-matrix and FRCM-substrate interface significantly affect
the global shear bond behaviour and the failure mode of FRCM systems applied on concrete support.
In this study, a cohesive contact behaviour is assumed for fiber-matrix interface. The considered shear
stress-slip law need to specify some parameters, such as the stiffness Kint of the intial ascending branch,
the maximum shear stress value (τmax), the residual shear stress value and corresponding interfacial slip
(τres, s2) of the softening branch, as shown in Fig. 2. The interface variables used for samples of series
DS_330_60_U and DS_330_60_W are easily deducted from the literature [10].
It is worth pointing out that it is necessary to refer the values of the idealized tri-linear law to a
discretized interface by multiplying the shear stress values for the area included between two successive
interface springs. The interface parameters for remaining series DS_330_80_U, DS_450_60_U and
DS_450_80_U are properly calibrated considering the model proposed in the literature [11] and the
experimental results.

14 th
if b
Fig. 2 Interface shear stress–slip curve.
In absence of any detailed information, a linear-elastic behaviour is assumed to simulate the FRCM-
substrate interaction. In this case, the stiffness (Gint) assigned to springs conneting lower mortar layer
with support elements is established by attempts. In details, the Gint value is fixed equal to 0.18 N/mm3,
with the exception of serie DS_330_60_W for wich a lower strength of concrete support implies a lower
value of the mortar-substrate stiffness (Gint=0.10 N/mm3).
All parameters defining the fiber-mortar and FRCM-substrate interface are listed in Table 2.
Table 2 Fiber-mortar and FRCM-substrate interface parameters.

ID Interface ini- Maximum Slip at Slip at the de- Residual
serie tial stiffness shear stress the peak scending branch shear stress
Kint [N/mm3] τmax [N/mm] s1 [mm] s2 [mm] τres [N/mm]
DS_330_60_U 4.5 0.9 0.2 1.0 0.1
DS_330_60_W 4.5 0.9 0.2 1.0 0.1

DS_330_80_U 4.5 2.58 0.57 1.0 0.1
DS_450_60_U 4.5 2.30 0.51 1.0 0.1
DS_450_80_U 4.5 3.40 0.75 1.0 0.1
It is worth pointing out that the idealized tri-linear laws are referred to a continuous interface, so
the corresponding discretized interface values are obtained by multiplying the shear stress values for
the corresponding area including between two consecutive interface tangential springs.
4 Numerical results and comparisons

The effectiveness of the proposed model is validated by comparing the results of numerical analysis
with experimental benchmarks [10] in terms of load-slip curves. Fig. 3 shows the numerical-experi-
mental comparison of series DS_330_60_U and DS_330_60_W, where the influence of the substrate
characteristics on the bond behaviour of PBO FRCM-concrete support has been evaluated: concrete
batch 1 for DS_330_60_U and concrete batch 2 with a lower strength for DS_330_60_W. The two
numerical models have the same geometry and mechanical properties for the fiber and mortar of FRCM
system, but a different stiffness is assumed for mortar-suppport interface shear springs: a stiffness equal
to Gint=0.18 N/mm3 is assigned to series DS_330_60_U and a lower stiffness equal to Gint=0.10 N/mm3
is assigned to series DS_330_60_W characterized by a lower strength of support (fc=26.9 MPa).

members
if b
Fig. 3 Numerical-experimental comparison for series DS_330_60_U (left) and DS_330_60_W
(right).
Observing the curves, the proposed model well reproduces the initial elastic branch up to reach the
load-carrying capacity, where fiber strip starts to debond from the embedding mortar layers at the
loaded extremity. It should be noted that numerical curve is unable to reproduce the post-peak phase,
because a pure-brittle behaviour is assumed for mortar elements, neglecting the softening branch. The
failure of a mortar section is localized and the fiber-mortar interaction is lost in the remained part of the
interface.
The numerical-experimental comparisons for the remaining series (DS_330_80_U, DS_450_60_U
and DS_450_80_U) are shown in Fig. 4. Experimental load-slip curves denote numerous load drops
due to the formation of a broad cracking pattern in the upper mortar layer. In this case, the effect of
different bond length and bond width of PBO-FRCM strip is numerically investigated. In details, the
maximum load and slip numerically reached improve by increasing the bond width and bond length,
respectively, as aexperimentally observed.
Fig. 4 Numerical-experimental comparison for series DS_330_80_U (left), DS_450_60_U (mid-

dle) and DS_450_80_U (right).
The numerical load-slip response highlights satisfactory trend up to the peak load. The observed
experimental behaviour is highly affected to the complex fiber-mortar bond conditions. Indeed, the
energy subtendened by shear stress-slip interface law plays a key role in the numerical response as
explained in previous study [17].
Fig. 5 shows the axial load distribution in the upper mortar layer, at different values of the load (at
the end of the linear branch P1, during the debonding phase P2, at the peak load P3) while Fig. 6 reports
the corresponding shear stress profiles at the fiber-upper mortar interface.

14 th
if b
Fig. 5 Axial load profiles in the upper mortar layer at different load values for series
DS_330_80_U (left), DS_450_60_U (middle) and DS_450_80_U (right).
Fig. 6 Shear stress profiles in fiber-upper mortar interface at different load values for series
DS_330_80_U (left), DS_450_60_U (middle) and DS_450_80_U (right).
A pronounced crack opening emerges from the axial load distribution in the upper mortar layer for
series DS_330_80_U, DS_450_60_U and DS_450_80_U. The axial force tends to increase up the im-
minent cracking load, when craks open up, the axial force drops to zero value and the redistribution of
shear stress at the fiber-mortar interface occurs. Initially, cracks develop close to the loaded end. In
details, numerical model for series DS_330_80_U highlights the development of fewer cracks near the
loaded end affecting the maximum strength that is slightly lower than the other series. Increasing the
bond length (DS_450_60_U and DS_450_80_U series), a different trend of shear stress distribution is
observed, denoting the debonding phenomena at the fiber-mortar interface and identifying the effective
bond length.
5 Conclusions
In this study, the shear bond behaviour of PBO-FRCM-concrete support is investigated. The effect
of bond length, bond width and substrate mechanical properties is assessed by analyzing the response
of a simple 1D numerical model. The results are compared with experimental data available in the
literature, underlining a good agreement in reproducing the global shear bond response. Moreover, the
model proves to be capable of catching local effects and provides a crack pattern in good accordance
with the experimental evidences. The proposed theoretical model can be considered an effective tool to
investigate on shear bond behaviour of FRCM-concrete substrate. Further analysis extended to a huge
dataset can be useful to deduce the main parameters for well founded design procedures.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by a grant from the Italian Ministry for University and Research (MIUR)
for PRIN-2017 project “Innovative systems based on inorganic mortar and non metallic reinforcement
for the upgrade of masonry structures and non structural elements”. The financial support is gratefully
acknowledged. This research was developed among the activity of the Project ReLUIS “Progetto
Esecutivo Accordo DPC/ReLUIS 2019-2021, WP14 - Contributi normativi per Materiali Innovativi per
Interventi su Costruzioni Esistenti”.

members
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b
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Strengthening by thermal pre-stressing
b
Jens Löschmann and Peter Mark
Institute of Concrete Structures,
if
Ruhr University Bochum,
Universitätsstraße 150, 44801 Bochum, Germany
Abstract
Many bridges show deficits in load-bearing capacity or serviceability. Strengthening offers a sustain-
able alternative to new constructions, but it is usually not effective for dead load. To overcome this
deficiency, a novel method is developed to thermally pre-stress post-installed reinforcement. The
paper presents two approaches to strengthen beams or slabs. In the first one, the structure is strength-
ened while it is locally relieved from dead load. This is done by constraint moments systematically
induced by temperature gradients. In the second approach, the strengthening elements are directly
thermally pre-stressed. The first approach is theoretically derived and experimentally verified on two-
span reinforced concrete (RC) girders. In particular, it turns out benefical regarding serviceability and
durability as deflections and crack widths decrease.
1 Introduction
A large share of bridges worldwide is in critical condition and needs to be strengthened or renewed
[1][2]. Strengthenings have potential to be an economic and sustainable alternative to new construc-
tions, as they save resources, reduce emissions and minimize the impact on the environment. Cross-
section strengthening is usually done with reinforcing bars embedded into mortar or shotcrete, steel
sheets bonded to the concrete surface or employing textile-reinforced concrete [1][3]. However, all
these techniques are not effective for the dead load without temporary lifting or pre-stressing the
structure. Both measures require strong interventions and thus are rarely used. Consequently,
strengthenings often have limited effectiveness, which is particularly pronounced in reinforced con-
crete (RC) structures, as the dead load may amount to 70 % of the total load for large bridges [4].
To overcome this deficiency, a method is developed that activates post-installed rebar or sheets to
bear the dead load, too. For this purpose, a structure is temporarily relieved from dead load at the
location of strengthening by systematic temperature induction. After strengthening is completed and
temperature induction is stopped, the initial bending moment from dead load returns and the strains
uniformly distribute over the complemented cross-section. The method works for statically indeter-
minate structures where temperature changes cause internal forces. In an alternative approach, the
strengthening element is thermally pre-stressed before bonding, analogous to conventional pre-
stressing, and thus it is applicable to arbitrary static systems. However, the details are still part of
ongoing research and not discussed in this paper.
Active temperature induction in load-bearing structures is not yet common in civil engineering.
However, temperature variations and mechanical reactions were extensively investigated [5][6] and
numerical simulations of transient temperature fields have been developed [7][8][9]. Moreover, speci-
fic applications of active temperature induction exist, e. g. de-icing of bridge roadways [10][11] or
heat treatment of precast concrete elements [12][13].
The paper is structured as follows: First, the fundamentals of temperature effects on beams are
briefly examined. On this basis, the novel strengthening method is introduced and concepts for practi-
cal realisation of temperature induction are provided. Finally, the method is experimentally verified
on a two-span RC girder strengthened at its internal support.
2 Strengthening with temperature induction
2.1 Theoretical basics

A temperature change ΔT [K] causes thermal strains εΔT that depend on the coefficient of thermal
expansion αT [1/K] of the material. For beams, only longitudinal strains are generally considered [5].
This simplification also applies here. Assuming isotropic material, εΔT reads
14th
𝜀Δ𝑇 = 𝛼 𝑇 𝛥𝑇 (1)
b
εΔT corresponds to the strain of a truss member or a single cross-sectional fibre of a beam. The strains
form a strain plane εΔT(y,z) over the entire cross-section assuming that plane cross-sections tend to
remain plane ("Bernoulli hypothesis"). εΔT(y,z) results from the temperature field ΔT(y,z), which can
be decomposed into four components according to EN 1991-1-5 [14]:
if
𝛥𝑇𝑧 𝛥𝑇𝑦 (2)
𝛥𝑇(𝑦, 𝑧) = Δ𝑇𝑢 + 𝑧+ 𝑦 + 𝛥𝑇𝑒 (𝑦, 𝑧)
ℎ 𝑏
Fig. 1 shows this decomposition on a rectangular cross-section with height h and width b. The con-
stant temperature component ΔTu corresponds to the change of the mean temperature and leads to an
elongation or contraction εΔT, also called dilatation. ΔTz and ΔTy denote the temperature difference of
the linear component over z and y, respectively, and evoke curvature (κy,ΔT, κz,ΔT). Especially in
bridges, ΔTy is often small enough to be neglected. This is done here as well. With this restriction to
uniaxial bending, the strain plane results from εΔT and κy,ΔT, which are defined as follows:
𝛥𝑇𝑧 (3)
𝜀Δ𝑇 = 𝛼 𝑇 Δ𝑇𝑢 ; 𝜅𝑦,Δ𝑇 = 𝛼 𝑇
ℎ
Strains from the residual, non-linear temperature component ΔTe(y,z) are restrained by the adjacent
cross-sectional fibres, so that residual stresses σe arise instead of deformations [10][5].
Fig. 1 Nonlinear temperature field of a cross-section with different components and correspond-
ing mechanical reactions
On system level, deformations resulting from εΔT and κy,ΔT can be restrained by the supports so that
constraint forces arise [15][5]. Assuming linear-elastic material behaviour,
𝜎 = 𝐸(𝜀𝑔𝑒𝑠 − 𝛼 𝑇 𝛥𝑇), (4)
deformations and internal forces are determined by integration of the differential equations 5 and 6
and taking into accout geometric and static boundary conditions:
𝑁(𝑥)
𝑢′ (𝑥) = + 𝛼 𝑇 𝛥𝑇𝑢 (𝑥), (5)
𝐸𝐴(𝑥)
𝑀𝑦 (𝑥) 𝛥𝑇𝑧 (𝑥) (6)
𝑤 ′′ (𝑥) = − − 𝛼𝑇
𝐸𝐼(𝑥) ℎ
Therein u' equals the longitudinal strain ε and w'' corresponds to the curvature κ assuming small de-
formations. N and M denote the axial force and the bending moment as well as EA and EI the axial
and bending stiffness, respectively. εges is the total strain, which comprises thermal (εΔT) and load-
induced portions (ε). In case of discontinuous actions or stiffness, the integration must be carried out
section by section.
2.2 Strengthening method

The strengthening method is based on active temperature induction and applies to statically indeter-
minate systems. Vertical temperature gradients are systematically induced to evoke constraint mo-
ments Mi to temporarily relieve the structure at the location of strengthening. When temperature
declines, installed rebar or sheets gets pre-stressed and contribute to bear the dead load.
This document may not be copied or distributed without priorStrengthening
permissionbyfrom fib.
thermal pre-stressing
In general, the method can be applied to any material that expands with temperature. Just suffi-
ciently high thermal conductivity λ is required to induce temperature fields. RC complies with both
b
requirements (αT ≈ 10∙10-6 1/K; λ ≈ 2.0 W/(m²∙K) [18]). Structures with nonlinear material behaviour
like cracked RC girders additionally require realistic evaluations of stiffness distributions, as cons-
traint forces significantly decrease due to softening (e. g. cracking, creeping) [15][19][20]. References
[16] and [17] discuss details to precisely steer internal forces by temperature induction. Overall, Mi
if
depends on
▪ the vertical temperature difference ΔTz,
▪ the length Li and the position of the temperature induction
▪ the static system,
▪ the bending stiffness EI and
▪ the coefficient of thermal expansion αT of the material.
Fig. 2 demonstrates the method on a two-span girder strengthened at the internal support. A tempera-
ture gradient ΔTz is induced over the length Li and evokes a constraint moment that locally neutralizes
the moment from dead load. After strengthening, temperatures are withdrawn and the initial moment
from dead load returns. On cross-sectional level, the strains uniformly distribute over As and ΔAs
(εs = εs,ΔA). Thus, ΔAs gets pre-stressed and the stress respectively strain in As decreases (εs < εs,0).
Fig. 2 Cross-section strengthening by post-installed rebar using temperature induction, shown on

system level with bending moments and on cross-section level with strains
Assuming linear-elastic material behaviour and a prismatic beam, an analytical equation to calculate
Mi at the internal support is derived from Eq. 6:
𝛼 𝑇 ∆𝑇𝑧 3𝐿𝑖 (2𝑎 + 𝐿𝑖 ) (7)
𝑀𝑖 (𝐿) = − 𝐸𝐼
ℎ 4𝐿3
Mi depends on the parameters introduced above and the variable a that captures the distance between
the location of temperature induction and the support. Mi and ΔTz are proportional. Following the
beam theory, a downward vertical z-axis characterizes ΔTz positive when the bottom of a cross-
section is warmer than the top. It should be noted that in the definition of EN 1991-1-5 the z-axis
points upwards, so that therein the sign of ΔTz is changed compared to the convention used here [14].
2.3 Practical realisation of temperature induction

For practical realisation of temperature induction various technical systems have been developed in
the structural testing laboratory at Ruhr University Bochum (KIB KON, https://www.ruhr-uni-
bochum.de/kib-kon/index.html.de). Fig. 3 shows four systems that differ in their functionality (gener-
14 th
ation, transport and transfer of thermal energy, temperature control) and thus also in their properties
(e. g. temperature range, nominal power). The range of heating systems includes tempered water
b
circuits (< 95 °C), heating mats (< 200 °C) and infrared radiators (< 400 °C). Cooling can be achieved
by tempered water (> 5 °C) and Peltier elements (> -10 °C). Vertical temperature gradients are gener-
ated by heating the top and cooling the bottom – or vice versa. All other surfaces are thermally insu-
lated to reduce energetic losses and to keep the induced temperature fields independent of changing
if
ambient conditions. For further details on the different systems, the reader is referred to [21].
Energetic losses reduce the thermal output of a system and have been determined in experimental
studies to 30 % and 50 %, depending on the induction system and the contact pressure between sys-
tem and component [21]. For accurate induction, the losses must be compensated by temperature
control on the surface or within the component.
Furthermore, the steering of internal forces according to Eq. 7 assumes ideal linear temperature
gradients acting over defined lengths Li. In practice, the induced temperature fields are three-
dimensional and exceed the lateral borders of Li (Fig. 3). References [16] and [17] provide a method
to transfer the actual temperature field in a simplified one with the same impact on bending. That
way, an effective temperature gradient ΔTeff is introduced that constantly acts over Li.
Fig. 3 Heating and cooling systems for temperature induction: Tempered water (a), silicone
heating mats (b), infrared heaters (c) and Peltier elements (d).
3 Experiments
3.1 Test objective

The strengthening method is experimentally verified on the two-span RC girder shown in Fig. 2. A
constraint moment Mi shall be induced by ΔTz to locally neutralize the moment from dead load at the
internal support during strengthening. After strengthening and a decline of ΔTz, equal strains shall
occur in the initial (As) and the subsequently added reinforcement (ΔAs). The load-deformation behav-
iour should correspond to that of a reference beam initially reinforced with As + ΔAs.
3.2 Test setup and procedure
b
The test series consists of a beam to be strengthened and a reference beam. The beams both have a
total length of 5.20 m and a rectangular cross-section with the dimensions b/h = 0.25/0.16 [m]
(Fig. 4). The span lengths L of the symmetrical two-span girders are 2.50 m. The two outer sliding
supports have greased layers of polytetrafluoroethylene [22]. The beams are made of concrete of
strength class C20/25 and a maximum grain size of 16 mm. All material parameters were determined
if
in accompanying tests (Table 1). As amounts to 2Ø8 mm (1.01 cm2). It is supplemented by two bars
of the same diameter (ΔAs) subsequently placed into a slot, which is then filled with mortar (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4 Static system, sketch, and test setup along with technical drawings of two cross sections;
all lengths in [mm]
Table 1 Parameters of the test setup and the specimens

Material Parameter Symbol Value Unit
Concrete Compressive strength fcm 31.3
Tensile strength fctm 2.3
Young’s modulus Ecm 30633 N/mm²
Reinforcing steel Yield strength fym 543
Young’s modulus Esm 201007
Dead load g 0.96 kN/m
Actions Additional point loads G 3.3 kN
Vertical temperature difference ΔTz -34 K
During strengthening, the dead load g and four additional point loads (F = 3.3 kN, Table 1) act and
ensure an initially cracked concrete. ΔTz is induced in both spans on Li = 1.00 m by silicone heating
mats (top) and tempered water circuits (bottom). Fibre optic sensors (FOS) provide quasi-continuous

14th
data of temperatures and strains over the entire span [23][24]. Fig. 4 shows a sensor fibre bonded to
the reinforcement for strain measurements. In addition, thermocouples (T), strain gauges (S), load
b
cells and displacement sensors are used.
The experiment follows the procedure illustrated in Fig. 2 which ends with an examination of the
bearing capacities. Temperature differences and bending moments are estimated assuming linear-
elastic material behaviour. ΔTz required to neutralise Mi = -3.1 kNm amounts to -34 K according to
if
Eq. 7. In the test, ΔTz and the resulting mechanical effects are controlled by means of real-time moni-
toring of temperatures and steel strains.
3.3 Results and discussion

Fig. 5 shows the development of the temperatures in the cross-section in the centre of the induction
area (left, top) and the strains in As and ΔAs at the internal support (left, bottom). Starting from 20 °C,
a stationary temperature field is reached after 8 h. The surface temperature at the top of the cross-
section corresponds approximately to the one pre-set in the heating mat (ϑ1 ≈ ϑh = 80 °C), as tempera-
ture is controlled close to the surface. The surface temperature at the bottom (ϑ6 = 17 °C) deviates
from the pre-set water temperature (ϑk = 5 °C) due to thermal losses (cf. section 2.3).
The initial strain εs,0 in As is 0.75 ‰ at maximum recorded by FOS directly in the crack. The
strain locally measured by the strain gauge is lower (0.50 ‰). During induction, εs decreases parallel
to the rising temperature gradient and reaches the minimum at 0.09 ‰ (FOS). This is followed by an
increase to 0.20 ‰, which can be explained by creep of the concrete and bond creep of the rebar due
to micro-cracks in the bond zone. Consequently, complete relief is not achieved. The small residual
strain in As during strengthening is tolerated here, as creep hardly occur at elder structures.
Fig. 5 Temperature (top, left) and strain developments (bottom, left) during the initial and the
induction state; vertical temperature profile approximated by linear regression (right)
Fig. 5 (right) displays the vertical temperature profile in the initial and in the stationary state (t = 8 h)
determined by linear regression. The values measured by thermocouples agree very well with the
regression line (coefficient of determination R2 > 0.99). The approximated ΔTz is 44 K and exceeds
the linear-elastically calculated value by 29 %. The temperature demand is higher than expected due
to the softening of the concrete by cracking. In addition to ΔTz, a constant temperature rise ΔTu of
23 K occurs, which is accompanied by stress-free longitudinal expansion.
Fig. 6 (left) shows the setup of the final load test. Loading P is applied by a hydraulic cylinder
which is path-controlled. A steel crossbeam distributes P in P/2 that act at mid-span. The measured
load-deflection responses (P-w) of the two beams show typical ductile behaviour and pronounced
yielding at P ≈ 65 kN (right). The curve of the strengthened beam approximately matches the one of
the reference beam initially made with As + ΔAs. The small deviation between the curves can be attri-
buted to the residual strain in the initial reinforcement during strengthening. Overall, a large share of
b
the dead load is carried by the new strengthened cross-section. This reduces the deformations of the
beam compared to a conventionally strengthened beam.
if
Fig. 6 Test setup of the final load test (left) and load-deflection response of the strengthened and
the reference beam (right)
4 Conclusions
The paper presents a strengthening method for RC beams and slabs. The method is based on system-
atic temperature induction to temporarily neutralise bending moments from dead load at the location
of strengthening. It activates post-installed reinforcement to already bear the dead load. The method
applies to statically indeterminate systems, e. g. multi-span bridges, and is experimentally verified on
a two-span RC girder. The following conclusions are drawn:
▪ Systematic temperature induction enables to generate and to steer internal forces in statically
indeterminate structures. Strengthening elements can be pre-stressed this way.
▪ The thermal pre-stressing proves to be advantageous for the serviceability and durability of a
structure, as deformations and thus also crack widths decrease. Strengthening becomes signif-
icantly more effective compared to standard solutions.
▪ Heating mats and water circuits are suitable for active temperature induction. They enable the
generation and control of stationary and linear vertical temperature profiles in RC structures.
▪ The induced constraint forces depend on the stiffness of the structure. Linear-elastic calcula-
tions can serve as fast estimates. For more accurate predictions, the structure’s response must
be monitored in real-time or calculated non-linearly.
The method has been verified under laboratory conditions so far. In the next step, experimental inves-
tigations under varying ambient conditions on a real bridge are planned. The focus will be on the
control of the temperature field and the energy demand of the method.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express their gratitude to the staff of the structural testing laboratory of the
Ruhr University Bochum and thank the company HEBAU for providing the surface retarder.
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Dapped-end beams retrofitted with Fabric-Reinforced
b
Cementitious Mortars: experimental and preliminary
analytical study
if
Katherina Flores Ferreira, Marco C. Rampini, Giulio Zani, Matteo Colombo
and Marco di Prisco
20133 Milano, Italy
Abstract
Reinforced Concrete (RC) dapped-end beams are structural elements characterized by a relevant reduc-
tion of the beam cross section (about 50%). Despite the simplifications in terms of design and construc-
tion, when used as suspended spans in reinforced concrete bridges, dapped-end beams may represent a
vulnerable component of the infrastructure. The degradation effects and the environmental actions (e.g.
carbonation and chloride ingress) can significantly affect the structural robustness of the bridge when
dapped-end beams (also referred to as RC half-joints) are not properly designed, built or maintained.
In this context, the need of analysing the structural performance of this type of elements has arisen in
the last years, drawing the attention to the implementation of innovative retrofitting solutions (cementi-
tious composites) that might contribute to extend the service life of bridges characterized by this con-
struction solution. The paper presents an experimental investigation on RC precast dapped-end beams
retrofitted with FRCM composites. The structural performance of the cementitious composite is eval-
uated in terms of its contribution to the load bearing capacity of the joint, highlighting also the beneficial
effects on the crack distribution at SLS and ULS. A preliminary analytical approach for the simulation
of the mechanical behaviour of dapped-end beams is proposed and validated with respect to the exper-
imental results.
1 Introduction
Reinforced concrete dapped-end beams were introduced in the field of precast concrete construction in
the early 70’s. Due to the geometrical and construction simplifications associated to this type of ele-
ment, its use was also exploited for the construction of half-joints in bridges. However, a critical disad-
vantage is linked to their limited possibility of inspection and to their particular exposure to degradation
effects and environmental actions, which can compromise the overall structural robustness of the infra-
structures [1], [2]. One of the most common issues is related to the chloride-rich water seepage on to
the nibs of the RC half-joint. In this regard, during the last years, research has been directed towards
retrofitting interventions able to improve the durability of existing infrastructures. One example is the
use of cement-based composites such as Fabric-Reinforced Cementitious Matrix (FRCM), also called
Textile Reinforced Mortar (TRM), for the strengthening of RC structures [3]. The design procedure
adopted for RC dapped-ends is based in the application of simplified strut-and-tie models[4], [5]. This
analytical approach is based on the lower-bound theorem of plasticity and it introduces a simplified
internal flow of forces that considers the compressive forces (struts) to be carried out by the concrete,
and the tensile forces (ties) to be carried out by the steel rebar. In the literature, studies have been
conducted to evaluate the application of these methods for the assessment of existing RC dapped-ends
[6]. In the framework of the RELUIS WP14-2019/2021 project, this paper presents an experimental
investigation on RC dapped-end beams retrofitted with a FRCM system. The contribution of the retro-
fitting solution to the load bearing capacity of the structural element is evaluated. An analytical estima-
tion of the response by means of strut-and-tie models is proposed and compared with respect to the
reference experimental results.
14 th
2 Experimental campaign and test program
b
To investigate the contribution of the FRCM retrofitting solution to the load bearing capacity of RC
dapped-end beams, a total of four full-scale reinforced concrete beam specimens, corresponding to eight
dapped-ends, was cast and tested. One beam (2 dapped-ends) was tested up to failure and its structural
response was taken as reference. The remaining three beam specimens (6 dapped-ends) were pre-dam-
aged up to the reaching of the Ultimate Limite State (ULS) design load (see Section 4), and subse-
if
quently retrofitted and tested up to failure considering the variability of both the orientation of the warp
wires with respect to the horizontal direction (0° or 45°) and of the number of fabric layers used (1 or
2 sheets). In particular, two dapped-ends were retrofitted with one layer at 0°, other two were retrofitted
with one layer at 45°, and the last two dapped-ends were tested considering the superposition of the
previous solutions. In this paper, the experimental results from specimens retrofitted with the fabric
oriented at 45° (RTF01/02) are presented and compared with respect to their corresponding pre-dam-
aged dapped-ends (PRE01/02) and the reference unretrofitted specimen (REF).
2.1 Materials
The four beams were cast in two different batches adopting a nominally identical mix design of concrete
characterized by a water-to-cement ratio equal to 0.63. The concrete mechanical characterization con-
sisted in the testing of 18 nominally identical 100 mm side cubic samples. 12 cubic specimens were
subjected to uniaxial compressive tests, while the remaining 6 cubes were cut in half, resulting in twelve
100x100x50 mm3 samples subjected to splitting tensile tests. The average cubic compressive (fc,cube)
and splitting tensile splitting (fct,sp) strengths resulted equal to 41.6 MPa and 3.2 MPa, respectively. The
difference between the two batches is not discussed in this paper. The average yield and ultimate
strengths (fy,av and ft,av) of the B450C ribbed bars adopted for the reinforcement layout are reported in
Table 1, together with the average ultimate strain (Agt,,av).
Table 1 Average mechanical properties of the steel reinforcement of the dapped-end.

Rebar diameter [mm] fy,av [MPa] ft,av [MPa] Agt,,av [-]
 526.5 623.7 8%
 530.2 628.2 13%

 507.7 627.5 10%
The FRCM system used for the retrofitting of the dapped-ends was made of an alkali-resistant (AR)
glass double leno weave fabric coated with an epoxy resin, and a commercial shrinkage-compensated
thixotropic cementitious mortar. The main geometrical and mechanical properties of the fabric and of
the cementitious mortar are presented in [7]. The repair mortar was characterized by an average cubic
compressive strength fcc of 58.94 MPa (std 12%) and a flexural tensile strength fctf of 7.02 MPa
(std 19%). The 3838 mm grid fabric was characterized by a symmetric equivalent thickness of
0.093 mm/m and a tensile capacity of 162.5 kN/m and 152.1 kN/m, respectively in the warp and the
weft direction.
Three uniaxial tensile tests were performed on nominally identical FRCM coupons (704009
mm3) following the procedure reported in [8]. The results from the uniaxial tensile tests are reported in
Fig, 1a. Please note that discontinuities on the average tensile curves, solid lines in (Fig. 1a), indicate
the failure of one of the tested samples, after which the responses are averaged only on the remaining
ones. The obtained average maximum loads PFRCM,max,av were equal to 9.08 kN (std 21.8%) and 7.15
kN (std 20.2%) , respectively in the warp and in the weft direction, thus resulting in an efficiency of
0.73 and 0.61 with respect to the fabric tensile capacity.
The bond-slip behaviour at the mortar-to-substrate interface was evaluated performing two shear
single lap tests with the same test scheme proposed in [9], only in the warp direction and a bond length
of 150 mm was set. Before the FRCM application, the concrete substrates were hydro-scarificated with
the same pressure used to prepare the pre-damaged dapped-ends faces (around 1000-1200 atm). The
results are reported in Fig. 1b. In both the tests, the failure was governed by the rupture of the not
embedded fabric, hence confirming the full exploitation of the FRCM capacity. In fact, the average
maximum shear load (10.41 kN, std 0.44%) resulted higher than the average capacity of the FRCM
composite (9.08 kN).
analytical study
if b
(a) (b)
Fig. 1 Load vs cross-head displacement () curves: tensile characterization of the FRCM in the
warp and the weft directions (a), and results of the shear single lap tests (b).
2.2 Test set-up and application of the FRCM retrofitting layer

The geometry of the beam specimens and the adopted steel rebar layout are shown in Fig. 2a. In order
to test each dapped-end separately, the specimens were subjected to 3-point non-symmetric bending
tests as depicted in the figure. The tests were displacement-controlled at a 20 m/s rate under simply
supported conditions. A welded 50 mm diameter steel cylinder was bearing the dapped-end, while a
25010020 mm3 steel plate supported the full-depth section of the beam. The vertical load was applied
at one-third of the span length by an electromechanical actuator with maximum capacity of 1000 kN
and a 10025010 mm3 rubber pad was placed between the loading device and the beam to avoid stress
concentration. According to the adopted scheme, the vertical reaction on the tested dapped-end should
correspond to two-thirds of to the total applied load, this reaction was monitored by two load cells (max.
capacity of 400 kN each) placed underneath the steel cylinder. The test sequence implied the reversal
of the beam after the testing of the first dapped-end and the vertical post-compression of the already
tested side by means of steel plates vertically connected with post-tensioned steel bars. As visible in
Fig. 3 and Fig. 4, in the RTF tests, an unloading phase was introduced in order to not exceed the max-
imum capacity of the support load cells. The unloading was carried out when the applied load reached
270 kN (to be consistent with the pre-damage tests), then the load cells were by-passed at about 60 kN
and the tests were restarted and carried out up to failure. The instruments layout used to measure the
crack opening displacements (COD) and the vertical deflections (1, 2) is illustrated in Fig. 2b. On
each side of the dapped-end, a total of 4 potentiometric displacement transducers and 1 linear variable
differential transducer transformer were placed in correspondence to the main steel reinforcement, and
two wire deformometers were placed below the dapped-end. It is worth mentioning that all the COD
were measured within the nominal maximum range of the instruments, equal to 10 mm.
Both front and rear sides of the PRE specimens were preliminary hydro-scarificated at a pressure
of about 1000-1200 atm, then the FRCM composite was cast according to the typical hand lay-up tech-
nique. The nominal dimensions of the FRCM layer was 130065020 mm3; and the fabric was placed
with the warp at 45° with respect to the horizontal direction (Fig. 2c).
The experimental results of the reference dapped-end (REF) tests are compared with the pre-damaged
(PRE01/02) and with the retrofitted ones (RTF01/02) in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4, respectively. In particular,
the load vs. vertical displacements (1, 2) and the load vs. COD curves are depicted. The effect of the
rubber pad deformation during the initial phase of the tests was removed from the reading of the vertical
displacements (Fig. 3a and Fig 4a) by linearizing the initial part of the curves. It is important to point
out that, for the sake of briefness, only the results obtained from instruments CODS and CODL are
reported in this paper (Fig. 3b and Fig. 4b); however, these readings allow to monitor the crack opening
displacement of the main diagonal cracks that develop in the inner corner of the nib.
The maximum load recorded in the REF test was equal to 459.3 kN, which corresponded to a value
of vertical displacement 1 equal to 28.5 mm, and 2 equal to 22.4 mm. A good agreement between the
REF response and the PRE01/02 curves were observed, especially regarding the CODS and the CODL
14th
measurements. A residual crack opening of about 0.2 – 0.3 mm was registered at the end of the unload-
ing branch (see Fig. 3b).
Fig. 2
if b
Experimental test set-up: geometry of the specimens and detail of the reinforcement layout
(a), instruments layout (b) and detail of the fabric orientation at 45° (c). Measures in mm.
The average maximum load registered in the retrofitted specimens (RTF01/02) was equal to 531.5 kN,
corresponding to an increment of the load bearing capacity of 15.7% with respect to the REF response.
However, due to the lower ultimate strain of the FRCM composite -which coincided with the fabric
rupture- with respect to the steel bar one, the peak of the RTF response was recorded at a value of 1
and 2 lower than the ones reached in the REF test (respectively about 14 mm and 13 mm, instead of
28.5 mm and 23.4 mm, Fig. 4a). In this context, the contribution of the FRCM to the load bearing
capacity might be better evaluated by comparing the responses at the same value of vertical deflection.
According to this consideration, an increase of about 21% with respect to the vertical load of the REF
dapped-end (about 440 kN) is registered at 1 equal to 14 mm.
From the comparison reported in Fig.4b, the effect of the FRCM layers in the controlling of crack
openings can be observed. It can be noticed that, up to a value of applied load of about 200 kN, the
recorded COD in the RTF tests were higher than the REF ones. This is probably due to the presence of
the residual cracks in the PRE specimens before the application of the retrofitting layers. However, due
to the strain-hardening behaviour of such composites, the crack control effect appeared larger as the
vertical load increased. For example, at a value of applied load equal to 450 kN, the recorded COD S in
the case of RTF01 was equal to 1.40 mm, corresponding to a reduction of 5.6 times the value recorded
in the REF test (7.89 mm).
In order to better investigate this beneficial effect, a comparison between the REF test, the RTF01
and the corresponding PRE specimen is presented in Fig. 5a in terms of load vs. CODL curves. Moreo-
ver, it is interesting to compare the crack opening values recorded at a load equal to 270 kN in the RTF
and the PRE tests (see Fig. 5a). In particular, a reduction COD of 0.11 mm and 0.10 mm was obtained
respectively considering the CODL and CODS measures.
In all the tests, the first crack occurred at the inner corner, followed by the development of flexural
and shear cracks as the applied load increased. The failure of the specimens occurred at the nib due to
the crushing of the inclined concrete strut at the intersection with the top longitudinal reinforcement.
The comparisons of the crack patterns observed at different load values (270 kN and 450 kN) are shown
in Fig. 5b and Fig. 5c. It is worth noting how at the beginning the cracks in the RTF dapped-end fol-
lowed the orientation of the pre-existing ones (Fig. 5b), and then tended to develop perpendicularly to
the warp wires of the fabric (Fig. 5c).
analytical study
if b
(a) (b)
Fig. 3 Experimental results of the reference and of both the predamaged specimens: load vs. ver-
tical displacement curves (a), and load vs. COD curves (b).
(a) (b)
Fig. 4 Experimental results of the reference and of the retrofitted specimens: load vs. vertical dis-
placement curves (a), and load vs. COD curves (b).
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 5 Comparison between the experimental results of specimens REF, RTF01 and its corre-
sponding predamaged dapped-end: load vs. CODL curves (a), and crack pattern at 270 kN
(b) and 450 kN (c).
4 Simplified prediction of the load bearing capacity of the REF and the RTF
dapped-ends
The load bearing capacity of the reference (REF) dapped-end was estimated applying a simplified strut-
and-tie approach. The material properties reported in Section 2.1 were used. Considering the reinforce-
ment layout adopted for the experimental campaign, two different resisting mechanisms were identified
for the equilibrium of forces in the support node (Fig. 6). The first one (Fig. 6a) comprises an inclined
14th
compressive strut (C1), a horizontal tie (Z1) resisted by the 12 mm bars, and a vertical tie (Zst) equili-
brating the vertical component of C1 and carried by the 10 mm stirrups. The number of stirrups in-
b
volved in the equilibrium can vary from 1 to 4, resulting in a different inclination of the strut C1. The
schematic representation presented in the figure corresponds to the case in which only 2 stirrups are
acting in the equilibrium. The second mechanism, on the other hand, consists of an inclined tie (Z2)
resisted by the 14 diagonal bar and the compressive struts shown in Fig. 6b.
if
The maximum resisting load for each mechanism (PR1, PR2) was assumed to be the minimum value
resulting from the equilibrium considering alternatively the crushing of the concrete struts or the yield-
ing or failure of the bars. For example, in the first mechanism, except for the case in which 1 stirrup
was considered, the PR1 was always associated to the force acting in the horizontal U-shaped bars. It
was assumed that each mechanism was going to contribute with the 50% of the load carrying capacity
of the dapped-end (PR), as suggested in [5]. The total load (Ptot) that should be compared with the
experimental results, on the other hand, was calculated as 1.5 PR, according to the static scheme of the
test. In Table 2, the computed PR1, PR2 and Ptot are reported, considering both the variation of number
of stirrups involved in the equilibrium, and the maximum allowable stress of steel to be either: (i) the
design tensile strength (fyd), proving the load estimation at the Ultimate Limite State (ULS), (ii) the
average yield strength (fy,av), or (ii) the average ultimate strength (ft,av). It can be verified that the value
of predamaged load adopted in the PRE tests (270 kN) corresponded to the average value of Ptot con-
sidering the design tensile strength of steel (fyd). It can also be noticed that the most representative cases
were the ones in which 2 or 3 stirrups are considered, due to the higher load values estimated, in ac-
cordance with the well-known static limit analysis approach. However, when a comparison between
the estimated and the experimental results is to be made, the fact of assuming all the ties subjected to
the same stress (yielding/ultimate strengths) might not be representative of the actual response of the
specimen, leading to under/overestimations of the peak loads. Due to this, the analytical estimation was
improved by considering the failure of one set of rebars at the time (cases 3 to 5 in Fig.7). It can be
noticed how this approach led to an underestimation of the capacity in all the combinations, except for
case 2, in which a 7% overestimation was obtained considering 2 stirrups.
Fig. 6 Strut-and-tie models adopted for the prediction of the load bearing capacity: first (a) and sec-
ond (b) resisting mechanism.
Table 2 Load bearing capacity of the REF dapped-end obtained with the strut-and-tie approach.
Assigned steel strength Resisting loads [kN] 1 stirrup 2 stirrups 3 stirrups 4 stirrups
PR1 61.47 119.26 101.46 88.28
fyd PR2 85.19 85.19 85.19 85.19
Ptot 219.98 306.70 280.00 260.20
PR1 82.70 161.59 137.47 119.62
fy,avg PR2 110.53 110.53 110.53 110.53
Ptot 289.84 408.20 372.00 345.22
PR1 97.97 191.45 162.88 141.73
ft,avg PR2 136.61 136.61 136.61 136.61
Ptot 351.87 492.09 449.23 417.50

analytical study
if b
Fig. 7 Comparison between the REF capacity and the analytical prediction of maximum load: dif-
ferent failure cases when 2 or 3 stirrups are involved in the equilibrium.
Fig. 8 Comparison between the RTF average capacity and the analytical prediction (a), and sche-
matic representation of the width of the FRCM reinforcing strips involved in the resisting
mechanisms (b).
At the end, the result of the preliminary analytical estimation of the RTF dapped-ends capacity is re-
ported in Fig. 8a. The increment in load capacity, FRCM, was computed identifying different reinforcing
strips aligned with the previously identified resisting ties (b1, b2, bst in Fig. 8b) and assuming their
strength to be equal to the one identified through the FRCM material characterization reported before.
In particular, due to the orientation at 45° of the fabric in the RTF specimens, the value of the tensile
strength in the warp direction is directly used only for the calculation of Z2,FRCM (diagonal tie). The
contributions Z1,FRCM and Zst,FRCM, which are inclined with respect to the warp wires, were evaluated
taking advantage of the experimental campaign presented in [10], in which a series of Double Edge
Wedge Splitting (DEWS) specimens were retrofitted with the same FRCM system used in this work,
considering different fabric orientation, and then tested up to failure.
In order to estimate the RTF dapped-ends capacity, the computed FRCM contributions were added
to the reference load value PREF that alternatively corresponds to the strut and tie estimation, assuming
fyd or fy,avg as rebar strengths, or to the experimentally obtained vertical load reached in the REF test
(see Fig. 8a). Only the most representative cases in which 2 or 3 stirrups are involved in the resisting
mechanisms are considered and the widths of the FRCM reinforcing strips are adequately set. A ratio
of 1.54 (PREF(fyd)+FRCM) and 1.19 (PREF(fy,avg)+FRCM) was obtained dividing the RTF experimental
capacity with the estimated ones, confirming the suitability of this preliminary simplified approach for
the design of this kind of retrofitting interventions. A lower ratio of about 1.06 was found in the last
case, in which the experimental REF result is used. This slight underestimation is due to the limited
width assumed for the different reinforcing strips.
14 th
5 Conclusions
b
The experimental investigation on the structural performance of Reinforced Concrete (RC) dapped-
end beams retrofitted with a FRCM system was carried out and compared with preliminary analytical
estimations. From the presented work, the following conclusions can be drawn: (i) the application of a
retrofitting FRCM system considering a fabric orientation with the warp crossing the main cracks di-
rections (45° with respect to the horizontal) led to an increment of the load bearing capacity of about
if
15.7% respect to the reference dapped-end,; (ii) the values of diagonal crack openings registered in the
RTF tests were almost one sixth of those registered in the reference one at the same load values, thus
confirming the beneficial effect of FRCM solutions in the crack control, resulting particularly advanta-
geous for the durability of the structural element; (iii) the use of strut-and-tie models for the estimation
of the load bearing capacity of a dapped-end is strongly dependent on the adopted reinforcement layout,
nevertheless, they provide satisfactory results for both the estimation of the reference and the FRCM-
retrofitted dapped-end capacity.
Further developments can be related to the experimental investigation of the effect of the FRCM
retrofitting considering both different fabric orientations and the superposition of layers. Then, the suit-
ability of the presented analytical approach can be assessed to different investigated solutions. In addi-
tion, nonlinear numerical models can be developed to better understand the involved phenomena.
Acknowledgements
In the framework of the ReLUIS project prot. n°31 of 23/06/2021 - WP2-WP4 T4.4, the authors would
like to acknowledge Gavazzi Tessuti Spa and Master Builder Solution.
References
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collapse of Annone overpass on SS.36,” Ital. Concr. Days, no. October 2016, pp. 1–16, 2018.
[2] D. Mitchell, J. Marchand, P. Croteau, and W. D. Cook, “Concorde Overpass Collapse:
Structural Aspects,” J. Perform. Constr. Facil., vol. 25, no. 6, pp. 545–553, 2011, doi:
10.1061/(asce)cf.1943-5509.0000183.
[3] L. N. Koutas, Z. Tetta, D. A. Bournas, T. C. Triantafillou, and M. Asce, “Strengthening of
Concrete Structures with Textile Reinforced Mortars : State-of-the-Art Review,” vol. 23, no.
1, pp. 1–20, 2019, doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)CC.1943-5614.0000882.
[4] A. H. Mattock and T. C. Chan, “Design and Behavior of Dapped-End Beams,” PCI J., vol. 24,
no. 6, pp. 28–45, 1979, doi: 10.15554/pcij.11011979.28.45.
[5] J. Schlaich and K. Schiifer, “Design and detailing of structural concrete using strut-and-tie
models,” Struct. Eng., vol. 69, no. 6, pp. 113–125, 1991.
[6] P. Desnerck, J. M. Lees, and C. T. Morley, “Strut-and-tie models for deteriorated reinforced
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10.1016/j.engstruct.2018.01.013.
[7] M. C. Rampini, G. Zani, M. Colombo, and M. di Prisco, “Mechanical Behaviour of TRC
Composites: Experimental and Analytical Approaches,” Appl. Sci., vol. 9, no. 7, p. 1492, 2019,
doi: 10.3390/app9071492.
[8] M. C. Rampini, G. Zani, M. Colombo, and M. Di Prisco, “Textile reinforced concrete
composites for existing structures: Performance optimization via mechanical
characterization,” Proc. 12th fib Int. PhD Symp. Civ. Eng., pp. 907–914, 2018.
[9] M. C. Rampini, G. Zani, M. Colombo, and M. di Prisco, “The role of concrete substrate
roughness on externally bonded Fabric-Reinforced Cementitious Matrix (FRCM) layers,”
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[10] M. C. Rampini, G. Zani, M. Colombo, and M. di Prisco, “Numerical modeling of FRCM
composites for the seismic retrofitting of existing concrete structures,” ACI Fall Conv. 2019
Spec. Publ., vol. 345, pp. 69–85, 2021.

Stress transferred at the main shear crack of
b
reinforced concrete beams strengthened with U-
wrapped inorganic-matrix composites
if
Veronica Bertolli and Tommaso D‘Antino
Dipartimento ABC,
Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, Milano (20133), Italy
Abstract
Shear strengthening of existing reinforced concrete (RC) members is nowadays often performed using
externally bonded reinforcement (EBR) comprising inorganic-matrix composites, such as fiber-rein-
forced cementitious matrix (FRCM) (also referred to as textile reinforced mortar, TRM) and textile
reinforced concrete (TRC) composites. They can be either side-bonded to, U-wrapped around, or fully
wrapped around the cross-section of beams and columns. When U-wrapped FRCMs are employed in
the shear strengthening of RC beams, failure of the EBR is usually due to FRCM debonding (triggered
by the opening of shear cracks along the shear span) rather than to the attainment of the composite
tensile strength. The contribution provided by the EB composite to the member shear strength is usually
computed by an extension of the Mörsch truss model, which assumes that most of the stress borne by
the composite is transferred across a main diagonal shear crack. Accordingly, the composite shear
strength contribution is evaluated starting from the axial (i.e., fiber-aligned) stresses in the FRCM strips
crossing the main shear crack. Hence, the study of the stress-transfer mechanism in the FRCM strips
bridging the shear crack is of paramount importance to guarantee a reliable estimation of the composite
shear strength contribution. In this paper, an analytical approach is proposed to describe the distribution
of stresses developing in the FRCM shear reinforcement. The results provide an accurate description
of the stress transferred at the main shear crack, which in turn allows for an accurate estimation of the
composite shear strength contribution.
1 Introduction and background

Externally bonded reinforcement (EBR) comprising composites has gained large popularity in the past
three decades in the field of structural strengthening and rehabilitations due to some attracting features
with respect to other traditional techniques. Indeed, externally bonded fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP)
composites represent nowadays a well-established strengthening technique. They have high strength-
and stiffness-to-weight ratio (key features for strengthening systems, especially in seismic-vulnerable
areas), good corrosion resistance, and can be applied rapidly. However, they have some drawbacks
related to the use of organic resins, which have poor behavior at (relatively) high temperatures (i.e.,
temperatures close to or above their glass transition temperature) and cannot be removed once they
have been applied (i.e., entails for irreversible strengthening applications) [1]. For these reasons, in the
last two decades their inorganic matrix counterpart, i.e., fiber-reinforced cementitious matrix (FRCM)
composites, have been attracting increasing interest as EBR of existing reinforced concrete (RC) and
masonry members [2],[3].
FRCM composites, also referred to as textile reinforced mortar (TRM), are usually comprised of
high strength and high stiffness fiber yarns arranged in two orthogonal directions to form an open-mesh
textile, which is embedded in an inorganic lime- or cement-based matrix. They represent an effective
alternative to FRP due to their compatibility with the substrate, vapor permeability, and resistance to
high temperatures [4]. However, they present some drawbacks mainly related to the granularity of the
matrix that prevents complete impregnation of all fiber filaments within the textile.
Experimental evidence proved that EB FRCM can be effectively employed to improve the bending
[5], shear [1],[6], and torsional [7] strength of existing RC beams and to provide confinement for col-
umns [8],[9]. Among possible applications, shear strengthening of existing structures is of paramount
importance due to the brittleness of the shear failure. RC beams can be shear-reinforced with EB FRCM
14th
using different configurations, namely: side-bonding, U-wrapping, and full wrapping. Since side-bond-
ing is not recommended (see e.g., [10],[11]) and full wrapping is often not possible due to the presence
b
of the slab, the U-jacket configuration is the most diffused. Also, continuous or discontinuous EB
jacket, with FRCM strips having different widths and spacings, can be employed. The fiber yarns in
the main (longitudinal) textile direction are usually inclined with an angle between 45° and 90° with
respect to the beam longitudinal axis to bridge the shear cracks.
if
The approach commonly adopted in design guidelines (e.g., [10],[11]) to compute the total shear
strength of a RC beam with EB FRCM follows Eq. (1):
Vu = Vc + Vs + V f (1)
where Vu is the total shear strength of the element, Vc and Vs are the shear strength contributions
provided by concrete and steel shear reinforcement (if any), respectively, and Vf is the composite shear
strength contribution. Eq. (1) assumes that the resisting mechanisms provided by concrete, steel, and
composite reinforcements attain their maximum contribution simultaneously, and that the shear resist-
ing mechanisms provided by concrete and internal steel reinforcement remain the same with or without
EB reinforcement [12]. These assumptions were proven to provide non-conservative results for some
FRP-strengthened RC beams [13] and experimental investigations showed interaction between internal
and external reinforcement. Although further studies are needed to confirm the validity of the assump-
tions, Eq. (1) is commonly accepted in the literature for both FRP and FRCM EBR (e.g., [10],[11]).
To compute the shear strength contribution provided by the EB FRCM jacket, Vf, different models
are proposed in the literature (e.g., [1],[14]–[16]). Most of them are based on the Mörsch truss model
and assume that beam failure occurs with a main diagonal crack and that only the FRCM strips crossing
this crack provide their contribution to the shear resisting mechanism of the element. Accordingly, Vf
is generally computed as:
wf
V f = 2nt f σ fed fe (cot θ + cotβ)sinβ (2)
if
where tf=equivalent thickness of the composite, wf=width of the strips (measured orthogonally to
the longitudinal fiber direction), if=spacing of the strips (measured along the beam longitudinal axis),
n=number of textile layers, =angle of the longitudinal fibers with respect to the beam longitudinal
axis, and dfe=effective depth of the FRCM reinforcement.  is the inclination of the concrete strut, which
is often assumed equal to 45° [14]. When the EB shear reinforcement is present,  is also the inclination
assumed for the main diagonal crack (see Fig. 1 (left)). In general, it is also assumed that the FRCM
jackets on opposite sides of the cross-section provide the same contribution.
Although different models employ Eq. (2) to compute Vf, they differ in the definition of the effective
stress fe, which is the maximum average axial (i.e., fiber aligned) stress in the composite reinforcement
bridging the main shear crack. Different procedures to obtain fe under specific design hypotheses (e.g.,
[11],[14]) or through the definitions of the effective strain fe=fe/Ef (where Ef is the fiber elastic mod-
ulus, see e.g., [1],[15],[17]) are available in the literature.
Fig. 1 U-jacketed RC beam: geometrical parameters and crack opening.
The effective stress fe can be determined from the actual stress distribution in FRCM strips across the
shear crack. For the U-wrap configuration considered in this paper, FRCM failure usually occurs due
to debonding of the composite and the stresses arising at crack can be computed once the bond behavior
at the FRCM-concrete or at the fiber-matrix interface is known [14]. This bond behavior can be fully
described provided that the cohesive material law (CML), i.e., the relationship between the shear stress
and the slip at the interface considered, is known. Accordingly, the axial stress -loaded end slip g

Stress transferred at the main shear crack of reinforced concrete beams strengthened with U-wrapped inorganic-matrix
composites
curve of an FRCM-substrate joint with bonded length L, (g, L), can be obtained knowing the interface
CML. fe can be then computed as [14],[18]:
b
1 ξ1
ξ1 − ξ 0 α ξ0
σ fe = max σ( g , L)dξ (3)
where  is the coordinate along the main shear crack axis from crack tip (=) to the centroid of the
if
longitudinal tensile steel reinforcement (=1), =0 is the point where the composite intersect the crack
closest to the crack tip and  is the crack opening angle (see Fig. 1 (right)).
The maximum value of the integral in Eq. (3), which varies with  is assumed to correspond to the
simultaneous attainment of the peak stress, *, for each fiber crossing the crack [14],[18]. Hence, the
evaluation of fe requires only the knowledge of the relationship between the peak stress * and the
corresponding bonded length L (i.e., the capacity curve of the joint, *-L):
1 ξ1
ξ1 − ξ 0 ξ0
σ fe = σ* ( L(ξ))dξ (4)
However, the hypothesis of simultaneous attainment of the bond capacity *(L) for each fiber may
not accurately represent the debonding phenomenon, which usually starts in a limited portion of the
composite and propagates suddenly, but is commonly accepted in the literature also for FRP shear
models, leading to acceptable predictions of Vf [14],[18],[19]. It should be noted that in [14], Eq. (3)
and (4) are employed to compute the force per unit length in the composite crossing the shear crack.
Within this framework, the study of the evolution of the stress distribution, (), across the crack up to
failure of the beam can be useful to understand the shear strength contribution provided by the EB
composite applied to RC beams, providing also further confirmations of the assumptions (see Eq. (4))
made in the literature to compute fe.
In this paper, an analytical approach is proposed to describe the distribution of stresses transferred
in the FRCM strips intersecting the main shear crack when the U-wrap shear strengthening configura-
tion is employed. In this approach, the main shear crack is assumed to separate the FRCM strips in two
joints, one above and one below the crack. Equilibrium and compatibility conditions are then applied
to these joints, leading to the distribution of the axial stress and the corresponding slip along the crack.
Finally, the integral of these stresses when the composite provides its maximum contribution to the
beam shear strength is compared with the analytical solution proposed in [14],[18].
2 Analytical procedure to determine ()

In the analytical approach proposed in this paper to determine the axial stress distribution in an EB
FRCM crossing a shear crack, the assumption of a main diagonal crack leading to failure with inclina-
tion  adopted for Eq. (2) was employed. Although experimental evidence showed multiple shear cracks
in FRP and FRCM shear-strengthened RC beams, failure usually occurred due to the opening of a main
crack. Furthermore, this assumption was proven to provide conservative results for EB FRP [12],[19].
Then, two further hypotheses were adopted: (1) the main diagonal crack is linear, hence the crack
opening w at different crack locations is defined (under the small displacement hypothesis) as w=;
and (2) the crack tip and crack mouth are located at the centroid of the flexural compression zone and
at the centroid of the longitudinal tension reinforcement of the beam, respectively (see Fig. 1 (right)).
With the opening of the main diagonal crack, each strip intersected can be considered as two dif-
ferent strips, one above and one below the crack, connected at the crack where they have a certain slip,
s, induced by the crack opening, w. These two strips can be regarded as two different joints, each with
a specific bonded length measured from the crack axis  to the end of the composite in the direction of
the longitudinal fibers. They also have different boundary conditions: considering the U-wrap config-
uration scheme, the joint above the crack (named type A joint) is simply bonded to the beam side, while
the joint below (named type B joint) wraps the beam bottom side and can be considered as anchored to
the beam (see e.g., [20]). Thus, the former is modelled as a free far end joint (i.e., the slip at the far end
of the joint is free), while the latter as a fixed far end joint (i.e., the slip at the far end is restrained). It
is worth noticing that the two joints, having different boundary conditions at the far end, have different
solutions of the bond differential equation, leading to load responses that are equal until the stress-
transfer zone (STZ) reaches the far end, but different hereafter. Indeed, while the maximum (peak)
value of the load response of free far end joint, *, is defined as the bond capacity of the joint, the
maximum value reached in the load response of fixed far end joints is assumed to be the tensile strength
14th
of the fibers, ffu. The bond behavior and thus the load response (-g curve) of each strip can be computed
by solving the bond differential equation provided that the bonded length and the CML are known [21].
if b
Fig. 2 Schematic description of the procedure followed to determine the stress distribution along
the crack (left) and its idealized representation (right).
Provided a certain crack opening angle , the slip at the loaded end of each strip, which is always
parallel to the longitudinal fiber direction, is:
s = s(α,ξ) = αξsin(θ + β) (5)
Also, the bonded lengths of the free (above the crack) and fixed (below the crack) far end joints, La
and Lb, respectively (Fig. 1 (right)), are:
La = ξsinθ sinβ + ht sinβ (6)
Lb = ( ξ1 − ξ ) sin θ sinβ + hb sinβ (7)
where ht and hb are the lengths of the strips above the crack tip and below the crack end, respec-
tively, measured orthogonally to the beam longitudinal axis (Fig. 2 (right)). Eq. (6) and (7) were com-
puted assuming that the FRCM strips top edge is located above the flexural compression centroid, i.e.,
above the crack tip. The rigid-trilinear CML presented in [22] was adopted to model the bond behavior
of both type A and B joints. This specific -s relation was selected because it allows to accurately
capture both the elastic, softening, and friction (debonding) stages of the debonding process entailing
for a finite value of the effective bond length leff (i.e., the minimum bonded length engaged when the
bond stress-transfer is fully established).
Provided La(), Lb(), and the interface CML, the load responses of the joint above (A-gA) and
below (B-gB) the shear crack were obtained solving the corresponding bond differential equations (see
[20] for further details). A detailed solution of the bond behavior of free and fixed far end joints with
the rigid-trilinear CML adopted in this paper is provided in [22].
Once the load responses of the two joints are known, the stresses =(g,L) at the composite loaded
ends, i.e., at the shear crack, can be computed for any value of the crack opening angle by enforcing
equilibrium and compatibility conditions:
g A + gB = s
 (8)
σ A = σ B
where gA and gB are the loaded end slips of the joints above and below the shear crack, respectively,
and A and B are the corresponding stresses.
Eq. (8) is a system of two equations with two unknowns and its solution provides the slip gA and gB
as well as the stress =A=B acting along the crack in any composite fiber. It could be solved analyt-
ically provided that a unique value of  exists for a given value of g. However, for certain bonded
lengths the load responses -g show, after the attainment of the peak load, a descending branch in which
the value of the global slip decreases. This snap-back phenomenon is due to the elastic energy release
of the debonded portion of composite as the applied load decreases [23]. Hence, different values of
stress can be associated with the same value of slip, which imply that Eq. (8) cannot be solved analyti-
cally. In this paper, Eq. (8) was solved numerically for every fiber intersecting the crack from =0 to
=1. Given a generic FRCM fiber at a specific  coordinate, the solution of the system led to the
determination of the slips gA and gB, which have the same corresponding value of stress, , and such
composites
that their sum is equal to the total slip at the crack at the given  coordinate. Applying the same proce-
b
dure for every fiber intersecting the crack, the distribution of slips, gA=gA() and gB=gB(), and stresses,
=(), along the whole crack length were obtained. The procedure followed is summarized in Fig. 2
(left).
Different values of the crack opening angle can be considered in Eq. (8). Thus, the evolution of the
stresses transferred across the main crack as it opens, i.e., as the beam is progressively loaded, could be
if
obtained. When the integral of stresses in the composite strips across the crack reaches its maximum,
the critical opening angle cr is attained. In Section 3, this model was employed to compute the stress
distribution along the crack length (=1-0) for different values of  for a reference RC beam.
3 Results
The model described in Section 2 was applied in this section to a reference configuration of a RC beam
strengthened in shear with a U-wrapped PBO FRCM continuous jacket. The beam height was h=500
mm and the FRCM geometrical parameters were hfe=z=405 mm (where hfe is the vertical height corre-
sponding to the crack length , which is equal to the beam internal level arm z in the case the composite
strips end above the flexural compression centroid), ht=22.5 mm and hb=50 mm (see Fig. 1 (right)).
The angle of the compressed strut  was assumed equal to 45° and the longitudinal fibers of the jacket
were inclined with an angle =70°. The fiber yarn geometrical parameters (cross-sectional area Af and
contact perimeter p), mechanical (elastic modulus Ef and tensile strength ffu), and bond properties were
those considered in [22] and reported in Table 1. The rigid-trilinear CML was ‘CML2’ calibrated on
PBO FRCM direct shear tests [22].
Table 1 Rigid-trilinear CML employed.

CML parameters Fiber yarn parameters
0 [MPa]  Af [mm2] 
max [MPa]  p [mm] 
f [MPa]  Ef [GPa] 
smax[mm]  ffu [MPa] 

sf [mm] 
It is worth noticing that this model can be applied for every FRCM shear-strengthened beam (with
different geometrical and mechanical characteristics), provided the full definition of the joint bond be-
havior. Also, the fibers crossing the shear crack below the centroid of the longitudinal tension steel
reinforcement (=1) were not considered to contribute to the shear strength provided by the composite,
i.e., their corresponding stress () was not considered to contribute to the integral of Eq. (3) employed
to compute fe. However, these portions of composite were considered when computing the bonded
length of the different joints along the crack (i.e., in Eqs. (6) and (7)).
In Fig. 3 are reported the slips gA and gB (and their sum, s) obtained solving Eq. (8) along  and for
three fixed values of the crack opening angle, namely =cr/3, =2/3cr and =cr. The critical angle
cr was attained when the stress in the fiber located at =1 reached its peak value *. Considering the
assumption that all fibers crossing the crack reached their peak value simultaneously, this configuration
was the one associated to the highest contribution of the composite to the total shear strength of the
beam. It should be noted that for FRCM composites that showed high slip at the onset of debonding,
cr might be associated with crack openings for which the concrete contribution to the beam shear
strength is no longer fully established. This confirms the need of further studies regarding the interac-
tion between the concrete, steel, and composite shear strength contributions.
From the slip values, the distribution of the axial stress =() was computed through the load
responses of each joint and reported in Fig. 4. As the stress in the strips crossing the crack increased
with increasing the bonded lengths of type A joints (Fig. 4), the corresponding slip, gA, continued to
increase while gB decreased when the bonded length of type B joints was sufficiently short (see Fig. 3).
Indeed, in type B joints with short bonded lengths high stress values can be reached for low values of
slip [22]. The shear stress distribution reached along the crack in the two joints, reported in Fig. 5,
14th
followed the slip distributions described by the rigid-trilinear CML in Table 1. As gA increased, the
shear stress at crack in type A joints was engaged in the CML elastic, softening, and debonding stages
b
subsequently. On the other hand, since the global slip gB started to decrease for certain values of the
crack opening w (Fig. 3), the corresponding portion of type B joints interface remained in the softening
stage of the CML while increasing values of the shear stress were observed.
if
Fig. 3 Slip distribution along the crack length for increasing values of .
Fig. 4 Axial stress distribution along the crack length for increasing value of .
Fig. 5 Shear stress distribution along the crack length for increasing value of .
With the model presented in this paper, it is possible to compare the actual stress distribution along the
main shear crack when =cr with that obtained by the capacity curve of type A joint, to confirm the
validity of the assumptions adopted in [14],[18] and reported in Eq. (4). The capacity curve *(L) was
computed from the peak load of type A joints load responses with increasing bonded lengths (the CML
in Table 1 was adopted), while the =() distribution obtained with the analytical procedure proposed
was associated with the different bonded lengths of type A joints along the crack, La=La().
Fig. 6 Comparison between the capacity curve of type A joints and the stress distribution obtained
by the procedure proposed at the main shear crack for increasing value of .

composites
The curves obtained are compared in Fig. 6. When <cr, as expected, the stress distribution ()=(La)
reached values that are lower than those of the joint capacity curve. With increasing , (La) increased
b
until =cr, which was assumed to correspond to the maximum contribution of the composite to the
beam shear strength. The capacity curve (L) slightly overestimated the (La) distribution at the crack.
However, when =cr the two curves had almost the same integrals and their main difference was due
to the non-zero bonded length associated with =0 considered in computing (La). At the crack tip,
if
when the bonded length La(0)≠0, the slip is equal to zero and this entails for a zero-stress value asso-
ciated to the non-zero bonded length of the joint.
Finally, knowing the slip at the loaded end for the joints above and below the shear crack, the
development of the debonding process of every fiber along the crack could be obtained from the corre-
sponding load responses A-gA and B-gB. Along the length of any joint, i.e., along x (see Fig. 7), the
bonded length engaged in the elastic, softening, and debonding stage could be determined, as well as
the distribution of slip, s(x), and axial, (x), and shear, (x), stress along the joint (i.e., from the loaded
to the far end). The evolution of the debonding process along the length of the joints for the three values
of  adopted in Fig. 4–Fig. 6 are reported in Fig. 7: the blue area represents the elastic stage, the green
area the softening stage, and the red area the portion of the joint in which debonding has occurred. It
should be noted that the area engaged in the elastic stage can be determined thanks to the presence of
the initial rigid branch of the CML employed, which entails for a finite value of leff.
Fig. 7 Evolution of the debonding process in joints intersecting the crack.
4 Conclusions
In this paper, an analytical model was presented to compute the axial, i.e., fiber aligned, stress distribu-
tion in FRCM strips crossing the main shear crack of an FRCM shear-strengthened RC beam. The
model can be adopted to describe different shear strengthening configurations and is valid for any
FRCM composite, provided that the bond behavior of the interface where debonding occurs, i.e., the
interface cohesive material law, is known. Furthermore, it is based only on equilibrium and compati-
bility conditions of fibers intersecting the diagonal crack.
The determination of slip and stress distribution across the crack allowed to obtain the description
of the debonding process along the crack not only at beam failure but during the whole opening of the
crack, also providing the complete description of the debonding process established along the bonded
lengths of the different strips intersecting the crack. Moreover, the determination of the stress distribu-
tion along the crack at beam failure allowed to confirm that the hypothesis adopted in the literature,
which assumes that the fibers reach their maximum stress simultaneously, provides an accurate descrip-
tion of the phenomenon.
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2663–2678.

Effect of freeze-thaw cycles on shear resistance of
b
reinforced concrete beams strengthened with UHPFRC
Yitao Huang and Mladena Luković
if
Engineering Structures,
Stevinweg 1, 2628 CN Delft, The Netherlands
Abstract
Ultra-high performance fiber-reinforced concrete (UHPFRC) has emerged as one of the promising ma-
terials for strengthening of concrete structures. For the strengthening application of UHPFRC, one of
the primary concerns is to evaluate the degradation of bond behavior and structural response of strength-
ened elements under harsh environmental conditions. Therefore, an experimental program has been
carried out to investigate the interfacial behavior between UHPFRC and normal concrete, as well as the
shear performance of UHPFRC-concrete hybrid beams subjected to combined freeze-thaw cycles and
mechanical load. In this study, two groups of shear-deficient reinforced concrete beams were first
strengthened by UHPFRC precast panels using epoxy resin. Then, the specimens subjected to 0 and 30
freeze-thaw cycles were loaded to failure under three-point bending. The results indicate that the utili-
zation of epoxy resin is an effective bonding technique to ensure the integral performance of the com-
posite beams and the shear capacity is greatly enhanced with the application of UHPFRC. In addition,
it is observed that the effect of applied freeze-thaw regime on the UHPFRC-concrete interfacial bond
strength and shear resistance of unstrengthened and strengthened beams is negligible.
1 Introduction
Reinforced concrete (RC) is the most widely used construction material. However, in recent decades,
existing RC structures suffer serious damage or even fail before reaching their design service life due
to increase of loads and/or environmental deterioration. Especially for concrete structures exposed to
aggressive environments such as chlorides, sulfates, and freeze-thaw, one of the primary challenges is
to provide sufficient durability. Furthermore, some of these structures might not be damaged, but due
to upgraded, more stringent design codes they do not meet performance requirements anymore. In order
to restore the performances and improve the durability of damaged RC structures, repair or strengthen-
ing work might be necessary.
Ultra-high performance fiber-reinforced concrete (UHPFRC), one of the novel superior cement-
based materials, is a promising material for both new construction and repair applications. Given its
characteristics such as low water-to-binder ratio (normally < 0.25), use of only fine particles, and addi-
tion of steel fibers [1], UHPFRC shows better properties compared to conventional concrete. Typically,
compressive strength of UHPFRC is more than 150MPa and its tensile strength can reach over 5MPa
[2]. Moreover, UHPFRC has a dense microstructure, which is suitable to prevent the ingress of carbon
dioxide, chloride, sulfate, etc, contributing to its excellent durability [3]. For example, in terms of its
freeze-thaw resistance, UHPFRC can suffer more than 800 freeze-thaw cycles without obvious damage
[4], unlike concrete which typically shows damage already after 300 cycles.
Since UHPFRC has a lot of advantages mentioned above, recently many studies have been con-
ducted to investigate the efficiency of UHPFRC application in repairing existing concrete structures.
As summarized in [5], [6], UHPFRC can enhance the performance of deteriorated concrete structures
at the laboratory scale. However, some remaining issues need to be addressed before the large-scale
on-site application of UHPFRC. Firstly, most studies are limited to structural response with the appli-
cation of UHPFRC under mechanical loading. However, in this way the behavior of concrete structures
reinforced with UHPFRC in real conditions is not reflected. In reality, structures are subjected to com-
bined action of external loads and environmental effects [7]. Thus, the mechanical performance of
UHPFRC strengthened structures under harsh environmental exposure effects requires further investi-
gation. In addition, another critical concern is the bond performance between the concrete substrate and
UHPFRC [8]. A weak bond might lead to debonding phenomenon prior to the full exploitation of
14 th
UHPFRC material strength. So far, various kinds of bond strength tests have been performed to analyze
the interfacial behaviour between UHPFRC and normal concrete and test results show that UHPFRC
b
can produce good bond performance due to the reinforcement effect of steel fibers [9]–[15]. The fact
that debonding rarely happens at the interface for concrete beams repaired with UHPFRC in structural
tests also supports the previous finding [16], [17]. However, the long-term bond behavior between the
UHPFRC and the existing structure under harsh environmental conditions is not sufficiently investi-
if
gated, which may impede the widespread strengthening application of UHPFRC. Therefore, in view of
insufficient studies on the mechanical performance of RC structures strengthened with UHPFRC under
harsh environmental conditions, this study is devoted to investigating the effectiveness of UHPFRC
strengthening technique exposed to the freeze-thaw (FT) cycles and applied load. Three-point bending
is carried out and both the strengthening effect and the bond performance are evaluated.
2.1 Specimen preparation

In this test, a total of four RC beams with a dimension of 100x200x1400mm are fabricated. Each beam
is reinforced with 2 rebars with diameter 16 in tensile and 2 rebars with diameter 12 in compressive
zone. All the beams are designed to fail in shear and no stirrups are used in the effective span region.
Two beams without strengthening are served as reference beams while another two beams are strength-
ened with prefabricated UHPFRC panels on lateral sides using epoxy resin. The strengthening proce-
dures are as follows. First, the beams’ lateral surfaces are cleaned using cloth and ethanol. Secondly,
epoxy resin is applied on both sides of concrete beams to enable bonding with the two precast 10mm
thick UHPFRC panels. Finally, the panels are clamped and tightened. The geometric details of the
reference, normal concrete (NC) and strengthened beams are shown in Fig. 1. The beams are divided
into two groups, namely the control group preserved in lab conditions, and the environmental group
exposed to 30 FT cycles. Each group consists of two beams: one beam is reference beam and another
one is strengthened beam reinforced with UHPFRC, as presented in Table 1.
Loading Point
200
200
20
200 500 500 200
(a) Longitudinal view of the beam

Concrete Concrete
Epoxy resin
UHPFRC laminate
46
46
Ø12 Ø12
200
200
Ø16 Ø16
33
33
28 28
10 10
100 100
(b) Cross-sectional view of the reference beam (Left) and strengthened beam (Right)
Fig. 1 Geometry of reference and strengthened beams (unit: mm).

Table 1 Details of test beams.
b
Dimension Environmental
Group Beam Bonding method
(mm) exposure
RB 100×200×1400 - -
Control group
if
ST-EB 120×200×1400 Epoxy resin -
Environmental RB-30 100×200×1400 - 30 FT cycles
group ST-EB-30 120×200×1400 Epoxy resin 30 FT cycles
2.2 Freeze thaw protocol

Fig. 2 illustrates the freeze thaw protocol. The duration of one FT cycle is 24h. Freezing is done in cold
room with temperature of -20 ℃ for 16h and thawing process is conducted in climate room at 20 ℃
for the remaining 8h. In order to follow the real environment exposure condition of existing concrete
structures, the FT test is conducted with relative humidity ranging from 50% to 70%. Due to the limi-
tation of experimental setup, the rate of temperature change was not predetermined. However, a sudden
drop or increase of temperature will induce an even harsher condition than present in practice, being on
safe side when predicting the residual capacity. After 30 FT cycles, compressive strength of NC and
UHPFRC are measured, and beam tests are conducted to assess the deterioration of material properties
and structural performance subjected to combined load and FT effects. Three NC and UHPFRC cubical
specimens with dimension of 100mm and 40mm, respectively, are tested in compression.
Fig. 2 Freeze thaw protocol on specimens.
2.3 Mechanical test setup and procedure

All beam specimens are tested under three-point bending configuration and loaded under deformation
control at a constant rate of 0.01 mm/sec. To simulate the loading condition for on-site strengthening
application with UHPFRC, in the strengthened beam both the supports and loading plates only act on
the concrete part. Fig. 3a and 3b show the linear variable differential transducers (LVDT) measurement
configuration for reference and strengthened beams respectively. For reference beams, LVDTs are
used to measure the deflection and strain distribution along the height at the mid-span. For strengthened
beam, eight LVDTs are attached on top of strengthened beam to measure the interface displacement
(slip and opening) at four measurement locations close to the loading point, from which the bond quality
between UHPFRC and normal concrete can be evaluated during the loading process. Similar to the
reference beam, another two LVDTs are used to measure the mid-span deflection and strain level in
compression zone respectively.
Apart from the LVDT measurement system, Digital Image Correlation (DIC), a non-contact image-
based measurements technique, is also used to capture the crack development on the lateral side of the
tested beams (Fig. 3c).
Yitao Huang and Mladena Luković 559
14 th
b
Loading Point L
15
1
2
35
3
200
200
200
5
25
Front view Front view
15
if
4
200 500 500 200 200 500
100
bottom
120
top
200 500 500 200 200 500
(a) LVDT arrangement for reference beam (Unit: mm)
Loading Point
15
1
200
200
200
Front view 5
200 500 500 200
8 7 9 10
100
120
100
top
3 2 4 6
200 500 500 200
(b) LVDT arrangement for strengthened beam (Unit: mm)
Loading Point
200
200
Back view DIC Measurement Zone
200 500 500 200
(c) DIC arrangement for reference and strengthened beam (Unit: mm)
Fig. 3 LVDT and DIC arrangement for reference and strengthened beams.
3.1 Material deterioration after FT process

Compressive strength reduction is an important parameter to reflect the possible damage of material
after FT cycles. In this study, the compressive strengths of NC and UHPFRC are measured on reference
samples and samples exposed to 30 FT (Table 2). For normal concrete, there is a minor decrease of
average compressive strength (around 4%), whereas for UHPFRC there is slight increase (2.5%), both
falling within one standard deviation. Note that exposure conditions in the freeze thaw test were not
harsh since the test is conducted in dry condition with a humidity ranging from 50% to 70%, and the
number of FT cycles is limited.

Table 2 Compressive strength of cement-based material without and with 30 FT cycles.
b
Compressive strength
Mixture
0 FT cycle 30 FT cycles
Concrete 35.21.5 MPa 33.85.3 MPa
if
UHPFRC 122.45.1 MPa 125.48.7 MPa
3.2 Structural behaviour

3.2.1 Load-deflection relationship
To evaluate the shear capacity under coupled action of load and FT environment, reference beam (RB)
and strengthened epoxy bonded beams (ST-EB) with and without freeze-thaw exposure are tested. The
load-displacement relationship of all test beams is shown in Fig. 4. Table 3 summarizes the test results,
namely peak load, deflection at peak load and failure modes. Compared to RB beam, ST-EB beam
shows by 112% increase in ultimate capacity and around 57% higher deflection at peak load. Although
the shear strengthening efficiency might be reduced with increasing beam size due to the size effect,
these studies confirm that the contribution of UHPFRC to shear resistance improvement is still consid-
erable [18], [19].
For RB-30 and ST-EB-30 which were subjected to 30 FT cycles, negligible influence of freeze-
thaw cycles is observed from load-deflection response. Compared to that of RB and ST-EB, the ultimate
shear capacity of RB-30 and ST-EB-30 reduce by 4.5% and 5.5% respectively. In terms of deformation
capacity after FT action, the deflection at peak load of ST-EB-30 is nearly the same as that of ST-EB.
However, compared to RB beam, the deformation of RB-30 is 41% lower.
Fig. 4 Load-displacement relationship of all test beams.
Table 3 Results in terms of load, deflection, and failure modes.

Deflection at peak load
Beam Peak load (kN) exp (mm) Failure mode
RB 59.8 2.51 Shear compression failure

ST-EB 126.7 3.94 Flexural shear failure
RB-30 57.3 1.48 Shear compression failure
ST-EB-30 119.7 4.19 Flexural shear failure
3.2.2 Fracture modes
Failure modes of all test beams from visual observation and DIC analysis are presented in Fig. 5. The
deformation and major strain resolution of DIC results are 0.008mm and 0.075% respectively. From
Fig. 5, as expected, all beams fail in shear. The comparison of failure mode between RB, RB-30 and
14 th
ST-EB, ST-EB-30 shows that the failure mode shifts from shear compression to flexural shear when
beams are strengthened with UHPFRC panels. RB beam fails as the dominant shear crack propagates
b
to the top flange of the specimens, eventually followed by the concrete crushing, while ST-EB collapses
when the diagonal crack develops through the whole cross section of members. For RB-30 and ST-EB-
30, due to negligible damage after the freeze thaw action, similar failure modes to RB and ST-EB are
observed.
if
RB ST-EB RB-30 ST-EB-30
Fig. 5 Failure modes of all test beams.
3.2.3 Interface displacement

For ST-EB and ST-EB-FT beams, the average interface slip and opening between UHPFRC and NC
are shown in Fig. 6. Since the interface displacement is of the same order of magnitude as the resolution
of LVDT (1 µm), the measurement is accompanied by substantial noise. As shown in Fig. 6, the max-
imum value for both interface slip and opening does not exceed 0.015mm and is much lower than the
requirement specified in fib Bulletin 43 [20], confirming that a good bond quality between UHPFRC
and NC could be obtained by employing the epoxy resin. Similar trend of load-interface displacement
curve is observed for all specimens. In the initial stage, the interface displacement increases with in-
creasing load. However, it is found that the interface displacement decreases rapidly after the initiation
of shear crack, which might be ascribed to stress relaxation between UHPFRC and normal concrete. In
addition, in comparison with ST-EB specimen, larger interface displacement is recorded for beam ST-
EB-30 exposed to 30 FT cycles. A possible reason might be that freeze thaw action weakens the bond
quality between UHPFRC and normal concrete. Due to complex behaviour at the interface, further
investigation is required.
(a) Interface slip (b) Interface opening
Fig. 6 Interface displacement (slip and opening) measurement for strengthened beams.
4 Conclusion
In this study, shear performance of reinforced concrete beam strengthened with UHPFRC under cou-
pled load and FT action is experimentally studied. Compressive strength tests are conducted to evaluate
the deterioration of UHPFRC and normal concrete after 30 FT cycles. The effect of UHPFRC applica-
tion and freeze thaw cycles on the load-deflection, failure modes and interface behaviour were analyzed.
Based on the experimental results, the main conclusion of this study are as follows:
1. The application of prefabricated UHPFRC plates using epoxy resin can significantly improve the
shear capacity of concrete beams, which shows that UHPFRC application is an effective strengthening
b
method. The maximum load and deformation capacity of strengthened beam is 112% and 57% higher
than the reference beam respectively. Owing to the minor frost damage of concrete, the effects of freeze
thaw on the shear resistance of RB-30 and ST-EB-30 are negligible as merely 5% decrease of load
capacity is observed.
if
2. In terms of the bond between UHPFRC and normal concrete, the imposed freeze thaw damage
is not severe and epoxy resin could still provide sufficient bond strength to prevent the interface debon-
ding.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Dutch Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) under the grant
“Optimization of interface behaviour for innovative hybrid concrete structures” (project number
16814). Yitao Huang would like to acknowledge the funding support from China Scholarship Council
(CSC) under the grant CSC No. 201906950087.
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Enhancing seismic safety of existing RC buildings
b
through external exoskeletons.
Simone D’Amore and Stefano Pampanin
if
Via Eudossiana 18, Rome (00184), Italy
Abstract
Catastrophic earthquakes in the past decades have highlighted the vulnerability of Reinforced Concrete
(RC) buildings built in the absence of modern codes. For this reason, a research effort has been dedi-
cated to the development of local as well as global external low-invasive interventions (exoskeleton-
type) for the seismic retrofit of buildings. In this work, with reference to a case study RC building,
alternative retrofit options have been implemented and compared in terms of safety index (IS-V) as
well as economic index (Perdite Annue Medie, PAM, or Expected Annual Losses, EAL). Results con-
firm that external exoskeletons allow for an enhanced safety as well as a reduction of expected losses,
in addition to a limited users’ disruption.
1 Introduction and methodology

Recent catastrophic earthquakes have further highlighted the high vulnerability of buildings in the Med-
iterranean Area built prior the 1970’s. In fact, such buildings are not compliant with the requirements
of modern building codes and are often designed without any “hierarchy of strength” or “capacity de-
sign” principles and following a “working stresses” elastic design approach. As a result, such structures
have inadequate details (e.g., use of plain round bars and hooked end anchorages, inadequate develop-
ment length and lap splices generally located in the plastic hinge zone, insufficient/absent transversal
reinforcement in joints and members, poor diaphragm-to-lateral resisting systems connection details)
to accommodate the inelastic demand associated to the seismic loading, and brittle local mechanisms,
leading to global collapse, are generally expected [1].
These aspects highlight the need for simple, cost-effective retrofit strategies for existing buildings.
For this reason, in past decades research moved towards the development and implementation of either
local strategies (i.e., Fiber Reinforced Polymers FRP, Selective Weakening SW, Concrete Jacketing
CJ) as well as the use of global external intervention (i.e., braces or exoskeletons consisting in wall or
frame systems).
Exoskeletons can be the support for a high performance “double-skin” of the building, allowing for
a holistic restyling of the structure. In fact, the self-supported double-skin guarantees the energy refur-
bishment as well as the architectural restyling, whilst the engineered exoskeleton allows for the seismic
strengthening of the structure. Fig. 1 schematically shows an example of the integrated seismic-ener-
getic-aesthetic refurbishment of an existing RC building using external exoskeletons. The need for an
integrated retrofit strategy is nowadays well acknowledged considering the need for moving towards a
more resilient (seismic point of view) and sustainable (energetic point of view) society, to foster an
effective transition through a low-carbon and eco-efficient society for reaching the European targets
for the reduction of greenhouse gas emission (GHG), [2]. Moreover, the reduced invasiveness of such
intervention (entirely carried out from outside) is useful for encouraging owners to pursue an integrated
retrofit, avoiding the trend to opt for the only energetic intervention, which can be easily damaged and
impaired under moderate earthquake shaking, given the high vulnerability of existing buildings both in
terms of structural skeleton and non-structural envelope. The users’ disruption is nowadays well recog-
nized as a critical point for selecting the most suitable retrofit option into a Multi-Criteria Decision
Making (MCDM) process [3], [4].
The scope of this work is to investigate the feasibility and efficiency of external exoskeletons, com-
paring such retrofit solutions with other more traditional alternative options, only from a seismic per-
formance point of view. To reach this goal, considering an existing pre-1970’s Reinforced Concrete
RC building located in a high seismic zone in Italy (L’Aquila), alternative retrofit solutions are designed
following a Displacement-Based Retrofit procedure to target different level of performance, namely
14 th
FRP, SW and external exoskeletons. For exoskeletons both wall as well as frame systems have been
considered. Specifically, alternative technological options have been implemented for exoskeletons: (i)
b
the traditional monolithic and (ii) the low-damage PREcast Seismic Structural System (PRESSS), based
on post-tensioned jointed ductile connections and relying on a peculiar rocking&dissipative mecha-
nism.
if
As-Built Retrofitted Building
Fig. 1 Schematic example of an integrated seismic-energetic-aesthetic intervention on an existing

RC building through external exoskeleton.
Finally, the seismic performance of the retrofit options has been compared in terms of both safety index
IS-V (analogous to the %NBS, New Building Standard defined in the NZSEE 2017 Seismic Assessment
Guidelines [5], [6]) as well as of the economic index “Perdite Annue Medie” PAM (Expected Annual
Losses, EAL) both defined in the Italian Seismic Risk Classification Guidelines [7]. Such comparison
highlighted that the external exoskeletons allow for an enhanced safety and reduced expected losses, in
addition to a limited invasiveness.
2 Description and seismic assessment of the case-study building

The Case-Study building is a three-storey RC frame (residential building) located in L’Aquila (Italy).
Fig.2 summarizes the geometrical characteristics of the frame (left), and the cross-section and rein-
forcement details of beams and columns together with the joints structural detailing (right). The frame
is defined as a weak column-strong beam system, and therefore is expected to be “earthquake prone”
(it is not compliant with the capacity design principles and the correct hierarchy of strength is not re-
spected in the as-built configuration, and brittle failure mechanisms are expected).
a) Geometric Data b) Reinforcement Details
Beam
Beam reinforcement
Joint structural 4+4  15 (longitudinal)
detailing
 10 @ 20cm (stirrups)
Column reinforcement
3+2+3  15 (longitudinal)
Column
 10 @ 15cm (stirrups)
Fig. 2 Geometric data of the three-storey RC frame building (left); cross-section area and rein-
forcement details of beams and columns, and joints structural detailing (right).
The seismic assessment of the case-study building in the As-Built configuration has been carried out
using the SLaMA procedure (Simplified Lateral Mechanism Analysis), according to the NZSEE 2017
document [5], [6]. SLaMA is an analytical procedure aiming at assessing the non-linear capacity and
plastic mechanisms of a structure. Since the procedure is based on analytical/mechanical considerations
and on equilibrium/compatibility principles, it is possible to literally carry it out “by hand” with no need
for, and prior to, any numerical analysis. The first step of the procedure is the characterization of the

lateral response of each element within the structure (i.e., beams, columns, joints). After that, it is pos-
sible to convert the capacity of each element within a common unit (i.e., the equivalent column moment)
b
into a Moment-Axial Load M-N performance domain [4], [8], Fig.3 (left). This allows for a direct
comparison of the elements’ capacity within a beam-column joint subassembly, enabling for the direct
evaluation of the hierarchy of strength and sequence of events. Further, the possibility to assess the
hierarchy of strength supports the definition of several retrofit strategies.
if
Finally, the results of the SLaMA have been validated using a refined lumped plasticity model
implemented in the software Ruaumoko 2D [9]. The results of the non-linear static (pushover) analysis
have been converted into an Acceleration-Displacement Response Spectrum (ADRS) and implement-
ing the Capacity Spectrum Method (CSM), the safety index (IS-V) has been defined considering a Life-
Safety (LSLS) earthquake (probability of exceedance of 10% in 50 years). The case-study frame scores
58% IS-V (seismic prone) and a mixed-sway mechanism featured by local brittle failure in external and
internal beam-column joints is expected, Fig.3 (right).
Fig. 3 Example of the Moment-Axial Load performance domain for the evaluation of the hierar-
chy of strength in an external beam column joint subassembly (left); determination of the
IS-V index for the as-built configuration into the ADRS domain (right).
3 Definition and design of alternative retrofit options

Several alternative retrofit options aiming at enhancing the seismic capacity of the as-built structure
have been implemented for the seismic upgrading of the structure.
The first two alternatives consist of local interventions aiming at modifying the hierarchy of
strength in the beam-column joint subassemblies. Specifically, the option R1 consists of a Selective
Weakening (SW) of lateral beams framing into the beam-column joints subassembly, while the option
R2 consists in using Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers (CFRP) for the strengthening of external beam-
column joints at the first two storeys.
The other alternatives comprise external global interventions using exoskeletons. Specifically, the
following alternatives are considered: (i) R3 consisting of a traditional (monolithic) wall, (ii) R4 con-
sisting of a low-damage PRESSS wall, (iii) R5 consisting of a traditional (monolithic) frame, (iv) R6
consisting of a low-damage PRESSS frame. Fig. 4 summarizes the alternative options implemented.
Cut rebars
R1 R2 R3-R4 R5-R6
Fig. 4 Alternative retrofit options implemented: SW (R1), CFRP (R2), monolithic or low damage
external wall (R3-R4) and monolithic or low-damage external frame (R5-R6).
3.1 Local interventions: Options R1, R2

The first retrofit option (R1) is a Selective Weakening (SW) aiming at modifying the hierarchy of
strength in beam-column joints subassembly by reducing the flexural capacity of beams framing into
the joint [10]. The intervention consists in cutting some of the bottom longitudinal bars by ensuring a
14th
residual capacity to transfer the shear actions associated to gravity loads. In this manner, the beam could
become the weakest element within a beam column joint, ensuring a ductile flexural mechanism (beam
b
hinging) and protecting the joint, avoiding dangerous brittle shear failures. The behaviour of a beam
section after a SW intervention has been herein implemented by simply reducing the flexural capacity
of the component.
The second option (R2) consists in the application of CFRP for strengthening joints. Specifically,
if
this intervention tends to increase the shear capacity and the confinement of the joint by delaying the
activation of brittle failure mechanisms and ensuring a more desirable flexural mechanism (beam hing-
ing). The full procedure followed in this work to design the joint strengthening is available in [11].
As mentioned before, the performance domain M-N used to evaluate the hierarchy of strength in
beam-column joints subassembly is useful also to validate the suitability of a retrofit option. Specifi-
cally, Fig.5 (left) shows how inserting CFRP layers in the joint allows for a modification of the hierar-
chy of strength, ensuring the desirable sequence of events.
Finally, non-linear static (pushover) analyses have been carried out both for retrofit options R1 as
well as R2, and the results are compared in Fig.5 (right).
In case of R1 option, a reduced strength and stiffness of the structure is highlighted as expected due
to the reduction of the beams’ flexural capacity. In option R2, it is possible to note an increase in
strength due to the joints strengthening. Further, in both cases, an increased maximum allowable dis-
placement is reached due to a more desirable mechanism with respect to the brittle shear failure of
joints.
Fig. 5 Example of the Moment-Axial Load performance domain for the evaluation of the hierar-
chy of strength in an external beam-column joint subassembly (joint strengthened with
CFRP), (left); Comparison of pushover curves of the as-built structure with local interven-
tions (right).
3.2 Global external interventions: Options R3, R4, R5, R6

In this section, global interventions considering both wall as well as frame system are implemented for
the seismic retrofit of the existing case-study building. In this case, two alternative technologies are
considered: the first one consists of traditional monolithic systems, while the latter consists of the low-
damage PRESSS technology, largely tested, and studied since the 1990’s [12], [13], [14].
The potentiality of the PRESSS technology is the replacement of the traditional plastic hinge ex-
pected in monolithic systems, with a controlled rocking&dissipative mechanism at the interface be-
tween structural members (i.e., beam-column, column-to-foundation, wall-to-foundation), associated
to the peculiar post-tensioned jointed ductile connections. Such connections features two kinds of rein-
forcement: (i) internal mild steel, or more innovative replaceable fuse-type external Plug&Play dissi-
paters [14], [15], ensuring the energy dissipation capability, and (ii) un-bonded post-tensioned ca-
bles/bars which guarantee the self-centering capacity of the system at the end of the earthquake shaking.
For this reason, when compared to traditional monolithic solution, the PRESSS technology ensures
reduced/negligible residual displacement/deformation of the structure due to the peculiar “flag shape”
hysteresis rule obtained by the combination of energy dissipation and self-centering capabilities.
One of the key parameters in the design of a PRESSS structure is the “Recentering-Ratio”
 [16] defined as the ratio between the moment contribution due to post-tension/axial load to the mo-
ment contribution due to internal rebars or external dissipaters. Generally, to ensure the self-centering

capacity of the retrofitted structure (as built structure combined with the external low-damage exoskel-
eton), a high value of  is adopted in the design (1.5 or greater). In this work  equal to 1.75 has been
b
defined.
All the retrofit options have been designed according to the analytical Displacement-Based Retrofit
(DBR) procedure, which is essentially an extension of the Direct Displacement-Based Design (DDBD)
methodology used for the design of new buildings [17]. The main goal of the DBR procedure is to
if
prevent the retrofitted structure from reaching and exceeding the failure displacement profile of the as-
built structure. Using the results of the assessment procedure, the maximum allowable ultimate-limit-
state (ULS) displacement (or a lower value for safety) for the as-built structure can be used as input for
the DBR procedures herein implemented for the design of the external exoskeletons (the full DBR
procedure is available in [18] and [19] for wall and frame systems respectively). A DBR procedure
implemented for braces is available in [20], even though not considered in this work. Clearly, a further
reduced displacement could be adopted at the beginning of the procedure to target a better performance
of the structure. The optimum value should be defined following cost-efficient considerations. In this
work, the maximum allowable displacement has been selected for the DBR procedure.
Fig.6 (left) shows the validation of the analytical DBR procedure with the numerical non-linear
static (pushover) analysis in case of option R6 (low-damage PRESSS frame exoskeleton). Fig. 6 (right)
compares the non-linear static (pushover) analyses for the as-built configuration with all the retrofit
options consisting in global external interventions with exoskeletons.
Fig. 6 Comparison between analytical and numerical pushover curves for the retrofit option R6
(left); comparison among pushover curves for the as built configuration and the retrofit
options consisting of global external exoskeletons (right).
It is possible to note that such intervention adds stiffness and strength to the structure. Specifically,
options considering the low-damage PRESSS technology (R4 and R6) are characterized by a greater
stiffness with respect to the monolithic solution. This is mainly due to the use of the post-tensioning.
Furthermore, options R4 and R6 are designed to withstand a greater base shear. In fact, using the
PRESSS technology requires a greater seismic demand due to the minor energy dissipation capacity
associated to the “flag shape” hysteresis rule. It is worth noting that using exoskeletons could allow to
Fig. 7 Cyclic non-linear static (Push-Pull) analyses for retrofit options R5 and R6: monolithic so-
lution (R5), (left); and low-damage PRESSS solution (R6), (right).

14 th
increase the maximum allowable global displacement towards higher values. This is due to the added
stiffness which forces the structure to deform in a more desirable and regular manner with respect to
b
the as-built configuration. This aids to redistribute the inelasticity along the height (instead of concen-
trating it in reduced zones, e.g., the beam-column joints) and to reach higher global displacements.
Finally, to highlight the potentiality of the low-damage PRESSS technology with respect to a mon-
olithic solution, cyclic non-linear static (push-pull) analyses have been carried out. Fig.7 shows the
if
cyclic behavior of the retrofit option considering a monolithic frame exoskeleton R5 (left), and a low-
damage PRESSS one R6 (right).
4 Comparison of the retrofit options in terms of seismic performance

Using the results outlined in previous sections, the seismic risk classification, for the several retrofit
options, has been carried out following the procedure in [7]. Safety index (IS-V) as well as the economic
index (PAM) and the seismic risk class (minimum between IS-V and PAM class) have been defined,
Table 1. The PAM value is defined as the area under the curves presented in Fig.8. The PAM value has
been defined following the philosophy in [7] considering the performance levels corresponding to a
Damage-Control limit state (DCLS) and a Life-Safety limit state (LSLS) identified by achieving 0.5%
inter-storey drift [21] and the ultimate point on the pushover curve respectively.
Table 1 Seismic risk classifications results for the as-built structure and for the retrofit options.
Option IS-V IS-V Class PAM PAM Class Seismic Class
As Built 58% C 3.30% D D
Retrofit R1 65% B 3.27% D D
Retrofit R2 73% B 2.41% D D
Retrofit R3 128% A+ 0.62% A A

Fig. 8 PAM curves for local interventions (left); and for global external interventions (right).
Considering the local options R1 (SW) and R2 (CFRP), it is possible to note an improvement in the
%IS-V from 58% to 65% and 73% for R1 and R2, respectively. In this case, the IS-V class moves from
“C” to “B” in both cases. Considering the results in terms of economic index, it is possible to note that
the PAM values remain roughly constant and particularly high (from 3.30% in the as-built configuration
to 3.27% and 2.51% for R1 and R2 respectively). Specifically, the PAM class remains “D” using op-
tions R1 and R2 even if a greater level of safety is attained. This is due to lack of significant increase
in stiffness capable to protect the damage to the non-structural elements.
Considering the global external exoskeletons (R3, R4, R5 and R6) it is possible to note that in all
cases a %IS-V greater than 100% is achieved. Further, it is possible to note that there is a great reduction
in Expected Annual Losses (PAM or EAL). A seismic risk class “A” is achieved for all the options.
Fig.8 shows the PAM curves for both local interventions (left), as well as global external interven-
tions (right), compared with the PAM value in the as-built configuration (dashed line). Dotted lines in
b
Fig.8 (left) and (right) represent the PAM curves expected for a new building considering a nominal
life of 50 years and an Importance Class II (typical of residential building according to [21]).
Finally, it is worth noting that the results in terms of PAM for walls as well as frames are approxi-
mately the same regardless of the use of traditional monolithic or low-damage PRESSS technology.
if
This is a limit of the PAM procedure which does not consider the actual lower repairing costs of a low-
damage technology (the curves have been derived for traditional constructions in Italy [22]) nor the
effects of residual displacements/deformations. For this reason, a research work is currently on-going
to investigate and demonstrate, by using more advanced procedure for the loss assessment (such as that
reported in FEMA P-58 [23]), the higher performance of the PRESSS technology with respect to the
traditional one.
5 Conclusions
In this work, alternative retrofit options for the seismic retrofit of an existing RC case-study building
have been investigated. Specifically, after a seismic assessment of the as-built structure through analyt-
ical and numerical models, both local (consisting of Selective Weakening or using Carbon Fiber Rein-
forced Polymers) as well as global external interventions using exoskeletons (consisting of wall or
frame systems) have been implemented.
The seismic performance of the as-built structure and of the alternative retrofit options has been
evaluated both in terms of safety index (IS-V) as well as economic index (EAL/PAM), and the seismic
risk class has been defined for each solution. Specifically, results highlight that using local interventions
allows for an improvement of the safety level, whilst the economic index remains approximately con-
stant and high losses are still expected for the retrofitted structures.
On the contrary, using global external interventions allows the retrofitted structure to withstand the
same demand of a newly designed building (IS-V > 100%) and the expected annual losses (EAL/PAM)
drastically decrease.
Further, alternative technologies have been considered for the exoskeletons, consisting of tradi-
tional (monolithic) or low-damage (PRESSS) systems. For low-damage technology, due to the self-
centering capacity (minimum/negligible residual displacement) and to the peculiar rocking&dissipative

mechanism replacing the development of plastic hinges, lower losses are expected. Nevertheless, the
PAM procedure does not capture this aspect and approximately the same values have been obtained for
both technologies. For this reason, the on-going research is moving towards the use of refined loss
assessment methodology (such us that presented in FEMA P-58) to prove the better performance of
structures retrofitted using exoskeletons consisting of low-damage technology rather than traditional
monolithic system.
Acknowledgements
The first author acknowledges the financial support of the Italian Ministry of University and Research
(MUR) through the Doctoral Scholarship. The research funds provided by the Regione Lazio POR
FESR Lazio 2014-2020 through the RSI Project titled “Enhance” (prot. N. A0375-2020-36779) are also
greatly appreciated.
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5614.0000242.
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sults and conclusions from the PRESSS five-story precast concrete test building.” PCI jour-
nal 44.6: 42-67.

[14] Pampanin, Stefano. 2005. “Emerging Solutions for High Seismic Performance of Precast/Prest-
ressed Concrete Buildings.” J. Adv. Concr. Technol 3.2: 202-223. Accessed July 7, 2005.
doi.org/10.3151/jact.3.207.
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placeable dissipaters: Experimental program and numerical modeling.” J. Struct. Eng. 142.12:
04016134. Accessed July 18, 2016. doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0001606.
[16] fib. 2003. Seismic design of precast concrete structures. State-of-art report, fib bulletin 27.
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Experimental investigation of dowel action using
b
advanced measurement techniques
Marko Pejatović and Aurelio Muttoni
if
School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering, ENAC,
École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, EPFL,
Abstract
Existing shear-cracked structures need to be reliably verified in order to avoid redundant interventions.
Code provisions often raise shear safety and/or fatigue life concerns of the reinforcement subjected to
stress concentrations due to cyclic dowel action. This paper presents an experimental investigation on
dowel action under cyclic/monotonic loading based on advanced measurement techniques: Digital
Image Correlation and Optical Fibres. The aim is to develop a mechanical model which allows
calculating the steel stress variations on the basis of the measured crack openings and to assess existing
structures which are theoretically shear-critical. The test results show a significant dependence on bar
diameter, crack kinematics and crack-bar angle. Based on the test measurements, the internal forces,
the deformed bar shape and the local pressure on concrete embedment are derived.
1 Introduction
Existing Reinforced Concrete (RC) structures with shear-induced cracks (Fig.1a) need to be assessed
in a reliable and an expeditious manner to avoid unnecessary repairs or to prioritise interventions in
case of needed maintenance.
Verification of structural safety based on crack evolution does not necessarily imply sufficient
structural capacity even in the case of small crack openings, particularly for brittle failure modes such
as shear failure [1]. However, this issue can be overcome by conducting a thorough study of shear
cracks which allows one to measure the crack geometry and the kinematics, to calculate the local
internal forces [2], [3] and to compare them with the structural resistance. On the same basis, it is
possible to estimate the stress variation and thus the cumulative fatigue damage of the reinforcement.
One source of the stress variation is local bending of the reinforcement crossing active shear cracks due
to cyclic dowel action caused by traffic loads, varying temperature, etc.
Code provisions [4]–[6] are in some cases overly conservative, underestimating the shear resistance
and/or suggesting insufficient fatigue life of longitudinal and shear reinforcement subjected to dowel
action crossing the shear cracks (Fig.1b).
Fig.1 (a) Concrete girder with existing shear cracks and (b) local dowel mechanism of the longi-
tudinal reinforcement and the stirrup at the crack intersection.
Most studies in the past have focused on dowel action at its ultimate stage under monotonic or large
cyclic loads. The former typically leads to the dowel bar yielding due to flexion followed by local
crushing of the concrete embedment under dowel bar [7]–[12] provided that splitting and cover spalling
are prevented. The latter usually causes a dowel response with degrading stiffness after several reversals
14 th
due to yielding of the dowel bar and local concrete crushing [13], [14]. Dowel action under large shear
displacements exerting significant catenary action has also been observed [15]. However, refined
b
knowledge on dowel action, in terms of its contribution to carrying shear forces at all load levels and
the stress variations potentially leading to the fatigue failure, is still needed.
To that aim, this paper presents an experimental investigation on dowel action due to monotonic
and cyclic loading using advanced measurement techniques such as Three-Dimensional Digital Image
if
Correlation (3D DIC) [16] and Distributed Optical Fibres (DOF) [17], [18]. They enable refined
measurements of the full 3D displacement field of the cracked concrete surface and the continuous
strain distribution on the steel surface, respectively. Using a custom-tailored test set-up, a series of
block-type concrete specimens is subjected to low-stress level cycles and/or monotonic loading up to
the final dowel rupture at the peak of catenary action. Imposed test crack kinematic parameters (opening
and sliding) are chosen to correspond to the representative loading cases in practice.
2 Experimental set-up and specimens

The experimental set-up (Fig.2a) consists of a block-type reinforced concrete specimen fixed to a
custom-made machine including a rigid frame on which steel plates are mounted. The machine allows
one to impose independent displacements in the two perpendicular directions: the vertical and the
horizontal which correspond to the crack opening and the crack sliding direction, respectively. The
crack opening (δ||, relative displacement between the two crack lips parallel to the bar axis) is applied
by pulling the dowel bar anchored in the rigid steel plates by means of threaded bar ends. The opening
is controlled by using four vertical Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDTs), two on each
front and back side of the block. The crack sliding (δ⊥, relative displacement between the two crack lips
perpendicular to the bar axis) is imposed by controlling a pair of horizontal LVDTs placed on each
block side (Fig.2b).
b)
Fig.2 Test set-up: (a) front side of a specimen and (b) photo of back side of a specimen with
speckled pattern for 3D DIC measurement.
Digital Image Correlation is used to measure the displacement field of the concrete surface (Fig.2b,
back side of the block) in three orthogonal directions while optical fibres are glued on the dowel bar
surface in order to continuously follow the strain state.
To align both horizontal forces, a rigid confining system, consisting of steel plates and ties, is used
(Fig.2a). As a consequence, the rotation of the blocks is minimised.
The specimens are made of a vertical dowel bar embedded in the two reinforced concrete blocks
(b = h = l = 300 mm) separated by a notch (Fig.2a). The dowel bar is always encased in a relatively thin
cylindrical concrete layer at the bar-notch intersection to ensure a realistic crack kinematics and to avoid
stress transmission by aggregate interlock. The geometry of the specimens is defined by a crack-bar
angle (θ, Fig.2a) which takes the value between 45° and 90° range. The properties of the specimens are
summarized in Table 1.

This document may not beExperimental
copied orinvestigation
distributedof without prior permission from fib.
dowel action using advanced measurement techniques
Table 1 Properties of the tested specimens.
b
θ Øs fcm fsy cyclic / monotonic
Specimen
[°] [mm] [MPa] [MPa]
DP2001 90 20 33.63 523.5 monotonic
if
DP2007 70 20 37.30 523.5 monotonic
DP2008 45 20 38.26 523.5 monotonic
DP1411 45 14 38.94 510.3 monotonic
DP2013 90 20 32.95 923.3 cyclic
DP2014 45 20 33.18 923.3 cyclic
The properties are given in terms of crack-bar inclination (θ), dowel bar diameter (Øs), mean concrete
compressive strength (fcm) and yield strength of the dowel bar (fsy).
To prevent a global splitting failure mode at large-load levels, the blocks are reinforced by stirrups.
3 Experimental programme and test results
3.1 Monotonic tests

The specimens are subjected to two types of displacement-controlled tests: monotonic and cyclic
test protocols. Fig.3c shows two different possibilities of conducting the monotonic protocol consisting
of two phases: the first phase is referred to as Mode I (MI) in which the dowel bar is pulled to impose
the specified initial crack opening (δ||0). In the subsequent phase, the shear displacement is applied,
gradually increasing either in parallel with the opening increment (their ratio is defined by the angle α)
or with the opening which is maintained constant until the end of the test (dowel rupture due to the
catenary action). The first mode is referred to as Mixed Mode (MM) and the second as Mode II (MII).
Fig.3a shows the results of the monotonic tests in terms of shear stress in the dowel bar (Vdow / As,
where Vdow is the shear force carried by the dowel bar and As is the dowel cross-section area) as a
function of the imposed crack sliding (δ⊥) for three specimens with varying crack-bar angle (θ).
The dowel response consists in a linear-elastic domain until the stresses in the dowel bar attain its
yield strength and/or concrete crushing, under the local dowel contact pressure, which softens the
response. For normal strength concrete and steel, the ultimate dowel response is typically followed by
both phenomena occurring simultaneously. As the dowel bar is anchored at the extremities, it is possible
to further increase the shear force due to second order effects of the axial tensile force in the dowel bar
(catenary action) which becomes significant when the sliding displacement is large. Eventually, the
tests typically terminate with the dowel bar fracture close to the crack where the maximum stresses
caused by the combination of flexion and tension can be observed.
Three specimens with the same bar diameter (20 mm), imposed crack kinematics
(δ||0 = 0.2 mm, α = 0°) with varying crack-bar angle (45°, 70° and 90°) have been tested under the
monotonic test protocol. Specimens DP2001 and DP2007 failed with a catenary fracture while
specimen DP2008 had a premature failure of the anchorage thread. The results show that the ultimate
dowel resistance strongly depends on the crack inclination. Larger crack-bar angles provide stronger
support to the dowel bars limiting concrete cracking and crushing. Analogously, the initial stiffness of
the response curve decreases for smaller crack-bar angles (Fig.3b).
Marko Pejatović and Aurelio Muttoni 575

14th
if b
Fig.3 Monotonic tests: (a) dowel response in terms of shear stress as a function of shear sliding
of three specimens (Øs = 20mm) with varying crack-bar angle; (b) initial stiffness and (c)
scheme of the monotonic test protocol.
Fig.4 presents the influence of the bar dimeter (Øs = 14 mm, 20 mm) on the full shear stress-sliding
response of the dowel bar under the monotonic loading protocol. On this basis, the normalized
resistance shown in Fig.4a seems to be similar for both tests (at least up to the premature failure of the
threaded-end anchorage of the test with Øs = 20 mm) whereas the initial stiffness seems to be higher
for the larger bar diameter (Fig.4b).
Fig.4 Monotonic tests: (a) dowel response in terms of shear stress in the function of shear sliding
of two specimens (θ = 45°) with varying bar diameter and (b) initial stiffness.
3.2 Cyclic tests

The cyclic tests are carried out in three phases (see Fig.5b). Once the crack has been opened to its initial
values (Mode I), a specified sliding is imposed in the second phase (Mode II). As observed in typical
shear tests on reinforced concrete members, these two imposed kinematic components provide a
realistic initial loading condition on the dowel bar [2], [3]. Finally, various cyclic crack kinematics,
causing elastic stresses both in concrete and steel, are applied in the third phase.
Fig.5a shows the cyclic test results (different colour shades refer to distinctive applied crack
kinematics) for two specimens with various crack inclinations and are compared to the corresponding
monotonic tests. It can be observed that the comparable test responses under cyclic and monotonic
loading regimes are similar in terms of stiffness.

if b
Fig.5 Cyclic tests: (a) cyclic responses (colour shades) due to various imposed kinematics in
terms of shear stress in the dowel bar as a function of shear sliding of two specimens with
varying crack-bar angle compared with the monotonic tests and (b) scheme of the cyclic
test protocol.
Optical fibres glued on both sides of the dowel bar (Fig.6a) on a surface in a groove enable the
continuous measurement of the strains along the rebar (Fig.6b). Based on the measured strains, the
internal forces, the contact pressure on the surrounding concrete as well as the dowel bar deformation
corresponding to the crack sliding are derived for the case of an inclined-crack specimen (DP2014cyc)
subjected to cyclic displacements with the imposed kinematics of minimum/maximum crack sliding
δ⊥min/max = 0.24/0.31 mm and opening δ||min/max = 0.1/0.14 mm (Fig.6).
Internal forces (axial force (N), bending moment (M) and dowel force (Vdow)) in the dowel bar are
normalized in terms of their corresponding stress components: the average axial stress
Δσs, avg = N / (π∙Øs2/4) (Fig.6c), the axial stress at the bar edge cause by flexion Δσs, flex = M / (π∙Øs3/32)
(Fig.6d) and the average shear stress τs = Vdow / (π∙Øs2/4) (Fig.6e). The average axial stress attains the
value of around 150 MPa, whereas the axial stress due to flexion reaches the maximum value near to
200 MPa. The pressure on the concrete embedment is around 25 MPa (~0.76∙fcm) with a slight variation
due to the cyclic loading.

The curvature is calculated based on the measured strains as
s + n ,
= (1)
df
where εs and εn refer to strain measured by a fibre glued on both sides while df refers to the distance
between the two fibres which is slightly smaller than the bar diameter because the fibres are laid inside
the groove along the bar.
The deformation of the bar corresponding to the sliding (δ⊥, zero rotations at the extremities, Fig.6i) is
derived by integrating the rotation distribution (Fig.6h) from which the non-sliding-induced rotations
have been eliminated:
 ⊥ =   dy
⊥
(2)
The deformed shape derived from the optical fibre measurements (solid line, Fig.6i) is compared with
the sliding measured by DIC (dashed line, Fig.6i). The former is slightly smaller due to the inability of
the fibres to capture shear strains in the reinforcement bar. The maximum total strain variation in this
case is Δεn, max.

14 th
if b
Fig.6 Results based on the optical fibre measurements with a smooth dowel bar: (a) optical fibres
glued on the groove surface; (b) measured strains and (c-i) derived parameters.
Fig.7a shows the results of a cyclic test in terms of the relationship between the crack kinematic and
the two axial stress components (Δσs, avg and Δσs, flex, Fig.7b), at the location of the maximum total strain
variation (in this case, the strain variation Δεn, max which is located around 30 mm (~1.5Øs) from the
crack, Fig.6b) for specimen DP2014. The dowel bar is subjected to a three-phase regime including the
crack opening in Mode I, shearing the bar in Mode II and cyclic Mixed-Mode in which the total stress
variation is measured. It can be observed that during the Mixed-Mode (for a given crack inclination,
dowel bar diameter and crack kinematics, specimen DP2014), the bar sustains the maximum total stress
variation of around 60 MPa.
Fig.7 Results of a cyclic test: (a) relationship between the crack kinematic and the normal stress
components in Mode I, Mode II and Mixed-Mode and (b) scheme of axial and flexural
normal stress components.
4 Theoretical outlook
The experimental findings based on the optical fibre measurements in terms of concrete pressure on the
dowel bar (Fig.8a) are intended to be used to develop a mechanical model to predict the internal forces
of the dowel bar (axial, shear force and bending moment, Fig.8b) and the steel stress variations as a
function of the measured or calculated crack kinematics (crack opening and crack sliding, Fig.8c). Also,
the model is conceived to allow estimating the deformed bar shape once the internal forces are known.

if b
Fig.8 The outlook of the research purposes based on the experimental findings obtained using the
advanced measurements in terms of (a) concrete pressure; (b) internal forces and (c) defor-
mation of the dowel bar.
The calculation of the steel stresses and the stress variations based on the displacements measured on
the concrete surface will allow verifying the fatigue resistance of existing reinforced concrete structures
based on health monitoring also in cases where the reinforcement bars are not directly instrumented
(this is particularly useful, since instrumenting bars in existing structures significantly disturb the bond
and dowel behaviour of the reinforcement).
5 Conclusions
This paper presents an experimental investigation of dowel action based on advanced measurement
techniques for dowel tests with varying crack-bar angle, bar diameter and imposed crack kinematics.
The following conclusions can be drawn:
▪ Two different types of tests are carried out: monotonic and cyclic tests. The cyclic tests are
consistent with the monotonic tests in terms of the dowel response, without noticeable stiffness
degradation due to the imposed low-stress cyclic regime.

▪ The measured dowel response highly depends on the applied crack kinematics, on the
inclination of the crack with respect to the reinforcement bar and on the diameter of the dowel
bar.
▪ The test results systematically show that the dowel response is both stronger and stiffer for
increasing crack-bar angle. The explanation of this trend lays in stronger and stiffer concrete
embedment.
▪ Distributed optical fibre measurements show that the maximum total stress variation due to
the cyclic loading is approximately located at the distance 1.5Øs from the crack.
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In-plane response of two storeys infilled reinforced
b
concrete frame using a pseudo-dynamic testing
framework
if
Carmine Molitierno1, Ciro Del Vecchio2, Marco Di Ludovico1 and Andrea
Prota1
1 Dept of Structures for Engineering and Architecture,
Via Claudio 21, 80125 Napoli, Italy
2 Dept of Engineering,
University of Sannio,
Piazza Roma 21, 82100 Benevento, Italy
Abstract
Laboratory tests are fundamental in seismic engineering to assess the seismic performance of the struc-
tural and non-structural components. To date dynamic tests on shaking table is the most reliable testing
procedure to accurately reproduce seismic actions. However, most of the testing infrastructures availa-
ble worldwide does not allow full-scale testing due to limitation in the payload. To fill this gap, pseudo-
dynamic (PSD) frameworks are becoming popular. Recently, a PSD testing framework has been im-
plemented at the full-scale Laboratory of CeSMA of the University of Naples Federico II.
This paper shows the experimental results of a PSD testing program on two storeys infilled reinforced
concrete frames. The specimen reproduced in the laboratory, represents a portion of an existing building
damaged by L’Aquila 2009 earthquake. A substructuring method is used to define the mass matrix and
to apply realistic seismic actions to the specimen. The experimental results are discussed and compared
with those obtained from the numerical model of the entire building to assess the accuracy of the testing
procedure and the adopted substructuring assumptions.
1 Introduction
In the last decades, seismic events demonstrated the vulnerability of the existing reinforced concrete
(RC) structures in the Mediterran region. Post-earthquake investigations pointed-out the significant
damage to structural and non-structural components as-well-as the high economic losses associated
[1]–[3]. Therefore, studies on seismic response of existing RC buildings using observational data and
laboratory test results are of paramount importance. This pushed the earthquake engineering commu-
nity in investing and developing different testing methods. Nowadays, the testing procedures imple-
mented in the different laboratories worldwide are: static, dynamic and pseudo-dynamic tests [4]. The
static tests are useful to evaluate the stiffness, strength and the energy dissipation of the small structural
system or building components [5]. In this type of test, the loading protocol is pre-defined, and the
loading rate is commonly very small; thus, they neglect the dynamic effects. Among the dynamic tests,
shaking table test represents the most reliable method that accurately reproduces the earthquake effects
on the specimen including rate-dependent effects [6]. This allows to analyse the dynamic properties
and seismic performance of structural and non-structural components, subjected to the natural or arti-
ficial input motions [7]. Worldwide, several research infrastructures are available. They mainly differ
in the number of degrees of freedom and in the maximum payload [8]. Although shaking table tests
allow the accurate characterization of the dynamic response of the tested specimens, the limitation in
the payload do not always consent the testing of full-scale specimens. To overcome this limitation, the
pseudo-dynamic (PSD) testing procedures were developed and implemented in several the laboratories
wordwide [9], [10]. The main advantage of the PSD test is the possibility to analyse the seismic perfor-
mance of a full-scale specimen that reproduce the existing structure or a portion applying realistic seis-
mic actions by reproducing the inertial forces numerically. In recent years, many developments have
14 th
been made to increase the reliability of the PSD tests. In particular, novel researches focused on the
development of hybrid PSD testing in which, a portion of the structural system is physical reproduced
b
in the laboratory environment, while the remaining part is simulated in a numerical model [11].
The classic PSD testing procedure consists, given an input motion commonly in the form of an
acceleration time-hystory, in the real-time calculation of the displacement profile to apply to the spec-
imen by means of hydraulic actuators. This is done by solving the equation of motion at each step and
if
considering the step-by-step variation of the stiffness of the specimen. Once the target displacements
are applied, the floor displacements and restoring forces are measured using load cells and high-preci-
sion displacement transducers. At the end of each step, the measured restoring forces and floor dis-
placements are sent from the control system to the numerical model and used to update the stiffness
matrix. This allows to consider the effects of damage evolution and stiffness degradation on the dis-
placement demand. Different algorithms to solve the equation of motion and different PSD methods
are available in the literature. More details on these topics can be found in [12].
This paper describes the PSD tests of two full-scale multi-storey infilled RC frames with different
infill-to-frame connection. The frame is extracted from an existing RC building damaged by the 2009
L’Aquila earthquake. The selected frame represents the most damaged portion of the building and it is
reproduced at CeSMA laboratory of the University of Naples Federico II, faithfully reproducing the
geometry, reinforcement details and the infills [13]. To support the substructuring procedure a nonlinear
numerical models of the existing building and of the selected frame were developed. Then, the nume-
rical results of the numerical analysis are compared to provide insights to support the proposed subs-
tructuring approach. Later the numerical result and experimental results obtained from the PSD tests
on the frame specimen are compared in terms of the displacement at the top of the reference frame.
Both the comparison shows a good agreement confirms the reliability of the proposed testing procedure.
2 Substructuring approach
In this study, a single-bay two storey infilled reinforced concrete frame is selected from an existing
infilled reinforced concrete building damaged by the 2009 L’Aquila earthquake (Figure 1) and repro-
duced in the laboratory environment to perform the PSD tests [13]. Three different types of specimens
were made with different degrees of connection between the infill and the surrounding RC frame. The
details of the specimens and the experimental setup are described in [14] and [12]. The L’Aquila 2009
earthquake signal recorded by the AQG station is used as input, using an increasing intensity scaling
factor from 10% to 150% (from 0.04g to 0.669 g peak ground acceleration). The definition of the mass-
matrix and the assembly of the stiffness matrix is needed by the PSD solution algoritm. Therefore, a
reliable substructuring approach is needed to define the mass matrix starting from the global building
masses and assuring that the displacements applied on the frame prototype are comparable with those
applied on the same frame when considering that the entire building is subjected to the earthquake
shaking (see Figure 1).
To support the substructuring approach numerical analyses were conducted considering a global
building model and a frame model. Figure 1 shows both the nonlinear numerical model of the building
and the frame implemented in SAP2000 environments [15]. A lumped plasticity approach is used to
model the nonlinear behaviour of the concrete members. The plastic hinges of the columns and beams
are located at the ends of the elements and are charachterized according to the Eurocode prescriptions
[16]. According to Chrysostomou [17], a three-strut model is used to model the nonlinear response of
infill panels. The distribution of the stiffness and the axial strenght of the struts is done starting from
the V-d relationship of a single strut characterized according to the model proposed by Panagiotakos &
Fardis [18]. The plastic hinge of the infill is concentrated in the centre of each strut. The hysteretic
Pivot rule is considered to define the nonlinear response of concrete elements and infill panels, as pro-
posed by Colangelo & Di Trapani [19]. The response of beam-column joints is neglected in this study
because the presence of the infills significantly limits the shear trasmitted to the joint panel.

if b
Fig. 1 Approach used for the numerical validation of the substructuring approach.
A nonlinear time history analysis is performed for both model, using an acceleration history consisting
of the scaled AQG records (i.e. 10%, 25%, 50%, 75%, 100%) in row. The floor masses of the building
are calculated based on a gravity load analysis considering dead and live load according to the Eurocode
prescription [16], while the proposed substructring approach is used to define the translational mass of
the frame at each level (see Figure 2).
To easily identify the source of potential errors in the PSD test, a simple substructuring approach
is preferred to more complex ones (e.g. hybrid simulations). A static pushover analysis is performed
for both model applying a displacement only at the first level. This is to characterize the response of
the typical floor and it can be extended to the other floors because they are identical in terms of geo-
metry and reinfocement details. The secant stiffness and base shear at a fixed displacement are eva-
luated on the Vbase-dtop pushover curves as shown in Figure 2. For a fixed displacement of 0.56 mm
(where the building and frame behave mostly elastic), the Vbase,frame is 101 kN, while the Vbase,building is
947 kN and their ratio is about 0.11. The variabilty of this ratio at increasing displacement demand is
reported in Figure 2. The mean (dashed red line) is very close to the ratio in the elastic stage. Thus, the
mass belonging to the tested frame (m*i) is calculate multiplying the total floor mass (m*i,TOT) by the
ratio Vbase,frame/Vbase,building = 0.11. A further pushover analysis is performed on the entire building to
assess the drift distribution. It showed that most of the drift is concentrated at the first two floors and
the upper floors exhibited very small deformations. Thus, the masses of the third and fourth floors are
condensed at the second floor, assuming that the last two floors behaves as rigid.
14 th
Fig. 2
if b
Substructuring approach using to define the specimen mass matrix.
Accordingly the mass m1,TOT* is equal to 27.3 tons, while the mass m2, TOT* is equal to 63.0 tons
(calculated as the sum of massess m2*, m3* and m4*). The portion of these masses belonging to the tested
frame is about 23.6 tons and 14.1 tons for the first and second floor, respectively. The building model
and the substructure frame model were later used to conduct nonlinear time history analysis. The record
of the L’Aquila 2009 earthquake is used as input as previously described. The main parameters go-
verning the analysis (e.g. damping, integration constant) are set equal to those used to performing
pseudo-dynamic tests. The results and the numerical validation of the proposed substructuring approach
are discussed in the following section.
3 Numerical validation
Figure 3 shows the results of the nonlinear time history analyses performed on the global building
model and on the substructured frame model at increasing earthquake intensities.
Fig. 3 Comparison between the numerical results obtained from the building and the frame nu-
merical models in terms of top displacement dtop and base shear Vbase.
The comparison in terms of the displacement response under the 50% of the earthquake intensity is
reported in Figure 3a for the entire duration of the earthquake. The comparison shows a good agreement
b
in terms of maximum displacement. The same comparison is performed for all the other earthquake
intensities and it is reported in Figure 3 in terms of the ratio dtop,frame/d*top,frame of the displacement at the
top of the selected frame and of the base shear Vbase,frame/V*base,frame in the positive and negative direc-
tions (see Figure 3b and Figure 3c, respectively).
if
The results in terms of dtop displacement ratio show that the agreement between the displacements
in both directions increases as the intensity of the AQG record increases. At the intensities of 10% and
25% of the AQG record it is observed that the displacement ratio is lower than unity (from 0.59 to 0.73)
meaning that the displacement at the top of the frame recorded in the frame model is lower than the one
recorded in the building model. When the intensity increases (from 50% to 150%), the displacement
ratio is close to 1.0 showing the good matching between the frame model with mass substructuring and
the entire building model.
Figure 3c shows that the base shear ratio increases as the intensity of the AQG record increases. In
this case, V*base,frame is evaluated as the sum of the shear forces at the base of the outer frame of the
building from which the reference frame was extracted (see Figure 2). Since the geometry and the
reinforcement details of the members belonging to the outer frame are the same, an uniform base shear
distribution between the different frames can be assumed. This assumption is confirmed by Figure 3c
which shows a base shear ratio of 0.25, starting from 50% to 150% of the intensity.
Based on the results of the numerical analyses, it can be concluded that the proposed substructuring
approach is accurate and reliable for medium-to-high intensity earthquakes. Accordingly, the previ-
ously defined mass matrix was implemented in the pseudo-dynamic framework to perform the experi-
mental tests on the infilled frame prototype.
4 Experimental validation
The two infilled RC frames were tested under increasing intensity of the AQG record of the L’Aquila
earthquake scaled from 10% to 150%. Among the three different frame specimens tested in the CeSMA
laboratory environment (see Del Vecchio et al. [14]), only the F1_4S_M+A and F2_4S_M are consid-
ered to validate the proposed substructuring procedure. These frames are characterized by an infill-to-
frame connection fabricated througth a classic mortar (M) or mortar plus a flexible adhesive (M+A)
applied on the four sides (4S) of the infills.
Fig. 4 Comparison of experimental results on the prototype frame and numerical results at build-
ing level for the 50% and 100% of the L’Aquila 2009 earthquake.
14 th
Figure 4 shows the comparison between the numerical and the experimental results. At 50% of the
earthquake intensity (Fig. 4) a good agreement between the experimental and numerical result is ob-
b
served in a period ranging between 2 to 4 seconds when the positive and negative peak displacements
are achieved, while after 6 second a clear mismatch between the numerical model and the F1 _4S_M+A
specimen is observed. In fact, the F1_4S_M+A specimen appear less stiff than the F2_4S_M due to the
presence of the flexible adhesive not accounted in the model. The agreement between the numerical
if
and experimental results of F2_4S_M is better over the entire duration of the earthquake.
The matching of the results increases significantly at 100% of the considered input signal record
Indeed, a good matching between the shape of the displacement histories can be observed. Nevertheless,
the peak displacements are achieved at the same time step, and the signals are in phase throughout the
duration of the input record. This matching increases as the intensity of the earthquake increases. Also
in this case the specimen F1_4S_M+A showed high displacement demand due to its reduced stiffness.
Based on the comparison with experimental results, it can be concluded that the proposed substruc-
turing approach is suitable for application in PSD tests on infilled RC structures due to the high stiffness
of the infill that makes the distribution of strength and stiffness quite regular in the building plan and
height. However, this accuracy may change significantly when moving to RC structures with higher
deformability. Indeed, the localization of plastic deformation or damage in a specific portion or com-
ponent of the building may significantly change the distribution of displacement demand. In this case
more refined substructuring approaches (i.e. hybrid symulations) are needed.
5 Conclusion
This paper describes the pseudo-dynamic tests and numerical analyses conducted on an infilled RC
frame extracted from a real building damaged by the 2009 L’Aquila earthquake. The proposed sub-
structuring approach relying on the non-linear numerical analyses is discussed to show to the reader the
assumptions made to move from the building level to the frame level and to define the mass matrix of
a frame. The experimental results on two of the full-scale frame prototypes reproduced in the CeSMA
laboratory environment at the University of Naples Federico II are presented and compared with the
numerical analyses. The result of this study can be summarized as follows:
• the comparison between displacement demand at the top of the selected frame obtained
from numerical analysis on the frame and building model shows good agreement. This
agreement improves when the earthquake intensity increases from 10% to 50% and re-
main about constants at the higher intensities. This confirms the reliabilityof the proposed
substructuring approach;
• the comparison of the numerical base shear shows that the mean value is approximately
equal to 0.25, which confirm the assumption of uniform base shear distribution between
the frames belonging to the outer frame of building, from which the reference frame was
extracted;
• the comparison between the experimental and the numerical displacement shows a good
matching at intensity of 50% of the AQG. This matching is increasing as moving from
50% to 100% of the intensity, confirming the reliability of the proposed substructuring
approach;
• the comparison between the experimental and the numerical results in terms of top dis-
placement shows good agreement for the F2_4S_M specimen. The same matching was
not found for the F1_4S_M+A because of the contribution of the adhesive that cannot be
taken into account in the building numerical model.
Further developments and validation are needed to improve the substructuring procedure and to
develop a new more refined approach that will allow the real-time communication of the control system
and the sophisticated FEM-based numerical models.
Acknowledgements
This research work is carried out within the DPC-ReLUIS 2019-2021 research project, WP5: “Fast and
integrated retrofit interventions”.

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b
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if b
Experimental study of crack propagation in a brittle
b
hemispherical dome with two pre-existing cracks
Siwen Cao1 and András A. Sipos2
if
1 Department of Mechanics, Materials and Structures,
2 Department of Morphology and Geometric Modeling &

MTA-BME Morphodynamics Research Group,
Abstract
This study reports the experimental testing of 66 thin-walled brittle hemispherical domes with two pre-
existing cracks. The domes, 20cm in diameter, made of cementitious material, were manufactured in
custom-made 3D printed molds. In the displacement-controlled tests, the domes are loaded with a ver-
tical load; the deformations are monitored with a Digital Image Correlation (DIC) system. The pre-
existing cracks’ distance and length are used as the main parameters in the tests. Upon loading, the first
crack begins mainly at one of the pre-existing crack tips. At the same time, the position of the second
crack is strongly affected by the main parameters. We identify the positions where the second pre-
existing crack does not propagate at all. We also demonstrate that propagation of the second crack is
slower, i.e., global features are indeed reflected in brittle failure.
1 Introduction
One can observe a lot of cracks in existing historic buildings. Some are caused by earthquakes, and
some are caused by uneven settlement of foundations [1]. These cracks are a potential risk for ancient
buildings, which will reduce the structure’s strength and cause the building’s collapse [2]. Understand-
ing the fundamental cracking modes helps assess and extend the brittle hemispherical dome structures’
lifetimes [3]–[5]. Most historic buildings are made of masonry, which can be considered a brittle ma-
terial with limited tensile strength. Under uniaxial compression, brittle solids are frequently observed
to fail by splitting parallel to the direction of loading. Axial propagation of a crack-like flaw inclined
to the loading direction of compression is one of the accepted mechanisms [6]–[8]. However, studies
on the interaction between cracks in brittle materials are rare. In particular, the mutual interaction of
meridian cracks in thin-walled hemispherical domes is worthy of study.
The interaction between cracks is widely studied; beyond engineering applications, it also plays a
crucial role in geosciences and rock mechanics in particular. Previous studies have shown that many
factors can affect crack propagation in a 3D medium[9]–[11]. In addition, the number and location of
cracks in a brittle structure also influence further crack propagation. The effect of a single pre-existing
crack in brittle sandstone specimens has been studied in [7]. The case of two or more parallel cracks
has been investigated in several papers [12]–[15]; these investigations require a precise record of the
displacement field and the crack openings. Some researchers apply the DIC method to observe the crack
tip positions to obtain accurate full-field strain and displacement information [16]. Others monitor the
fracture initiation and propagation process with a video camera [9], [13], [17], or visually inspect the
specimen with a magnifier to detect crack initiation [6]. The experimental study of crack propagation
in a 3D medium is still a challenging problem.
In structural mechanics, the investigation of slender structures, such as thin shells or plates, is so-
mewhat more straightforward, as cracking can be easily observed on the surface of the shell. However,
similarly to the influence of the slenderness of the curved surface on the possible buckling shapes of
hemispherical domes [18], the exact form of the shell determines crack propagation and the final crack-
ing pattern. In most masonry or concrete domes loaded by self-weight, meridian cracks occur at the
dome’s base [19]. In [20], the authors studied the reason and period of the meridional cracks on the
14 th
Pantheon of Rome. They find that, beyond static loads, shrinkage may have been the main mechanical
cause of the cracks in the early phases of the building’s life.
b
Despite the long track record of studying the formation of the meridian cracks in brittle domes, their
evolution and mutual interaction are still partially unresolved. This paper reports on an experimental
program that focuses on the interaction between two cracks in the vertically loaded domes originating
in pre-existing notches. The crack propagation and the strain field variation are observed on the dome’s
if
outer surface by the DIC method.
2 Preparation of the specimens

Altogether 66 hemispherical dome specimens were manufactured of a cementitious material without
reinforcement or fiber content. A custom-made plastic mold was designed and manufactured by 3D
printing to reach constant thickness. The mold consists of three parts, the inner mold, the outer mold,
and the inner mold support (Fig. 1 (left)). Both the inner and the outer molds have a spherical surface.
With a 20 cm diameter for the outer surface, the external mold is sufficiently braced with stiffening
plates. The adopted 3D printing technology used polylactic acid (PLA) filaments as a printing material
[21].
Inner mold support
Inner mold fix ring
Inner mold ×3
Dome model
Outer mold ×2
Fig. 1 The 3D printed plastic mold for the preparation of the dome specimens
According to the experience [19], in this study, the thickness of specimens is 5mm, and the material
parameters are gypsum: cement: water= 2.5: 1: 0.67 by weight. In Fig. 1 (right), a cylinder mold with
a diameter of 50 mm and a height of 50 mm is visible. It is used to produce Brazilian Discs to test the
tensile strength of the material for every six dome specimens.
Before cutting the notches (a.k.a. pre-existing cracks), a dial is required to pinpoint the exact loca-
tion of the notches. They are cut by a diamond wire saw. The diamond wire saw is passing around two
cylinders used for positioning and setting the length of the notches via changing the position of the
cylinders (see Fig. 2).
Fig. 2 The 3D printed plastic frame and the diamond wire saw passing through the two clysinders
This documentExperimental
study of crack propagation in a brittle hemispherical dome with two pre-existing cracks
3 Investigating the propagation of the two cracks
b
3.1 Experimental setup
In the tests, two notches are set for one dome; their distance and length are used as the main parameters.
First, we determine the horizontal distance and the lengths of the two notches, for which the loading
produces cracks originating at the notches. The lengths are measured as central angles at the center of
if
the dome. Due to rotational symmetry, one notch is always set at 0 degrees. The distance between the
two notches can be 30, 60, 90, 120, 150, and 180 degrees (see Fig. 3 (right)). The label ‘A’ refers to the
horizontal angular distance between the two notches in the following.
For the vertical (a.k.a. meridional) lengths of the notches, the central angle between the crack tip
and the bottom of the model is the length of the crack (see Fig. 3 (left)), here the label ‘E’ refers to the
angle. The lengths of the two notches are always the same for one specimen. Hence, no matter which
notch initiate the first crack, it is regarded as the first pre-existing crack at 0 degrees.
A180
A150
A120
E40
E30
E20 A90
E10
A60
A30
Fig. 3 The vertical length (left) and the horizontal distance (right) between the notches are meas-
ured as central angles at the origin.
The displacement-controlled loading was performed in a Zwick/Roell Z-150 testing machine. The
domes were loaded vertically along their axis of symmetry with a 0.25 mm/min speed in each test. An
iron plate was placed between the testing machine and the bottom of the dome (Fig. 6). The half-angle
θ characterizes the loaded area (see Fig. 4 (left)). In this investigation, the value of that angle is fixed
at θ=30°. The pressure from the testing machine was distributed to the loaded area by a 3D-printed
plastic spacer (Fig. 4 (right)). The spacer realizes even surface loading on the entire loaded area. At the
bottom of the dome, vaseline was greased to the bottom of the dome to reduce friction.
distributed load
θ=30°
5 mm
2θ R100 mm
Fig. 4 Loading of the hemispherical specimens. The half-angle θ determines the loaded area on
the surface (left). The half section and size of the 3D printed plastic spacer used to distribute
the load on the surface of the specimen (right, distances in mm)
3.2 Results
Altogether 66 specimens were tested. According to the results of specimens with E10 notches, there is
no specimen with both cracks emanating at the notches. This means that a 10 degrees vertical length

14 th
for the notches is too small and does not significantly affect the cracks. Therefore, the experiments with
E10 degrees were not repeated three times as the other set of experiments.
b
Fig. 5 shows the probability that both cracks begin at the notches as the horizontal distance between
the notches is varied. When the horizontal distance is 30 degrees, the probability does not exceed 0.5;
when the distance is 180 degrees, the probability is 1. Observe that for an E30 vertical length; any
spacing produces cracks from the pre-existing notches
if
According to the results, we find that for a vertical length bigger than 10 degrees, the first crack
begins mainly at one of the notches. At the same time, the position of the second crack is strongly
affected by the main parameters. For acceptable results with the DIC method, the notches should be
close. Based on the performed investigation, for the detailed test we fixed E30 and E40 accompanied
with A60, i.e., an angular distance between the notches of 60°.
1
E20
0.8 E30
E40
0.6
Probability
0.4
0.2
0
A0 A30 A60 A90 A120 A150 A180
distance of two pre-existing cracks
Fig. 5 Probability that both cracks propagate from the notches cut into the dome surface.
4 Detailed observation of crack propagation with the DIC method

Based on the results of the previous part, six specimens with crack lengths of E30 and E40 and a crack
distance of A60 were tested via the DIC system to observe the crack propagation.
4.1 Experimental setup

Two cameras on the DIC system are placed at different angles in front of the testing machine. A sup-
plementary light source is placed behind the cameras to increase the amount of incoming light and the
frequency of image acquisition, respectively (Fig. 6). Before loading the specimen, the positions of the
two cameras need to be calibrated. A random pattern is produced by spray painting on the surface; then,
the focus is adjusted to clarify the calculation area.
Fig. 6 A specimen placed into the testing machine. Observe the plastic spacer between the speci-
men and the head of the testing machine and the DIC system in front of the testing machine
In addition to the crack’s position, its propagation speed is also of concern. Determining the beginning
and ending criteria for cracks is a prerequisite. The DIC system was used to record the dome surface
displacements, from which the strain field was determined. The sampling frequency was 100 Hz and
the size of the subset was 21.

4.2 Results
b
4.2.1 Strain field and the principal strain directions
Figure 7. shows the contours of ε1, the maximal principal strain (i.e., tension) on the surface of the dome
computed from the measured displacement field by the DIC system. It is clear that during the propaga-
tion of a crack, the maximal principal strain concentrates at the vicinity of the crack, and its direction
if
is close to perpendicular to the crack path. Observe the lack of tension around a developed crack.
Fig. 7 Contours of 1, the maximal principal strain (i.e., tension) and its direction for the first crack
(left) and the second crack (right).
4.2.2 Speed of cracks’ propagation

In Fig. 8, 4 monitoring points (i.e., P0, P1, P2, and P3) were fixed at the two cracks’ beginning and end.
The strain value rises rapidly when the crack goes through the detection point. The strain value disap-
pears when the crack has fully opened at the monitoring point. Observing the dome surface and its
strain field shows that the horizontal strain, denoted by xx, at the beginning of the crack is between
0.0025 and 0.0045.
Fig. 8 Cracks and monitoring points of the horizontal strain xx for the N2E40A60-4 specimen.
0.018 P0 P1 P2 120
0.016
100
0.014
load force [N]
0.012 80
0.01
60
εxx
0.008
0.006 40
0.004
20
0.002
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
time [s]
Fig. 9 The horizontal strain xx at the monitoring points and the external load with respect to time
for the specimen N2E30A60-1

14th
Figure 9 clearly shows that εxx on the monitoring point increases rapidly at a certain time. The time
when the exx of the monitoring point on the same crack increases is similar, and once the opening exx
b
is certain, the time difference between them is certain is the crack propagation time. A load force drop
can be seen from the loading force-time curve as the crack opens.
From the measured data, we fix that the crack propagates if εxx exceeds 0.0025. With this in hand,
the propagation speed between the monitoring points along the crack can be computed. From the actual
if
speed, relative crack propagation length and relative crack propagation velocity are obtained (Table 1).
The relative crack length here is the ratio of the length of the second crack to the first. The crack speed
is calculated from the relative crack length. It is clear from the data in Table 1 that although the two
cracks on the dome have more or less the same length, the propagation speed of the second crack is
definitely slower than that of the first crack.
First the area of the strain field near the crack was calculated to explain this phenomenon. Figure
11 depicts the high strain area in which the strain exceeds 0.0025 in the vicinity of the crack. We find
that the area covered by high tensile strain is reasonably close for the two cracks. A detailed analysis
revealed that the area covered by the significant tensile strain is indeed indistinguishable for the two
cracks. This means that the difference in speed cannot be explained by the area of high strain.
Table 1 The results of the crack propagation speed

The first crack The second crack Relative crack Relative
Specimen
duration [s] duration [s] length velocity
N2E30A60-1 0.1704 30.6399 1: 1.0077 1: 0.0056
N2E30A60-2 0.5599 8.0604 1: 0.9790 1: 0.0680
N2E30A60-3 3.4100 54.6502 1: 0.9964 1: 0.0622
N2E40A60-2 0.7901 44.1702 1: 1.6638 1: 0.0298
N2E40A60-3 1.2101 43.9002 1: 1.4655 1: 0.0404
N2E40A60-4 6.9815 22.0306 1: 1.0027 1: 0.3178
Fig. 10 The high strain areas during the evolution of crack 1 (left column) and crack 2 (right col-
umn) at the beginning (first row) and the end (second row) of crack propagation in the case
of specimen N2E30A60-2.
From the DIC data, we measured the distance between two points on the two sides of each crack during
the entire recorded evolution. Note that the collected data is not the crack opening itself, but we assume

negligible deformation between the sampling points and the crack’s edge. Hence the measured data is
to characterize the horizontal displacement that occurs in the crack.
b
Upon loading, both notches tend to crack and open slightly (Fig. 11). At 57.85 seconds, crack 1
opened, while the deformation at notch 2 decreased, and the external load simultaneously dropped. This
reflects brittle behavior. As the load further increases, crack 1 opens steadily, and notch 2 expands. At
184.72 seconds, crack 2 starts to propagate. At first, crack 1 stops opening, accompanied by a drop in
if
the load. Subsequently, the two cracks open at almost the same rate.
The slower propagation time of crack 2, revealed in the DIC data and reflected in the slower drop
of the loading force in Figure 12, hints toward a kind of quasi-brittleness in the case of crack 2. Nume-
rical simulations show a non-surprising drop in the overall stiffness in the presence of the first crack,
but it hardly explains the emerging quasi-brittleness of the second crack. It seems the global deforma-
tions and rearrangements in the stress field account for the observed behavior.
6 160
crack1
5
crack2 120
deformation [mm]
load force [N]

4
3 80
2
40
1
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
time [s]
Fig. 11 The curves of deformation at the notches and the external load with respect to time for the
specimen N2E30A60-1.
5 Conclusions
The uniaxial compression tests of thin-walled brittle hemispherical domes with two pre-existing
notches were carried out. In the experimental work, we found that:
⎯ A sufficiently developed meridian crack in a brittle dome affects the second crack’s po-
sition and speed.
⎯ Two notches with an angular horizontal distance of 60 degrees and a vertical central angle
between 30-40 degrees produce two cracks upon loading, both originating at the notches.
⎯ The strain fields around the propagating cracks are close; they do not reflect the order of
the crack (first or second).
⎯ The first crack exhibits a definite brittle behavior. The second crack is slower, and quasi-
brittleness emerges.
In contrast to the literature in fracture mechanics (where the cracking behavior is solely explained
by material properties), here the occurrence of quasi-brittleness stems from the global mechanical re-
sponse of the dome. We plan further analysis to explain this finding.
Acknowledgments
The research was supported by the TKP2021-BME-NVA-02 program and the China Scholarship Coun-
cil (awarded to Siwen Cao for Ph.D. study at the Budapest University of Technology and Economics).
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Ageing Effects on Interactions of Embedded and
b
Externally Bonded Reinforcement in Strengthened
Concrete Structures – Experiment and Modelling
if
Zhuo Chen, Thorsten Leusmann and Dirk Lowke
Institute of Building Materials, Concrete Construction and Fire Safety,
Technische Universität Braunschweig,
38106 Braunschweig, Germany
Abstract
Concrete constructions like bridges are an integral part of our infrastructures. Those reinforced concrete
structures are exposed to excessive traffic loads and at the same time to ageing phenomena and envi-
ronmental conditions. Externally bonded reinforcement (EBR) made of carbon fibre reinforced poly-
mers (CFRP) are widely used for the strengthening of reinforced concrete components, due to its low
weight and great mechanical characteristics. In addition, quasi continous fibre optic sensors (FOS) can
be integrated into the CFRP strips in order to use them for structural health monitoring (SHM) purposes.
However, due to the different bond characteristics of EBR and embedded steel rebar, the strain distri-
bution deviates from the distribution determined presuming a plane strain distribution. For structural
health monitoring and a service life prognosis based on it, a precise calculation model for the long-term
load-bearing behaviour needs to be developed.
1 Introduction
Structural preservation of civil engineering structures has become one of the most important topics in
recent years. According to estimates, the share of construction measures in existing structures in Europe
are more than 60% of the total construction volume [1]. The tremendous amount of existing structures
is the backbone of the western developed countries. These vital building structures, which include con-
crete bridges as part of our transportation infrastructure, are essential for the economic success of busi-
ness locations and ensure the quality of life of an entire region. In Germany, there are more than 39,000
bridges on the federal highways. More than half of those bridges have an average age of 40 – 50 years.
However, due to deteriorations caused by ageing effects, environmentally induced material degradation
and lack of maintenance the stuructural integrity of those concrete buildings often fail to meet the nec-
essary performance requirements. Regarding to the constantly increasing traffic volume on bridges, the
load-bearing capacity of exsiting concrete structures must be restored and upgraded in order to maintain
their service life.
Retrofitting of existing concrete structures with externally applied CFRP reinforcement is an estab-
lished strengthening method in civil engineering since the early 1990s. During the retrofitting measure,
carbon fibre strips are bonded externally onto the surface of exsiting concrete structures to increase the
load-bearing capacity. The most important advantages of using fibre composite materials for strength-
ening are their low weight and thickness combined with their high resistance to corrosion and chemical
exposures. Nevertheless, durability considerations of the adhesive bond need to be addressed. Espe-
cially the long-term mechanical properties of strengthened members is still not well understood. While
many studies have investigated the effects of moisture and thermal ageing on the adhesive properties,
only limited research has been conducted on the long-term behaviour of the stress transfer interface
between concrete and CFRP under sustained loading [2].
The aim of the research project is to determine the internal forces in concrete, embedded steel and
exter-nally bonded reinforcement of strengthened concrete structures under sustained loading in con-
sideration of long-term ageing effects including creeping and shrinkage in the concrete, crack develop-
ment and bond creep of both reinforcement types. In this paper, the methodology of the experimental
investigations consist of pull-out tests, double lap shear tests, creep tests and larged scale four-point
bending tests on strengthened reinforced concrete beams are proposed in order to determine the input
parameters for the modelling of the time-dependent behaviour of strengthened concrete structures. Fur-
thermore, state-of-the-art fibre optic measurement systems based on back-scattered Rayleigh signals
14 th
are used in order to record the continuous strain distribution of embedded and externally bonded rein-
forcement during the investigation. Based on the experimental results, constitutive models for both
b
reinforcement types are developed using rheological models, which are able to describe the viscoelastic
creep behaviour and the material degradation phenomena under long-term sustained loading. With the
description of the time-dependent material behaviour and the degradation models, a prediction model
will be proposed, which is able to calculate the residual load-bearing capacity of strengthened concrete
if
structure.
2 Long-term behaviour of strengthened RC members under sustained loading

Carbon fibre reinforced polymers (CFRP) is a composite material consisting of elastic fibres and a
viscoelastic polymer matrix. Although the CFRP material itself has excellent resistence to creep defor-
mation, however, strengthened concrete structures show a time-dependent deformation behaviour due
to creep and shrinkage of the concrete [2]. Under sustained loading, time-dependent deformations will
occur in the strengthened RC member. Especially in case of retrofitted elements, which are still at a
relatively young age. Due to poor initial design and construction defects, structural upgrades are often
necessary even in new buildings, while the concrete still can develop substantial creep and shrinkage
deformation.
For the evaluation of the long-term load-bearing behaviour, not only the material behaviour of the
concrete, but also creep phenomena in the bond interface of the embedded steel reinforcement and the
externally bonded CFRP must be taken into account. Long-term studies of reinforced concrete struc-
tures show that the relative displacements between steel rebar and surrounding concrete increase over
time under sustained loading. This increase in deformation, known as bond creep, can presumably be
explained on the one hand by the viscoelastic and plastic deformation of the "concrete consoles" under
the high local pressures at the steel rebar ribs, and on the other hand, the formation of radial microcracks
in the concrete interface plays a significant role [3]. Similar to the steel reinforcement, bond creep can
also occur in the externally applied CFRP. Due to the polymer nature of the bonding adhesive, creep
deformation can presumably caused by microcrack devolopment in the bond interface and environmen-
tal conditions, like thermal stress and moisture.
In addition, in almost all national and international design guidelines the validity of the Bernoulli-
Euler Hypothesis by assuming a plane strain distribution in a strengthened concrete member is a pre-
requisite. According to Zehetmaier [4], this assumption is only valid if both the embedeed steel rein-
forcement and externally bonbed CFRP possess the same bond characteristics and stiffness, which is
not the case in reality. The interactions of both reinforcement types, especially the stress distribution in
long-term loading conditions, need to be considered.
3 Development of a calculation model

The main objective of this research project is to develop a calculation model to describe the load-bear-
ing and deformation behaviour of a strengthened concrete beam-element under sustained loading based
on the material behaviour of the individual components involved, including concrete, steel and CFRP
reinforcement. The individual materials will be carefully analysed and time-dependent material laws
will be defined in form of σ-ε-t relationships.
To create a calculation model, the first step is to divide the cross-section of a flexural concrete
member into four distinctive areas, see Fig. 1. The concrete compression zone, the (cracked and non-
cracked) concrete tension zone, the steel reinforcement including the bond interface and the CFRP
composite including the bond adhesive. Material laws for each respective materials will be defined.
The mechanical specifications of the individual components are developed using reliable rheological
models in terms of spring-, dashpot- and friction-elements in order to describe the time-dependent de-
formation behaviour of the respective components. The σ-ε-t relationships derived from the rheological
models are capable to describe the complex material behaviour mathematically.
For example, concrete shows viscoelastic deformation behaviour under long-term compressive
loading due to creep and shrinkage processes. For the calculation model, the total time-dependent de-
formation behaviour of concrete under sustained load is composed of the instantaneous elastic defor-
mation 𝜀𝑐𝑖 (𝑡0), concrete creep εcc (𝑡) and concrete shrinkage 𝜀𝑐𝑠 (𝑡), see eq. (1).
598 Retrofitting and assement of exsisting structures

if b
Fig. 1 Stress and strain distribution of a reinforced concrete beam
According to Müller [5], concrete creep εcc (𝑡) can be divided in irreversible basic creep 𝜀𝑐𝑐,𝑏 , drying
creep 𝜀𝑐𝑐,𝑑 and delayed elastic deformation 𝜀𝑐,𝑣 caused by rearrangement of water molecules in the mi-
crostructure. These mechanisms can be expressed in a summation approach in eq. (2). The time-de-
pendent material behaviour can then be described with a series of the Maxwell and Kelvin-Voigt model
in a rheological material model, taking into account the reversible and irreversible deformation compo-
nents, see Fig. 2 (left).
εc (𝑡) = 𝜀𝑐𝑖 (𝑡0 ) + 𝜀𝑐𝑐 (𝑡) + 𝜀𝑐𝑠 (𝑡) (1)
εcc (𝑡) = 𝜀𝑐,𝑣 (𝑡) + 𝜀𝑐𝑐,𝑏 (𝑡) + 𝜀𝑐𝑐,𝑑 (𝑡) (2)

Fig. 2 Rheological model of concrete creep (left), time-dependent deformation of concrete (right)
The focus of the calculation model is layed on the non-linear viscoelastic material behaviour of the
bond interface of CFRP and steel reinforcement. The rheological model is based on the modified Burg-
ers model according to Kränkel [6, 9], which is suitable to describe the long-term deformation in the
interface of both reinforcement types. For instance, the time-dependent deformation behaviour of the
CFRP bond interface is composed of short-term elastic deformation, long-term creep deformation and
concrete shrinkage deformation. The deformation components are combined in a summation approach
and described by rheological models, see Fig. 3. The creep deformation behaviour of the bond interface
under sustained loading is presumably caused by the non-linear viscoelastic behaviour of the bonding
adhesive and the bond creep, which is caused by the irreversible crack formation on the concrete sur-
face. In addition, material ageing in form of micro cracking in the polymeric adhesive, known as deg-
radation, also leads to a reduction in stiffness of the shear stress transfer. In the rheological model, the
degradation process is represented by the St. Venant's friction element.

14th
if b
Fig. 3 Rheological model of the CFRP bond interface under sustained loading
The total long-term deformation behaviour of the CFRP bond interface εL (𝑡) can be described with eq.
(3). The first term describes the short-term deformation bond behaviour 𝜀𝑖 , while the 2nd and 3rd terms
represents the time-dependent creep deformations, including the non-linear viscos flow of the adhesive
𝜀𝑣𝑒−𝑝 (𝑡) and the bond creep 𝜀𝑏𝑐 (𝑡) caused by irrevelsible crack development at the concrete surface.
The last term considers the shrinkage of the concrete 𝜀𝑐𝑠 (𝑡) in the bond area. For the calculation model,
the total deformation behaviour can be determined with eq. (4). In this rheological model, 𝐺𝑑 is the
deformation-dependent bond stiffness, which takes the material degradation in form of plastic defor-
mation into account. 𝐺𝑑 is calculated using an ageing indicator D, see eq. (5). This indicator describes
the structural change of the bond interface. In the unloaded state, the ageing indicator D remains 0 (no
damage) and the bond stiffness 𝐺𝑑 is equal to the bond stiffness 𝐺(𝜏) under short time loading. With
increasing deformation, the ageing indicator increases and the bond stiffness will be reduced. Upon
reaching the value D =1, a bond failure will occur. With the same rheological approach, the bond be-
haviour of the embedded steel reinforcement can also be described in this way.
𝜀𝐿 (𝑡) = 𝜀𝑖 + 𝜀𝑣𝑒−𝑝 (𝑡) + 𝜀𝑏𝑐 (𝑡) + 𝜀𝑐𝑠 (𝑡) (6)
𝜏 𝜏 𝐺 𝜏
(− 𝑑 𝑡)
𝜀𝐿 (𝑡) = + [1 − 𝑒 𝜂 ] + 𝑡 + 𝜀𝑐𝑠 (𝑡) (7)
𝐺(𝜏) 𝐺𝑑 𝜂
𝐺𝑑 = 𝐺(𝜏) ⋅ (1 − 𝐷) (8)
In a second step, the material models of all the individual components are correlated taking into account
the equilibrium and compatibility condition (see Fig. 4)
Fig. 4 Strain distribution in a strengthened beam cross section

4 Experimental investigations
b
In order to describe the long-term behaviour of the individual material components in the cross-section
mathematically, experimental tests must be carried out to determine the input parameters of the respec-
tive rheological models. All model input parameters are derived from experimental tests including
short-term tests, long-term creep tests and degradation tests on the material components. The method-
ology of the tests is based on conventional testing methods in combination with FOS. The parameter
if
identification is based on the measured FOS data. The testing methods for the parameter identification
include double lap shear tests on externally bonded CFRP strips (Fig. 5 a); pull-out tests (Fig. 5 b);
concrete creep tests (Fig. 5 c) and compact tension tests (Fig. 5 d). The individual tests for determining
the material parameters in the rheological models are shown in Fig. 5.
Fig. 5 Experimental setup for determining the material model input parameters
4.1 Double Lap Shear Tests on externally bonded CFRP reinforcement

For the description of the CFRP bond interface, experimental tests are carried out on double lap shear
test (DLST) specimens (500 mm x 150 mm x 150 mm) with CFRP strips with an average elastic mod-
ulus EL of 170,000 N/mm2 and a cross section AL = 2 x 1.4 mm x 50 mm. The adhesive is a two-
component epoxy resin. The thickness of the adhesive layer is set to 1 mm. The strain development of
the CFRP strips is measured with a 3D optical measuring systems "GOM-Aramis". In addition, quasi-
continuous strain measurements with fibre optic sensors are carried out in order to capture the strain
distribution along the entire CFRP strip. The test setup of the DLST is shown in Fig. 6.
Fig. 6 Test setup of the double lap shear test (DLST)
In short-term loading tests, the bond stress-slip relationship can be determined based on the measured
force and slip test data. In contrast to steel reinforcement, the bond stress of the CFRP strip cannot be
assumed constant along the bond length. In this study, a displacement based bilinear bond theory ac-
cording to Holzenkämpfer [10] is used to determine the bond stress, see eq. (6-8). The bond stiffness
G(τ) can be derived from the measured bond stress-slip relationship, which is the secant modulus of the
stress-displacement curve.
14th
𝜏𝐿1
𝜏𝐿 = ⋅𝑠 (6)
𝑠𝐿1 𝐿 for 𝑠𝐿 ≤ 𝑠𝐿1
b
𝜏𝐿1
𝜏𝐿 = ⋅ (𝑠𝐿 − 𝑠𝐿1 ) (7)
𝑠𝐿0 − 𝑠𝐿1 for 𝑠𝐿1 < 𝑠𝐿 ≤ 𝑠𝐿0
if
𝜏𝐿 = 0 (8)
for 𝑠𝐿 > 𝑠𝐿1
In order to predict of the long-term deformation in the CFRP bond interface, the bond creep behaviour
need to be analysed. The time-dependent viscosity coefficient η for the dashpots in the rheological
model are determined through creep tests. The same specimen geometry as in the short-term tests are
used for the long-term creep tests. The constant loads, which are applied through disc springs, corre-
spond to 50 – 70% of the maximum static strength over a period of t = 1,000 h. The displacement of
the CFRP is recorded during the experiment to create a bond creep curve. The time-dependent viscosity
coefficient η of the bond interface can be calculated by fitting the recorded creep curve.
The long-term degradation process is characterized by the deformation-induced reduction of the
bond stiffness 𝐺(𝜏). The level of degradation can be described by a damage index D depending on the
crack displacement. According to Bolle [8], the level of degradation in a material can be determined by
analysing the irreversible plastic and viscous deformation energy, dissipated during loading and un-
loading. Following this assumption, Kränkel [6, 9] developed a degradation test in order to describe the
creep behaviour of bonded anchors. The degradation test consists of repeated loading, holding and un-
loading cycles. The load level starts as low as 5% of the maximum bond stress and increases by 5%
after every three loading cycles, see Fig. 7. By analysing areas below the bond stress-displacement
curves, the energy components as elastic deformation 𝑊𝑒𝑙 , reversible creep 𝑊𝑐𝑟 and irreversible defor-
mation 𝑊𝑑 can be determined, see Fig. 8.
Fig. 7 Load procedure for degradation Fig. 8 Stress-time and stress-displacement

testing (left: detail, right: com- curves and energy contributions for a
plete) [9] load cycle [9]
The irreversible defomation energy 𝑊𝑑 contributes to the structural degradation of the adhesive bond.
Therefore, the deformation-dependent degradation parameter D can then be defined as the ratio between
the irreversible deformation energy 𝑊𝑑 and the maximum elastic deformation energy max 𝑊𝑒𝑙 , as in
eq. (9).
𝛴1𝑖 𝑊𝑑
𝐷𝑖 = (9)
𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑊𝑒𝑙 |1𝑘
4.2 Pull-out tests on steel reinforcement

As proposed, the rheological model of the bond interface can also be applied to embedded steel rein-
forcement. Thererfore, the same testing methodology including short-term loading tests, long-term
creep tests and degradation tests need to be conducted for the steel-concrete bond interface as well. The
experimental tests for characterizing the bond behaviour of the steel reinforcement is carried out on
cubic pull-out specimens (200 mm x 200 mm x 200 mm) with a embedded steel rebar of 12 mm diam-
eter. In accordance with Rehm [7], the bond length 𝑙𝑒𝑓 is equal to 5 times the diameter ds in the centre
of the specimen. At both ends of the specimen, the steel rebar is decoupled from the concrete in bond-
free-zones with a length of 5·ds, see Fig. 9.
if b
Fig. 9 Test setup of the Pull-out-test on steel reinforcement (left) Steel rebar with FOS (right)
The bond stress-slip relationship of the steel-concrete interface can be derived from short-term loading
tests. The bond stress 𝜏 can be calculated with eq. (10), assuming a uniform distribution of the bond
stress along the entire bonded length.
𝐹
𝜏 = (10)
𝜋 ⋅ 𝑑𝑠 ⋅ 𝑙𝑒𝑓
In analogy to the rheological model of the CFRP bond interface, the time-dependent viscosity coeffi-
cient 𝜂 and the degradation index D need to be determined by long-term creep test and degradation
tests, respectifly. The test setup of the long-term creep test on steel reinforcement, where the fibre optic
sensor is embedded inside the steel rebar is shown in Fig. 10.
Fig. 10 Test setup of the long-term creep test on steel reinforcement
4.3 Four-point bending tests on strengthened RC slabs

In order to verify the calculation model with the proposed rheological models, long-term creep tests on
large scaled strengthened RC members need to be carried out for different stress levels. The dimension
of the test specimen and a possible bond failure are shown in Fig. 11.
Fig. 11 Test setup of the large four-point bending test (left), bond failure during static test (right)
14 th
The accuracy of the predictions needs to be validated by comparing the long-term deformation meas-
urement of both reinforcement strains with the calculated strain distribution. The strain measurement
b
will be carried out by using fibre optic sensing, in order to provide a most accurate insight of the defor-
mation condition of the flexural member during the long-term creep test. The first results of the quasi-
continous fibre optic measurement in externally bonded CFRP and embedded steel rebar under loading
is shown in Fig. 12.
if
Fig. 12 Strain distribution of CFRP and steel reinforcement measured with fibre optic sensing
5 Conclusion
Structural preservation and retrofit of existing building structures are among the most important chal-
lenges in the future. To master them successfully, we need to improve our strengthening methods, cal-
culation tools and monitoring capabilities, in order to maintain our building infrastructure reliably.
Flexural RC members strengthened with externally applied CFRP strips show time-dependent non-
linear viscoelastic deformation behaviour under sustained loading due to deterioratios. In this work, a
concept of a calculation method based on rheological modelling was proposed with the aim to predict
the load-bearing capacity of those renewed structures. In this calculation model, the long-term defor-
mation behaviour of each material component involved are considered individually. In order to describe
the time-dependent material law of the respective components (concrete, steel and CFRP bond) rheo-
logical models were used. The goal is the distinction between elastic, viscoelastic and irreversible plas-
tic deformation components based on physical effects. In order to determine the input parameters
needed for the rheological models, the required experimental investigations, including short-term tests,
long-term creep tests and degradation tests with FOS were presented. With the calculation model, the
load-bearing performance of strengthened RC members under sustained load can be predicted. With
regard to structural health monitoring, this calculation method can be combined with an active moni-
toring system based on FOS to predict the remaining load-bearing capacity.
References
[1] Seim, W. 2007. Bewertung und Verstärkung von Stahlbetontragwerken. Ernst & Sohn, Berlin.
[2] fib CEB-FIP Bulletin 90. 2019. Externally applied FRP reinforcement for concrete structures.
[3] Franke, L. 1976. Einfluß der Belastungsdauer auf das Verbundverhalten von Stahl in Beton.
[4] Zehetmaier, G. 2006. Zusammenwirken einbetonierter Bewehrung mit Klebearmierung bei ver-
stärkten Betonbauteilen. PhD diss, TU München. Germany.
[5] Müller, H. S. 1986. Zur Vorhersage des Kriechens von Konstruktionsbeton. PhD diss, Univer-
sität Karlsruhe. Germany.
[6] Kränkel, T. S. 2017. Ein rheologischer Modellansatz zu Prognose des Langzeitverhaltens von
Verbunddübeln. PhD diss, TU München. Germany.
[7] Rehm, G.; Eligehausen, R. 1977. Einfluß einer nicht ruhenden Belastung auf das Verbundver-
halten von Rippenstählen. Germany.
[8] Bolle G. 1999. Zur Bewertung des Belastungsgrades biegebeanspruchter Stahlbetonkonstruk-
tionen anhand von Last-Verformungs-Informationen. PhD diss, Weimar. Germany.
[9] Kränkel, T. S. 2015. Prediction of the creep behaviour of bonded anchors until failure – A
rheological approach. Construction and Building Materials 75:458 – 464.
[10] Holzenkämpfer, P. 1994. Ingenieurmodelle des Verbundes geklebter Bewehrung für Betonbau-
teile. PhD diss, TU Braunschweig. Germany.
Results of ongoing experimental study for verification
b
of long-term properties of FRP reinforced concrete
members
if
Stanislav Blaho and Katarína Gajdošová
Department of Concrete Structures and Bridges,
Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Faculty of Civil Engineering,
Radlinskeho 11, 810 05 Bratislava, Slovakia
Abstract
The professional public has recognised progressive composite materials for reinforcing concrete
members, such as FRP reinforcement, in the last period. Demand for short-term properties of these
materials was satisfied by a relatively large database of experimental studies and articles in the scien-
tific field. However, common knowledge of long-term properties has several unsatisfied fields. High
strength, low weight and corrosion resistance are the main reasons for the suggestion of FRP rein-
forcement for use in constructions with aggressive environments. On the other hand, design codes
give low utilisation capacity of FRP materials and are not supposed to be correct according to the ac-
tual behaviour in a few experiments of the last decades.
This paper presents an actual experimental study in progress and already realised long-term experi-
mental study based on four-point bending tests of simply supported concrete beams reinforced with
GFRP reinforcement exposed to long-term loading.
1 Introduction
Research of new materials and alternatives to steel reinforcement has been developed in the last few
decades. Based on the results of many kinds of research, fibre-reinforced polymer reinforcement should
be mentioned. Glass fibre reinforced polymers (GFRPs) and carbon fibre reinforced polymers (CFRPs)
are the most widely known and used. Thanks to their properties, they can be used in the design of
reinforced concrete structures, especially in environments with a high class of aggression or environ-
mental stress. The advantage of GFRP reinforcement is that it is a durable material that is not subject
to corrosion, does not conduct heat, does not conduct electric current, is therefore, an insulator, is non-
magnetic and thus does not create an obstacle to the propagation of electromagnetic waves. It has high
tensile strength and low bulk density. Glass fibres are the cheapest but less durable because they are
chemical sensitive to alkaline environments. They do not absorb water, which leads to high fatigue
strength. A severe problem with non-metallic reinforcement is its temperature resistance - mainly due
to the resin content.
It can be concluded that short-term properties of FRP reinforcement as tensile, compression and
shear behaviour are well known and have been verified and studied by a considerable quantum of re-
searchers for example, Hall and Ghali[7], Vijay[10], Abdalla[2], Bischoff[3][9][3], Mia's et al.[5,8],
Fergania et al. [5]. So far, there is not enough information about the long-term behaviour of FRP rein-
forcement because it has not been used for a long time and concrete structures reinforced with FRP
reinforcement have not yet reached their service life. Experimental studies of FRP reinforcement's long-
term properties are time-consuming, which is why they are rare. This fact forms the need of a wider
database of these experimental studies and related results.
2 Preparation of specimens for experimental study

After getting acquainted with the current state of the art[2] [3][7] [5,8] [9] [10], it was decided to cast
70 low-height beams reinforced with 2 bars of GFRP reinforcement of a diameter of 8 mm with
helically wrapped surface treatment (this represents a bar with an internal diameter of 7 mm used for
calculation) and, for comparison, 30 beams with steel reinforcement – with 2 bars of the diameter of 8
mm. The cross-section of beams was 150 mm in width and 70 mm in height, and the length of beams
was 1 300 mm (see Fig. 1). During the concreting of the beams, cubic(150 x 150 x 150 mm), cylindrical
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(150 x 300 mm) and prismatic specimens (100 x 100 x 300 mm) were also prepared for testing concrete
properties – compressive strength and modulus of elasticity.
b
The cover of the reinforcement was designed to be 20 mm. Because of the low weight of GFRP
bars and for better stabilisation of the position of the longitudinal reinforcement, the bars were
continuously led through the holes in the formwork of each three beams. For stabilisation along the
beams, two transverse bars in 1/3 and 2/3 of the length of each beam were added (see Fig. 2).
if
The dimensions of the beams as well as the reinforcement ratio, were based on the requirement of
the required failure mode of beams. The beams were required to fail in bending by concrete crushing
in compression. All parameters were tested and examined on the considerable amount of samples from
previous and current experiments in our department.
Fig.1 Dimension of the concrete beams in mm

Fig.2 Stabilisation of the GFRP reinforcement during the concreting

2.1 Determination of material properties
b
For the possibility of comparison of the analytical models with the results of experimental verification,
the fundamental material properties were tested.
One concrete mix was used for all the beams and concrete specimens. The compressive strength of
concrete was tested on cubic and cylindrical specimens. For static modulus of elasticity, the prismatic
specimens were used. All tests were examined according to EN 12390 standard for testing hardened
if
concrete just before the beams were tested. The average results are summarised and presented in Table
1.
Table 1 Material properties of the concrete.

Properties Value
Cubic strength (MPa) 32.26

Cylindrical strength (MPa) 24.29
Static modulus of elasticity (GPa) 30.72
There was no need to verify the properties of GFRP bars given by the manufacturer (Table 2),
because a good agreement with the results of previous experimental testing was reached in our
department during a former investigation.
Table 2 Properties of GFRP bars

Value from the Value from the
Properties
manufacturer previous testing
Tensile strength (MPa) 1000 1070
Modulus of elasticity (GPa) 52 52
3 Items of investigation
For the zero series, three beams (exp01) were tested in the same way by a four-point bending test as a
reference specimen of a whole study. The loading was performed by incrementing the force in 0.5 kN
steps. The span between supports was 1 200 mm, and forces were acting at the distance of 100 mm
from the middle of the beam on each side (see Fig. 3). During the loading, the acting force and resulting
deflection were monitored on each beam. The prime objective of the investigation was to examine the
relationship between the deflection at mid-span and the acting force. The linear variable displacement
transducer (LVDT) was the most accurate measurement method. The prediction of the deflection and
resistance force were calculated according to various design codes, and they were presented in[6]. The
parameters obtained during the testing were recorded by computer software. The test was stopped after
the cross-section failure. All three beams failed by concrete crushing at mid-span. The results are shown
in Section 4.
Fig.3 Test setup

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Another series of tested beams with GFRP reinforcement are placed in sewage water treatment
plant (Fig. 4). Six are palced directly in the inflow channel, where incomming sewage water's chemical
b
properties are monitored. And three beams are placed in nearby digestion tanks where the beams are
influenced by aerosols of sewage water and climatic conditions. At this place also, another six beams
reinforced with steel reinforcement are placed. These beams will be exposed to agresive conditions for
a period of 1, 3, and 5 years and after that, they will be tested in four-point bending test. GFRP rein-
if
forcement will be extracted and chemically analyzed.
The next set of 8 GFRP and 8 steel beams are placed in outdoor conditions closely to parking spots,
so they are exposed to outdoor air conditions and, during the winter period, to frozen and chloride
effects.
Fig.4 Beams placed in sewage water treatment (left), beams closely to parking slots (right)
After the immediate testing and verification of supposed resistance, the set-ups for investigating
long-term properties of GFRP reinforcement were prepared. In total thirty beams were loaded to 25%,
50%, and 75% of the immediate load capacity obtained by short-term testing. So there are nine set-ups
of three beams. The beams were supposed to be loaded for three different periods: 1 year, 3 years, and
10 years for selected beams. The distances between the supports and scheme of load are the same as in
the short-term tests. Immediately after loading, the actual deflection was measured on four of these sets,
and current dial gauges were installed for long-term deflection measurements (Figure 5).
Fig.5 Set of three beams – long-term loading

4 Results
b
The results of short-term tests (exp01) – the maximal forces and related deflections are given in
Table 3 and Figure 6. Figure 6 shows the load-deflection curve measured by a linear variable differential
transducer (LVDT) for the tested beams, compared to the instantaneous deflection resulting from beam
sets after loading to the selected level when prepared for long-term loading. In the first case, no plastic
deformation was observed after reaching the maximum load. The load dropped down without an in-
if
crease in deflection. It should be noted that the schedule for applying the load was significantly differ-
ent. While in the first case, during short-term testing, the time to reach the load capacity was 15 minutes,
in the second case the time required to apply the entire needed load to one set-up was approximately
eight hours.
10
9.5
9
8.5 exp 01
8
7.5 exp 02
7
Force F [ kN ]
6.5
6
5.5
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45
Deflection w [ mm ]
Fig. 6 Comparison of results
Table 3 Measured values of the maximal force and deflection during short-term tests
Beam no. Maximum force (kN) Deflection (mm)
N1 10.9 46
N2 8.72 41.5
N3 10.8 48.7
Average value 9.6 45.4
The set-ups for long-term loading were constructed in April 2021. After one year, the first set-ups were
demounted, and beams were unloaded. Before removing the load from the beams, the value of actual
deflection was measured on dial gauges to calculate the increase in total deflection after 1 year. When
the load was removed the residual deflection was also measured on the beams. After unloading, the
beams were tested by a four-point bending test until failure. All the beams except one failed in bending
by concrete crushing. One beam failed in shear. No rupture of GFRP reinforcement was recorded de-
spite of relatively high level of stress in it. The parameters obtained during the testing were recorded
by computer software and are presented in Figure 7. Figure 8 the results, including the increase in long-
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term deflection during 1-year loading, residual deflections after unloading and deflections measured
during final testing of beams (average values).
b
10
9.5
9
8.5 25
if
8 %
7.5 50
7 %
Force F [ kN ]
6.5
6 75
5.5
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45
Deflection w [ mm ]
Fig.7 Comparison of the result of beams after one year – immediate testing
10.50
10.00
9.50
9.00 25
8.50 %
8.00 50
7.50 %
7.00
Force F [ kN ]
6.50 75
6.00
5.50
5.00
4.50
4.00
3.50
3.00
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48 51
Deflection w [ mm ]
Fig.8 Comparison of the result of beams after one year, including unloading and residual deflec-
tions

b
Table 4. Summarisation of average results on beams
Percentage of Maximum de-
Deflection after Deflection after Maximum force
load (%) for 1 flection at failure
1 year (mm) unloading (mm) at failure (kN)
if
year (mm)
25 8.23 5.10 43.00 9.20
50 29.15 8.80 46.50 9.60
75 44.51 10.43 51.07 10.19
5 Conclusions
All beams tested in the experimental study except one failed in the mid-span cross-section. The failure
mode was by crushing of concrete as it was expected. One beam failed in shear. On all beams, cracks
at the mid-span on the tensile side of beams were observed. Failure of all beams was relatively brittle,
without any plastic deformation. The beams were designed over- reinforced (reinforced ratio over the
balanced ratio) to achieve the failure by concrete crushing. The reinforcement ratio of presented beams
is 0.64%, and the value of the balanced reinforced ratio is 0.5% or 0.42%, according to ACI [1] or EC2
[4] respectively. In any case of reinforcement ratio, the members cannot fail in a ductile way. This is
the most significant difference when comparing GFRP and steel reinforced concrete members.
From the results of short-term tests, it was possible to set the load levels to 25, 50, and 75% of the
achieved flexural resistance of beams for long-term loading. These levels have been set so that the
maximum applied load causes exceed the maximum allowable stress in GFRP reinforcement specified
in the foreign design regulations for long-term use of GFRP reinforcement. When comparing short-
term deflections, a difference is visible due to the different duration of the load. Nevertheless, the trend
is the same. The increase in deflection for long-term loading is continuously monitored on beam as-
semblies. On the beams from set-ups unloaded and tested after one year of long-term loading, it can be
concluded that there is no decrease in the final resistance of these beams. Furthermore, the first results
surprisingly show that the higher level of long-term loading is, the higher the final resistance of the
beam is.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Scientific Grant Agency VEGA under the contract No. VEGA
1/0522/20.
References
[1] 440.1R-15, A. Guide for the Design and Construction of Structural Concrete Reinforced with
Fibre-Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Bars. In Aci 440.1R-15 . 2015. .
[2] Abdalla, H.A. Evaluation of deflection in concrete members reinforced with fibre reinforced
polymer (FRP) bars. In Composite Structures [online]. 2002. Vol. 56, no. 1, s. 63–71.
[3] Bischoff, P.H. Reevaluation of Deflection Prediction for Concrete Beams Reinforced with Steel
and Fiber Reinforced Polymer Bars. In Journal of Structural Engineering [online]. 2005.
Vol. 131, no. 5, s. 752–767.
[4] European Committee for Standardization (CEN) Design of concrete structures. General rules
and rules for buildings. In Management . 2004. .
[5] Fergani, H. et al. Long-term performance of GFRP bars in concrete elements under sustained
load and environmental actions. In Composite Structures . 2018. Vol. 190, s. 20–31. .
[6] Gajdošová, K. et al. Deflection of GFRP-reinforced concrete beams. In Journal of Composite
Materials [online]. 2021. Vol. 55, no. 21, s. 2939–2951.
[7] Hall, T. - Ghali, A. Long-term deflection prediction of concrete members reinforced with glass
fibre reinforced polymer bars. In Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering [online]. 2000. Vol. 27,
no. 5, s. 890–898.
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[8] Miàs, C. et al. A simplified method to obtain time-dependent curvatures and deflections of
concrete members reinforced with FRP bars. In Composite Structures [online]. 2010. Vol. 92,
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no. 8, s. 1833–1838.
[9] Miàs, C. et al. Experimental study of immediate and time-dependent deflections of GFRP
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[10] Vijay, P.V. Aging and design of concrete members reinforced with gfrp bars. In Thesis . 1999. .
if

b
Arnas Majumder1, Flavio Stochino2, Andrea Frattolillo2, Monica Valdes2, Fer-
nando Fraternali1 and Enzo Martinelli1
if
1 Department of Civil Engineering,
University of Salerno,
via Giovanni Paolo II, n.132, 84084, Fisciano, Italy
2 Department of Civil Environmental Engineering and Architecture,

University of Cagliari,
via Marengo 2, 09123 Cagliari, Italy
Abstract
Both existing and new buildings affect, either directly or indirectly, our environment and eco-systems,
mainly due to their contribution to the climate change. Particularly they are responsible for greenhouse
gas emission, during the whole life cycle of the building. The use of sustainable materials in the con-
struction sector could help in slowing down and minimize the environmental damages done during
these years. Therefore, the use of natural fibers or composite materials as building products could help
in restoring the balance with the nature, and also it would encourage the United Nation (UN)’s sustain-
able development goals. This experimental work contributes towards exploring sustainable integrated
retrofitting solutions based on jute fiber reinforced mortar, i.e., to obtain an optimum balance between
the mechanical behavior and the thermal property of the composite system studied. To achieve this,
raw jute fiber of various percentage (0.5%, 1%, 15% and 2%) and lengths (5mm, 10mm and 30mm)
were used as reinforcing agent for composite mortar. With the gradual introduction of fiber and increase
in fiber percentages, the mechanical performances (compression strength and flexural strength) worsen,
whereas the insulating capacity improved almost lineally, when compared with the normal samples
without fiber. The presence of longer fibers in the sample have shown better gripping capacity and
higher stain energy capacity, i.e., the presence of jute fiber, improved the energy absorption capacity of
the composite specimens. Whereas just contrary in the case insulation capacity, the 5mm fiber have
lower thermal conductivity value in comparison with 10mm and 30mm fibers.
1 Introduction
As targeted in [1], the scientific community, international and national organizations working in the
Construction & Building (C&B) sectors are committed to promote sustainable building materials and
construction methods. Both old and new building are vulnerable to the human induced hazards and
natural disasters (most impactful is the earthquake) [2]. Moreover, the same buildings are responsible
for huge environmental impact due to the emission of green-house gases [3], improper waste disposals
[4] and the use of huge amount of energy [5]. In European Union (EU), C&B sector consume nearly
40% (36% globally) of the total produced energy and emit 36% (39% globally) of the total CO2 in the
atmosphere [5]. On average, each citizen in the EU produces approximately 160 (+) ton of waste per
lifecycle [6]. Therefore, the need of the hour is to find a balance between the optimization of seismic
vulnerability and to minimize the carbon footprint [7]. In this context, the integrated retrofitting (i.e.
thermo-structural retrofitting) for the optimization of the insulation capacity and to obtain the targeted
structural behavior, can be a best strategy for the upgradation of the existing constructions [8][9][10],
as well as also can be used in newer structures. On the other hand, the global warming, climate change,
ozone layer depletion, human health risk (due to harmful construction and building wastes) [11][12]
and the social and legal obligations [13][14][15] to optimize the use of natural resources, have forced
mankind to search for alternative ecofriendly building materials. Natural fibers [16] have been used by
man-kind for centuries, and some recent Research & Development (R&D) on plant and animal-based
fiber composite systems like, [17][18][19][20][21] have paved the possibility to use them in the C&B
sector as integrated retrofitting elements. Furthermore, these composite materials are sustainable, bio-
degradable, and recyclable. The same cannot be said for conventional building materials like concrete,
steel and inorganic fibers. Among all, jute fiber is second most abundantly available [22] and produced
14 th
mostly around Gangetic delta [23]. The jute fiber is well known to have excellent thermo-mechanical
properties [24][25]. Some interesting uses of jute fiber in civil engineering application can be found in
b
[17][20][26][27].
This experimental research highlights the preparation of jute fiber composite mortars using two
different types of mortars and different jute fibers percentages (with respect to the mortar masses), and
later followed by the structural and thermal performances evaluation. In this process three different jute
if
fiber lengths (30 mm, 10 mm and 5 mm) and four different fiber percentages (0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5% and
2.0%) were used. Section 2 highlight the materials and methods used for the jute fiber composite prep-
aration. In section 3 the mechanical performance and thermal behaviors of the normal (without fiber)
and composite mortar samples are described in section 3.1 and section 3.2, respectively. The section 4
ends with the conclusive remarks.

The raw jute fibers (3-4 meter long) used in this experimental research work were directly collected
from West Bengal, India (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Raw jute fiber

Long jute fibers were cut into 30 mm, 10 mm and 5mm (Fig. 2) fiber lengths. Thereafter these fibers
were used for the water absorption tests [23] and this information was used to choose the amount of
water necessary for the composite mortar’s preparation with three different fiber lengths and different
percentages (0.5%, 1%, 1.5% and 2%).
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2 14.3 g of (a) 30 mm, (b) 10 mm and (c) 5 mm of chopped jute fibers
Two different mortar types, cement based Structural Mortar (SM) and lime based Thermal Mortar (TM)
have been used as matrices for composite samples. The SM is characterized according to NTC 18 [28],
whereas the TM is characterized according to EN ISO 13788 [29].
Table 1 and Table 2 presents the percentage of water used with respect to the dry mortar
mixture, for the normal (without fiber) and composite mortar preparation.
614 Composite structures

Table 1 Percentage [%] of water used with respect to the mortar mass for SM sample and Percentage
of water used with respect to total mass (mortar + fiber) for composite SM samples.
b
Percentage of water used Tot. mortar
SM preparation Fiber length categories (+fiber) mass
if
No fiber 30mm 10mm 5mm Kg
Normal 18.0
No fiber - - -
sample
Fiber
percentages 0.5% - 20.0 21.0 21.0
used with re- 1.0% - 22.0 24.0 25.0 2.9
Composite spect to the
samples mortar mass 1.5% - 24.0 27.0 28.0
2.0% - 26.0 30.0 31.0
Table 2 Percentage [%] of water used with respect to the mortar mass for TM sample and the Per-
centage of water used with respect to total mass (mortar + fiber) for composite TM samples.
Percentage of water used Tot. mortar
TM preparation Fiber length categories (+fiber) mass
No fiber 30mm 10mm 5mm Kg

Normal 33.0
No fiber - - -
sample
Fiber
percentages 0.5% - 38.0 40.0 41.0
used with re- 1.3
1.0% - 43.0 46.0 48.0
Composite spect to the

samples mortar mass 1.5% - 47.0 53.0 55.0
2.0% - 52.0 59.0 62.0
3 Experimental results: Mechanical Properties

3.1 Flexural strength test
A universal displacement control machine Metrocom 1 has been used for the three-point bending flex-
ural strength tests (UNI EN 1015-11:2019) [30]. The machine has max. load capacity of 4.9 kN (± 0.02
kN). Four SM samples without and with fibers are reported in Fig. 3.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Fig. 3 Three-point bending flexural strength tests of the SM samples (a) MS1M1S3 - without fiber
and (b) MS1F1(30)M1S3, (c) MS1F1(10)M1S3 & (d) MS1F1(5)M1S2 samples with 1%
fiber (30mm, 10 mm and 5mm fiber lengths, respectively) with respect to the mortar mass.
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Table 3 Changes in flexural properties of the composite SM mortar samples when compared with
sample without fiber. All values are represented in percentage (%).
b
Strain energy Flexural strength
Fiber percentages used with respect Fiber percentages used with respect
to the mortar mass to the mortar mass
if
0.5% 1.0% 1.5% 2.0% 0.5% 1.0% 1.5% 2.0%
30 mm 102.0 % 23.3 228.9 501.1 -19.3 -34.9 -42.8 -53.6
Fiber
10 mm 29.8 % 114.5 107.5 164.0 -25.2 -47.0 -52.1 -65.1
lengths
5 mm 51.5 % 72.0 53.9 49.4 -35.2 -49.7 -60.7 -69.3
Where, + values represent improvement and – values represent reduction in respective properties
Table 4 Changes in flexural properties of the composite TM mortar samples when compared with
sample without fiber. All values are represented in percentage (%).
Strain energy Flexural strength
Fiber percentages used with respect Fiber percentages used with respect to
to the mortar mass the mortar mass
0.5% 1.0% 1.5% 2.0% 0.5% 1.0% 1.5% 2.0%
30 mm 189.2 202.7 191.9 488.7 -5.0 -45.2 -51.3 -45.5
Fiber
10 mm 7.5 23.1 46.2 0.5 -20.5 -42.7 -57.6 -67.7
lengths
5 mm -5.4 -89.2 -34.9 -71.0 -15.4 -62.9 -56.3 -75.5
(a) (b)
Fig. 4 Samples after flexural test failures: (a) Sample MS2F2(30)M1S2, MS2F2(5)M1S2 and
MS2F2(5)M1S2 with 2% fiber (with fiber lengths 30mm, 10mm and 5mm, respectively)
with respect to the mortar mass (b) Sample MS2F1.5(30)M1S1: two broken parts are hold
by the 30 mm fibers.
Notably the TM contains prefabricated insulation materials (Plastic balls (PB)), which certainly induce
some weakness to the lime mortar. Fig. 4 (a) represents SM samples with 2% (with respect to the mortar
mass) fiber (with fiber lengths 30 mm, 10 mm and 5 mm, respectively); whereas Fig. 4 (b) demonstrates
the flexural failure of a SM sample with 1.5% fiber (30 mm) with respect to the mortar mass. As shown
in Table 3 and Table 4, the application of fiber yields to a flexural strength decreases for both cases
(with some exceptions like SM with 30 mm and 1% fiber). It has been observed that the shortest fibers
(5mm) produce a higher reduction of the strength of the mortar in comparison to the longer fibers (30
mm and 10mm). While for all cases the highest stain energy values have been obtained for those sam-
ples prepared with 30 mm fibers, followed by 10mm and 5mm, respectively.
As in Table 4, in the case SM with 5 mm long fibers with all fiber percentages (i.e., 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%
and 2%), no improvement in strain energy has been observed. Due to the fact that the shorter fibers are
b
less elastic and have lower surface area in comparison to the longer fibers, therefore the later has im-
proved tensile behavior. The longer fibers can enhance the connections between the two broken parts,
even after the complete failure, see Fig 4. (b).
The samples with fibers, even after reaching the tensile strength, do not exhibit complete col-
if
lapse. In fact, they break, but keep resisting the applied load by dispersing the energy through the im-
bodied fibers. Therefore, these natural fiber composite materials might be useful for earthquake re-
sistance application.
3.2 Compression tests
A load-controlled machine Metrocom-2 with maximum load capacity of 10 ton has been used for the
compression tests (UNI EN 1015-11:2019) [30]. The force was applied with loading rate of 22.65
N/min.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Fig. 5 Compression strength tests: (a) & (c) represent sample MS2M1S3 without fiber and (b) &
(d) represent sample MS1F1(30)M1S1 with 1% fiber (30mm) with respect to the mortar
mass.
Table 5 Changes in compressive strength of the composite SM and TM mortar samples when com-
pared with normal SM and TM sample (without fiber), respectively. All values are repre-
sented in percentage (%).
SM TM
Fiber percentages used, with Fiber percentages used, with
respect to the mortar mass respect to the mortar mass
0.5% 1.0% 1.5% 2.0% 0.5% 1.0% 1.5% 2.0%
30 mm -18.9 -32.3 -44.8 -68.5 -10.0 -54.6 -63.4 -41.4
Fiber
10 mm -17.1 -44.1 -56.7 -74.0 -32.9 -60.6 -81.1 -83.7
lengths
5 mm -24.8 -54.5 -66.5 -81.3 -29.1 -66.9 -78.6 -89.7
The compression strength tests have demonstrated that SM (without fiber) is about 9 (+) MPa times
stronger than TM (without fiber). Fig. 5 (a)&(c) present sample without fiber, it has demonstrated hour-
glass collapse after reaching maximum compressive strength. This is true for all samples without fiber.
While Fig. 5 (b)&(d) present SM with 1% fiber (30mm) with respect to the mortar mass and it has
14 th
demonstrated hourglass type collapse. In this case broken parts of the composite sample remained con-
nected to each other due to presence of imbodied fibers. The same behavior has been observed for all
b
composite samples. As in Table 5, it is clearly noticeable that in both cases (SM and TM composite
samples), with the decrease of fiber lengths and increase in fiber percentage (with respect to the mortar
mass), the compressive strength decreases, when compared to the samples without fibers.
if
4 Experimental results: Thermal properties
The TAURUS TCA 300 (Thermal conductivity measuring device with heat flow meter according to
ISO 8301 [31] and DIN EN 1946-3 [32]) has been used to determine the Thermal Conductivity (TC)
of each sample. A total of 48 reinforced mortar samples have been used for these purposes. The instru-
ment’s measuring chamber is equipped with one movable (cold) plate and fixed (hot) plate. The plates
have total workable area of 300x300 mm2 and out of which 100x100mm2 is the active measuring zone.
Samples used (160x140 mm2) during measurements are greater than the plates active zones and smaller
than total workable areas, therefore a woolen heat guard was used to avoid heat losses at samples edges.
It was done, also to have quasi-linear heat flow through samples. The HFM are located at the center of
the plates. PT 100 probes of class DIN A have been used to monitor Peltier devices (four located at
each plate active zone), so as to maintain both plates temperatures. A mini-chiller with the help of a
liquid coolant extracts and dissipates heat. During the measurements the samples were placed in-be-
tween plates and exactly at the center, as in Fig. 6 (b). Fluxes are measured by the hot and cold plates
and TC (W/mK) values are calculated following the equation 1 [17].
S W
λ = Q̇ (tH − tC )
[ ] (1)
mK
where:
𝑄̇ is the heat flux [W/m2]; S is the sample thickness [m]; tH is the hot plate temperature [°C]; tC is the
cold plate temperature [°C].
(a) (b)
Fig. 6 (a) Thermal sample MS1F0.5(5)T2 (160x140x40 mm3), (b) Thermal conductivity measure-
ment: Schematic diagram of the heat flow meter (TAURUS TCA 300).
Table 6 Changes in thermal conductivity (measurements preformed at 10°C, 20°C and 30°C) of the
composite SM and TM mortars samples when compared with normal SM and TM sample
(without fiber), respectively. All values are represented in percentage (%).
SM TM
Fiber percentages used with respect Fiber percentages used with respect
to the mortar mass to the mortar mass
0.5% 1.0% 1.5% 2.0% 0.5% 1.0% 1.5% 2.0%
30 mm -19.5 -35.7 -29.1 -33.7 -25.0 -30.2 -38.1 -44.8
Fiber
10 mm -33.6 -35.6 -37.1 -40.2 -25.9 -35.6 -42.6 -46.7
lengths
5 mm -41.6 -35.7 -43.8 -41.6 -29.3 -39.0 -44.3 -51.8
The fig. 6(a) represents one of the typical thermal samples (160x140x40 mm3) used for the TC test.
The code indicates that the TM has been reinforced with 0.5% of jute fibers (with respect to the mortar
b
mass) of 5 mm of fiber lengths. As in Table 6, it has been observed that due to the application of fibers
at various combinations, the decrease in TC value is higher for shorter fibers than longer fibers, and
also in the case of higher percentage of fibers (with respect to the mortar mass). Notably this decrease
in TC demonstrates the improvement in the insulation capacity of the composite samples of about 14%
if
per unit % increase of fiber. This is true for both types of composite mortars (SM and TM).
5 Conclusion
The present paper reports the mechanical and thermal properties of SM, TM and jute fiber composite
mortars (prepared with SM and TM). In this process different jute fiber of lengths 30 mm, 10 mm and
5 mm and different fiber percentages 0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5% and 2.0% (with respect to the mortar masses),
of various combinations have been used. All composite mortars have shown ductile behavior.
With the introduction for jute fiber, both flexural and compressive strengths of the composite
specimens have reduced, while the strain energy capacity and the insulation capacity (i.e., reduction in
Thermal conductivity (TC)) have improved.
The maximum improvement in strain energy of 501.1 % and 488.7 % have been obtained for
SM and TM composite samples with 2% fiber (30 mm) with respect to the mortar mass. The sole
exception in which reduction in strain energy was observed for TM with combination of fiber length
and percentage of 5mm and 0.5%, respectively.
Whereas he highest drops in flexural strength of 69.3 % and 75.5 % and compressive strength
of 81.3% and 89.7 % have been observed for SM and TM composite samples, respectively, for speci-
mens with 2% fiber (5mm) used respect to the mortar mass.
While the presence of fibers has influenced in lowering the TC values, consequently enhancing
the insulating capacity of these specimens. The best performer in this category found to be SM with
1.5% fiber (5mm) used with respect to the mortar and TM with 2.0% fiber (5mm) used with respect to
the mortar, with reduction in TC value of 43.8% and 51.8%, respectively.
Interestingly, samples with 30 mm fiber length have demonstrated to have higher strain energy
i.e., longer fibers have greater capacity to dissipate energy (load), while samples with 5 mm fibers are
better insulators. Based on these findings and results, further research activities were also conducted on
masonry integrated retrofitting.
Acknowledgements
Flavio Stochino and Fernando Fraternali acknowledge the financial support of the Autonomous Region
of Sardinia under grant PO-FSE 2014–2020, CCI: 2014-IT05SFOP021, through the project “Retrofit-
ting, Rehabilitation and Requalification of the Historical Cultural Architectural Heritage (R3-PAS)”
and Italian Ministry of University and Research PRIN 2017 grant 2017J4EAYB, respectively.
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Numerical modelling of the bond behaviour between
b
uncracked concrete and deformed steel and fibre
reinforced polymer bars
if
Szabolcs Szinvai and Tamás Kovács
Department of Structural Engineering,
Műegyetem rkp. 3, Budapest 1111, Hungary
Abstract
Corrosion resistance, light weight and high tensile strength make fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) bars
a favourable alternative to steel bars, to improve the durability of concrete infrastructures.
The bond between concrete and reinforcement is a key factor in reinforced concrete. Considerable ex-
perience is available concerning bond between steel and concrete; on the contrary, bond behaviour of
FRP bars needs more understanding.
This paper aims to gain insight into the bond behaviour of glass FRP bars by using a numerical ap-
proach. Virtual tests of pull-out specimens in ATENA software were simulated by means of nonlinear
analyses.
In comparison to steel bars, the lower longitudinal stiffness of FRP bars resulted in significantly weak-
ened mechanical interlock due to the soft ribs on the FRP surface, while friction became more signifi-
cant in the bond resistance.
1 Introduction
A large portion of infrastructure repair costs is spent to address durability problems in concrete struc-
tures. The alkaline environment in concrete protects steel reinforcement from corrosion; however, the
carbonation over the years or relentless environmental attack will eventually lead to corrosion and con-
crete spalling. Therefore, attention has been drawn toward non-metallic reinforcement, which does not
suffer from electrolytic corrosion. This most often implies the use of fibre reinforced polymer (FRP)
bars. These composite bars are different from traditional civil engineering materials, hence there is need
to understand their unique properties.
For reinforced concrete, the interaction between concrete and reinforcement is crucial: adequate
bond ensures the composite action between them. Considerable experience is available concerning bond
on steel, but bond behaviour of FRP bars needs more understanding.
By gaining knowledge about the bond of FRP bars, we can calculate the bond strength and the
transfer length of FRP in a more refined way, which allows the optimisation of the anchorage-related
FRP reinforced zones, and helps extend the existing design formulas, leading to a more economical
design.
This paper aims to compare the bond behaviour of an indented glass fibre reinforced polymer
(GFRP) bar to a traditional deformed steel bar by means of numerical analysis. Virtual tests of pull-out
specimens in ATENA software were performed by nonlinear analysis. In terms of material and geo-
metrical parameters of the GFRP bar, the Schöck-produced Combar was considered [1]. Its surface is
formed by grinding into the hardened bar and will be referred to as “indented” in this paper. The ani-
sotropy of the GFRP bar was modelled with lower stiffness in the transverse direction compared to the
longitudinal direction.
For the steel bar, 500-grade steel with a deformed shape was considered and only the ribs being
nonparallel to the longitudinal axis were modelled. In the following, this geometry will be referred to
as “ribbed”. See more information in section 3.1.
To deeply analyze the effect of mechanical properties and surface characteristics on the bond be-
haviour, two additional fictitious models with identical geometry, but switched material (a ribbed GFRP
and an indented steel model) were also developed and analysed. Thus, in total four beam pull-out nu-
merical models were analysed in ATENA software. [1]
14 th
2 Bond behaviour of glass FRP bars
b
The bond behaviour of steel reinforcement is described extensively in fib Bulletin 10 [2]. The three
main bond components are: adhesion at zero slip, mechanical interlock, which provides most of the
resistance until the maximum load, and friction as the residual bond resistance. For plain surface bars,
the mechanical interlock cannot develop, thus only adhesion and friction remain
The equilibrium of a 𝑑𝑥 long section of the bar during a pull-out test is shown in Fig. 1, where σ𝑠
if
is the stress in the bar and τ𝑏 (𝑠) is the bond stress as function of relative slip 𝑠. The bond stress is
usually (for standardised bond tests e.g. in EN 10080 for reinforcing bars) considered as constant along
the embedded length and calculated according to (1) where τ𝑏 is the bond stress, 𝐹 is the pull-out force,
𝑑𝑏 is the bar diameter and 𝐿𝑏 is the embedded length.
𝐹
𝜏𝑏 = (𝜋 (1)
× 𝑑𝑏 × 𝐿𝑏 )
FRP bars with some type of surface deformation have similar bond mechanisms to those of deformed
steel bars, but because of the different mechanical behaviour and surface characteristics their bond
behaviour differs from that of traditional deformed steel bars. Regarding the mechanical behaviour,
steel is elasto-plastic and isotropic while GFRP is an elasto-brittle anisotropic material [3].
Fig. 1 Equilibrium of a 𝑑𝑥 length reinforcing bar [3].
The bond phenomenon and therefore also the GFRP bond behaviour is affected by many parameters.
Based on fib Bulletin 10 [3] and 40 [2], [4] the bond of straight GFRP bars depends on the following
parameters: shape of the bar cross-section, bar deformation, Young’s moduli in longitudinal and trans-
verse directions, transverse pressure, Poisson effect, bar position in the cross-section, wedging effect
(with artificial anchorage head), concrete cover, distance from adjacent parallel bars, coefficient of
thermal expansion, environmental influences, bar diameter, concrete strength and transverse reinforce-
ment.
The surface of the bar can have various configurations, unlike steel reinforcement, no standard
surface configuration has been set for FRP bars. Differences in surface characteristics may lead to dif-
ferent types of failure modes [5].
According to fib Bulletin 10 [2], the fibre type does not have a significant impact on bond strength;
the resin type, on the contrary, plays a significant role.
Experiments were performed to investigate the influence of rib parameters on the bond behaviour
of FRP bars by Zhang [6]. Compared to GFRP bars with shallow ribs (0.5 mm rib height), GFRP bars
with deep ribs (1.5 mm rib height) resulted in higher bond strength with concrete due to the more
dominant mechanical interlock.
Malvar [7] studied the bond behaviour of embedded FRP bars with different ribbed surfaces. The
test results showed that rib height of at least 6% of the diameter allows the development of reasonable
mechanical interlock.
To address this, fib Bulletin 10 [2] defines the relative rib area, α𝑠𝑏 by Eq. (2) where 𝐴𝑅 is the pro-
jected area of a single rib (often consisting of two lugs), 𝑑𝑏 is the bar diameter and 𝑠𝑅 is the rib spacing.
This formula was created for deformed steel bars, but it is applicable for FRP bars as well.
𝐴
α𝑠𝑏 = (π×𝑑 𝑅 ) (2)
𝑏 ×𝑠𝑅
Pull-out specimens were modelled by Kabir and Islam in ANSYS software [8]. The bar was mod-
elled as a 3D element with plain surface and perfect bond was considered between concrete and steel,
therefore the failure mechanism was formulated necessarily in concrete as a cracked zone enclosing the
bar. He used the stresses in the concrete and the bar for evaluation. Bond stress was taken identical to
“shear” stress in concrete occurring immediately next to the bar parallel to the bar axis. In this way,

ThisNumerical
modelling of the bond behaviour between uncracked concrete and deformed steel and fibre reinforced
polymer bars
they got a good picture of the stresses inside the concrete but the interface stresses could not be ana-
lysed, and many influencing effects were neglected.
b
Razazadeh modelled the bond behaviour of plain GFRP bars using ABAQUS [9], [10]. He used 3D
elements to model the reinforcement, and “cohesive” elements, which modelled the interface between
the concrete and the bar using the built-in functions of the software. His numerical results matched well
the experimental results.
if
Akishin performed similar analyses in ANSYS [11]. He investigated plain FRP bars with two or
four longitudinal ribs and without longitudinal ribs. He also used 3D elements and modelled the inter-
action with friction interface between the FRP bar and the concrete. The failure here also happened by
the failure of the interface element as in Razazadeh’s models.
3 Numerical models
The numerical models presented in the following were developed by means of the GiD preprocessing
tool. The nonlinear finite element analyses were then performed by ATENA Studio. Both material and
geometrical nonlinearity was taken into consideration. The displacement-controlled loading rate was
taken as 0.001 mm/load step.
3.1 Geometry and interface modelling

The geometry of the specimen was created according to the standard beam pull-out test introduced in
EN 10080 [12] as shown in Fig. 2. As the layout is symmetrical, only half of the setup was modelled.
Fig. 2 Beam pull-out experiment setup based on RILEM RC5 - EN 10080 [12]
Two 8 mm nominal diameter bars were examined. The first one is a traditional ribbed steel bar. Its
parameters were defined to match an ordinary European reinforcing steel rebar conforming to EN
10080. Only the ribs being not parallel to the bar axis were modelled. The second one is an indented
GFRP bar by Schöck (Combar) [1]. This composite bar is manufactured with pultrusion. The surface
is formed by grinding into the hardened bar. The inner core diameter is 8 mm and the outer core one is
9 mm. This results in a ribbed-like surface characteristic. The rib height meets Malvar’s criteria [7].
The summarised geometrical properties of the bars are shown in Table 1. The relative projected rib
areas were calculated according to (2).
Table 1 Surface properties of the tested bars
Relative
Nominal Rib Rib Rib Ring
projected
Bar diameter spacing height angle inclination
rib area
d [mm] c [mm] h [mm] α [°] β [°] α𝑠𝑏 [-]

Deformed (ribbed)
8.0 6.0 0.8 60.0 60.0 0.085
reinforcing steel
Indented GFRP 8.0 10.5 0.5 20.0 50.0 0.051
14th
The usual way to model similar configurations is to use the built-in 1D Reinforcement elements, which
are embedded in concrete either perfectly (with full bond i.e. zero relative slip), or with a predefined
b
bond law. This is an easy and efficient process, however, it has some shortcomings.
The stress distribution and therefore the crack pattern in concrete around the embedded bar consid-
erably differ from the reality. The transverse microcracks develop more prominently while the longitu-
dinal (splitting) cracks remain less significant. The key point is that the inclined rib surfaces activate
if
mechanical interlock that results in significant hoop (peripheral) stresses. This makes it different from
Rezazadeh’s and Akishin’s model.
A built-in 1D Reinforcement bar behaves like a plain surface bar and the bond stress associated
with a fictitious bond interface is simply calculated according to the applied bond law completely mask-
ing the mechanical interlock-activated local stress distribution on the interface and in the close vicinity
of the ribbed bar, as well as the Poisson effect due to the transverse deformation of the bar during
loading.
In this project, we modelled the bars with 3D elements similar to Kabir and Islam's work [8] but
defined more sophisticated connections between the bar surfaces and the concrete.
Fig. 3 3D geometry of the specimen (left), 3D geometry of the ribbed steel bar (top right) and 3D
geometry of the indented GFRP bar (bottom right)
The 3D geometry of the whole specimen and the tested bar surfaces can be seen in Fig. 3. The bars are
embedded in the middle of the concrete element, in 80 mm length (10 × 𝑑). When connecting the bars
to the concrete we separated the interface into “tangential” and “normal” surfaces and defined different
connection types accordingly.
On the tangential surfaces, which are parallel to the pull-out force, the governing bond mechanisms
are the adhesion and the friction. Here the force transfer was defined with contact volume elements,
which model the interface between the bar and concrete, similarly to Rezazadeh’s and Akishin’s models
[9]–[11]. Here relative displacement parallel and perpendicular to the surface of the bar is allowed. The
resistance is a function of the relative displacement.
The normal surfaces include the rib faces which activate the mechanical interlock. However, dis-
tinction has been made between compressed and tensioned contacts. Rib faces tending in direction
opposite to the pull-out force were neglected assuming that they contribute to the bond resistance only
to a small extent (with adhesion).
Rib faces tending towards the pull-out force and consequently moving against the concrete keys
were connected using fixed contacts, because only compression occurs over these surfaces. These con-
tacts do not allow any relative displacement in any direction.
The bond behaviour is dependent on the surface characteristics, the interface material and the con-
crete material properties. Furthermore, it allowed us to separate the bond resistance into components
(adhesion, mechanical interlock, friction) by switching on or off the relevant contacts. This made it
possible to calibrate the resistance for each effect separately.
3.2 Material parameters

The material parameters of the tested bars are summarised in Table 2. For steel bars, Von Mises plas-
ticity model was used, but the experiment was intentionally set so that the pull-out failure happened
before the bar yielded, thus the model of steel bar was linear elastic and isotropic.
The GFRP bar was modelled using the Combined material model of ATENA. The matrix was
modelled as a linear elastic, isotropic material with smeared, unidirectional (longitudinal) fibre
ThisNumerical
polymer bars
reinforcement. It results in a linear elastic transversely isotropic GFRP bar material. The tensile strength
column in the table refers to the characteristic value of the short-term tensile strength.
b
Table 2 Material properties of the tested bars
if
Longitudinal Transverse
Tensile Ultimate Poisson ratio
Young’s Young’s
Bar strength elongation (Longitudinal)
modulus modulus
[GPa] [GPa] [MPa] [%] [-]
B500B 200 200 540 5.00 0.30

GFRP 60 6 1500 2.50 0.33
The concrete material parameters were generated according to the Eurocode 2 [13], assuming C20/25
class concrete. This strength class was chosen to keep the expected pull-out resistance under the yield-
ing of the steel bar. The material model includes the nonlinear behaviour in compression. The fracture
in tension is based on nonlinear fracture mechanics and a biaxial strength failure criterion is used ac-
cording to Kupfer [14], [15].
The model is based on the smeared cracks approach with the fixed crack model. The cracked con-
crete finite element is considered to be orthotropic.
The contact volume elements also have their own material properties (interface material) based on
the Mohr-Coulomb criterion with tension cut off [14]. The parameters influencing the tangential be-
haviour are: the tangential stiffness, cohesion, friction coefficient and the minimal (residual) tangential
stiffness. These parameters were defined, so that the resistance that comes from them matches the ad-
hesion and friction values according to fib Model Code 2010 [16], for this type of reinforcement.
3.3 Validation
In combining two different bar surfaces and two bar materials, four numerical models have been devel-
oped: ribbed steel, indented GFRP, ribbed GFRP, indented steel. The parameters of the ribbed steel
model were first calibrated to the relevant fib Model Code 2010 [16] curve and then applied identically
to all other models. This included mostly the calibration of the contact element properties.
First, the mesh size (set to an average of 5 mm) and the “minimal crack spacing” concrete parameter
(also set to 5 mm) had to be taken to harmonize the aggregate size with the dimensions of concrete keys
between bar ribs then the critical compressive displacement (where maximum compressive strength
occurs) was limited accordingly. The mesh gets finer near the ribs.
Following the above basic settings, first the tangential parameters (associated with adhesion and
friction and representing the low bond stress region of the τ𝑏 -s curve) then the concrete parameters
(associated with mechanical interlock and representing the high bond stress region) were set to make a
coincidence of the calculated τ𝑏 -s curve with the relevant fib curve. The result can be seen in Fig.
4(left). The descending branch was not modelled, because the concrete material model could not cap-
ture the full shear failure of the concrete keys adequately. This needs further investigation, but is out of
scope for this paper.
Further calibration based on laboratory tests would result in more realistic, numerically derived τ𝑏 -
s curve; however the goal was set here to develop a realistic bond model by which the effects of surface
geometry and bar material on bond behaviour can be analyzed numerically.
4 Results
The results of the four numerical models are summarised in Fig 4 – Fig. 6. The basis of evaluation is
the bond stress (τ𝑏 ) and slip (𝑠) values. In Fig. 5 the τ𝑏 values were calculated according to (1) while
the slip values were measured at the free (unloaded) end of the bar (in accordance with the standard test
in Fig 2).
In Fig. 5 however, the slip values were gained as the difference between bar displacement and
concrete displacement determined at individual points (finite elements) along the embedded length.
14th
The associated bond stress was calculated based on the longitudinal equilibrium of the dx long bar
section as illustrated in Fig. 1, assuming constant τ𝑏 along the dx length. The main advantage of the
b
numerical model is that data can be extracted from any section of the embedded length, which is im-
possible for laboratory tests. By choosing dx to appropriately small (a few millimetres), localised bond
phenomenons can also be investigated.
As shown in Fig. 4 (right), the steel bar with ribbed surface produced the highest bond stress (close
if
to 12 MPa) while the GFRP bar with indented surface reached maximum bond stress around 9 MPa,
which is close to 8 MPa given by Schöck for 12 mm diameter straight bars [1], [17] (the maximum
bond stress is inversely proportional to the GFRP bar diameter [5] [11]).
Fig. 4 show that they have similar bond stiffness in the ascending branch. This phenomenon is also
supported by a similar crack pattern developing at about the same pull-out force as shown in Fig. 6
(note that the associated load-displacement is different). Even at small displacements, microcracks form
along the whole embedded length. These are mostly transverse cracks.
Fig. 4 τ𝑏 - 𝑠 curve of calibrated ribbed steel 3D finite element model compared to fib Model Code
2010 (left), τ𝑏 - 𝑠 curves of numerical models (right).
Fig. 5 Slip values along the embedded length at 6 kN pull-out force (left), τ𝑏 - 𝑠 curves at dx =
6mm (ribbed) and dx=10.5mm (indented) (right)

ThisNumerical
polymer bars
Resulting from the lower material stiffness there is a major difference in their behaviour. Calculating
the area under the curves in Fig. 4(right), results in 19.33 N for the ribbed steel and 29.10 N for the
b
indented GFRP. This justifies that before the bond stress starts to decrease (descending branch) the
bond behaviour of indented GFRP is more ductile and the yielding plateau is quite longer than for
ribbed steel.
The typical bond phases of ribbed steel bars are well known [2]: immediately after the adhesion
if
breaks at the first slip, the mechanical interlock is followed by micro-cracking and micro-crushing
around the steel ribs, providing the resistance until the concrete keys start to shear off along the de-
scending branch of the curve resulting in pure friction, considered as residual resistance.
In the case of the indented GFRP however, the rib width is much larger associated with short con-
crete keys spaced far away from each other along the bar. Therefore, the effect of mechanical interlock
in the bond resistance remains smaller, while that of friction is more pronounced compared to ribbed
steel.
Fig. 6 Crack pattern of steel ribbed model at 0.25 mm load displacement (left), crack pattern of
GFRP indented model at 0.83 mm load displacement (right) - 6 kN pull-out force
In Fig. 5(right) the bond-stress curves for the first 6 mm long part (including the first rib) for the ribbed
and the 10.5 mm long part (including the first rib) for the indented surface bars have been compiled as
described in the introduction to Sec. 4. It shows the shearing off of the first concrete key.
As shown for the indented GFRP, the first rib behaves like a plain bar with negligible mechanical
interlock. At high bar forces the bond effectiveness of this section further decreases because of the
Poisson effect, which decreases the bar diameter and thus makes relative displacements easier to occur.
In fictitious ribbed GFRP and indented steel configurations, as shown in Fig. 4, the ribbed GFRP
and indented steel combinations reached much lower maximum bond stress (around 5 MPa) along the
standard embedded length than the ordinary ribbed steel and indented GFRP products. Meanwhile,
indented steel showed more ductility than ribbed GFRP. Fig. 5(left) shows high slip at the beginning
of the embedded length for the ribbed GFRP, because of the low transverse stiffness.
When combining the stiffer steel with indented geometry, very high initial stiffness occurs but, as
shown in Fig. 5(right), the shear failure of the surrounding concrete keys leads to a rapid decrease in
bond stress and, consequently, a low pull-out resistance. Although the failure mechanism is quite long
similarly to the indented GFRP, however, this is associated with radically decreasing (degrading) bond
stress which is opposite to the indented GFRP.
In Fig. 5(left) for the models with the GFRP material, the slip values are concentrated more on the
loaded side compared to models with steel bars. This is the result of the lower stiffness of the GFRP
bars.
5 Conclusions
A detailed three-dimensional nonlinear finite element modelling has been developed for the analysis of
a standard beam pull-out test.
A novel approach in modelling was the identification and the separation of the tangential and the normal
components of the bond resistance. As a result, the model could be calibrated to the fib Model Code
2010 bond-slip law for ribbed steel bars, by selecting the associated material parameters accordingly.
Using this 3D model, bond stress and slip values and, consequently, the bond stress – slip relation-
ship could be determined locally at any section along the embedded length of the bar and the failure
mode could also be monitored closely. This helps deeply understanding the bond behaviour of new
materials.

14th
Four models have been developed with identical model parameters. The differences were the bar
surface geometry, either indented or deformed (ribbed), and the bar material, either steel or GFRP. All
b
four combinations were tested.
The comparison of results from ribbed steel and indented GFRP tests showed how bond mechanism
changes when a less stiff material (GFRP) is introduced with appropriately strengthened surface prop-
erties. Under the pull-out load, their bond stiffnesses were similar, but ribbed steel reached a higher
if
bond strength. This was explained by the fact, that the wide ribs take more space from the GFRP surface
which makes the concrete keys weaker, thus the mechanical interlock of the GFRP surface remains less
effective.
Because ultimately the maximum bond stress is dominantly governed by mechanical interlock,
therefore a balance has to be maintained between the size of the ribs and the size of the concrete keys.
In the case of the indented GFRP, the effect of mechanical interlock was reduced, while friction became
more dominant.
Moreover, the fictitious experiment of indented steel and ribbed GFRP showed how the bond per-
formance suffers from an inadequate geometrical design of the bar surface. Another aspect is that the
surface parameters made by deforming a reinforcing bar are material- and technology-dependent.
To keep the composite action between concrete and GFRP as effective as for usual ordinary rein-
forced concrete structures, the design of GFRP bar surface has to be prioritised.
References
[1] Schöck. Apr. 2015.“Technical Information of Schöck Combar”
[2] Fib. 2000. “Bond of reinforcement in concrete,” Bulletin no. 10.
[3] Sólyom, Sándor. 2020. “Bond Behaviour of FRP Bars: Influence of bar surface, entrained air
and high temperatures.” PhD diss., Budapest University of Technology and Economics.
[4] Fib. 2007. “FRP reinforcement in RC structures,” Bulletin no. 40.
[5] Sólyom, Sándor, and Balázs, L. György, and Borosnyói, Adorján. Apr. 2015.“Bond behaviour
of FRP rebars – parameter study,”
[6] Zhang, P. 2021. “Influence of rib parameters on mechanical properties and bond behavior in
concrete of fiber-reinforced polymer rebar,” Advances in Structural Engineering 24.1:196-208.
[7] Malvar, L. J., and Cox, J, and Cochran, K. B.. 2003. “Bond between Carbon Fiber Reinforced
Polymer Bars and Concrete. I: Experimental Study,” Journal of Composites for Construction
7.2:154–163.
[8] Kabir, M., and Islam, M.. 2014. “Bond stress behavior between concrete and steel rebar: Critical
investigation of pull-out test via Finite Element Modeling,” International Journal of Civil and
Structural Engineering 5:80–90
[9] Rezazadeh, M., and Carvelli, V.. 2018. “A damage model for high-cycle fatigue behavior of
bond between FRP bar and concrete,” International Journal of Fatigue 111:101–111.
[10] Rezazadeh, M., and Carvelli, V., and Veljkovic, A.. 2017 “Modelling bond of GFRP rebar and
concrete,” Construction and Building Materials 153:102–116.
[11] Akishin, P., and Kovalovs, A., and Kulakov, V., and Arnautov, A.. 2014 “Finite element mod-
elling of slipage between FRP rebar and concrete in pull-out test,” Proceedings oft he Interna-
tional Conference Innovative Materials, Structures and Technologies, May.
[12] EN. 2005. “Steel for the reinforcement of concrete - Weldable reinforcing steel - General,” no.
10080.
[13] E. C. for Standardization. 2005. “EN 1992-1-1 Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures - Part
1-1: General ruels and rules for buildings”
[14] Cervenka, V., and Jendele, L., and Cervenka, J.. 2015 “Atena Program Documentation, Part 1,
Theory,” Cervenka Consulting
[15] Kupfer, H., and Hilsdorf, K. H., and Rüsch, H.. 1969. “Behaviour of Concrete under Biaxial
Stress,” Journal ACI, 66.8.
[16] Fib. 2013. “fib Model Code for Concrete Structures 2010.”
[17] Szczech, D., and Kotynia, R..2018. “Beam bond tests of GFRP and steel reinforcement to con-
crete,” Archives of Civil Engineering, 64.4.

Quantification of Concrete-Concrete Interface Strength
b
– A Review
Shozab Mustafa, Erik Schlangen and Mladena Luković
if
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences,
Stevinweg 1, 2628 CN Delft, Netherlands
Abstract
The construction industry is experiencing a significant increase in hybrid concrete structures due to the
need for repairing/strengthening of existing structures and the development of novel hybrid structures.
The crack development and the ultimate capacity of hybrid concrete structures may significantly be
governed by the properties of interface between the two concretes, making the quantification of inter-
face properties essential. A large number of bond tests have been reported in literature but most of them
do not result in a failure directly/entirely at the interface (unless the interface is very weak), resulting
in only a lower bound estimate of the interfacial strength. Furthermore, the reported interfacial proper-
ties are only determined from small-scale bond tests where structural effects (like shrinkage) are limit-
edly taken into account. In the current study, the most commonly used bond tests are critically assessed
in terms of the stress distribution caused by their inherent boundary conditions. Furthermore a testing
procedure is then discussed which can allow for the quantification of the interfacial properties. A pos-
sible structural test is also designed which forces the failure to localize at the interface and allows to
determine interface properties considering structural effects.
1 Introduction
In recent decades, the construction industry has seen a significant increase in the types of novel con-
cretes like Strain Hardening Cementitious Composites (SHCC) and Ultra High Performance Fiber Re-
inforced Concrete (UHPFRC). These concretes are attractive for application in construction industry
due to their superior ductility and higher tensile and compressive strength when compared to conven-
tional concrete. However, these fiber-reinforced concretes are more expensive compared to conven-
tional concrete due to the fibers incorporated in the cement matrix and finer particle packing (consisting
of more binder and finer grades of sand/aggregates). An optimal solution is to use these expensive
concretes only in the critical locations of the structures – e.g. the zone/area with high tensile stresses.
Ageing and deteriorating reinforced concrete structures also demand repair and maintenance. Some
structures might need to be strengthened to sustain increased design loads (like the increasing traffic
loads). In such cases, existing reinforced concrete structures are repaired/strengthened by adding a new
layer of concrete on top of the existing concrete. In all such applications (new hybrid constructions or
repair/strengthening of existing infrastructures), the combined response of the hybrid structural member
might be significantly influenced by the properties of the interface under service and ultimate loads.
Therefore, an appropriate estimation of the interface bond strength is essential for successful design of
hybrid structures.
Current design codes provide limited information on the quantification of the interfacial strength
between the two concretes, mostly relying on ensuring a minimum roughness of the interface or a min-
imum tensile strength. For example, fib model code [1] categorizes interface based on peak-to-mean
roughness (Rt) as very smooth (immeasurable Rt), smooth (Rt < 1.5 mm), rough (Rt ≥ 1.5 mm) and very
rough (Rt ≥ 3 mm) while the Eurocode [2] distinguishes between the strength of very smooth (cast
against steel/wood), smooth (slip-formed or free surface), rough (3 mm roughness with 40 mm spacing)
and indented (5 mm roughness with less than 50 mm spacing) interfaces. Such classifications are quite
broad; hence the suggested strength parameters are extremely conservative. A more detailed approach
to analyze hybrid structures can be to simulate the behaviour of concrete-concrete interface using finite
element or discrete element models. However, due to lack of experimental information on the behaviour
of concrete-concrete interface under combined loading (like tension and shear), such efforts also in-
volve conservative assumptions or calibration of interface properties [2],[3].
14 th
There are several bond strength tests suggested in the literature [4]–[6], also discussed later in the
paper, to determine the strength of the interface. Most of these tests cause different stress-state at the
b
interface due to their inherent boundary conditions, thus resulting in a different measured bond strength.
Currently there is no consensus on the most suitable bond test and the testing procedure is recommended
to be selected based on the expected stress-state of the interface in the real structure – making the choice
subjective and user dependent.
if
This paper briefly discusses the factors affecting interface behaviour, critically reviews the existing
bond strength tests in terms of the boundary conditions and the stress-state at the interface and proposes
a multi-scale approach for quantification of interfacial properties.
2 Factors Affecting Interface Strength

Once the new (overlay) concrete is cast against the hardened existing (substrate) concrete, the interface
starts to develop within the freshly cast overlay; therefore, the interface is also referred to as Overlay
Transition Zone [8]. The strength of this interface depends on several parameters which are important
to consider while designing the interface. The most important parameters and their influence on the
bond strength are briefly discussed in this section.
The hardening overlay concrete forms a chemical and physical bond between the substrate and the
overlay. Therefore, the chemical composition and mechanical strength of both the concretes affect the
adhesion strength of the interface [7]. A direct correlation between the strength of overlay and the
strength of interface has been reported in several studies [8]–[10]. The moisture condition of the sub-
strate before the overlay is cast has also been studied by various researchers and varying accounts are
found on the subject. Some authors report a saturated surface dry condition to result in the highest bond
strength [12] while others report no effect of the moisture condition [8]. A distinction between the effect
of moisture condition on the tensile and the shear strength of the interface is also reported where, a
saturated surface dry condition results in higher tensile strength, while a dry substrate results in higher
shear strength [13]. Substrate surface roughness is reported to be the most significant parameter affect-
ing the interface strength and significant research has been reported on the subject [6],[10]. However,
most of the authors (and codes) only refer to the average roughness of the interface which is highly
criticized due to its inability to capture significant changes in the interface roughness profile [13]–[15].
Some aggressive procedure, like jackhammering, are also reported to induce micro cracks in the sub-
strate concrete which are detrimental to the interface bond strength [16]. The dependence only on the
mean roughness of the interface together with the use of such an aggressive technique could thus lead
to inappropriate design of the interface. The curing condition of the composite also influences the ef-
fective strength of the interface since the interface can be pre-damaged due to the differential shrinkage
of the two concretes [16]–[18]. This effect might be even more critical for novel materials which have
larger shrinkage than conventional concrete. Furthermore, the shrinkage effects are more pronounced
in actual structures than in the bond test. The bond tests alone do not provide the necessary conditions
to study the effect of differential shrinkage, which is also a size dependent phenomena. The use of
bonding agent at the interface before casting the overlay concrete also significantly influences the in-
terface bond strength [20]. This results in more than one interface to develop and thus is even more
complex to investigate. In some applications, steel reinforcement crossing the interface is also applied
which increases the shear transfer ability of the interface due to the dowel action of the rebar [21]. In
practice, most of the interfaces are reinforced due to their brittleness, as well as lack of knowledge and
confidence in unreinforced concrete-concrete interfaces.
3 Bond Strength Tests

Several bond strength tests have been reported in literature [4]–[6] which can be used to quantify the
tensile, shear, tensile-shear or compression-shear strength of the interface. The tests can be broadly
divided in direct and indirect tests. The aim of the direct tests is to produce a homogenous stress state
at the interface either in shear or in tension. The indirect test methods assume/calculate the stress dis-
tribution at the interface and use analytical expressions or inverse analyses to derive the bond strength.
It is important to mention that for appropriate quantification of the interfacial bond parameters, the
bond test should result in a failure directly and entirely at the interface, otherwise only a lower bound
estimate of the bond strength is obtained. The interfacial properties are also reported to be size-depend-
ent so the same geometry of the specimen is essential when comparing the results under varying stress-
630 Composite Structures

states or when studying the effect of the parameters discussed in Section 2, including the rebar crossing
the interface. To simulate the interface, the tension-softening and the shear-slip response of the interface
b
is essential; hence the bond test should also be stable after the peak load. Although the influence of
differential shrinkage in bond tests is limited, it can damage or pre-load the interface which should be
avoided. Thus, an ideal bond test would:
▪ enable the failure to be directly and entirely at the interface;
if
▪ allow to develop compression-shear and tension-shear stresses on the same specimen geome-
try;
▪ allow to capture post-peak response of the interface in tension, shear and combined loading;
▪ have limited influence from structural phenomena like shrinkage;
▪ allow to measure the strength of reinforced interfaces.
The most commonly used testing procedures are critically assessed in this paper with a distinction be-
tween tensile, shear and combined tests (interface loaded perpendicular and parallel to its plane).
3.1 Tensile Bond Tests

The most popular tensile bond strength tests are schematically drawn in Fig. 1. The direct tension tests
are characterized by an applied load perpendicular to the interface while the indirect tension tests have
the applied load parallel to the interface.
Due to its simplicity and the possibility for in-situ testing, the most widely used tensile test is the
pull-off test (a in Fig. 1) [21]–[23]. During testing, a core is drilled at least 10 mm [23] (preferably
25 mm or half the diameter of the drilled core [22]) below the interface position and a tensile force is
then applied on the drilled core. The major advantage of the test consists in the possibility of in-situ
testing, where the interface is tested in real situation, and ease of application. Although it is easy to
perform and has been adopted as one of the standard tests for the interfacial tensile strength, the test
shows a large scatter in results because even small eccentricities in loading induce bending stresses at
the interface. Furthermore, the damage caused during the drilling operation and the depth of the drilling
also influences the obtained results [22] and the failure is rarely at the interface. A more uniform tensile
stress can be developed at the interface using the direct tension test [25] (b in Fig. 1). This test is also
susceptible to the errors caused by eccentric loading, but these are generally well-controlled in stiff
laboratory setups with no hinges when compared to pull-off tests. Nonetheless, even for this test the
failure is not always at the interface giving only a lower bound interfacial tensile strength [26].
All the indirect tension tests (c-e in Fig. 1) apply the load parallel to the interface and are adopted
from the splitting test of monolithic concrete [27]. In all such tests the stress distribution is not uniform
at the interface but the results have less scatter compared to direct methods due to relatively well-con-
trolled boundary conditions. These tests can also be used to capture the post-peak behavior of the inter-
face which can be used for quantification of fracture energy [28]–[31], necessary for simulating the
interface. However, these tests are hard to use with rough interface profiles due to high local stress
concentrations and they only allow the quantification of the interface strength under tensile loads.
Fig. 1 Most popular direct and indirect tensile bond tests for concrete-concrete interface.
3.2 Shear Bond Tests

The most commonly used bond tests for direct estimation of the interfacial shear strength assuming a
theoretically pure shear loading on the interface are shown in Fig. 2. The major limitation of almost all
the direct shear tests is the existence of bending moment at the interface during loading: this makes it
difficult to have a direct measure of the shear strength. Still, for most of the direct shear tests, an as-
sumption of pure shear at the interface is commonly made to calculate the interface shear strength.
The torsional shear test (a in Fig. 2) is similar to the pull-off tension test but instead of loading the
drilled core in tension, a torque is applied. This method was suggested by Silfwerbrand [32] to measure
Shozab Mustafa, Erik Schlangen and Mladena Luković 631
14th
the in-situ shear strength of concrete-concrete interfaces. However, this method rarely results in an
interface failure thus only a lower bound estimate of the interface shear strength can be obtained. The
b
push-through and double guillotine (b and g in Fig. 2) are designed so that there is theoretically pure
shear at the interface due to symmetric loading but due to the presence of two interfaces, the behaviour
of one interface is dependent on the fracture/performance of the other. This condition is even more
complex to analyze, making the test impractical. The direct shear test (c in Fig. 2) represents the most
if
simple approach to load the interface in shear but due to the eccentricity between the two loads, a
bending moment is applied on the interface leading to premature failure and underestimation of the
interface shear strength. The bi-surface shear test [33] (d is Fig. 2) has also been a popular choice
because it is easy to cast and test in the laboratory and causes predominantly shear stresses at the inter-
face. However, after the attainment of the peak strength the tests becomes unstable. The Guillotine tests
(e, f and g in Fig. 2) load the interface predominantly with shear stresses but they are hard to control
in the laboratory due to complex adjustment of the forces. Furthermore, after the initiation of failure
they become unstable due to the loading scheme and self-weight of the specimen and do not allow to
capture the post-peak response. Among direct shear tests, the push-off test has been most extensively
used due to limited influence of bending moment and direct computation of the shear strength. Although
casting is somewhat challenging, the testing method has been widely used with [34]–[36] and without
[37] reinforcement in the L-shapes of substrate and overlay concretes. A new shear strength test is also
suggested in efforts to capture the post-peak behaviour of the interface under shear loads [38] (i in Fig.
2). This tests can be used with tensile or compressive loads and can results in a relatively stable interface
failure, but due to the presence of four interfaces in the sample, it represents a complex system.
Fig. 2 Shear bond tests without normal stresses for concrete-concrete interface.
3.3 Combined Shear and Normal Stress Tests

Along with the tests that aim at producing pure tension or pure shear at the interface, some tests (shown
in Fig. 3) are designed to cause combined normal and shear stresses at the interface to represent more
realistic loading situations. The direct compression shear test (a in Fig. 3) is easy to perform in the
laboratory and can be used to quantify the shear strength of the interface for varying normal stresses.
However, the eccentricity between the loads makes this test suffer from the same limitations as the
direct shear test. The most popular among the combined test is the slant shear test (b and c in Fig. 3)
which is adopted from the test of epoxy-resins on concrete [39]. The suggested specimen in the standard
[39] has a cylindrical shape and an angle of 60o with the horizontal plane. This geometry is reported to
suffer from the chipping failure at the sharp corners in substrate and overlay around the interface leading
to large scatter in experimental data. Furthermore, due to the fixed angle of the interface, only one
combination of shear-normal stresses is obtained. This stress-state allows the failure to localize at weak
interfaces, but for stronger interfaces a mixed or cohesive failure has been reported. Over the years,
several modifications to this geometry have been suggested to reduce the scatter in the results and to

ensure the failure at the interface, including casting of prisms [11], reinforcing the substrate and overlay
[40] and varying the angle of the interface [28],[41],[42]. The slant shear test is generally performed
b
under compression causing compression-shear at the interface and due to the high strength under this
combination of stresses, the test becomes unstable after peak load.
Although limited, tensile slant shear tests are also reported in literature [28],[42] for varying angle
of the interface with some modifications to the geometry, as discussed later in the paper. For all the
if
bond tests, it is normally assumed that the effects of differential shrinkage can be ignored due to the
small size of the specimen, but an inverse correlation between the total free shrinkage and the slant
shear strength of the interface is also reported [19]. Furthermore, the stress distribution at the interface
is non-uniform due to the difference in the moduli of the two concretes [43]. Recently, a double-edge
notch test (d in Fig. 3) has also been suggested for the shear strength quantification of the concrete-
concrete interface [44]. The authors used Digital Image Correlation (DIC) and finite element modelling
to verify that the interface failed predominantly in shear due to the boundary conditions of the new
testing method. However, due to the indirect loading of the interface, such tests would always be in-
fluenced by the stresses caused by the restrained deformation of one of the two concretes making the
results harder to analyses.
Fig. 3 Combined test with shear and normal stresses at the interface.
4 Proposed Multi-scale Approach with Modified Bond and Structural Test for
Interface Characterization
Given the varying response of the interface under different stress conditions and the limited influence
of shrinkage in bond tests, a multi-scale approach with varying stress-state at the interface is proposed
for proper characterization of interfacial response. Wagner [29] suggested casting and testing modifi-
cations to the slant shear specimen. Although difficult to control in the lab, the modified tests fulfill
almost all the requirements for an ideal interface bond test. The testing procedure includes casting slant
shear specimens with varying angles of the interface as shown in Fig. 4, where the angle of 0° repre-
sents a direct tension test and the angle of 90° represents the push-off test. The presence of notches in
the test with 0° reduces the area of the bonded region encouraging an interfacial failure. Similarly, the
notches in the samples with varying angles can be adjusted such that the interface experiences the high-
est stresses while keeping the total area of the interface same in all the tests, avoiding any influence of
the size effect. The notches in the specimen are made using a saw after hardening of the overlay concrete
and just before testing. This not only protects the interface from the wall effects but also relieve the
region of interest from the stresses caused by differential shrinkage, which are highest at the edges.
These specimens can be tested in both compression and tension allowing a compression-shear and ten-
sion-shear test on the same geometry. However, compression test on the samples with an angle of less
than 60° would most probably exhibit a cohesive failure governed by the crushing of the weaker con-
crete, and thus is trivial to perform. The push-off type specimen (angle of 90°) can also be fitted with
reinforcement crossing the interface to investigate the dowel action.
Fig. 4 Modified slant-shear test with varying interface angle.

14 th
The specimens shown in Fig. 4 can be used to capture the post-peak behavior of the interface when
tested in tension. Fig. 5 (left) and 5 (centre) show one of the samples tested by Wagner along with load
b
opening response of the samples with 75° and 90° of angle. The results show variations between the
top and bottom notch, signifying the non-uniformity of stresses at the interface. Therefore, this non-
uniformity of stresses has to be taken into account while performing the inverse analysis to determine
the tension-softening and shear-slip response of the interface. However, since interface opening and
if
interface slip were measured only at two positions (around upper notch and lower notch) using two sets
of Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDTs), conclusive results could not be obtained in the
study [29]. Using a photogrammetric technique like DIC would provide a better opportunity for a suc-
cessful inverse analysis since it captures the full-field deformations of the sample. Therefore, an exper-
imental series on modified slant-shear tests with DIC is currently being conducted by the authors. The
principal strain field for a specimen with an angle of 75° and the corresponding interface slip obtained
from DIC are shown in Fig. 5 (right). The interface slip is calculated using the open source code for
Automated Crack Detection and Measurement (ACDM) [45].
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 5 (left) Testing and measurement procedure used by Wagner. (centre) Results of 75° and 90°
angle of the interface from [28] and (right) DIC results of a 75° specimen showing interface
slip with increasing deformation.
The properties of the interface are also reported to be size-dependent [11] and there is limited evidence
to support that the properties of interface determined from the bond tests can directly be used for pre-
dicting the behavior of interface in structures. In efforts to fill this knowledge gap, a structural test that
encourages the failure to localize at the interface is shown in Fig. 6 [46]. The boundary and loading
conditions of the suggested structural test enables that the environmental and mechanical loading cause
maximum stresses at the same location (at the central notch), encouraging the failure to localize at the
interface and allowing to study the damage caused by shrinkage. These structural tests are also being
conducted by the authors in line with the suggested multi-scale approach to characterize the interface.
Fig. 6 Structural test for investigating the interface strength including the effect of differential
deformations of the two concretes.
To determine the interfacial model parameters for the design/analysis of hybrid structures, an approach
based on combined bond and structural tests should be used, where both the tests encourage the failure
to localize at the interface.
5 Conclusions
Appropriate quantification of the interfacial model parameters is essential for design of hybrid struc-
tures. Several bond tests are available for testing the interface in tension, shear and combined loading.
However, the results vary significantly from one test to another due to different stress states at the
interface caused by the inherent boundary conditions of the bond tests. Currently, there is no consensus
on the most suitable test method and varying opinions are found in literature. An ideal bond test would
allow the failure to localize directly/entirely at the interface and allow to study the effect of varying the
combination of stresses (tension-shear and compression-shear) at the interface while being stable after
b
the peak strength so the post-peak response can also be captured. In addition, due to size effect and the
differential shrinkage between two concretes it is essential to quantify the role of shrinkage in tests for
interfacial strength quantification. A multi-scale approach using a series of modified slant-shear test
coupled with a structural test using full-field measurement is discussed to be promising in getting a
if
deeper insight into the interfacial model parameters.
Acknowledgements
Financial support by the Dutch Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) for the project 16814,
“Optimization of interface behaviour for innovative hybrid concrete structures” is gratefully acknowl-
edged by the authors.
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Comparing optimization methods for Finite Element
b
model updating of a reinforced concrete structure
Ilenia Rosati1, Carlo Rainieri2 and Giovanni Fabbrocino1
if
1 Di.B.T Dept.,
University of Molise,
Via F. De Sanctis, 86100 Campobasso, Italy
2 Construction Technologies Institute,

National Research Council of Italy,
Corso N. Protopisani, 80146 Naples, Italy
Abstract
Different local as well as global optimization procedures can be applied to calibration of numerical
models of structures based on experimental data. Gradient-based procedures, on one hand, and evolu-
tionary algorithms, on the other hand, show different performance in terms of accuracy and computa-
tional efforts. The present paper reports a comparative assessment of different local as well as global
optimization procedures when applied to Finite Element (FE) model updating of a reinforced concrete
structure based on the results of Operational Modal Analysis tests. In particular, the FE model of the
structure has been refined by minimizing the scatter between the experimental and numerical modal
properties. The Douglas-Reid method has been applied for model updating in combination with differ-
ent gradient-based as well as global optimization procedures in order to evaluate how the choice of the
optimization procedure might influence the results; moreover, model updating results are compared and
discussed in order to assess their physical significance and the opportunities of model updating for the
indirect, non-destructive evaluation of structural properties of existing structures in operational condi-
tions.
1 Introduction
Finite Element (FE) model updating has attracted significant research interest in civil engineering since
it allows the indirect estimation of uncertain modelling parameters for existing structures. This aspect
is particularly appealing in the case of historical structures, when the invasiveness of structural tests
and interventions must be as limited as possible, but a number of applications to existing structures
have also confirmed its potential to assess the influence of degradation phenomena or environmental
factors on the mechanical properties of materials.
FE model updating is an optimization problem and, as such, it must be defined in its relevant com-
ponents: design variables, objective function, input and output parameters. The solution of the optimi-
zation problem is represented by the values of the input variables that minimize (or maximize) the
selected objective function [1]. The possibility to solve the FE model updating problem opens interest-
ing applicative perspectives. Several papers in the literature deal with the potential of model updating
for structural assessment of existing and historical structures, or for damage detection and location [2].
The latter opportunity, in particular, is of interest when FE model updating is integrated into a Structural
Health Monitoring strategy.
FE model updating is usually associated to large computational efforts. In order to reduce them,
several authors investigated the opportunity of using surrogate models (metamodels) instead of the
complete FE model. In this context, the Douglas-Reid (DR) method and the response surface method
(RSM) represent possible alternatives to the direct use of the FE model in the search for the solution of
the optimization problem. Several papers in the literature confirmed that the RSM as well as the DR
method significantly reduce the computational efforts associated with model updating while yielding
sufficiently accurate results [3-8].
The possible ill-posedness of the inverse problem and difficulties in identifying the optimum stim-
ulated comparative studies to assess the accuracy and reliability of the solution. For instance, some
authors compared the results obtained from the application of different model updating procedures to
Sept 05th – 07th, 2022, Tor Vergata University, Rome, Italy
14 th
the same case study [9]. Other authors compared the model updating results obtained from different
initial numerical models while keeping constant the optimization procedure [10]. Comparisons of
b
model updating results obtained by changing the objective function can be found in [11, 12].
The choice of the optimization procedure also plays a primary role in FE model updating. Optimi-
zation procedures are usually classified in different ways according to their relevant features: local or
global, deterministic or stochastic, gradient-based or heuristic. However, the available studies rarely
if
focus the attention on the selection of the optimization algorithm [13], while an extensive comparative
assessment of optimization procedures in terms of accuracy of the FE model updating solution and
computational efforts can provide useful hints for the appropriate selection of the optimization proce-
dure in practical applications.
The present paper reports a comparative assessment of different local as well as global optimization
procedures when applied to Finite Element (FE) model updating of a reinforced concrete structure ba-
sed on the results of Operational Modal Analysis (OMA) tests. In particular, the FE model of the struc-
ture has been refined by minimizing the scatter between the experimental and numerical modal proper-
ties. The resulting optimized model can be considered as representative of the actual dynamic behavior
of the structure in operational conditions. No nonlinear structural behavior has been considered as the
structure is tested under operating conditions. The DR method has been applied for model updating in
combination with different gradient-based as well as global optimization procedures in order to evaluate
how the choice of the optimization procedure might influence the results; moreover, model updating
results are compared and discussed in order to assess their physical significance and the opportunities
of model updating for the indirect, non-destructive evaluation of structural properties of existing struc-
tures in operational conditions. The goal of the present paper is investigating the influence of different
optimization procedures on model updating results and assessing their performance in terms of accuracy
and computational efforts are therefore the main objectives of the present paper. This is organized as
follows: Section 2 summarizes the theoretical background of the model updating approach, focusing
the attention on different optimization procedures; Section 3 illustrates the case study and compares the
model updating results obtained by varying the optimization procedure, given the objective function
and the updating variables; the main outcomes of the present study are finally summarized in the con-
clusions.
2 Theoretical background
2.1 The Douglas-Reid method and objective function for model updating
The uncertain model parameters for the application described in Section 3 were identified by using the
DR technique [13] in order to bridge the discrepancy between experimental and numerical response in
terms of modal parameters. The DR approach expresses the dependence of the numerical modal prop-
erties on the uncertain modelling parameters Xk (k =1, 2, …, N) through a quadratic approximation:
𝑁
𝑅𝑖 ∗ (𝑋1 , 𝑋2 , … , 𝑋𝑁 ) = ∑ 𝐶𝑖 + 𝐴𝑖𝑘 𝑋𝑘 + 𝐵𝑖𝑘 𝑋𝑘 2 (1)

𝑘=1
where 𝑅𝑖 ∗ represents the approximation of the i-th modal parameter of the finite element model. The
2N+1 coefficients 𝐴𝑖𝑘 , 𝐵𝑖𝑘 and 𝐶𝑖 must be determined before computing the objective function and
solving the model updating problem. The upper and lower bounds of the updating variables - XkL and
XkU (k =1, 2, …, N), respectively - must be set first based on engineering judgement. Once the nominal
values XkB of the updating variables and the corresponding ranges of variation are defined, the unknown
coefficients in Equation (1) are computed by solving a set of equations obtained by alternatively setting
a given updating variable to the nominal, minimum and maximum values, while keeping all other up-
dating variables at the nominal values. The unknonwn coefficients 𝐴𝑖𝑘 , 𝐵𝑖𝑘 and 𝐶𝑖 must be determined
for each modal parameter of the structure considered in the updating problem. By solving the following
2N+1 equations - Equation (2) - obtained by equating the results of the DR model with those of the
complete FE model for the given sets of values of the updating variables, the quadratic approximation
(1) can be used to solve the model updating problem instead of the complete FE model. In fact, it yields
approximate estimates of the numerical modal parameters as a function of the updating variables. The
638 History of concrete structures and assessment of heritage buildings

main advantage in using the quadratic approximation of Equation (1) lies in the significant reduction
of the computation efforts associated with the solution of the model updating problem.
b
𝑅𝑖 ∗ (𝑋1𝐵 , 𝑋2𝐵 , … , 𝑋𝑁𝐵 ) = 𝑅𝑖 𝐹𝐸𝑀 (𝑋1𝐵 , 𝑋2𝐵 , … , 𝑋𝑁𝐵 )
𝑅𝑖 ∗ (𝑋1𝐿 , 𝑋2𝐵 , … , 𝑋𝑁𝐵 ) = 𝑅𝑖 𝐹𝐸𝑀 (𝑋1𝐿 , 𝑋2𝐵 , … , 𝑋𝑁𝐵 )
if
𝑅𝑖 ∗ (𝑋1𝑈 , 𝑋2𝐵 , … , 𝑋𝑁𝐵 ) = 𝑅𝑖 𝐹𝐸𝑀 (𝑋1𝑈 , 𝑋2𝐵 , … , 𝑋𝑁𝐵 )
(2)
…
𝑅𝑖 ∗ (𝑋1𝐵 , 𝑋2𝐵 , … , 𝑋𝑁𝐿 ) = 𝑅𝑖 𝐹𝐸𝑀 (𝑋1𝐵 , 𝑋2𝐵 , … , 𝑋𝑁𝐿 )
𝑅𝑖 ∗ (𝑋1𝐵 , 𝑋2𝐵 , … , 𝑋𝑁𝑈 ) = 𝑅𝑖 𝐹𝐸𝑀 (𝑋1𝐵 , 𝑋2𝐵 , … , 𝑋𝑁𝑈 )
Once the coefficients of the DR model are defined, the objective function accounting for the dis-
crepancy between numerical and experimental results can be defined as follows:
𝑀
𝐽 = ∑ 𝑤𝑖 𝜀𝑖 2 (3)
𝑖=1
where:
𝜀𝑖 = 𝑅𝑖 − 𝑅𝑖 ∗ (𝑋1 , 𝑋2 , … , 𝑋𝑁 ) (4)
is the residue between the i-th experimentally identified modal parameter 𝑅𝑖 (i = 1, 2, …, M) and
the corresponding numerical estimated based on Equation (1), and 𝑤𝑖 is a weight constant. The mini-
mization of the objective function (3) yields the solution of the model updating problems (optimized
values of the updating variables). The minimum of the objective function is iteratively found by
applying one of the optimization procedures described in Section 2.2.
2.2 Local and global optimization procedures

Deterministic optimization algorithms apply a rigid mathematical scheme and no random element is
considered. They are also known as gradient-based optimization algorithms or local optimization algo-
rithms because they are commonly based on the computation of the gradient or even the Hessian of
response variables. The deterministic optimization algorithms can converge to a solution much faster
than the stochastic ones: as such, they require a lower number of evaluations of the objective function
to converge to the optimum. However, deterministic optimization algorithms look for stationary points,
so the optimal solution could be a local minimum instead of a global one. In the field of deterministic
optimization, either unconstrained or constrained optimization procedures can be selected. More details
can be found in the literature [1, 14].
Optimization methods whose algorithms are characterized by certain randomness are referred to as
stochastic optimization algorithms. They can be classified into different families, such as Evolutionary
Algorithms (EA), Genetic Algorithms (GA), Simulated annealing (SA), Particle Swarm Optimization
(PSO). They all contain randomness in the search procedure and their convergence rate towards the
optimum solution is much lower than for deterministic optimization methods; however, they are able
to perform a wider investigation of the design space, thus limiting the probability of getting trapped in
local minima. This makes global optimization methods more robust than deterministic ones. In addition,
while deterministic optimization is inherently single objective, stochastic optimization might be multi-
objective [1].
Taking into account the previously mentioned advantages and drawbacks of deterministic as well
as stochastic optimization methods, their performance for the solution of FE model updating problems
are herein comparatively investigated with reference to a real case study.

14 th
3 Application
b
The Tower of the Nations (Fig. 1a) is a reinforced concrete structure located in the area of the Mostra
D’oltremare urban park in Naples. Output-only modal analysis tests and finite element modeling of the
structure have been extensively discussed in a previous paper [15], pointing out the potential of model
refinement to enhance the knowledge about the structural and seismic response of the structure. In that
paper, model refinement was achieved by carrying out a grid search. In the present paper, the numerical
if
model of the structure and the experimental test results are analyzed again in order to repeat the model
updating by the DR method in combination with different local as well as global optimization proce-
dures. The present section summarizes the main features of the structure and the available reference
experimental results before discussing and comparing the model updating results.
The Tower of the Nation is a reinforced concrete frame structure characterized by two blind and
two completely see-through parallel façades and alternate floors covering half of the imprint area of the
structure. The outer reinforced concrete frames along the blind side of the structure were filled by tuff
masonry walls. Destructive as well as non-destructive tests and extensive surveys were carried out in
order to define the geometry and structural details, and the mechanical characteristics of materials. In
addition, OMA tests were executed in order to estimate the modal parameters of the structure in opera-
tional conditions (Table 1). All the collected data and information supported the accurate implementa-
tion of the initial FE model of the structure by the SAP2000 software [16]. The reference FE model
(Fig. 1b) was built considering an effective connection with the basement structure, and modeling floors
by shell elements. One-dimensional structural elements (columns, beams, braces) were modeled by
beam elements, while two-dimensional structural elements (r.c. walls, stairs) were modeled by shell
elements. The tuff masonry infills were modeled by shell elements. The structure is assumed fixed at
the base. The masses were directly computed from the geometry of the structural elements taking into
account the specific masses of materials.
(a) (b)
Fig. 1 The Tower of the Nations (a) and its FE model (b)
In agreement with the former study about the structure [15], the selected updating variables are the
Young’s moduli of concrete and tuff masonry, with the elastic modulus of concrete Ec taken in the
range between 13000 MPa and 32000 MPa and the shear modulus of tuff masonry Gt assumed to vary
in the range between 300 MPa and 420 MPa; correspondingly, the Young’s modulus of tuff masonry
Et has been assumed to vary between 900 MPa and 1260 MPa. The following objective function has
been considered for FE model updating:
2
1 𝑓𝐷𝑅 − 𝑓𝑖𝐸𝑋𝑃
𝐽𝑓 = ∑𝑀
𝑖=1 (
𝑖
) (5)
2 𝑓𝑖𝐸𝑋𝑃
where:
𝑓𝑖𝐷𝑅 − 𝑓𝑖𝐸𝑋𝑃
∆𝑓𝑖 = (6)
𝑓𝑖𝐸𝑋𝑃
is the percentage scatter between the numerical natural frequency 𝑓𝑖𝐷𝑅 estimated according to the DR
method and the reference experimental natural frequency estimate 𝑓𝑖𝐸𝑋𝑃 for the i-th mode.
b
Table 1 Tower of the Nations: reference OMA results [15].
Mode Type Natural Frequency [Hz]
if
I Translation (open side) 0.80
II Translation (blind side) 1.33
III Torsion 1.66
IV Translation (open side) 2.96
V Translation (blind side) 4.23
VI Torsion 4.90
3.1 Local optimization results

Different gradient-based constrained optimization algorithms have been applied, first, in order to assess
their performance in terms of accuracy and robustness of model updating results, on one hand, and
computational efforts, on the other hand. The following algorithms have been applied to minimize the
objective function of Equation (5): “Interior-Point algorithm”, “SQP algorithm”, “Active-Set algo-
rithm” and “Trust Region algorithm”.
An important aspect related to the application of those algorithms is the sensitivity of the optimiza-
tion results to the initial point. For the present application, the initial points of the selected updating
variables have been set equal to the center of the corresponding ranges of variations; in addition, the
boundary values of those ranges have been adopted as contraints for the solution of the optimization
problem. FE model updating results are summarized in Table 2, which reports the updated values of
the elastic moduli of concrete and tuff masonry and, for the updated FE model, the scatter between
experimental and numerical natural frequency of the i-th mode, computed according to Equation (5),
and the cumulative frequency scatter, computed as per Equation (6).
It is worth pointing out that, for the present application, mode shapes have not been considered in
the updating, since they were little sensitive to the selected updating variable. However, the correlation
between numerical and experimental mode shapes after model updating has been evaluated by compu-
ting the MAC index [17]; results are reported in Table 3 for the updated FE model obtained as a solution
of the optimization problem by the Interior Point algorithm. Because of the high consistency of the
results obtained by the other algorithms, they are not explicitly reported here. In this perspective it is
worth mentioning that, for the given initial point, all tested algorithms converge to the same solution,
showing only minor differences probably dictated by the selected search direction and step length and
tolerances which might differ when changing the optimization algorithm. However, in different cases
convergence to the absolute minimum might not be achieved, and appropriate strategies to check the
reliability of results must be adopted.
Table 2 Gradient-based optimization algorithms: FE model updating results.

FE model updating Interior Point SQP Active-Set Trust Region
results
Ec,opt [MPa] 26102 26102 26110 26101
Et,opt [MPa] 1007 1007 1007 1007
Jopt 0.0033 0.0033 0.0033 0.0033
∆𝑓1 [%] -4.60 -4.60 -4.58 -4.60
∆𝑓2 [%] 2.80 2.80 2.79 2.80
∆𝑓3 [%] 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.61
14th
∆𝑓4 [%] 4.13 4.13 4.15 4.13
b
∆𝑓5 [%] -4.46 -4.46 -4.47 -4.46
∆𝑓6 [%] 0.22 0.22 0.21 0.22
∆𝑓𝑇𝑂𝑇 [%] 16.82 16.82 16.81 16.82
if
A possible strategy to achieve the global minimum consists in repeating the optimization from se-
veral initial points; the Latin Hypercube Sampling (LHS) technique can be used to generate a number
of initial points uniformly spanning the whole design domain. In the context of the present paper, LHS
has been applied to generate 300 initial points for optimization by the Interior-Point algorithm: results
provided a minimum value of the objective function consistent with the one reported in Table 2, thus
confirming that a global minimum was already achieved.
Table 3 Comparison between experimental and numerical modal properties after model updating.
Mode fEXP [Hz] fNUM [Hz] MAC
I 0.80 0.76 0.96

II 1.33 1.37 1
III 1.66 1.64 0.91
IV 2.96 3.09 0.93
V 4.23 4.04 0.98
VI 4.90 4.91 0.90
3.2 Global optimization results

Global optimization algorithms are more robust than gradient-based algorithms with respect to the pos-
sibility of getting a local minimum as a solution of the optimization problem. Global optimization tech-
niques, in fact, explore a larger design domain with respect to gradient-based algorithms, and the solu-
tion is not influenced by the selected initial point. For the present application, different global optimi-
zation procedures have been applied, obtaining the results reported in Table 4.
Comparing the results in Table 4 among them and with those reported in Table 2 confirms that all
the algorithms converged to the same solution, which can be reffered to as the global minimum for the
present application. The high consistency of updating results among them and with the results of in-
situ tests reported in a previous study [15] confirm the attractiveness of model updating as an indirect
method for the evaluation of uncertain modelling parameters in a physically meaningful way. However,
it is worth pointing out the importance of checking the model updating results, for instance, by applying
different optimization methods, possibly at least a global optimization method and a local method. In
particular, the former can be used in the presence of significant uncertainties about the initial values of
the updating parameters in order to obtain a first, even if sometimes raw, estimate of the global opti-
mum; the latter can be applied afterwards to further refine the solution at the expenses of minor addi-
tional computational efforts. On the contrary, if the initial model already shows a good correlation with
the reference experimental parameters, the accuracy of the obtained solution can be either checked by
comparing the results of different gradient-based methods, possibly considering different initial points,
in order to keep computational efforts sufficiently low. In fact, the present study confirmed that
achieving the solution of the model updating problem took significantly more time by global algorithms
than by gradient-based methods, about 10-100 times.

Table 4 Global optimization algorithms: FE model updating results.
b
FE model updating GA SA PSO
results
Ec,opt [MPa] 26102 26082 26102
if
Et,opt [MPa] 1007 1010 1007
Jopt 0.0033 0.0033 0.0033
∆𝑓1 [%] -4.60 -4.63 -4.60
∆𝑓2 [%] 2.80 2.83 2.80
∆𝑓3 [%] 0.61 0.64 0.61
∆𝑓4 [%] 4.13 4.10 4.13
∆𝑓5 [%] -4.46 -4.43 -4.46
∆𝑓6 [%] 0.22 0.25 0.22
∆𝑓𝑇𝑂𝑇 [%] 16.82 16.88 16.82
4 Conclusions
FE model updating has attracted significant interest in civil engineering for the opportunities it offers
to refine the numerical models of existing reinforced concrete structures and indirectly estimate relevant
uncertain structural parameters. As a result, FE model updating represents an alternative method to
enhance the knowledge about the structural behavior through the combination of non-destructive ex-
perimental tests and accurate numerical modelling. The present paper presented a comparative assess-
ment of different local as well as global optimization procedures applied to FE model updating of a
reinforced concrete structure based on the results of OMA tests. The DR method has been applied for
model updating, and the results obtained by different gradient-based as well as global optimization
procedures have been compared. Very consistent results have been obtained, thus confirming the reli-
ability of the solution in the present case. Moreover, the present application provided useful hints for
the appropriate selection of the solution strategy. In fact, the choice between local and global optimiza-
tion procedures should be made taking in due account the initial correlation of the numerical model
with the reference experimental results. When there is a good approximation, the use of local optimi-
zation procedures can be preferred in order to keep the computation efforts to a minimum. In the pres-
ence of more significant uncertainties, global optimization algorithms should be preferred in order to
achieve the global optimum at the expenses of higher computational efforts. In addition, when local
optimization procedures are applied, the obtained solution must be checked against the results of dif-
ferent (either local or global) optimizations in order to be sure that a global minimum of the objective
function has been identified.
5 References
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based damage assessment: Application on a stone-masonry tower.” Construction and Building
Materials 156: 252–265.
[3] Gentile, C. 2006. “Modal and structural identification of R.C arch bridge.” Structural Engine-
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Based Systematic Model Tuning.” Advanced Materials Research 133-134:435-440.

14th
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if
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Paper presented at the 1st International Modal Analysis Conference, Orlando, USA.

A study over Roman Mortar from Ovidiu's Roman
b
fortress
Nicolae-Costin Mociu1, Carmen-Elena Maftei2, Madalina Stanescu3 and Popa
Calin4
if
1 Doctoral School of Applied Sciences,
Ovidius University of Constanta,
Mamaia Boulevard 124, Constanța 900527, Romania
2 Transilvania University of Brasov,

Eroilor Boulevard 29, Brașov 500036, Romania
3 Constanta Faculty of Civil Engineering,

Ovidius University of Constanta,
Mamaia Boulevard 124, Constanța 900527, Romania
4 Transilvania University of Brasov,

Eroilor Boulevard 29, Brașov 500036, Romania
Abstract
Mortar is a composite material that is used to form the major structural parts of a building and the
Romans have managed to perfect the recipe to the point that the mortars used in their projects is still
resistant today. One of the locations in which the mortar was used is the Roman fortification located in
the city of Ovidiu, in the county of Constanta, Romania. This investigation seeks to identify the primary
features of the building materials utilized to create the archaeological site. The primary method of the
study will be to collect mortar samples from the archaeological site of Ovidiu and analyze them in the
laboratory to determine the major physical and chemical characteristics of the material, such as com-
pressive strength, water absorption, and porosity. Furthermore, we will use the results obtained to try
and replicate their recipe and compare the results.
1 Introduction
Since antiquity, mortars have been used to support walls and substrates of structures, and the endurance
of mortars is dependent on the nature of the components employed and the methods utilized in their
manufacture. Generally speaking, mortars are composed of a blend of aggregates and binders that are
specific to the geographic location of the structure, as well as the historical context in which the mortars
were produced [1]-[2]. The study of mortars provides information regarding raw materials and their
origin as well as manufacturing techniques [3]. Using the features of the mortars, it is possible to iden-
tify the historical sequences of the construction [4]-[5], as well as the dating of the structures themselves
[6].
Mortars are also useful in the repair and maintenance of historic structures [7]-[8], as well as in the
development of novel composite materials [9]-[11].
Even though the ancient Romans defined the recipes and technological rules for building construc-
tion, it was no easy task for the artisans to put them into effect [12]-[13]. Different technological solu-
tions were used to ancient structures and constructions based on its principal function or completion,
and these approaches were widely employed throughout the Roman Empire.
On the west bank of Lake Siutghiol (former Gulf of the Black Sea), in the immediate vicinity of the
island "Ovidiu" the archeological site is located on the southern edge of the town of Ovidiu (about 10
km north of Constanţa), in a perimeter where a residential neighborhood has been built in the last dec-
ade, on the west bank of Lake Siutghiol (former Gulf of the Black Sea)[14]-[15].
The fortification is rectangular in design (Fig.1), with a long side facing the NNV-SSE direction
and an interior area of approximately 2200 sqm. The two rectangular towers to the east are distinguished
14 th
from other defenses of similar type by the fact that only two of their sides protrude from the enclosure,
with the east side extending along the curtain[16]-[17].
b
The laboratory tests conducted on the collected samples will provide us with crucial information
on the properties of the mortars used in the building of the camp, such as compression resistance, po-
rosity, and water absorption.
The purpose of this study is to discover the characteristics of the mortars used at the archeological
if
site in order to document them and utilize them in future research, with the ultimate objective being to
replicate the mortar recipe and compare its properties to those of a modern material.
2.1 Materials
The fortress has been substantially rebuilt, therefore only tower D (Fig.1), where the restoration work
has not yet been finished, may be used for the collecting of mortar samples.. Using a hammer and chisel,
a total of six samples were removed. These samples were labeled D1 through D6 (Fig.2), have an une-
ven form, and range in size from 7 to 17 cm.
Fig.1 Plan of the fortress from Ovidiu and location of the samples labelled D1 to D6
Due to the varying sizes of the samples, only 3 of them could be processed in order to conduct the
needed tests. Samples D2, D3, and D6 were chopped using an angle grinder with a stone disc to give
them a regular form as similar as feasible to that of standardized samples for such testing. Therefore
from sample D6 we obtained test tube A, from sample D2 we received test tube B, and from sample
D3 we obtained test tube C (Fig.3). Samples that could not be processed owing to inappropriate dimen-
sions will be utilized in the future for chemical analysis to establish the mineralogical components of
mortars.
646 History of concrete and assessment of heritage buildings

This document may not be copied or distributedA study
without prior permission from fib.
over Roman Mortar from Ovidiu's Roman fortress
We attempted a more balanced processing in order to acquire the most accurate test results possible,
and we received the following dimensions for the processed specimens: specimen A-
b
45.70x45.17x43.81mm, specimen B-38.13x44.06x39.71mm, and specimen C-25.33x40.48x73.50mm.
if
Fig. 2 Samples D1 to D6 collected from the archeological site of Ovidiu (Top, Bottom Right and
Bottom Left)
Fig. 3 (top) and (bottom) Pictures from different angles with samples A, B and C after processing
the original samples
14th
2.2 Methods
b
The laboratory testing consisted of evaluating the apparent density and compressive strength of the
samples.
2.2.1 Determining the apparent density
Due to surface flaws, the test tubes lacked a well-defined geometric form, hence the apparent density
if
was determined by measuring the volume of liquid displacement. The principle of the method is to
determine the volume of the reference liquid, which the sample displaces when it is immersed in that
liquid.
The first step was to determine the mass of all test components by weighing them in a dry state.
In order to prevent the absorption of the reference liquid into the sample's open pores, it is required
to saturate the sample after weighing it in the dry condition at constant mass.
The sample was placed in the saturation vessel, and distilled water was poured up to 1/4 of the
sample's height and maintained for two hours (Fig.4). The saturation vessel was filled with distilled
water until the level reached 3/4 of the sample's height, then left for 12 hours. After 24 hours, the sample
was withdrawn, washed with a moist cloth to remove the absorbed water, weighed, and reintroduced
into the saturation vessel. The weighing process was repeated 24 hours a day until the difference be-
tween two subsequent weighings was less than 0.05 percent of the most recent mass. Thus, the sample's
saturated mass was obtained.
Fig. 4 The process of saturating the samples

Following the saturation of the specimens with water, a graduated cylinder was used to introduce an
initial volume of 500 ml of distilled water, followed by the three samples in turn, and the volume dif-
ference was calculated, yielding the true volume of each test tube.
The apparent density was calculated by dividing the mass of the specimens by their volume and
was stated in kilograms per cubic meter.
2.2.2 Determination of the compressive strength
To determine the compressive strength of the specimens, they were tested using the Matest Cyber-Plus
Evolution C109N press (Fig. 5). The samples were dried in an oven to the weight determined prior to
the saturation procedure before being put through the compression test.
The measuring range of the press is between 0 and 15 kN. The loading rate was set to 0.010 MPa /
sec and the starting load to 0.050 kN.
To attain a more accurate result, we attempted to place the test tubes with their two smoothest faces
facing the press plates. The 40 mm side of test tube C was aligned perpendicular to the press plates.
After testing compression specimens, the data were processed to generate an average compressive
strength for comparison with other similar results that were obtained in other tests on materials with the
same specifications obtained from the surrounding archaeological sites..

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without prior permission from fib.
over Roman Mortar from Ovidiu's Roman fortress
if b
Fig. 5 (left) and (right) Compressive strength test on sample A

The data acquired for the estimation of apparent density are displayed in Tables 1 and 2. Due to the
extremely high porosity of the specimens, a substantial water absorption was seen during the first two
hours of the saturation process, after which the difference in weight between 12 hours and 24 hours
reduced to 0.
Table 1 Masses of the dry and saturated specimens

Sample Dry mass [kg] Mass after 2h Mass after 12h Mass after 24h
[kg] [kg] [kg]
A 0.1174 0.1378 0.1386 0.1386
B 0.0889 0.1012 0.1018 0.1018
C 0.0831 0.0967 0.0972 0.0972
Table 2 Measured volumes of the 3 samples

Sample Initial volume Final volume Sample vol-
[cm3] [cm3] ume[cm3]
A 500 581 81
B 500 554 54
C 500 556 56
Using the information in the preceding tables, we determined the following apparent densities for spec-
imens A, B, and C:
• Sample A – 1467.5 kg/m3
• Sample B – 1646.3 kg/m3
• Sample C – 1483.9 kg/m3
Comparing the results with the density of a modern lime mortar (1,700 kg/m3) demonstrates that there
is not a significant difference between the material used by the Romans 1,500 years ago and the material
used today.
14 th
In terms of water absorption, it can be observed that the material has a very high porosity, since
more than 95% ( Sample A- 96.22%; Sample B- 95.35%; Sample C- 96.46%) of the total quantity of
b
water absorbed was absorbed during the first two hours of the 24-hour test.
After the press tests, we found that the specimens had an average compressive strength of 0.914
MPa. The strength is equivalent to that of current lime mortars, which have a minimum strength of 0.4
MPa. The resilience of the mortars recovered from the archeological site is equivalent to that of a mod-
if
ern M10 lime mortar (1 MPa).
4 Conclusions
The results of this investigation offered information on two crucial physical properties of Roman mor-
tars excavated from the archaeological site of Ovidiu: apparent density and compression resistance.
Based on these figures, it can be inferred that the difference between the mortar used by the Romans
and the lime mortar used now is not all that great, prompting us to conduct further research on this
material in the future.
In the next step of the research, we will investigate unused mortar pieces to determine the petrogra-
phic properties, mineralogical composition, and chemical composition of the mortars' key constituents.
References
[1] Furlan V., Bissegger P.1975.“ Les mortiers anciens, Historie et essais d’analyse scientifi-
que.“ Rev. Suiss. D’art Archaéol 32: 2–14.
[2] Malinowski, R. 1982. „Ancient mortars and concretes: Aspects of their durability.“ History of
Technology; London:Mansell, pp. 89–101.
[3] Hughes, J.J.; Válek, J. 2003. Mortars in Historic Buildings: A Review of the Conservation,
Technical and Scientific Literature; Edinburgh: Historic; pp. 1–88.
[4] Moropoulou, A.; Bakolas, A.; Anagnostopoulou, S. 2005. „Composite materials in ancient
structures.“ Cem. Concr.Comp. 27: 295–300.
[5] Válek, J.; Hughes, J.J.; Groot, J.W.P. 2012. Historic Mortars: Characterization, Assessment
and Repair. New York: Springer.
[6] Santos Silva, A.; Adriano, P.; Magalhaes, A.; Pires, J.; Carvalho, A.; Cruz, A.J. 2010. „Chara-
cterization of historical mortars from Alentejo’s religious buildings.“ Int. J. Archit. Herit.
4:138–154.
[7] Miriello, D.; Barca, D.; Pecci, A.; De Luca, R.; Crisci, G.M.; López Luján, L.; Barba, L. 2015.
„Plasters from different buildings of the Sacred Precinct of Tenochtitlan (Mexico City): Chara-
cterization and provenance.“ Archaeometry 57:100–127.
[8] Moropoulou, A.; Bakolas, A.; Bisbikou, K. 2000. „Investigation of the technology of historic
mortars.“ J. Cult. Herit. 1:45–58.
[9] Kirca, Ö. 2005. „Ancient binding materials, mortars and concrete technology: History and du-
rability aspects.“ Structural Analysis of Historical Constructions London: Taylor & Francis
Group pp. 87–95.
[10] Tenconi, M.; Karatasios, I.; Bala’awi, F.; Kilikoglou, V. 2018. „Technological and microstruc-
tural characterization of mortars and plasters from the Roman site of Qasr Azraq, in Jordan.“ J.
Cult. Herit 33:100–116.
[11] Groot, C.J.W.P.; Bartos, P.J.M.; Hughes, J.J. 2000. „Historic mortars: Characteristics and test-
concluding summary and state-of-the-art.“ Historic Mortars: Characteristics and Tests. pp.
443–454.
[12] Vitruvius Pollio, M. 1826. The Architecture. London: Priestly and Weale.
[13] Bostock, J.; Riley, H.T. 1857. The Natural History of Pliny. London: Bohm HG.
[14] M. Bucovală, Gh. Papuc. 1980. „Cercetările arheologice de la Ovidiu – municipiul Constanţa.
(Raport preliminar)“ Pontica 13, p. 275-283
[15] Constantin Băjenaru. 2002-2003. „Observaţii recente cu privire la fortificaţia de tip quadribur-
gium de la Ovidiu“ Pontica nr. 35-36 p. 293-312.
[16] M. Bucovală, Gh. Papuc. 1981. „Date noi despre fortificaţia de la Ovidiu, municipiul
Constanţa“ Pontica 14 p. 211-212.
[17] M. Bucovală, Gh. Papuc. 1984. „Date noi privind cercetările arheologice de la Ovidiu“ Pontica
17 p.153-154.

The role of structure in the dialogue between places of
b
dwelling in the projects of Gio Ponti
Bianca Maria Rodriguez
if
Department of Architecture
University of Naples „Federico II“, UniNa
Salita Pontecorvo, Naples 80135, Italy
Abstract
The research focuses on the structural and material capabilities of reinforced concrete and explores this
theme through the projects of Gio Ponti, an architect who has always found a way to match technique
and art, considering the structural component as a fundamental element of his projects. The research
starts from the assumption that the interior spaces of Ponti’s architecture are part of a larger design
process: the city. The buildings designed by Ponti fit into the context in such a way that the external
“skin” is considered an “urban partition”. The use of reinforced concrete as a structural solution adopted
by the architect makes it possible to combine the places of living.
1 Reinforced concrete: between structure and architecture

This contribution explores the structural and material capabilities of reinforced concrete through the
projects of Gio Ponti who, although in the past was often considered a “simple” designer, has always
considered the structural component an indispensable element in his design poetics. Reinterpreting
Ponti’s architecture through the use of reinforced concrete also means taking charge of that constructive
wisdom, that correspondence between form and matter, between architecture and structure, between
technique and art. It means understanding the meaning of an architecture that takes charge of the archi-
tect’s artistic sensibility. Ponti’s architectures speak and manifest their concreteness through the daring
use of technique. A use arising from the needs, demands and necessity of architecture that is confronted
with Italian engineering, a use of the material that leads the forms to measure themselves against their
limits, through what Pier Luigi Nervi defines as “the correct use” [1] of reinforced concrete. Pontian
architecture sees beyond and at the same time through form, structure, geometry. It celebrates technique
through its artistic impulse, the founding aspect of its architecture. If Mies van der Rohe is the essence
of building, Ponti is the poetry of building. If Mies represents the archetype of the formal use of steel,
Ponti, with the help of Nervi, is certainly the Italian master of reinforced concrete. Not surprisingly, he
is defined by Piacentini as a “dreamer and mathematician” [2] at the same time. While Morris and
Ruskin were reluctant to rely on technology as a form of design research, Le Corbusier and Ponti were
attracted by the relationship between architectural form and engineering technique. The collaboration
with great engineers, as Pier Luigi Nervi, aims at experimenting and demonstrating how the structure
becomes an architectural element that defines the urban space. The Pirelli skyscraper in Milan and the
Palazzo delle Esposizioni in Turin bear witness to this.
History teaches us, “now it's up to us to demonstrate what a new relationship with technology can
be through our desire to exploit it by developing a new relationship with the built environment” [3].
And in fact the technique assumes for Ponti the character of an artistic and innovative process, passing
from the traditional load-bearing wall to the non load-bearing wall, to the elements that made possible
the idea of light architecture. “Today the load-bearing structure is no longer in the game or in the
elementary balance of weights but is realized in the light reinforced concrete cage, in an integral and
general load-bearing unit of the whole building, calculated with more difficult equations than the
ancient symmetrical balances of classical architecture” [4]. The use of the new material is an
opportunity for a dialogue between tradition and modernity: a modernity that sees in reinforced concrete
the material to express itself and to interpret tradition with a different awareness. Being modern,
according to Ponti, means “participating in tradition” [5] by finding a way to dialogue, it means “doing
new things in a new way” [6].
Gio Ponti’s works are also the result of the technique, of the use of reinforced concrete defined by
Nervi as “the most beautiful construction system that humanity has been able to find to date” [7]. Not
limiting himself to obtaining pure geometries and impeccable volumes, Ponti sought modernity through
14 th
formal coherence. And in fact, using the words of F.L. Wright, “for the creative artist, every material
carries a message of him” [8] and the message that reinforced concrete carries is modernity itself.
b
Ponti’s architectures contain precisely that desire to speak also through the structure, to dialogue in
a concrete way and, through this concreteness, to restore the actuality that characterizes them to
architecture. Actuality that is made up of listening to the city, to the places of living, to the materials,
to the clients and above all to the users of these architectures.
if
2 The urban partition: between places of dwelling
“The need for structural invention, and for the control of the architectural scale down to the
technological detail, underlines the need to feel the building in its closed composition as a large
habitable design object, or as a finished work of art” [9] yet Ponti’s architectures “fit into the urban
context expressing the possession of the most advanced technology of the moment, they are placed in
an interlocutory way towards the city, they seek confirmation in those who observe them from the
outside and the approval of those who live from within to express the strength of a positively productive
city and become its expression” [10]. The relationship between the buildings and the city is rediscovered
in the views, in the exchanges between the street and the house. Intimacy in the Pontian concept of
living the spaces of the house in continuity with those of the city, is rediscovered through the idea that
every living space is conceived for man, as the architect “must imagine for every window a person at
the windowsill, for a door a person who passes it, for a staircase a person who descends it, one who
climbs it, for a porch a person who stops by, for an entrance hall two who meet, for a terrace one who
rests, for a room one who lives in it” [11].
The house appears inside the city, which finds a way to make room within it, in a union in which
the two terms are in some cases almost overlapping as parts of the same reasoning. This overlap is also
perceptible with respect to his way of describing the interior spaces, where the sleeping, the living and
the service areas are defined as “neighborhoods”, demonstrating how every place of being - whether
internal or external - is part of a single project that considers in a unified way the vision of the city as a
container of places, and the house as “the vase that confines man in his daily gestures, in his activities,
in his emotions” [12].
Fig. 1 Facade drawing by Gio Ponti of casa via Dezza, Milan, Italy

“Architecture from outside penetrates inside” [13]: with this wonderful statement, Gio Ponti describes
how urban space crosses the space of the building, with its courtyards and shelters, through crossings,
b
connections and relationships. According to him, the connection between the house and the city appears
essential to define this interpenetration between the places of living. But if the city and the house are
part of a single building system, in which one interpenetrates the other, a system made up of thresholds,
passages and crossings, we can say that what is external to the house is still internal and that the limit
if
that establishes the difference between these two environments, the facade, is nothing more than a
screen, a filter between the places of living.
The facade is no longer the physical limes that protects the house from what is extraneous to it, but
is an “urban partition”, a limen, made of voids - the windows - which are the most direct contact with
the city. Through the doors, the windows and the void the permeability of the connecting space is
measured, and these elements are what makes up the urban facade, an element of limes between the
two realities that tends to become limen in Ponti’s architecture. In this passage from limes to limen the
connection between the spatial partitions is articulated. If we think of the facade as in the traditional
conception, in which there is an alternation of solids and voids, “in the wall as a fortification, the
massive wall is accentuated and made evident by openings that are configured as holes, while the
breakthrough large transparencies creates necessarily a relationship of continuity” [14]. It is in this
continuous perception that the research wants to insert, rereading, according to the types of elevation,
this continuity between the living spaces. The dialogue with the city is filtered by the presence of the
facade which is determined by the position of the voids, frames in which the city fits and finds breath.
The facade generates forms of living at the point where private life comes into greater contact with
public life and one opens towards the other through different degrees of freedom that open the home to
the city. We can therefore speak of different degrees of connection between the two worlds, certainly
thanks to the fact that “the construction is perfected from heavy (bearing walls) to light (non bearing
walls)” [15] and this makes it possible to reveal what is hidden, in such a way that “the dwelling
appears, it will not be behind a facade” [16].
Fig. 2 Main elevation casa via Dezza
The freedom allowed by the advent of reinforced concrete make Ponti’s studies on the partition between
inside and outside and on the skin of the building possible. The “light cages in reinforced concrete”
[17], which allow the wall to be carried and no longer load-bearing, offer the opportunity to reflect
more on this link between the living spaces and allow the city to penetrate inside. In the Pontian con-
ception there is a dematerialization of what is the element that establishes the limit between the two
living realities, allowing the facade to lose all formal value, to abandon its label of limit and perimeter
14th
and to transform itself into an interacting element with the urban landscape, sometimes becoming its
welcoming background, inviting the city to go beyond it.
b
The correspondence between the urban and the domestic fact therefore appears to be of primary
importance in order to have a clear picture of Pontian thought, because “in the Italian house there is no
great distinction of architecture between exterior and interior, elsewhere there is even separation of
forms and of materials: with us, the architecture of the outside penetrates the inside, and does not neglect
if
to use either stone, plaster or fresco [...]. From the inside, the Italian-style house go outdoors with its
arcades and terraces, with pergolas and verandas, with loggias and balconies, roof terraces and
belvederes, all very comfortable inventions for a serene and very Italian home which in every language
are called by the names here. [...] The Italian house is without complications from the outside and
inside” [18].
Even the passage spaces are a central issue in Ponti’s vision, so much so that he entitles an article
“Le porte” (“The doors”) [19], where all the elements of passage between one environment and another
are analyzed in great detail, believing that “it is the doors that allow the wall to be revealed, it is the
openings that give life to the thicknesses of the walls” [20].
The limit becomes volumetric again, but a different volume, which has nothing to do with the
“voluminous bearing walls of the past whose honor was the thickness” [21]. Reinforced concrete allows
to free the facade, to reduce the thickness of the structure, allowing to design new living spaces. The
elevation takes on new meaning through the use of a lived-in space. The space previously occupied by
the load-bearing wall becomes an active part of the interior space project. The limit of the building
assumes, through the use of reinforced concrete, the thickness of the places of living, as happens in the
case of the facade of the building in via Dezza, which seen from the outside appears to be the place that
generates existence. The interstitial element generates new spaces to inhabit, has the merit of “being
light and thin - it is only an impediment to sounds, light, climate, strangers, it has the same character as
the crystals in windows, where only light does not is prevented” [22].
Fig. 3 Sketch of casa via Dezza by Gio Ponti
Ponti’s architecture is spontaneous architecture, which is made by man for man. The facade becomes
an urban scenario: “the facade is a superimposition of balconies: these balconies on each floor can
correspond to larger or smaller apartments, or unique ones, according to sales (it is an appartament
building). But each resident, within the plot of the balconies, can have the architect make its windows
differently from the others, and the architect can give each accommodation a different color; windows
and color as the resident likes. The result is a spontaneous aspect and a spontaneous coloring. Even the
balustrades of the balconies enter into this play of space and color” [23].

On the inside, Gio Ponti frees up the space, which becomes completely passable and continuous,
starting from the flooring that does not stop and extends throughout the house, sliding and opening
b
walls are oriented to define optical cones, views, which direct the gaze and push to look beyond the
transparent and thin limit of the window. Ponti is careful to understand where the eye can reach, what
the furnished window can frame and the limit spaces become the most lived-in spaces of the house, as
furnished, because in contact with the city, a source of natural lighting.
Fig. 4
if
Relation between inside and outside, apartment in casa via Dezza
3 Conclusions
Reinforced concrete “is a wonderful material ... it is the material that identifies structure and
architecture, in essential and pure forms” [24]. Ponti’s architectures contain that desire to speak also
through the structure, “thus the building after the formal - and strictly functional - invention that
originates it, which marks it, leads the architects to its own structural invention, and to its own
originality - not in the sense of bizarre but, I repeat, fidelity to its character” [25], made up of listening
to the city. The use of reinforced concrete generates forms of equilibrium, there is no longer the
alternation of solids and voids, nor the obsessed search for a totally free facade, but it is an architecture
that through the construction material acknowledges the needs and requirements of those who live the
environments. The new material demonstrates the attention to urban themes and the idea of working in
compliance and adherence to the pre-existing. Through a high degree of freedom, it responds to the
needs of the city and redefines the guaranteed dialogue between internal environments, even with the
outside world. For Ponti, the material becomes a means for design experimentation, it exploits the
freedom allowed by structural skills to reread the relationship between architecture and the city, through
the gaze and needs of people, restoring the actuality that characterizes it to architecture.
References
[1] Nervi, Pier Luigi. 1945. Scienza o arte del costruire?. Roma: Edizioni della Bussola.
[2] Piacentini, Marcello. 1936. “Esposizione mondiale della Stampa Cattolica nella Città del
Vaticano” Architettura 7:297.
[3] Chipperfield, David. 2020. “La tecnologia ci salverà?” Domus 1050:2-5.
[4] Molinari, Luca, and Cecilia Rastagni. 2011. Gio Ponti e il Corriere della Sera. Milano:
Fondazione Corriere della Sera.
[5] Ponti, Gio. 1955. “Paesaggio Moderno di Milano” Domus 313:7-10.
[6] Ponti, Gio. 1955. “Paesaggio Moderno di Milano” Domus 313:7-10.
[7] Nervi, Pier Luigi. 2014. Scienza o arte del costruire?. Torino: CittàStudi Edizioni. 77.
14th
[8] Biraghi, Marco. 2008. Storia dell'architettura contemporanea. Torino: Piccola Biblioteca
Einaudi. 130.
b
[9] Arditi, Gloria, and Cesare Serratto. 1994. Gio Ponti: Venti cristalli di architettura. Venezia: Il
Cardo. 14.
Cardo. 14.
if
[11] Ponti, Gio. 1957. Amate l'Architettura. Genova: Società Editrice Vitali E Ghianda. 110.
Cardo. 14.
Cardo. 45.
[14] Boschi, Antonello. 2010. Fenomenologia della facciata. Percorsi interpretativi, letture
evolutive, itinerari compositivi. Milano: Franco Angeli. 31.
Fondazione Corriere della Sera. 657.
Cardo. 45.
[19] Ponti, Gio. 1937. “Le porte” Domus 120:4-8.
[20] Boschi, Antonello. 2010. Fenomenologia della facciata. Percorsi interpretativi, letture
evolutive, itinerari compositivi. Milano: Franco Angeli. 31.
[23] Ponti, Gio. 1956. “Giorno e notte” Domus 320:7-9.

On the use of Electric Arc Furnace slags in concrete
b
for structural applications
Alan Piemonti, Antonio Conforti, Luca Cominoli, Antonella Luciano, Sabrina
Sorlini and Giovanni Plizzari
if
Department of Civil, Environmental, Architectural Engineering and Mathematics,
University of Brescia,
Via Branze 43, Brescia (25123), Italy
Abstract
In Italy, in 2020, the production of slag from electric arc furnace (EAF) has been estimated in about 3
million tons, with disposal rates in landfills still around 45–50%. Due to their characteristics, steelmak-
ing slags represent a valid alternative to the natural materials commonly used, especially in the con-
struction sector. Therefore, the aim of this work is to analyse the behavior of concrete mixtures with
the addition of different percentages (0, 10, 25 and 50%) of EAF slag, evaluating both rheological and
strength properties over time. The results of the tests showed that the use of EAF slag for the production
of ordinary concrete is possible as rheological and mechanical properties are maintained and/or im-
proved.
1 Introduction
The growing interest of the construction sector in so-called recycled materials is favouring their reuse
in different applications. A more sustainable approach to the use of artificial or industrial raw materials
as partial or total replacement of those of natural origin generates many benefits (reduction of extraction
of natural resources, environmental pressures, atmospheric emissions, waste production and minimisa-
tion of the demand for virgin materials and energy, thus also limiting the dependence of their importa-
tion and exposure to the variability of market prices).
Among the various possibilities available in different sectors, slags from the thermal treatment of
iron ores and steel scraps have been a very valid solution for a couple of decades now for partially or,
in some cases, totally replacing natural raw materials. In particular, among the many types of slags from
the steel industry, the slag from steel production in the Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) is particularly suit-
able for re-use in various applications in the construction sector. The Italian EAF slag production has
been estimated in almost 3.25 million tonnes per year. Concerning the regional scale, the Lombardy
(the Italian region with the highest concentration of steel mills) EAF slag production amounts to around
1.43 million tonnes, almost half of the national production, while at the provincial scale, the Province
of Brescia alone (one of the 12 provinces in Lombardy), has seen an increase in the slag, reaching
around 0.80 million tonnes, 25–30% of the entire Italian production [1]. Of all the EAF slag produced
in the province of Brescia, about 40% was destined for disposal, with a consequent and inevitable in-
crease in the space needed to host landfills.
Thanks to their similar, if not better, chemical, physical and performance characteristics compared
to natural aggregates, EAF slag can be reused in many applications in the construction sector: road
construction [2], in concrete as a partial replacement of binder [3] and/or natural aggregates [4], [5], for
precast products, railway ballast, mortars, hydraulic engineering, embankments and fills, gabions, soil
stabilisation, landfill cover layers, as well as for internal reuse and wastewater treatment [6].
In particular, with regard to the reuse for concrete production, EAF slag is suitable for partial re-
placement of binder and/or natural aggregates. Some studies in the literature have shown (and summa-
rised) the benefits and disadvantages of this type of reuse, collecting the different experiences of re-
searchers worldwide. The strength properties of concrete produced with EAF slag are maintained and/or
increased, depending on the percentage of EAF slag–natural aggregate replacement; on the other hand,
some doubts and gaps in the literature exist with regard to the different durability aspects, which will
certainly have to be implemented [7]. In spite of the numerous advantages, the reuse of EAF slag in
concrete is not free from problems: higher density than natural concrete (due to the higher density of
the slag compared to the natural aggregates) and volumetric instability (due to the presence of free-CaO
and MgO). In the literature, there are various methods and treatments that allow to reduce the content
14 th
of these components and thus limit expansive phenomena [8], [9]. In addition to the standard concrete,
other types of concrete with the addition of EAF slag are being studied and developed (e.g. high strength
b
concrete [10] and concrete with the addition of different types of fibres [11]).
The aim of this work is to design, refine, cast and characterise four concrete mixtures with the
addition of different percentages of EAF slag to partially replace the natural aggregates (0, 10, 25 and
50%), evaluating and comparing both rheological and strength properties, with an eye to future devel-
if
opments and the study of the various aspects related to durability.
2 Materials
The cement used in this research is a Portland cement CEM 42.5 R II/A-LL with limestone, in accord-
ance with EN 197-1. The natural aggregates are subdivided into three sizes: fine sand 0–2 mm, medium
sand 0–5 mm and gravel 6–20 mm, with a specific weight of 2.65, 2.74 and 2.72 g/cm3, respectively,
and with a water absorption value for all of them of about 1%. The slag used comes from steel produc-
tion by electric arc furnace (EAF); size, specific weight and water absorption are 0–16 mm, 3.60 g/cm3
and 2%, respectively. The chemical composition of the EAF slag consists mainly of CaO (26%), SiO2
(14%), FeOx (40%), MgO (7%) and other components in smaller percentages (Al2O3, MnO, TiO2, P2O5,
etc.). The main mineralogical phases present are Wustite (FeO), Larnite (Ca2SiO4), Mayenite
(Ca12Al14O33) and Brownmillerite (Ca2(Al,Fe)2O5).
3 Mix design and tests

Four mix design were formulated in which natural aggregates were partially replaced by different per-
centages of EAF slag. In the following, the four mixes will be named according to their replacement
percentages: NAT (reference concrete mix, without slag addition), 10%, 25% and 50% (concrete mixes
with natural aggregate–EAF slag replacement percentages of 10%, 25% and 50%, respectively). Prior
to the design of the four different mixes, appropriate screening of slag and natural aggregates were
carried out in order to identify the best grain size curve for each mix (according to the theoretical grain
size curves of Bolomey). An amount of superplasticizer was used to achieve the desired workability.
Before being used in the mix, the EAF slag were pre-saturated by soaking them in water (calculated
and corrected appropriately by the mix design) for 24h. Table 1 shows the mix designs compositions.
Table 1 Mix designs.

Components NAT 10% 25% 50%
Portland Cement 42.5 R II/A-LL [kg/m3] 320 320 320 320
Water [kg/m3] 160 160 160 160
Fine sand (0–2 mm) [kg/m3] 283 264 226 188
Medium sand (0–5 mm) [kg/m3] 565 526 487 292
Gravel (6–20 mm) [kg/m3] 1084 948 735 483
EAF slag (0–16 mm) [kg/m3] 0 256 640 1279
Superplasticizer [l/m3] 0.25 0.50 0.50 1.00
Water/cement ratio (w/c) [-] 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
For each of the four mixtures, the rheological properties of the fresh concrete were first evaluated:
workability (EN 12350-2), air content (EN 12350-7) and density (EN 12350-6). After the curing period,
which took place in a climatic chamber at a temperature (20±2)°C and RH (50±5)% for the drying
shrinkage specimens and in tanks filled with water (periodically replaced) for the other specimens, the
concrete strengths were evaluated. In particular: compressive strength at 3, 7, 14, 28 and 60 days of
curing (cubic specimens 150x150x150 mm3, EN 12390-3), elastic modulus at 28 days of curing (cylin-
drical specimens 150x300 mm, EN 12390-13) and drying shrinkage at 2, 3, 5, 7, 14, 28, 60, 75 and 90
days of curing (prismatic specimens 75x75x285 mm3, ASTM C490).
658 Sustainability and life cycle assessment

In addition, three 90x90x830 mm3 prismatic tension ties with a Ø12 internal reinforcement bar were
cast for each mix, to be subjected to traction after 28 days of curing in order to evaluate whether the
b
addition of EAF slag could possibly influence the crack development, opening, spacing and stress–
strain relationship.
if
4.1 Fresh concrete
4.1.1 Workability
The workability of the concrete was assessed by means of the Slump test with the Abrams cone. To
keep the EAF slag concrete workability under control and make it comparable to that of the reference
mix (NAT), small percentages of superplasticizer were added, calculated on the basis of the cement
content (0.1% for the NAT mix, 0.2% for the 10% and 25% mixes and 0.4% for the 50% mix). The
slump of the four mixes was between 170 and 190 mm, thus respecting the range imposed by the stand-
ard for consistency class S4 (160–210 mm).
4.1.2 Air content
The air content was measured by the pressure method, using the porosimeter. The instrument consists
of a cylindrical metal container of 7 litres volume, which is filled with concrete and sealed with a lid,
after cleaning the edges. Two valves at the top of the instrument (one inlet and one outlet) are then
opened and water is injected to saturate the voids in the mixture. The two valves are then closed and
the instrument is pressurised manually. Once pressurised, the instrument is vented, waited a few sec-
onds and the air content value is read on a manometer.
The air content of the four mixtures was very similar: 2.40% for NAT and about 2.50% for the other
three mixtures with the addition of pre-saturated EAF slag (it should be noted that the same mixtures
with non–pre-saturated EAF slag showed higher air content values, up to 3.50%).
4.1.3 Density
The density of the concrete in the fresh state was measured by weighing the cylindrical metal container
of the porosimeter, of known volume. The densities were approximately 2439 kg/m3, 2510 kg/m3, 2613
kg/m3 and 2830 kg/m3 for the NAT, 10%, 25% and 50% mixes, respectively. The higher the replace-
ment percentage of natural aggregate by EAF slag, the higher the density of the concrete, due to the
higher specific weight of the slag compared to the natural aggregate.
4.2 Hardened concrete

4.2.1 Compressive strength
The compressive strength was evaluated at 3, 7, 14, 28 and 60 days of curing, by testing three
150x150x150 mm3 cubes for each deadline. Figure 1 shows the compressive strength development for
the four mixes: as the substitution percentage between natural aggregates and EAF slag increased, the
compressive strength also increased. At 28 days of curing, the compressive strength increased by 12%,
16% and 21% for the 10%, 25% and 50% slag mixes, respectively, if compared to that of the NAT mix.
14th
if b
Fig. 1 Compressive strength of the four mixes.
4.2.2 Elastic modulus

The elastic modulus E was evaluated at 28 days of curing on 150 mm diameter and 300 mm high
cylindrical specimens. Table 2 shows the value of the elastic modulus for each mix (obtained from the
average of the elastic moduli of the four cylinders for each mix), the coefficient of variation (CV) and
the difference (increase/decrease, in percentage) compared to the NAT mix. As the substitution per-
centage between natural aggregates and EAF slag increased, the elastic modulus also increased.
Table 2 Average elastic modulus E values (coefficient of variation CV in brackets) and differences
(increase/decrease, in percentage) compared to the NAT mix.

Mix E [GPa] CV Difference
NAT 33.01 (0.02) -
10% 34.01 (0.02) + 3%
25% 36.38 (0.06) + 10%
50% 41.14 (0.10) + 25%
4.2.3 Drying shrinkage

The drying shrinkage was evaluated at 2, 3, 5, 7, 14, 28, 60, 75 and 90 days of curing, on three beams
75x75x285 mm3 for each mix. Figure 2 shows the trend of the drying shrinkage of each mix, the test
specimens and the shrinkage measuring instrument. As mentioned in Section 3 “Mix design and test-
ing”, the ageing of the small beams took place in a climatic chamber at a temperature (20±2)°C and RH
(50±5)%. The measuring instrument was also placed in the same chamber for the entire curing period,
in order to be subjected to the same temperature and humidity conditions and to avoid possible errors
in the measurements. The addition of a certain percentage of pre-saturated EAF slag in substitution of
the natural aggregates seems to slightly reduce the overall shrinkage of concrete, if compared to the
trend of the NAT mix.

if b
(b)
(a)
(c)
Fig. 2 (a) Trend of the drying shrinkage of each mix; (b) Drying shrinkage test specimens; (c)
Shrinkage measuring instrument.
4.2.4 Tension ties

In addition to the previously described specimens, concrete tension ties were also cast, i.e. 90x90x830
mm3 prismatic specimens with a Ø12 steel rebar positioned along the axis of the specimen. Three ten-
sion ties were cast and tested for each mix, for a total of 12 specimens. The specimens were cured for
28 days in a tank full of water and tested by subjecting them to uniaxial traction using the Instron
machine at the “Pietro Pisa” Material Testing Laboratory of the University of Brescia. The standard
test is divided into three phases:
▪ Initial phase or non-cracked phase: phase from 0 up to Pcr, i.e. the load at which the first crack
of the element appears;
▪ Cracked phase: phase which in turn is divided into two parts: crack formation and stabilisation;
▪ Yield phase of the reinforcement rebar (approx. from a load P equal to 60 kN).
The aim of these tests was to evaluate whether the good properties of EAF slag, included in the mix
to replace the natural aggregate at different percentages, could influence the formation, opening and
distribution of cracks in the concrete. These are preliminary tests that will later be accompanied by
specific tests (e.g. pull-out test, beam test, etc), to evaluate the bond between steel rebars and concrete
matrix with different percentages of EAF slag – natural aggregate substitution, also in view of future
tests related to the durability aspect.
At load steps of 40 and 50 kN, the tests were temporarily interrupted in order to take photographs
of the cracks using the Dino Lite microscope. Once the tests were completed and the microscope was
calibrated to the software, three crack opening measurements were taken for each photo on each side
of the specimen for each crack. After that, the average for each crack was then calculated for each side,
then the average of the 4 sides for each crack and finally the average crack opening for each specimen.
Figure 3 shows an example of a tension tie tested in this experimental campaign and the final load–
stress–strain diagram obtained from the average of the measurements made with potentiometers placed
on the four faces of each specimen, compared with the average behavior of the bare steel rebar (from
the same reinforcing rebars used for the tension ties, other rebars were obtained and tested individually
in order to obtain the trend of the bare rebar). As highlighted in Figure 3, the behavior in the elements
made with the addition of EAF slag was similar to that of the element made of ordinary concrete.
14th
if b
(a) (b)
Fig. 3 (a) Final comparison between the average behavior of the different mixes, compared with
the average behavior of the bare steel rebar; (b) Example of a tension tie during the test.
The following Table shows a summary of the main parameters evaluated during and after the tests
carried out on each of the three tension ties for each mix. In particular:
▪ Pcr: load at which the first crack appears in the specimen;
▪ ε40: strain reached by the specimen at a load corresponding to 40 kN;
▪ ε50: strain reached by the specimen at a load corresponding to 50 kN;
▪ w40: average crack width at a load of 40 kN (at this load, the test was interrupted in order to
take photographs with the Dino Lite microscope. The values in the Table 3 are the result of the
average of four values, one for each side, each resulting from the average of three measurements
carried out for each side and each crack);
▪ w50: average crack width at a load of 50 kN (at this load, the test was interrupted in order to
take photographs with the Dino Lite microscope. The values in the Table 3 are the result of the
average of four values, one for each side, each resulting from the average of three measurements
carried out for each side and each crack);
▪ sr: average crack spacing (mean value performed considering the four sides of the specimen);
▪ sr,MC2010: crack spacing calculated according to (1), obtained by adapting the fib Model Code
2010 [12];
▪ sr/sr,MC2010: ratio between the measured crack spacing and that provided by (1).
 1  f 
sr , MC 2010 = 1.17  ls ,max = 1.17   k  c +   ctm  (1)
 4  s , ef  
bm 
Where:
▪ ls,max: length over which slip between concrete and steel occurs. The steel and concrete strains,
which occur within this length, contribute to the width of the crack [13];
▪ k: empirical parameter to take the influence of the concrete cover into consideration; as a sim-
plification, it can be considered equal to 1 [13];
▪ c: concrete cover (39 mm);
▪ Φ: diameter of the steel rebar (12 mm);
▪ ρs,ef: effective reinforcement percentage, equal to As/Ac,ef, with As equal to the area of the rein-
forcement bar and Ac,ef equal to the effective concrete area;
▪ fctm: concrete tensile strength, equal to 0.3‧fck(2/3) for concrete lower than C50/60;
▪ τbm: mean bond between steel and concrete. As a simplification, it can be assumed equal to 1.8‧
fctm (Table 7.6-2 of [13]).

Table 3 Summary of the main parameters evaluated during and after the tests carried out on each of
the three tension ties for each mix (coefficient of variation CV in brackets).
b
Pcr ε40 ε50 w40 w50 sr sr,MC2010 sr/sr,MC2010
Specimen
[kN] [‰] [‰] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [-]
if
NAT
NAT-1 29.4 1.162 1.639 0.181 0.262 151.7 183.3 0.83
NAT-2 30.5 1.082 1.654 0.209 0.294 160.4 183.3 0.87
NAT-3 24.7 0.936 1.543 0.165 0.259 180.4 183.3 0.98
Mean 28.2 1.060 1.612 0.185 0.272 164.2 183.3 0.90
CV (0.11) (0.11) (0.04) (0.12) (0.07) (0.09) - (0.09)
10%
10%-1 21.6 1.167 1.593 0.162 0.256 145.0 183.3 0.79
10%-2 20.6 1.147 1.603 0.154 0.204 120.6 183.3 0.66
10%-3 23.7 0.935 1.568 0.153 0.270 155.0 183.3 0.85
Mean 22.0 1.083 1.588 0.156 0.243 140.2 183.3 0.76
CV (0.07) (0.12) (0.01) (0.03) (0.14) (0.13) - (0.13)
25%
25%-1 29.1 1.182 1.637 0.177 0.254 156.3 183.3 0.85
25%-2 27.1 1.003 1.583 0.168 0.275 182.5 183.3 1.00
25%-3 29.6 0.862 1.527 0.162 0.241 175.8 183.3 0.96
Mean 28.6 1.016 1.582 0.169 0.257 171.5 183.3 0.94
CV (0.05) (0.16) (0.03) (0.04) (0.07) (0.08) - (0.08)

50%
50%-1 21.6 1.022 1.428 0.162 0.237 133.3 183.3 0.73
50%-1 25.1 0.925 1.407 0.176 0.251 155.8 183.3 0.85
50%-1 22.0 1.067 1.596 0.156 0.243 163.3 183.3 0.89
Mean 22.9 1.005 1.477 0.165 0.244 150.8 183.3 0.82
CV (0.08) (0.07) (0.07) (0.06) (0.03) (0.10) - (0.10)
5 Concluding remarks
Among the different possible applications of electric arc furnace slag, the reuse as partial replacement
of natural aggregates in concrete is certainly one of the most widespread. In the present experimental
campaign (still in progress), natural aggregates were partially replaced by EAF slag in three different
percentages: 10%, 25% and 50%. Thanks to the addition of small amounts of superplasticizer, the
workability was easily monitored, allowing concretes of consistency class S4 to be obtained. The pre-
saturation of the slag helped to maintain air content values similar to those obtained for the reference
concrete. The higher specific gravity of EAF slag, compared to natural aggregates, is the main reason
for obtaining concretes with a higher density than the reference one, which increased as the aggregate–
slag substitution percentage increased. Mixes with EAF slag showed an increase in compressive
strength and elastic modulus compared to the reference mix, with higher values as the percentage of
aggregate–slag substitution increased. The addition of pre-saturated EAF slag also seemed to bring
slight improvements in the shrinkage behaviour of the concrete. Finally, the results of the tests on ten-
sion ties did not show important differences in the development, opening and crack spacing and in the
14th
stress–strain relationship between tension ties in reference concrete and those with slag (however, fur-
ther investigation of these tests are necessary). It is evident that the awareness of the importance of a
b
well-designed mixture, the knowledge of the chemical, physical and performance properties of the slag,
of their benefits and problems and their behaviour once introduced into the mix, are fundamental factors
for the correct reuse of the material in this application. The preliminary results obtained and discussed
in this paper are in line with those found in the literature and bode well for the advancing of the exper-
if
imental campaign, which is aimed at investigating the different aspects related to durability.
Acknowledgements
The present work has been carried out within the framework of the XXXV cycle of the PhD program
at the Department of Civil, Environmental, Architectural Engineering and Mathematics (DICATAM)
of the University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy. The PhD topic concerns the “Enhancement of industrial
waste, with particular reference to foundry and steelmaking slag, as new building materials” and is
funded by ENEA (“Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic
Development”) and Region of Lombardy.
References
[1] Piemonti, A., Conforti, A., Cominoli, L., Luciano, A., Plizzari, G., Sorlini, S. 2021. “Evalua-
tions through Mass Flow Analysis of the production and management of steel slags in the prov-
ince of Brescia (Italy).” Paper presented at the 8th International Conference on Sustainable Solid
Waste Management, Thessaloniki, Greece, June 23–26.
[2] Sorlini, S., Sanzeni, A., Rondi, L. 2012. “Reuse of steel slag in bituminous paving mixtures.”
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[3] Parron-Rubio, M.E., Perez-García, F., Gonzalez-Herrera, A., Rubio-Cintas, M.D. 2018. “Con-
crete properties comparison when substituting a 25% cement with slag from different prove-
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tionale du béton (fib).

Evaluation of Steel and Polypropylene Fiber
b
Efficiencies for Conventional and Roller Compacted
Concrete for Pavements
if
Onur Ozturk and Nilufer Ozyurt
Civil Engineering Department
Bogazici University,
Bebek, Besiktas, Istanbul (34337), Turkey
Abstract
By increasing cracking performance, fibers allow to produce concrete pavements with lower thick-
nesses, but the amount reduction depends on properties of fibers and concrete. In this study, efficiencies
of steel (SF) and polypropylene (PPF) fibers in conventional (CC) and roller compacted (RCC) concrete
pavement mixtures were studied. Despite the difference in fresh state properties, efficiencies of fibers
in CC and RCC found similar for mechanical performance. While increasing cost, polypropylene fibers
were found to decrease the environmental impact of pavement by reducing pavement thickness. For
both CC and RCC, decreased thicknesses and increased costs were found for SF, but increased (RCC)
and decreased (CC) values found for emissions.
1 Introduction
With the increasing interests in the environmental issues caused by the increasing population and in-
crease in use of energy, sustainability of engineering structures takes great amount of attention from
the researchers and industry. Due to their large scales, concrete pavements have a considerable impact
on the environment [1], from their construction to use phase. Therefore, a variety of strategies have
been implemented to improve the sustainability of concrete pavements. Among them, improving the
sustainability of pavement materials has been one of the issues taken into account, and several studies
were carried out on this topic [2]–[6]

Use of high-performance materials to reduce pavement thickness and increase the service life of
concrete pavements is one of the methods that has been implemented to obtain sustainable pavements.
In this respect, use of discrete macro fibers to improve the cracking resistance of pavement material,
which allows to produce concrete pavements with lower thicknesses and without conventional rein-
forcement bars, is one of the efficient ways to decrease the environmental impact of concrete pave-
ments. Fibers produced from different raw materials, such as carbon, polypropylene, nylon, steel, etc.
are used to improve the cracking resistance of concrete. Among the different types of fibers, steel (SF)
and polypropylene (PPF) fibers are the fibers that are widely used due to their advantages related to
cost, handling, and resistance to environmental impacts.
It has been known for a long time that the extent of contribution that could be obtained by using
fibers depends on various properties of fibers; such as type of raw material, length, diameter, surface
properties, volume, etc. Additionaly, properties of concrete matrices have also a considerable impact
on the resulting performance [7] since they affect the fiber-matrix interface characteristics.
This study has been carried out to examine and compare the efficiency of fibers in conventional
concrete (CC) and roller compacted concrete (RCC) pavement mixtures, which are two types of mix-
tures commonly used in pavement construction and considerably different from each other in terms of
their fresh state properties. In this respect, first, mixture design of plain and fiber reinforced CC and
RCC pavement mixtures were done, and cost & environmental impact (CO2 emission) of the mixtures
were determined for unit volume (1 m3). Second, cylindrical and prismatic specimens were produced
and cured to use in mechanical tests (compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, flexural perfor-
mance). Third, thickness design for a sample road was done for each of the concrete mixtures, by using
the experimentally obtained material parameters. In the final step, required thickness values were used
to calculate the cost and environmental impact of each concrete mixtures for unit pavement area (1 m2).
14 th
2 Experimental & Numerical Study
b
2.1 Materials, Mix Design
As mentioned above, plain and fiber reinforced CC and RCC pavement mixtures were designed and
evaluated in the scope of this study. For all the mixtures, as binding material, CEM I / 42.5-R portland
cement was used. Moreover, two types of crushed stone (No:1 (5 – 12 mm), No:2 (12 – 24 mm)), one
if
type of crushed sand (0 – 5 mm), and one type of natural sand (0 – 5 mm) were used as aggregates.
Modified polycarboxylate based superplasticizer was used for plain and fiber reinforced conventional
concrete mixtures to achieve the aimed consistency (explained below), but it was not used for roller
compacted concrete mixtures. One type of polypropylene (40 mm length, 0.72 mm diameter, 550 MPa
tensile strength and 8.5 GPa elastic modulus) and one type of steel (36 mm length, 0.55 mm diameter,
1345 MPa tensile strength and 200 GPa elastic modulus) macro fibers were also used in this study.
For the mix design, cement dosages of CC and RCC mixtures were selected and fixed as 350 kg/m3
and 300 kg/m3, respectively. Aggregates were proportioned (Crushed Stone : No 1 : 30%, Crushed
Stone : No 2 : 25% ; Crushed Sand : 35% ; Natural Sand : 10%) according to TS 802 [8] and ACI 327R
[9]. Water/cement ratio of CC mixtures was fixed to 0.60, but the water amount for plain and fiber
reinforced RCC mixtures were determined by using soil compaction method. S2 slump class [10] was
aimed for CC mixtures and amount of superplasticizers were determined accordingly. However, no
admixture was used in zero slump RCC mixtures. For all fiber reinforced concrete (FRC) mixtures
amount of fibers were fixed to 0.5%vol. Based on the explained methodology, ingredients for 1 m3
mixtures were given in Table 1. Additionally, since there is a cost and environmental impact analyses
part in this study, cost and CO2 emissions for 1 m3 concrete mixtures were calculated and given in Table
1. It is worth noting here that the cost and CO2 emissions of unit ingredients (cement, aggregate, etc.)
were obtained from local suppliers, Hammond and Jones [11], Korol et al. [12], Stengel and Schießl
[13].
Table 1 Ingredients, costs, and CO2 emissions for 1 m3 concrete mixtures (kg/m3).
Ingredients CC - P CC - PPF CC - SF RCC - P RCC - PPF RCC - SF
Cement 350 350 350 300 300 300

Crushed Stone: No 1 542 537 539 613 609 603
Crushed Stone: No 2 451 446 449 510 506 502
Crushed Sand 635 628 631 718 712 706
Natural Sand 181 179 180 204 203 201
Water 210 210 210 138 137 140
SP 1.1 1.4 1.8 0.0 0.0 0.0
PPF 0.0 4.6 0.0 0.0 4.6 0.0
SF 0.0 0.0 39.0 0.0 0.0 39.0
CO2 Emission (kg CO2 eq.) 258 274 364 222 238 326
Cost ($) 21 48 95 20 47 94
2.2 Specimens and Curing

A pan type mixer was used to produce fresh concrete mixtures. 10x20 cm cylindrical and 10x10x35 cm
prismatic specimens were produced to be used in mechanical tests. A vibrating table, and a vibrating
hammer were used to compact CC and RCC mixtures, respectively. Though the cylindrical specimens
were exposed to modulus of elasticity and compressive strength tests, prismatic ones were used in flex-
ural performance tests. As a total of 6 cylindrical and 6 beam specimens were produced for all mixtures,
and the specimens were water cured according to ASTM C192 [14], until their test ages (28 days).
666 Sustainability and life cycle assesment

Pavements
2.3 Mechanical Tests
b
Modulus of elasticity, compressive strength, and flexural performance tests were conducted according
to ASTM C469 [15], ASTM C39 [16], and ASTM C1609 [17], respectively. Though an automatic
compression machine was used for the compressive strength tests, two different MTS closed loop servo-
hydraulic machines were used to carry out the modulus of elasticity and flexural performance tests,
with 500 kN and 100 kN maximum loading capacities, respectively.
if
2.4 Thickness Design, Cost & Environmental Impact Analyses
For the design life of 30 years and current annual daily truck traffic of 1000, thickness requirements for
the concrete mixtures were determined according to IRC 58 [18]. Annual rate of growth for truck traffic
was considered as 2% and the traffic was assumed to be evenly distributed in both directions, as well
as day and night times. Major arterial traffic spectrum given in StreetPave [19] design software was
considered for the axle load distribution. Modulus of support (subbase + base) was used as ‘285
MPa/m’, and width of a lane and distance beween the transverse joints were taken as ‘3.5 m’ and ‘4.5
m’, respectively. Maximum day-time and night-time temperature differentials within the pavement slab
were taken as 10 °C. It should be stated here that the road parameters were determined by considering
the suggestions and examples given in IRC 58 [18].
Pavement material parameters (modulus of elasticity, flexural strength, etc.) used in the design were
taken from the experimental results of current study. As mentioned above, IRC 58 (2015) concrete
pavement design guide was used for the thickness calculations. However, for the design of FRC pave-
ments given design guide does not provide an approach. Thus, for FRC mixtures, a commonly used
design approach given in Roesler et al. [20] was employed. Based on the suggested method, experi-
mentally obtained modulus of rupture (MOR) values were modified by considering the post-cracking
flexural performance of FRC, to use in design. Equation 1 shows the formula used to modify MOR. In
Equation 1, MOR’ represents the modified MOR, and RFSR150 shows the residual flexural strength ratio
(RFSR) for the mid-span deflection of ‘span length / 150’ (‘300/150=2 mm’ mid-span deflection for
the test configuration used in this study) according to ASTM C1609 [17].
𝑀𝑂𝑅 ′ = 𝑀𝑂𝑅 ∗ (1 + 𝑅𝐹𝑆𝑅150 ) (1)

After determination of required thickness values, cost and CO2 emission values for unit area of
pavements (1 m2) were determined by using the specified thickness values, as well as unit cost and CO2
emissions of corresponding mixtures. Moreover, for the cost and CO2 emission calculations of plain
CC mixture, effect of using steel mesh reinforcements were also considered, to compare pavements
with similar performances. Since, without this kind of reinforcements performance of plain concrete
mixtures will be low compared to fiber reinforced concrete mixtures. On the other hand, since their
usage is not practical for RCC pavements [21]-[22], and RCC pavements are more stable dimensionally,
due to their low cement and high aggregate content, steel meshes were not considered for plain RCC.
Required steel mesh amount was determined according to IRC 58 [18], and TS 4559 [23] Q106/106
type steel mesh was found suitable for the relevant case. CO2 emission (1990 kg CO2 eq / kg product)
and cost values for 1 kg steel meshes (0.940 $/kg) were taken from Hammond and Jones [11] and local
suplier, respectively.
3 Results and Discussions
3.1 Mechanical Tests

Modulus of elasticity, compressive strength, and flexural performance test results (average and standart
deviation values) were presented in Fig. 2, Fig. 3, and Fig. 4, respectively. Based on the figures, though
slightly increased modulus of elasticity and flexural strength values were observed for RCC compared
to CC, compressive strength values were found considerably higher for RCC. For both CC and RCC
mixtures, considerably higher residual flexural strength (RFS) values were found for SF compared to
PPF which might be attributed to the differences in their characteristics. To elaborate, for the use of
similar volume fraction, SF with higher elastic modulus and hooked ends performed better in both
concrete mixtures compared to PPF. When the residual flexural strength values obtained for the used
fibers in CC and RCC mixtures, similar values were observed. As explained above, for the method used
14th
to design FRC pavements [20], RFSR is used to modify flexural strength value used in design. There-
fore, RFSR is a parameter that represents well the contribution of fibers to the required pavement thick-
b
ness, which is one of the key interests of this study. RFSR values for all the FRC mixtures were pre-
sented in Fig. 5. Based on Fig. 5, in line with the RFS values, RFSR values were found much higher
for SF compared to PPF, and the values were found similar for CC and RCC mixtures for both SF and
PPF.
if
Based on the given results, it might be concluded that despite considerable difference in their fresh
state properties, the effectiveness of fibers (PPF and SF) were found similar in CC and RCC mixtures
in terms of their contribution to the mechanical performance.
Fig. 2 Modulus of elasticity test results.

Fig. 3 Compressive strength test results.
Fig. 4 Flexural performance test results.

Pavements
if b
Fig. 5 Residual flexural strength ratios (RFSR) of FRC mixtures.
3.2 Thickness Design

Thickness requirements for all plain and fiber reinforced concrete mixtures considered in this study
were determined following the methodology explained above. Required thickness values were pre-
sented in Fig. 6. In the given figure, it might be seen that reduced pavement thicknesses were found for
FRC mixtures. In line with the RFSR values obtained (given in Fig. 4), the amount of reduction was
found much higher for SF reinforced concrete mixtures compared to PPF reinforced ones. Additionally,
for all 3 cases (plain, PPF reinforced, and SF reinforced) slightly lower thickness requirements were
found for RCC mixtures compared to CC, which might be attributed to slightly higher flexural strength
values obtained for RCC mixtures.
Fig. 6 Required thickness values for plain and fiber reinforced concrete mixtures.
3.3 Cost and Environmental Impact

Cost and CO2 emission values (corresponding to 1 m2 slab) obtained for all the mixtures were presented
in Fig. 7 and Fig. 8, respectively. It should be noted here again that while calculating the emissions and
costs presented in the figures. While calculating the the cost and CO2 emission of CC – P mixture, cost
and CO2 emission of unit area of steel mesh (‘1 m2’ TS 4559 [23] Q106/106) has been added to the
total cost of mixture, but it is not considered for RCC – P mixture (details were explained before).
Based on Fig. 7, increased costs were found for fiber reinforced CC and RCC mixtures, and amount
of increase was found much higher for SF compared to PPF (for the use of same volume ratio). Larger
increase in cost obtained for SF reinforced concrete than PPF reinforced concrete, despite the higher
reduction in required thickness caused by higher post-cracking performance obtained (see Fig.6), might
be attributed to significantly higher cost of SF compared to same volume of PPF. For plain concrete
cases, considerably lower cost was found for RCC compared to CC, which can be attributed to the
slightly higher flexural strength, absence of steel mesh reinforcement and lower cement amount for
RCC. Additionally, due to the lower amount of cement used, for both PPF and SF reinforced concrete
mixtures marginally lower cost values were obtained for RCC compared to CC.

14 th
According to Fig. 8, for both plain and fiber reinforced concrete cases considerably lower emission
values were obtained for RCC mixtures compared to CC mixtures, which is due to the lower amount
b
of cement used in RCC (300 kg/m3) compared to CC (350 kg/m3), as cement is the ingredient that
contributes most to CO2 emission of concrete. Additionally, while decreased emission values were
found for PPF reinforced CC and RCC mixtures, both decreased (for CC) and increased (for RCC)
emission values were obtained for SF reinforced concrete mixtures. Fig. 8 also shows that the amount
if
of reduction for PPF reinforced concrete mixtures was found higher for CC compared to RCC. Since
similar efficiencies were found for both fibers in terms of mechanical performance parameters used in
pavement design, the difference appear for the fibers in these two concrete types mainly caused due to
steel mesh reinforcements (which is used only for CC, as in real applications).
Fig. 7 Cost values for the mixtures.

Fig. 8 CO2 emission values for the mixtures.
4 Conclusions
Based on the obtained results, following conclusions could be drawn:
- For the designed mixtures, though slightly higher modulus of elasticity and flexural strength
values were found for RCC compared to CC, compressive strength values were found con-
siderably higher for RCC.
- For the use of similar volume ratio for both concrete types (CC and RCC), considerably
higher post-cracking performances were obtained for SF compared to PPF. Despite consid-
erable difference in their fresh state properties, effectiveness of fibers (post-cracking perfor-
mance parameters (RFS and RFSR)) in CC and RCC mixtures were found similar (for both
PPF and SF).

Pavements
- Caused by the high post-cracking performance obtained, amount of reduction in thickness
requirement was found higher for SF reinforced concrete mixtures compared to PPF rein-
b
forced one. On the other hand, though increased material costs were obtained for both PPF
and SF reinforced concrete mixtures (compared to plain mixtures), amount of increase was
found much higher for SF reinforced one, and the obtained results were attributed to consid-
erably higher cost of SF compared to same volume of PPF.
if
- Both cost and emission values were found higher for CC mixtures compared to RCC mix-
tures, which was attributed to lower amount of cement used in RCC mixtures. In spite of the
increased cost, reduced emission values were obtained for PPF reinforced CC and RCC mix-
tures. However, both increased (RCC) and decreased (CC) values were found for SF for sim-
ilar amount of use (0.5 %vol).
This study has been carried out to examine the effectiveness of fibers in two different concrete types
(CC and RCC) commonly used in pavement construction, an their efficiencies were found very similar
for the fiber types examined. Use of different fibers in different concrete matrices might alter the ob-
tained result. Additionally, durability issues (resistance to various environmental actions) were not
adressed in this study, which is very important for pavement structures as they are exposed to various
deleterious effects during their service lives. Therefore, further studies are recommended for these is-
sues.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge Akcansa Cement Industry and Trade Inc., Bogazici Concrete
Industry and Trade Inc., and Sika Construction Chemicals Inc. for the material supply. The first author
is also grateful to The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK) for the
financial support given during his PhD study. The authors gratefully acknowledge the Bogazici Uni-
versity Research Fund [Grant No: 22AD5] for the financial aid given for this research work.
References
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concrete pavements produced with virgin and recycled aggregates: an experimental and nu-
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[3] Chandrappa, Anush K., and Krishna Prapoorna Biligiri. 2016. “Pervious concrete as a sus-
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view” Construction and Building Materials 111: 262–274.
[4] Khankhaje, Elnaz, et al. 2018. “Sustainable clean pervious concrete pavement production in-
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[5] Wang, Qingsong, et al. 2019. “Is cement pavement more sustainable than permeable brick
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[6] Debbarma, Solomon, and G. D. Ransinchung. 2021. “Achieving sustainability in roller com-
pacted concrete pavement mixes using reclaimed asphalt pavement aggregates–state of the
art review” Journal of Cleaner Production 287: 125078.
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[9] ACI 327R. 2014. Guide to Roller-Compacted Concrete Pavements, Farmington Hills, MI:
American Concrete Institute.
[10] BS EN 206. 2013. Concrete. Specification, performance, production and conformity, British
Standards Institution (BSI), London, UK.
[11] Hammond, Geoff, and Craig Jones. 2008. Inventory of carbon & energy: ICE, Sustainable
Energy Research Team, Department of Mechanical Engineering.

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[12] Korol, Jerzy, et al. 2020. “Comparative analysis of carbon, ecological, and water footprints
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Effect of slenderness ratio on the environmental
b
impact of piles bored in clayey soil - case study
Kareem Abushama, Will Hawkins, Loizos Pelecanos and Tim Ibell
if
Department of Architecture & Civil Engineering,
The University of Bath,
Claverton Down, Bath BA2 7AY, United Kingdom
Abstract
A significant number of studies have addressed the environmental footprint of superstructures, how-
ever, the environmental footprint of substructures has only been investigated to a limited extent. This
research focuses on the environmental impact of deep foundations and means of minimising their em-
bodied carbon. An analytical model is used to examine the influence of the slenderness ratio (L/D) on
the capacities and settlement of bored piles of different concrete volumes. An optimisation algorithm
is proposed to minimise the total embodied carbon, the algorithm is then applied to a case study of a
monorail project in Egypt and a 59.6% saving of the total embodied carbon is achieved.
1 Introduction
Over the past few decades, the amount of greenhouse gases (GHG) released to the environment by
human activities has grown at an alarming rate. A recent UN report shows that the construction industry
is one of the seven major sectors that contribute significantly to environmental pollution and was re-
sponsible for more than 20% of energy-related CO2 emissions in 2020, and this is expected to increase
during the upcoming years unless preventive actions are taken [1]. Consequently, the UK is currently
taking urgent measures and interventions to cut 78% of emissions by 2035, an essential milestone in
the nation’s transition to Net Zero by 2050.
Many studies have addressed the carbon footprint of superstructures including life cycle assess-
ments, trials to reduce the quantity of material used in construction and discovering new production
techniques with lower environmental impact [2]-[3]. However, the carbon footprint of substructures
has only been investigated to a limited extent [4]-[5], this is believed to be due to a lack of certainty in
the mechanical behaviour of soil and its interaction with structures as well as the construction complex-
ity for deep foundations. Furthermore, foundations have proven to be responsible for a considerable
share of the total embodied carbon within any structure [6], accordingly, there is clear justification for
reducing the embodied carbon of foundations through both innovation and scrutinization of codes.
Most of the existing literature on optimising the design of foundations addresses optimising the
structure’s cost instead of its environmental impact, taking this as a reference for judging the efficiency
of structures although many researchers agreed that deep foundations are usually over-designed, and
designers usually deploy higher factors of safety than required which result in high impact foundations
[5]-[7]-[8]. However, some researchers have discussed the environmental impact of foundations, this
includes comparing the environmental impact of precast and in-site-cast concrete foundations [4], as
well as some trials to use genetic algorithms to optimise the design of piled foundations through adjust-
ing some design parameters such as pile length, diameter, spacing and pile cap thickness [9].
This research aims to establish a robust algorithm to optimise the design of piled foundations and
aid designers during the design stage of construction. The research focuses on improving the environ-
mental impact of deep foundations and identifying the best pile geometry and optimal slenderness ratio
(length/diameter) (L/D) to aid the process of decision-making during the design stage.
2 Pile design optimisation
2.1 Geotechnical and structural capacities of piles

For a concrete pile to be able to resist the applied load it should have a sufficient combination of bearing
and friction resistances (geotechnical capacity), an acceptable settlement (serviceability limit) and can
resist the applied straining actions as a concrete member (structural capacity). This section compares
the geotechnical and structural capacities of piles designed to Eurocode, which is one of the most widely
14th
accepted and used codes worldwide. Equation (1) calculates the axial compressive capacity of a pile as
a short column according to Eurocode 2 (EC2), while equation (2) calculates the geotechnical capacity
b
of a pile to Eurocode 7 (EC7)[10].
𝑁 = 0.4 𝑓𝑐𝑢 𝐴𝑐 + 0.75 𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠 (1)
𝑄𝑡 = 𝑄𝑏 + 𝑄𝑠 (2)
if
- N = structural capacity of the pile as a short concrete column.
- Qt = geotechnical capacity of the pile.
- Qb, Qs = bearing resistance and friction resistance of the pile
- fcu, fy = concrete compressive strength and steel yield strength
- Ac , As = concrete and steel cross-sectional areas
A program is written and run over four piles of different concrete volumes 6, 12, 50 and 125 m3 to test
the behaviour of geotechnical and structural capacities of piles of a constant concrete volume at differ-
ent slenderness ratios (L/D) varying from 0-100. The first two volumes were obtained from the ge-
otechnical reports for a case study of deep foundations project in Egypt and is further examined later
on in this paper, while the third and fourth volumes are selected to test the behaviour of piles with larger
volumes, analysis results are summarised in Figure 1. It is worth mentioning that the amount of used
material usually governs the amount of CO2 emitted, therefore piles with the same concrete volume and
steel reinforcement have the same amount of embodied carbon resulting from the material usage [11].
(L/D)c (L/D)c
(L/D)c (L/D)c
Fig. 1 Structural and geotechnical capacities for piles of constant concrete volume
Results in Figure 1 show that at low slenderness ratios the difference between the geotechnical and
structural capacities is huge and this difference tends to decrease with increasing the slenderness ratio.
Furthermore, the two capacities converge at one slenderness ratio which is referred to in this paper as
the critical slenderness ratio (L/D)c, this point is corresponding to an optimal design as the pile’s ge-
otechnical capacity is maximised while its structural capacity is still in a safe limit (i.e. all the deployed
material is effective and functioning structurally) and consequently, the total embodied carbon is min-
imal [11]-[12]. Moreover, it is shown that the critical value of the slenderness ratio (L/D)c is different
for each concrete volume, and tends to decrease as the pile’s volume increases. It is worth mentioning
that slenderness ratios between 5 to 20 are mostly used in practice [12], however, the practical range
seems to be far from optimal, highlighting a scope for optimising the concrete piles designed to existing
standards and codes and ensuring that our current practice will usually result in overdesigned piles with
high values of embodied carbon. The soil used for these calculations is a clayey soil modelled using c’-
𝜑’ with properties tested by Craig [13] and summarised in Table 1, while Table 2 summarises the cal-
culated values of (L/D)c for each of the four tested concrete volumes.

Table 1 Soil properties tested by Craig [13].
b
Soil property Symbol Tested values
Soil type - Clay
Shape effect factor Nq 9
if
Unit weight 𝛾 15 (kN/m3)
Angle of friction 𝜑’ 320
Poisson’s ratio v 0.2
Shear modulus G 5000 + 500 𝑍 (kPa)
Factor of safety for soil unit weight 𝛾𝛾 1.0
Factor of safety for friction resistance 𝛾𝑅𝑠 1.6
Table 2 Calculated values of (L/D)c for piles of different concrete volumes.
Concrete volume (L/D)c

6 m3 58.7
12 m3 49.3
50 m3 35.4
125 m3 28.1
2.2 Effect of slenderness ratio (L/D) on the serviceability state of piles

Section 2.1 showed that the geotechnical capacity of piles increases with increasing the slenderness
ratio for a pile with a constant concrete volume. However, the serviceability limit state is a major con-
cern for pile design and should be further investigated. This section investigates the settlement of piles
of the same concrete volume at different slenderness ratios. For this purpose, the pile settlement is
calculated under a unit load of 1MN using different practical and theoretical settlement calculation
methods and the change in settlement with respect to the slenderness ratio is then examined. Following
is a summary of the methods deployed for calculating the pile’s settlement:
2.2.1 Calculating the pile settlement
Two main methods for predicting any pile’s settlement are the approximate closed-form solution and
the force-displacement method [13] as follows:
I. The Approximate closed-form solution
The approximate closed-form solution is a simplified approach for calculating the pile settlement pro-
posed by Randolph and Wroth in 1978 [14]. The method considers the soil to be fully elastic and the
pile to be incompressible and infinitely rigid, based on these assumptions the maximum settlement St
under a given applied load Q can be calculated using equation (3).
𝑄
𝑆𝑡 = (3)
𝐾𝑠 + 𝐾𝑏
Where:
- 𝐾𝑠 = friction stiffness of the soil
- Kb = bearing stiffness of the soil
II. The force-displacement method (T-Z method)
Also termed the load-transfer method, the pile’s body is divided into a number of discrete sections
(finite elements) with assigned properties, the pile-soil interaction is modelled using nodal springs with
predefined stiffness [13]. Each element has contributions from its two neighbouring nodes. The finite
14th
element method is then used to formulate the global equilibrium problem and therefore obtain the dis-
placements and corresponding reactions at the nodes of each element under the applied load solving the
b
following equations:
{𝐹} = [𝐾𝑝 + 𝐾𝑠 ] ∙ {𝑢} (4)

−1
{𝑢} = [𝐾𝑝 + 𝐾𝑠 ] ∙ {𝐹} (5)
if
Where, {𝐹} and {𝑢} are the vectors of known actions (axial force) and unknown degrees of freedom
(vertical displacements), whereas [𝐾𝑝 ] and [𝐾𝑠 ] are the stiffness matrices of pile and soil. The latter
matrix includes the stiffnesses of the soil springs which are defined using the Randolph & Wroth (1978)
relations and are as follows:
𝐺
𝑘𝑠 = (6)
1−𝜈
𝑟 ∙ ln (2.5 𝐿
)
𝑟
Where, 𝐺 and 𝜈 are the shear modulus and Poisson’s ratio of the soil, whereas 𝐿 and 𝑟 are the length
and radius of the pile.
2.2.2 Allowable settlement limit
The allowable limit of settlement for each pile design is checked using the empirical equations pre-
sented in Eurocode 7 (EC7) and the Egyptian Code for Soil Mechanics (ECP 202).
I. Eurocode 7 (EN 1997)
The allowable limit of pile settlement according to Eurocode 7 ( Stl7) is calculated in terms of the pile’s
diameter d as follows:
𝑆𝑡𝑙7 = 0.1 (𝑑) (7)
II. The Egyptian Code for Soil Mechanics Part 4 - Deep Foundations (ECP 202)
The ECP 202 estimates the maximum allowable settlement of a pile (Stl2) to be the sum of half of its
elastic shortening Se in addition to 2% of the pile’s diameter as follows:

𝑆𝑡𝑙2 = 0.5(𝑆𝑒 ) + 0.02 (𝑑) (8)
A program is written to calculate the values of settlement using the previously mentioned methods for
a fixed concrete volume at varying slenderness ratios L/D. The analysis results of a pile of a concrete
volume of 6 m3 are shown in Figure 2 for demonstration. It should be noted that the soil properties used
are those tested by Craig [13] as previously summarised in Table 1.
Fig. 2 Calculated settlement for a 6 m3 concrete pile at different slenderness ratios.
Figure 2 shows that the calculated settlement/settlement-limit of a pile with a constant concrete volume
decreases with increasing the slenderness ratio. All the used methods showed the same trend of lower
predicted settlement/settlement-limit with increasing the slenderness ratio. These results comply with
the results shown in section 2.1 and ensure that at a constant concrete volume, slenderer piles will
perform better than stocky ones.
b
2.3 Optimising the overall design of piles with respect to slenderness ratio
The previous sections have shown that the geotechnical, structural and settlement capacities of piles
have contrasting relationships with the slenderness ratio. However, only one of these criteria will be
if
critical in determining the overall design of the pile depending on the chosen slenderness ratio. This
section presents an approach to minimise embodied carbon by optimising pile slenderness ratio ac-
counting for all design criteria.
A program is written to run the theoretical model proposed to calculate the minimal pile concrete
volume required to satisfy each of the three limits for a given un-factored load of 1 MN at slenderness
ratios from L/D = 5 to L/D = 60. For consistency, the soil properties used for calculation are the same
as assumed and tested by Craig [13]. The program is designed to increase the pile’s volume over itera-
tions until it satisfies each of the design limits while keeping the same L/D value for each iteration. The
T-Z settlement method was used for this analysis as it accounts for pile compressibility and pile-soil
interaction while the settlement limit was calculated according to Eurocode 7 as shown in Equation (7).
For each calculated concrete volume, the total embodied carbon is determined using the Embodied
Carbon Factors (ECF) proposed by the brief guide to calculating embodied carbon of structures pub-
lished by the Institute of Structural Engineers (IStructE) and based on BS EN 15978 [15]. The method
has proved to be very efficient in terms of calculating the amount of embodied carbon within any struc-
ture at life cycle stages A1:A3. For this analysis, embodied carbon factors of 0.12 kgCO2e/kg and 1.99
kgCO2e/kg are used to assess the embodied carbon from concrete and steel respectively. The results of
the software run for an applied load of 1 MN are shown in Figure (3).
Envelope
Fig. 3 Total embodied carbon resulting from the amount of concrete and steel required to satisfy
each of the three criteria of a pile design at different slenderness ratios.
Figure 3 shows that at low slenderness ratios (L/D < 14) the geotechnical capacity of the pile is the
governing limit and will directly influence the required pile’s concrete volume, while for higher slen-
derness ratios a designer should pay special attention to the serviceability state (settlement) of the design
as it decides the required pile’s concrete volume and consequently the total embodied carbon. Shown
results are according to the predefined set of assumptions, loading conditions and soil properties.
3 Case study
3.1 Project definition

The presented case study is a monorail-train bridge located in New Capital – Egypt and is considered
one of many steps Egypt is currently taking toward reducing the carbon emissions from the transporta-
tion sector by developing the public transportation network across the country in order to cope with the
global call for cutting carbon emissions and achieve the sustainability goals of 2050. The main founda-
tion system deployed is deep foundations supporting piers along the entire length of the monorail bridge
as shown in Figure 4. The presented case study is for one of the test piles cast to verify the actual soil
14th
resistance and compare it to the theoretical values calculated from the measured soil properties, the
previously proposed algorithm will be applied to optimise the environmental impact of the pile design.
if b
Fig. 4 Mono-rail train project, New Capital – Egypt: left) supporting piers - right) the first trial to
operate the monorail train. [16]
3.2 Soil Properties

The site soil is composed of two layers; Layer 01 is sand extending to a depth of -2 m and Layer 02 is
silty clay extending to a depth of -30 m. Groundwater was not encountered in any of the drilled bore-
holes at the time of boring. The different soil properties are summarised in Table (3). A drained c’-
𝜑’soil model is used for analysis according to the provided data.
Table 3 Soil layers and measured soil properties.
Property Symbol Layer 01 Layer 02
Depth - 0 to -2 -2 to -30
Soil type - Sandy soil Silty clay soil
Unit weight (kN/m3) 𝛾 19.0 20.0
Young’s modulus (MPa) E 25-50.0 25.0-30.0

Effective cohesion (kPa) c’ - 20.0-30.0
Effective friction angle (degree) 𝜑′ 32-36 20.0
3.3 Tested pile:

The designated pile is 12 m long and 0.8 m in diameter and is designed to support an axial compression
load of 1080 kN, the friction of the pile within layer 01 is neglected. The theoretical geotechnical and
structural capacities of the pile are calculated to Eurocodes. The results are summarised in Table 4 and
show that the calculated structural capacity of the pile is around 7 times higher than the applied load,
this highlights a scope for optimising the pile design and cutting down some ineffective material. Ac-
cording to the geotechnical report, a static loading test was performed and the measured pile settlement
at 100% load was 0.48 mm, which is significantly lower than the allowable EC7 and ECP 202 limits,
80.0 mm and 16.5 mm respectively, calculated as shown in Section 2.2.
3.4 Pile optimisation

3.4.1 Calculating the critical slenderness ratio
As previously described in Section 2.1, the first step to optimise a pile’s design is to allocate (L/D)c
which corresponds to a design with the lowest impact, the optimisation algorithm was applied to the
given pile as shown previously in Section 2.1 and the critical slenderness ratio (L/D) c was found to be
48.5 and is far from the as-built (L/D) of 15.0 indicating a wide margin for optimising the pile’s design.
3.4.2 Redesigning the pile’s slenderness ratio
The next optimisation step is to decide which design limit is governing the pile’s capacity and try to
redesign for a higher (L/D). The results summarised in Table 4 show that the geotechnical capacity of
the pile is slightly more than the applied load, however, the experimental and theoretical calculated
settlements are much lower than the allowable settlement limit. Accordingly, the design is more gov-
b
erned by the geotechnical capacity and the redesign should be shifted towards making the serviceability
limit of a higher influence, the new slenderness ratio should therefore be shifted towards the critical
slenderness ratio (L/D)c. To achieve this aim, the optimisation algorithm was rerun and a redesign slen-
derness ratio range of 32 to 48.5 is recommended. Many design trials have been considered correspond-
if
ing to different pile dimensions and slenderness ratios within this range, two redesign scenarios are
presented in this paper to demonstrate the effect of changing the pile’s slenderness ratio on its capacities
as well as its environmental impact.
The first redesign scenario is for a pile length of 16.28 m and diameter of 0.50 m which is corre-
sponding to a slenderness ratio of 32.6. The pile managed to mark safe for all three capacities and saved
48.3% of the total embodied carbon compared to the as-built design. The second redesign scenario is
for a pile at the critical slenderness ratio (48.5) with a pile length of 19.4 m and a diameter of 0.4 m.
The pile managed to mark safe for all three capacities and saved 59.6% of the total embodied carbon.
The comparison results are summarised in Table 4 and show that the adopted optimisation technique is
efficient in reducing the total embodied carbon of piles and improving their environmental performance
by using lower quantities of material while achieving the same required capacity. However, it should
be noted that slenderer piles experience higher values of settlement and will need more care and quality
control during casting. which may result in extra operational and machinery requirements.
Table 4 As-built piles and recommended redesign scenarios

Property Original design Redesign 1 Redesign 2 (L/D)c
Pile length 12.0 m 16.3 m 19.4 m
Pile diameter 0.80 m 0.50 m 0.40 m
L/D 15.0 32.6 48.5
Concrete volume 6.00 m3 3.19 m3 2.44 m3
Total Embodied CO2 2.67 ton 1.38 ton (-48.3%) 1.08 ton (-59.6%)
Applied load 1080 kN 1080 kN 1080 kN
Geotechnical capacity 1332 kN 1082 kN (safe) 1098 kN (safe)
Structural capacity 7350 kN 2881 kN (safe) 1595 kN (safe)
Settlement from static loading test 0.48 mm NA NA
Settlement from T-Z method 10.1 mm 13.5 mm (safe) 26.4 mm (safe)
Settlement limit EC7 80.0 mm 50.0 mm 40.0 mm
4 Conclusion
This paper highlights a lack of research addressing the environmental impact of deep foundations. An
optimisation algorithm is proposed to optimise the environmental impact of bored piles, the algorithm
is then applied to a case study of pile foundations to validate its efficiency. Following are the main
points concluded from this paper:
• For a constant concrete volume, the geotechnical capacity of a pile increases while the structural
capacity decreases with increasing the slenderness ratio. The two capacities converge at one criti-
cal slenderness ratio (L/D)c and is corresponding to an optimal design in terms of embodied car-
bon, however, calculated (L/D)c ratios are higher than the common boring ratios used in industry.
• The geotechnical, structural and settlement performances of piles have contrasting relationships
with the slenderness ratio and only one of these criteria will be critical in determining the overall
capacity of the pile depending on the chosen slenderness ratio.
• For the shown case study, the first redesign scenario presents a pile designed at a slenderness ratio
of 32.6 and achieved 48.3% saving of the total embodied carbon, furthermore, when the critical
slenderness ratio is adopted, more carbon saving is achieved with a total saving of 59.6% but this
14 th
is accompanied with a higher theoretical calculated settlement and therefore further experimental
studies should be carried out to give a better understanding of the behaviour of slender piles.
b
• The adopted optimisation technique is efficient in reducing the total embodied carbon of piles and
improving their environmental performance, however, experimental testing is required to investi-
gate the behaviour of slender piles especially those subjected to horizontal loading.
• Although the results shown in this research are more oriented toward a specific type of piles in a
if
specific soil type , the paper aims to prove that there is scope to optimise the environmental impact
of piles designed to existing codes and standards, moreover, presented results are preliminary
findings for an on-going research project.
• For future work, authors will look for means of reducing the pile’s concrete volume without af-
fecting the pile’s geotechnical capacity through experimental testing of a novel pile design.
References
[1] United Nations Environment Programme (2021). 2021 Global Status Report for Buildings and
Construction: Towards a Zero-emission, Efficient and Resilient Buildings and Construction Sector.
Nairobi.
[2] Hawkins W, Orr J, Ibell T, Shepherd P. A design methodology to reduce the embodied carbon of
concrete buildings using thin-shell floors. Eng Struct. 2020;207(January):110195. Accessed April
20, 2022. doi:10.1016/j.engstruct.2020.110195
[3] Ranaudo F, van Mele T, Block P. A low-carbon, funicular concrete floor system: Design and en-
gineering of the HiLo floors. Paper presented at the IABSE Congr Ghent 2021 Struct Eng Future
Soc Needs. Published online 2021:2016-2024. doi:10.2749/Ghent.2021.2016
[4] Luo W, Sandanayake M, Zhang G. Direct and indirect carbon emissions in foundation construction
– Two case studies of driven precast and cast-in-situ piles. J Clean Prod. 2019;211:1517-1526.
Accessed April 20, 2022. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.11.244
[5] Sandanayake M, Zhang G, Setunge S. Environmental emissions at foundation construction stage
of buildings - Two case studies. Build Environ. 2016;95:189-198. Accessed April 20, 2022.
doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2015.09.002
[6] Georgiou E, Raffin M, Colquhoun K, Borrion A, Campos LC. The significance of measuring em-
bodied carbon dioxide equivalent in water sector infrastructure. J Clean Prod. 2019;216:268-276.
Accessed April 20, 2022. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.01.014
[7] Letsios C, Lagaros ND, Papadrakakis M. Optimum design methodologies for pile foundations in
London. Case Stud Struct Eng. 2014;2(1):24-32. Accessed April 20, 2022.
doi:10.1016/j.csse.2014.08.001
[8] Pons O, Casanovas-Rubio MM, Armengou J, de la Fuente A. Sustainability-Driven Decision-
Making Model: Case Study of Fiber-Reinforced Concrete Foundation Piles. J Constr Eng Manag.
2021;147(10):04021116. Accessed April 20, 2022. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)co.1943-7862.0002073
[9] Chan CM, Zhang LM, Ng JT. Optimization of Pile Groups Using Hybrid Genetic Algorithms. J
Geotech Geoenvironmental Eng. 2009;135(4):497-505. Accessed April 20, 2022.
doi:10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2009)135:4(497)
[10] British Standards Institution. (1995). Eurocode 7: Part 1, General rules (together with United
Kingdom national application document). London: British Standards Institution.
[11] Wu W, Sun P, Zhou H. The case study of carbon emission in building construction process. Paper
presented at the Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci. 2019;371(2). doi:10.1088/1755-1315/371/2/022011
[12] Mahdi TK, Al-Neami MA, Rahil FH. An Experimental Study on Laterally Loaded Winged Pile in
Sandy Soil. Paper presented at the Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci. 2021;856(1). doi:10.1088/1755-
1315/856/1/012051
[13] Knappett, J., & Craig, R. F. (2012). Craig's soil mechanics. Florida: CRC Press LLC
[14] Guo WD. Analytical and numerical analyses for pile foundations. PhD diss., Univ West Aust
1997;(December).
[15] Gibbons OP, Orr JJ. How to Calculate Embodied Carbon.; 2020.
https://www.istructe.org/IStructE/media/Public/Resources/istructe-how-to-calculate-embodied-
carbon.pdf
[16] African Business. 2021. “Mono-rail project Egypt.” Accessed April 22. https://african.busi-
ness/2021/12/trade-investment/editorial-private-sector-is-crucial-to-egypts-recovery

Experimental study of the effect of recycled aggregate
b
and glass fibre reinforced polymer reinforcement on
the behaviour of linear concrete members
if
Matej Jurgoš and Viktor Borzovič
Department of Concrete Structures and Bridges, Faculty of Civil Engineering,
Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava,
Radlinského 11, Bratislava 810 05, Slovakia
Abstract
This article deals with an experimental study of the shear behaviour of beams of recycled aggregate
concrete reinforced with glass fiber reinforced polymer bars. Overall, 24 beams were cast with different
reinforcement ratios (1.57%, 4.02%), different reinforcement types (steel, GFRP) and different concrete
mixtures (reference standard concrete and concretes with recycled aggregates of masonry and concrete
elements. The deflection, crack development, shear capacity and type of failure were investigated. The
results are compared with calculation models according to EC2 and prEC2. The results confirmed only
a slightly reduced reliability of shear strength ratio Vtest/Vmodel for EC2 and prEC3 compared to the
reference concrete. For concrete with recycled concrete aggregate, it was 3% for EC2 and 5% for prEC2
model. For concrete with recycled brick aggregate, it was 13% for EC2 and 14% for prEC2 model. The
performed experimental study suggests that different modulus of elasticity of concrete mixture did not
considerably affect ultimate load.
1 Introduction
The words ecology and sustainability are getting more publicity in recent years globally, especially in
developed countries in Europe. The European Green agreement ensures that Europe becomes the first
climate-neutral continent by 2050 [5]. Construction is one of the segments with a high share of green-
house gas emissions[6]. Concrete recycling and composite reinforcement could be one of ways to re-
duce the carbon dioxide footprint. At present, the Czech Republic is not getting enough natural aggre-
gate due to the depletion of quarries and not opening of new ones [1]. Recycled aggregate could sub-
stitute natural in some cases. Another part of the study is regarding substitute of steel bars with GFRP
bars which have the advantage of corrosion resistance, higher strength, fatigue resistance[7] and a dif-
ferent production process which is less environmentally demanding
There is already a patented product which contains 100 percent of recycled aggregate, see Fig.1.
Concrete mixture achieves comparable mechanical-physical parameters as traditional concrete, even
water tightness and freeze resistance[2]. The only notable difference is the modulus of elasticity of
concrete and density [2]. Due to the used technology, we can secure similar parameters as a class of
concrete C25/30 with the same or even lower dosage of cement [3]. Usage of recycled aggregate con-
crete brings economic savings from 15 to 35 percent [4], which in recent events is very attractive.
Fig. 1. Fragments of tested mixtures: reference concrete (left), recycled brick aggregate (middle),
recycled concrete aggregates (right).
14 th
2 Experiment
b
Twenty-four beams in total were tested. Three types of concrete, two types of reinforcement, and two
types of reinforcement ratio created 12 different combinations of these parameters. Each combination
contains two beams. Due to the load test arrangement, we were able to acquire from one beam two
independent tests of shear resistance without interference from each other. Beam ID consists of 4 fields.
The first refers to the diameter of reinforcement. N5 contains 10 mm bars and N6 16 mm bars. The
if
following field refers to the concrete mixture. REF is a reference concrete with traditional aggregate.
REC is a shortcut for concrete with concrete recycled aggregate, and REB refers to concrete with recy-
cled aggregate from masonry. This mixture is known as REBETONG. The third field mark used a type
of reinforcement. S stand for steel and C for GFRP composite reinforcement. During the load test,
vertical displacement was monitored by a linear displacement gauge placed directly above the acting
force. The dynamometer was in the same place as well. The load test arrangement in two steps is pre-
sented in Fig.2.
Fig. 2. Load test arrangement.
2.1 Material Properties

Table 1 presents the material properties of the concrete mixtures obtained as an average value of spec-
imens. Tests were done on cubes (6 pieces), cylinders (6 pieces), and prisms (3 pieces).
Table 1 Mechanical properties of concrete

Mixture type fcube(MPa) fc(MPa) ft(MPa) Ec(GPa) εc1 (‰) εcu (‰)
Ref. concrete - steel 36.82 27.92 2.76 25.33 2.83 4.05
Ref. concrete - GFRP 40.13 30.67 2.94 26.17 2.83 4.05
Rec. concrete - steel 26.36 19.38 2.16 15.83 4.34 5.60
Rec. concrete - GFRP 26.68 25.84 2.62 19.50 4.34 5.60
Rec. masonry - steel 39.67 30.23 2.91 15.17 4.06 4.89
Rec. masonry- GFRP 36.65 29.26 2.85 14.50 4.06 4.89
fcube - compressive cube strength; fc - compressive cylinder strength; Ec - modulus of elasticity of con-
crete; εc1= compressive strain in the concrete at the peak stress fc, εcu= ultimate compressive strain in
the concrete.

b
Stress-strain diagram
30
if
25
20
Stress [MPa]
15
reference concrete, modulus of elasticity = 25.33 GPa

10
recycled concrete, modulus of elasticity = 15.83 GPa

5
recycled masonry, modulus of elasticity = 15.17 GPa
0
0.00% 0.10% 0.20% 0.30% 0.40% 0.50% 0.60%
Strain [%]
Fig. 3. Stress-Strain diagram of selected specimens of concrete.
All concrete mixtures were designed as the strength equivalent of concrete C25/30 (characteristic
compressive cylinder strength fck =25MPa). Fig 3 shows the stress-strain diagram for selected concrete
mixtures. There is a noticeable difference between each mixture in a post-critical branch.
Table 2 Mechanical properties of used reinforcement.

Type Diameter Modulus of elasticity E Yield strength Tension strength
Ø (mm) (GPa) fy (MPa) ft (MPa)
GFRP 10 50 - 1000
GFRP 16 50 - 1000
Steel 10 200 550
Steel 16 200 550
Table 2 presents the mechanical properties of used reinforcement as mean values. Due to the schedule,
the tensile strength tests of bars have not yet been tested. Reinforcement in these experiments did not
reach the yield point, or ultimate tensile strain due to the nature of loading, the most prominent param-
eter is the modulus of elasticity.
2.2 Parameters of beams

The beams were reinforced by two types of reinforcement and by two ratios of reinforcement. We want
to simulate minimal and maximal reinforcement ratios according to EC. Table 3 shows parameters of
tested beams.
Matej Jurgoš and Viktor Borzovič 683

14 th
Table 3 Reinforcement details of beams.
b
Beam ID ρ (%) Reinforcement Beam ID ρ (%) Reinforcement
N5-REF-S-1,2 1.57 2Φ10, steel N5-REF-C-1,2 1.57 2Φ10, GFRP
N6-REF-S-1,2 4.02 2Φ16, steel N6-REF-C-1,2 4.02 2Φ16, GFRP
if
N5-REC-S-1,2 1.57 2Φ10, steel N5-REC-C-1,2 1.57 2Φ10, GFRP
N6-REC-S-1,2 4.02 2Φ16, steel N6-REC-C-1,2 4.02 2Φ16, GFRP
N5-REB-S-1,2 1.57 2Φ10, steel N5-REB-C-1,2 1.57 2Φ10, GFRP
N6-REB-S-1,2 4.02 2Φ16, steel N6-REB-C-1,2 4.02 2Φ16, GFRP
2.3 Process of testing

The experiment was performed on a 300 kN hydraulic press machine with a gradual loading process.
Each step was determined by an increment of applied force. This method was selected due to the low
modulus of elasticity of used materials. Typical loading steps were 1.5 kN.
3 Results
The main goal is to evaluate and compare experimental results with EC2 [8] and prEC2 [9]. Equation
1 represents the shear resistance without shear reinforcement according to EC2 (Eurocode 2) and equa-
tion 2 according to prEC2 (second generation of Eurocode 2)
1
𝐸𝑓 3
𝑉𝐸𝐶2 = [𝐶𝑅,𝑐 𝑘ℎ (100𝜌𝑙 𝑓𝑐 ) ] 𝑏𝑑 (1)
𝐸𝑠
1
3
𝐸𝑓 𝑑𝑑𝑔
𝑉𝑝𝑟.𝐸𝐶2 = 𝐶𝑘 (100𝜌𝑙 𝑓 ⋅ ) 𝑏d (2)
𝐸𝑠 𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑠.𝑑
√
4
CR,c - coefficient equal to 0,18; kh - 1+√200/𝑑 in this case i did not limit size factor with
value 2; ρl - reinforcement ratio; fc - cylindrical compression strength in MPa; b - width of
beam; d = effective depth; Ck = coefficient equal to 0.66; Ef = modulus of elasticity for
GFRP reinforcement; Es - modulus of elasticity for steel reinforcement; ddg - 32 mm, size
parameter describing the failure zone roughness; acs - |𝑀𝐸 /𝑉𝐸 | > 𝑑
3.1 EC2 results

The graph in Fig. 4 shows the shear strength ratio Vtest/VEC2 versus axial stiffness of longitudinal rein-
forcement for all tested combinations compared to EC2. Beams reinforced with GFRP reinforcement
overestimate the Eurocode2 model in 79.2 percent of cases. Specifically, with reference concrete, it
overestimated in 100 percent of cases, with recycled concrete in 100 percent and recycled masonry in
37.5 percent of cases. Beams reinforced with steel reinforcement overestimates shear resistance in 33.3
percent of cases. Specifically, with reference concrete, it overestimated in 62.5 percent of cases, with
recycled concrete in 37.5 percent and recycled masonry in 0 percent of cases.

if b
𝑉𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 /𝐸𝐶2 [-]
𝐸. 𝜌 [𝐺𝑃𝑎 ∙ % ]
Fig. 4. The evaluation of tests according to Eurocode 2.
3.2 prEC2 results

𝑉𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 /𝑝𝑟. 𝐸𝐶2 [-]
𝐸. 𝜌 [𝐺𝑃𝑎 ∙ % ]
Fig. 5. The evaluation of tests according to the second generation Eurocode 2.
The graph in Fig. 5. shows the shear strength ratio Vtest/Vpr.EC2 versus axial stiffness of longitudinal
reinforcement for all tested combinations compared to prEC2. Beams reinforced with GFRP reinforce-
ment overestimate the Eurocode 2 model in 87.5 percent of cases. Specifically, with reference concrete,
14th
it overestimates in 100 percent of cases, with recycled concrete in 100 percent and recycled masonry in
75 percent of cases. Beams reinforced with steel reinforcement overestimates shear resistance in 45.8
b
percent of cases. Specifically, with reference concrete, it overestimated in 87.5 percent of cases, with
recycled concrete in 37.5 percent and recycled masonry in 12.5 percent of cases.
if
Fig. 6. Shear failure of the beam (N5-REB-C-1-L).
Fig. 7. Shear failure of the beam (N5-REF-C-1-L).

3.3 Summary of the results
b
The results overestimate EC2 model expectations in 56.3 percent of cases. In comparison with prEC2
tested beams overestimated model in 68.8 percent of cases. On average, the shear strength ratio
Vtest/Vmodel for EC2 and prEC2 is on the safe side for reference and REC concrete mixtures. For REB,
the results slightly underestimate the reliability of EC2 and prEC2 models. The shear strength ratios are
presented in Table 4 and Table 5.
if
Fig.6 and Fig.7 shows the shear failure of the selected beams. From the photo, it is clear that the
type of failure and crack pattern is similar.
Table 4 Comparison of shear strength ratio Vtest/Vmodel for EC2 and prEC2(concrete).
Type of concrete EC2 prEC2
REF 1.09 1.13
REC 1.06 1.08
REB 0.96 0.99
Table 5 Comparison of shear strength ratio Vtest/Vmodel for EC2 and prEC2 (reinforcement).
Type of reinforcement EC2 prEC2
Steel 0.99 0.99
GFRP 1.08 1.13
4 Conclusion
The shear capacity of concrete members without shear reinforcement has several components. The main
component is an aggregate interlock which is the ability to transfer shear stresses through cracks. This
component is influenced by the crack width and by the roughness of the crack surfaces. The results of
the experimental campaign confirmed that the axial stiffness of longitudinal reinforcement ρE has an
essential effect on the shear capacity of concrete members without transverse reinforcement.
Naturally, a lower level of aggregate grain interlock can be expected for recycled aggregate con-
cretes. However, the results confirmed only a slightly reduced reliability of shear strength ratio
Vtest/Vmodel for EC 2 and prEC 2 compared to the reference concrete. For concrete with recycled concrete
aggregate, it was 3% for EC2 and 5% for prEC 2 model. For concrete with recycled brick aggregate, it
was 13% for EC 2 and 14% for prEC2 model.
In a comparison of reinforcement types, beams with GFRP reinforcement shows higher reliability
of shear strength ratio Vtest/Vmodel for EC 2 and prEC. Apparently, influence of GFRP reinforcement
which is expressed by the ratio of the modulus of elasticity of GFRP and steel is not accurate enough
to reflect actual behaviour.
Acknowledgements
There is very appreciated cooperation with SKANSKA Inc. and ERC-TECH. Inc. This work was sup-
ported by the Scientific Grant Agency VEGA under contract No. VEGA 1/0645/20.
References
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page 44-50
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14th
[4] Čermák J., Fiala J., Polak F., “Comparison of utility properties of concrete with different types
of recycled aggregates“. Brno: University of Technology, 2020. ISBN 978-80-214-5894-9.,
b
page 4-8
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ropa.eu/info/strategy/priorities-2019-2024/european-green-deal_en,
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worldindata.org/emissions-by-sector
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and Concrete Composites, 20(1) pages 460-496
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building bridges and civil engineering works, 374 pp, CEN 2021

How to account for benefits of Self-Healing concrete in
b
design? A LCA/LCC perspective
if
Davide di Summa1, 2, Liberato Ferrara2 and Nele De Belie1
1 Ghent University, Department of Structural Engineering and Building Materials; Magnel-
Vandepitte Laboratory, Tech Lane Ghent Science Park, Campus A, Technologiepark
Zwijnaarde 60, B-9052 Ghent, Belgium
2 Politecnico di Milano, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, piazza Leo-

nardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milan, Italy
Abstract
In recent years, several strategies have been investigated to improve concrete environmental and eco-
nomic sustainability. This, because of the huge emissions and large costs associated with its production,
use and dismission stages. Among these solutions, the possibility to self-heal the cracks by means of
autonomous or autogenous Self-Healing mechanisms, aroused great interest. Thus, some studies al-
ready focused their attention on the use of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Life Cycle Cost assess-
ment (LCC) methodologies. The aim was to prove and to compare the sustainability of such materials
with reference to conventional solutions. In this framework, this research provides an overview of how
the advantages of Self-Healing concrete, due to its enhanced durability and the consequent reduced
maintenance activities, have been revealed thanks to the use of LCA and LCC methodologies. The
outcomes of recent investigations referred to concrete with Super Absorbent Polymers (SAPs) and Ultra
High Performance Concrete (UHPC) are also addressed. The reported results highlight, for the case of
UHPC, reductions higher than 30% for the overall costs and greater than 40% for some environmental
impact indicators (Ozone Layer Depletion and Terrestrial ecotoxicity). Limits and challenges that might
be faced by the upcoming studies in this field are also presented. Additionally, this work also highlights
the importance to spread among designers, researchers and contractors the use of such methodologies
to achieve a good practice where more sustainable concrete technologies will be widespread.
1 Introduction
Some studies already addressed the huge environmental impacts associated to the production of cement-
based composites. At the same time, the need to overcome this problem through the development of
innovative cementitious materials has been outlined, favouring the development and application of ma-
terials considered more sustainable not only because of the reduced cement content, but also due to the
enhanced durability. As matter of fact, total CO2 emissions from the cement industry could contribute
as much as 8% of global CO2 emissions [1]-[2] while the use and maintenance activities of a reinforced
concrete building structure could contribute to 55.47% of total CO2 emissions as outlined by Kuma-
nayake and Luo [3]. These data, when associated to the quantity of concrete produced per year (around
10 tons globally [4]) clearly highlight the dimensions of the problem above described that as clarified
by Hunntzinger and Eatmon [5] can be at local, regional and global scale. An example in this regard is
represented by noise and air pollutants which are caused by the mining of raw materials and affect the
local ecosystem. Similarly, sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions contribute to
acid rain on regional scale while, the carbon emissions coming from the combustion of fossil fuels,
favour the global climate change whose adverse effects are of worldwide interest.
2 LCA and LCC for self-healing concrete

Nowadays there are already several products available on the market which ensure better performances
in terms of overall sustainability in comparison to the Portal Cement based Concrete (PCC) but, being
able to discern which is best according to the specific needs, is not easy. Thus, LCA and LCC analysis
are valuable tools for improving our understanding about the environmental and cost hazards posed by
14th
a concrete structure’s life stage. In addition, not only they allow the producers to better analyse and
optimize the production process by reducing adverse environmental impacts [6] and costs, but they can
b
also properly help to support and to promote the deployment of innovative materials such as Self-Heal-
ing (SH) concrete [7][8].
2.1 LCA for Self-Healing concrete, state of the art
if
Compared to LCA and LCC studies for OPCC or other alternative solutions (like the ones which sup-
poses use of incinerator ashes, marble sludge, blast furnace slag, recycled aggregates or fly ash [9]-
[10]) the literature about the LCA/LCC of SH concrete is quite scarce. Nevertheless, what has been
done until now clearly outlines that not only the cement content in the mix design, but also the possi-
bility to extend the Service Life (SL) of a generic concrete structure can lead to significant improve-
ments of its overall environmental performance. As matter of fact, Nathan et al. [11] highlighted the
possibility to save 36% - 43% and 36% - 38% of carbon footprint and energy consumption respectively
by replacing 40% of cement by fly ash and extending the SL by 1.60 – 1.75 times. Thus, it is supposed
that LCA and LCC analysis developed for the case of SH concrete could highlight the potential ad-
vantages of these materials also in view of extended SL [12] [13]. The LCA process is defined by the
ISO 14040:2006 standard as “the compilation and evaluation of the inputs, outputs and potential envi-
ronmental impacts of a product system throughout its life cycle” [14]. The latter, together with the
14044:2006 [15] also identifies 4 major steps: (i) definition of goal and scope (choosing a representative
Functional Unit and considering an appropriate system boundary), (ii) inventory analysis, (iii) impact
analysis and (iv) interpretation. With regard to the system boundary, as summarized in Table 1 that
contains all the stages which can be potentially included in the analysis, it could be (i) cradle-to-gate
(including all inputs/outputs from the mining until the concrete production, A1-A3 stages), (ii) cradle-
to-grave (A1-C4 stages) or (iii) cradle-to-cradle (including the recycling phase, A1-D stages) [16].
Moreover, Wu. et al. [23] and De Schepper et al. [24] already highlighted the importance of choosing
an appropriate system boundary. While the former warned about the possibility to exclude “use” and
“end of life” stages according to ISO 24067 standard only if LCA results are affected less than 1% [17]
the latter demonstrated how, the use of a cradle-to-gate system boundary in a LCA study of recyclable
concrete, could lead to lower the impacts by 8-15% [18]. Not only a proper system boundary but also
an appropriate Functional Unit (FU) choice is crucial to get reliable results as also clearly outlined by
Panesar et al. [19] and Van den Heede et al. [6]. In addition, Gursel et al. [20] better clarified that the
FU should include most of the concrete performances such as strength and durability, emphasizing the
link between LCA outputs and SL estimations. In line with this, di Summa et al. [21] assessed the case
of walls structures casted with concrete containing SuperAbsorbent Polymers (SAPs), intended as tun-
nel elements and characterized by a SL of 100 years.
Table 1 Life cycle stages for construction products – EN15804

CRADLE TO CRADLE (A1 – D)
CRADLE TO GRAVE (A1 – C4)
CRADLE TO
GATE (A1 - A3)
A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 C1 C2 C3 C4 D
Operational water use
Raw materials supply
Operation energy use
Waste processing
Reuse/ Recycling
Refurbishment
Manufacturing
Construction
Maintenance
Demolition
Transport
Transport
Transport
Disposal
Replace
Repair
Use
There, the SAPs have been used to stimulate the autogenous crack healing and to reduce the shrinkage
cracking through internal curing. This solution has been compared to a one made with PCC after having
estimated how did the environment, riches in chlorides and in which the structures were exposed to,
influenced the durability. For such purpose, the corrosion initiation and propagation times have been
This document may not How
to account for benefits of Self-Healing concrete in design? A LCA/LCC perspective
calculated. With regard to the first, the second Fick’ law has been used, emphasizing the importance in
the use of accurate durability parameters such as the Dapp (apparent chlorides diffusion) coefficient.
b
More specifically, for the scope of that research, the authors used a value equal to 10-10 m2/s for the case
of PCC and 10-12 m2/s for the case of SAPs-based concrete, passing from almost 0 years up to 13 years
as initiation time, according to the specific boundary conditions there took into account. Additionally,
the authors also made a comparison between a uniform corrosion propagation to a more concentrated
if
one (hemispherical pit) to calculate the time needed to lose 20% of the cross section of the reinforce-
ment bars (which corresponds to a loss of strength capacity of the structure). The estimated difference
was quite consistent since 25 years of propagation time have been calculated for the uniform corrosion
rate while 3.8 years have been estimated for the hemispherical pit. At the end, employing a cradle-to-
gate system boundary up to B7 stage of Tab.1, the authors highlighted a reduction for the SAP-based
concrete up to 20% for some impact indicators in comparison to a more conventional solution. Em-
ploying such approach, the work clearly stated that since a longer initiation period and a less sever
corrosion propagation corresponds to a more delayed degradation of the steel bars and to a consequent
less frequent maintenance activities, the more precise the structural and durability considerations are,
the more accurate LCA and LCC outputs will be. Tab. 2 indicates the reduction percentage of SAPs-
based concrete structure in comparison to the PCC one. Similarly, Kannikachalam et al. [22], employ-
ing a cradle-to-gate system boundary (up to B7 stage of Tab.1 as well), assessed a case study of a basin
structure made with Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC) and crystalline admixture. There, to
estimate the initiation time, it has been employed a Dapp value which was two orders of magnitude lower
than the ordinary solution (10-13 m2/s instead of 10-11 m2/s) also due to the better performance of UHPC
(i.e. low porosity). This allowed to consistently reduce the frequency of the maintenance activities pass-
ing from 8 within a SL of 50 years, for the case of PCC, up to 1 for the case of UHPC. Moreover,
adopting the same approach as in [27], the authors assessed the environmental and economic conven-
ience also integrating the structural UHPC performance into the LCA and LCC analysis. Those ad-
vantages, taken into account starting from the design phase, obtaining a consistent reduction in terms
of thickness of the elements of the structure (from 400 mm up to 150 mm), allowed to consistently
diminish the use of the raw materials. The best benefits have been observed for the case of Terrestrial
Ecotoxicity (around 40%) but, on the other hand, negative impacts have been registered for the Abiotic
Depletion due to the presence of silica fume into UHPC matrix. This clearly highlights how LCA out-
comes could help to better understand on what to act to improve the overall sustainability already start-
ing form the production phase. Fig. 1 reports a comparison between the reference solution and the SH
one of the last study for the impact indicators where the SH technology allowed to observe the more
consistent environmental advantages. Another research work [23] assessed the case of a structure made
by UHPC as well but designed with precast slabs 100 mm thick. In that study, changing the design
philosophy and passing from a “deemed to satisfy” approach to a semi-probabilistic one, in which
the corrosion is implemented and integrated into the constitutive law of the material, it has been possible
to reach consistent environmental improvements. Due to the lack of maintenance activities for UHPC
elements, a reduction higher than 40% have been observed for the case of Ozone Layer Depletion and
Terrestrial Ecotoxicity while the negative influence of silica fume on the Abiotic Depletion have been
registered also in this case. In addition to what above, Van den Heede et al. [24] used a cradle-to-gate
system boundary to assess the case of LCA of SH concrete containing 1 m% of SAP and 2 v% of
polypropylene microfiber taking into account a FU with 100 years of service life. Doing this, the authors
outlined some problems that must be overcome in the future to improve the quality and to increase the
reliability of results about SH concrete. More specifically, they addressed that most of the studies are
limited to the gate stage due to the reduced knowledge regarding the durability of these innovative
materials. Additionally, the inventories used to develop the analysis lack several data (such as those
related to the healing constituents). For this specific reason, they recommended to combine the existing
libraries (such as the ones usually adopted by the software employed for this specific purpose) with
other sources like literature data and Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs). di Summa et al. [21]
pointed out the same challenges adding the fact that, due to their novelty, some of these materials lack
data on their potential disposal or recycling phase, reason why it is possible to develop analysis up to
B7 stage indicated in Table 1. In this regard, Hafez et al. [25] also highlighted that due to the absence
of standards to get Life Cycle Inventories (LCI) data, LCA outputs are subjected to a pronounced un-
certainty. At the same time the authors suggested to use as reported by Anand et al. in [26] either
primary sources (such as EPDs or literature results), when possible, or secondary data from accredited
Davide di Summa, Nele De Belie and Liberato Ferrara 691

14th
environmental databases like Ecoinvent, Gabi and ELC. Several methodologies can be used to present
the LCA results but, as better detailed in Table 2 which summarizes the outcomes for SH concrete, the
b
existing literature only adopted a problem oriented approach using the ten CML-IA impact indicators
developed by the Leiden University. These 10 impact indicators are: global warming (GWP); acidifi-
cation (AP); ozone depletion (ODP); photochemical oxidation (POCP); eutrophication (EP); abiotic
depletion potential (ADP); human toxicity potential (HTP); freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity potential
if
(FAETP); marine aquatic ecotoxicity (MAETP) and terrestrial ecotoxicity potential (TETP). In addition
to the work previously mentioned, Rigamonti et al. [27], used a cradle-to-gate system boundary (A1-
A5 stages) assessing the case of SH concrete containing crystalline admixture as autogenous healing
stimulator for an underground parking. and discovering a reduction for impact indicators such as AP,
ODP, EP and POCP when compared to the more traditional solution. This was also the case in the study
by Van Belleghem et al. [28] that demonstrated how the use of concrete healed by encapsulated poly-
urethane can reduce most of the indicators more than 50% in a timeframe of 100 years. Similarly, Van
den Heede et al. observed a consistent reduction of GWP assessing the case study of a bridge in a
timeframe of 60 years and supposing the use of a concrete composite with 1 m% of SAP and 2 v% of
synthetic polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) microfibre [29]. Tab. 2 also contains details regarding this last case
study.
Fig. 1 Comparison between a Reference solution and a SH one for the impact indicators where
in [28] the greater environmental advantages have been observed.

Table 2 Comparison of the reduction of impacts among the most recent developments ([27], [28]
and [29]) and the available literature about LCA for Self-Healing concrete. *[30] and [33]
b
data are obtained from “Figure 4”, “Figure 2” of the corresponding papers respectively, as
the exact value is not reported.
Ref. Ref. Ref. Ref. Ref. Ref. Ref.
[27] [28] [29] [30]* [33]* [34] [35]
if
Adopted system
Cradle to gate
boundary
70% -
Global warming 12% 26% 29% 0% 74% 74%
75%
75% - 0% -
Acidification 14% -30% -5% 71% -
80% 5%
Ozone layer deple- 75% - 10% -
10% 40% 40% 73% -
tion 80% 15%
Photochemical oxi- 55% - 0% -
19% -83% -46% 56% -
dation 60% 5%
60% - 0% -
Eutrophication 15% 12% 25% 64 -
65% 5%
60% -
Abiotic depletion 13% -343% -198% - 66% -
65%
65% -
Human toxicity 20% 17% 37% - 69% -
70%
Fresh water 70% -
20% 13% 34% - 61% -
aquatic ecotoxicity 75%
Marine aquatic 70% -
18% -3% 21% - 65% -
ecotoxicity 75%
Terrestrial ecotoxi- 65% -
18% 42% 51% - 70% -
city 70%
2.2 LCC for Self-Healing concrete, state of the art

The LCC for Self-Healing concrete is something still not deeply investigated. Di Summa et al. [27]
outlined the influence, with regard to LCC, of the repairing activities throughout an assessed SL of 100
years discovering a total costs reduction up to 10% for the case of concrete containing SAPs in com-
parison to a more traditional solution. Moreover, the work, in line with what has been proposed by
Caruso et al. [36] and with what is reported in the standard ISO 16627:2015 [37] presented a method-
ology to estimate the price for the activities to be carried out in the future. In line with this, the price of
maintenance activities has been calculated adopting the following equation in which r is the annual real
discount rate assumed equal to 3% and T is the number of future years.
(T)=1/(1+r)T (1)
The same procedure was used also by Kannikachalam et al. [28] and in [29] where in a timeframe of
50 years the authors outlined, for the case of UHPC containing crystalline admixture, a costs reduction
greater than 32% in comparison to a reference solution. Fig. 2 summarizes the LCC outcomes for stud-
ies [27], [28] and [29].

14 th
250 000
b
200 000
150 000
100 000
if
50 000
0
Ref. [27] Ref. [28] Ref. [29]
Reference solution SH solution
Fig. 2 LCC comparison between a reference solution and a SH one in studies [27], [28] and [29].
3 Conclusions
This work presents the state of the art regarding the use of LCA and LCC methodologies to assess the
potential advantages of SH concrete in comparison to a more conventional solution. As stressed before,
there is not an extensive literature in this regard. Nevertheless, the data obtained until now, not only
highlight the potential advantages of such materials but also point out the main challenges that must be
overcome in the near future of this sector. Among these, the lack of data regarding the manufacturing
process of the healing components (due to the fact that they are usually considered as confidential) and
the behaviour of SH concrete in specific environmental conditions are noteworthy. Because of this,
further studies are needed to better investigate these data that, once integrated into LCA and LCC to
get more reliable SL estimations, will give the opportunity to turn such methodologies into a decision
tool to drive the materials design and choose in the construction sector.
Acknowledgements
This project has received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research
and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No

860006.
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The effects of inclusion graphene oxide on supplemen-
b
tary cementitious material based cementitious matrix:
a review
if
Zaid Khaiqani1 and Katalin Kopecskó2
1 Department of Construction Materials and Technologies,
2 Department of Engineering Geology and Geotechnics,
Műegyetem rakpart 3, Budapest 1111, Hungary
Abstract
The nanomaterial graphene oxide (GO) has recently become one of the most well-known inclusion
nanoparticles in the cementitious matrix. GO has a unique advantageous outcome in terms of its ability
to accelerate the cement hydration to fill nano-voids, which leads to improved densification of the ce-
mentitious matrix and even more ability to promote the secondary hydration reaction of fly ash at fur-
ther hydration stages. This review provides an overview of the mechanism and performance of the
cementitious composites containing supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) reinforced with GO,
which is highly dependent on the reactions and functionalizing behaviour of the GO. The research
summarises recent investigations that describe the effects of GO on the behaviour of cement compo-
sites, presenting a promising result of incorporating GO in cement system, in order to fabricate novel
building materials for more sustainable infrastructure.
1 Introduction
With the increase in volume and complexity of concrete construction, the need for a higher working
performance during the mixing and pouring stages can be clearly seen. The main characteristics of
modern concrete are their high fluidity and good homogeneity. To achieve homogeneity, we need to
ensure that the cement paste has sufficient viscosity to avoid segregation of the aggregate and maintain
the stability of the cement paste until hardened. The incorporation of admixtures and fibers [1-3] is now
an important technique in improving the properties of cement composites, such as rheological proper-
ties, strength, durability, etc. Geopolymers and nano-modification technology are the research results
of people in recent years. It must be stated that geopolymers are undoubtedly the most promising alter-
native building materials for concrete production [4-6]. The raw materials used in geopolymers are
industrial wastes such as fly ash (FA), silica fume (SF), metakaolin (MK), ground-granulated furnace
slag (GGBFS), and so on. This makes it more sustainable than cement. The strength of concrete depends
on the formation of calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) products, and these products are dependent on the
pores at the nano and micro level. Filling these pores with inert or reactive material can enhance the
strength and durability properties, reducing the formation of cracks, etc. When micro-level pozzolanic
materials are used, it is only possible to fill micropores. The application of nanotechnology and nano-
materials in concrete presents an innovative approach to enhance concrete properties based on the abil-
ity to modify the cementitious material at an atomic or molecular scale. Hence, the nano level pores can
be filled with the help of these nanomaterials [7,8]. As the size of the material decreases, the surface
area for the reaction increases. To form a C-S-H gel, nanoparticles react quickly with calcium hydroxide
(Ca(OH)2). This creates a denser structure and fills the pores in the transition zone between cement
stone and aggregate surface [9]. In order to improve the toughness of cement mortar by modifying the
microstructure, one of the nanomaterials was found, i.e., graphene oxide (GO). It is a layered nano-
material with a structure of oxygenated graphene sheets. This layer contains oxygen functional groups,
consisting of hydroxyl and epoxide groups, which are positioned on its basal planes, and carbonyl and
carboxyl groups on the sheet edges.
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Normally, this oxygen containing functional groups make the easiest dispersion of GO in water [9,10].
Numerous studies have found that GO can be used as an ideal reinforcing material for cement compo-
b
sites due to its large specific surface area, excellent mechanical strength, and rich oxygen containing
groups [11–14]. Lv et al. [14] studied the micro-mechanical properties of GO-reinforced cement com-
posites and found that GO has a template effect that can regulate the formation of regular and dense
flower-like crystals of hydration products, thereby improving the macro-mechanical properties of the
if
material. However, the larger surface energy of GO will accelerate the aggregation of cement particles
and absorb more free water in the cement paste, which will eventually lead to a decrease in the fluidity
of cement-based materials [15,16]. Many studies have shown that the interaction of Ca2+ [17-19] and
the environment with high alkalinity [20] are the main reasons for GO agglomeration. Agglomerates of
GO are extremely unfavourable to the progress of cement hydration reactions. To solve this problem,
many methods have been proposed to improve the dispersion of GO in cement-based materials. Some
researchers have used polycarboxylate superplasticizer (PC) [21] as a “protective shell” to avoid direct
contact between the –COOH group of GO and Ca2+. Other researchers have used physical methods
such as ultrasonic disruption [17,21,22] to promote the dispersion of GO. In addition, researchers have
improved the dispersion of GO in cement-based materials to a certain extent by using surfactants [20]
or compounding with mineral admixtures such as FA and SF [17,18,23,24]. In this paper, the influences
of GO on a matrix of SCMs-based cementitious materials, including performance, working mechanism,
mechanical properties, etc., were summarised and discussed based on the valuable findings and research
progress of GO in the research field.
2 SCMs based cement composites influenced by graphene oxide (GO)

Many researchers have conducted an intensive investigation with the help of various characterization
methods and instruments to explore the mechanism beneath the improved properties of the mechanical
and durability performance of SCMs based cement composites incorporating GO. The following sec-
tions summarize the enhancement properties of SCMs based cement composites by GO nanosheet in-
clusion.
2.1 GO-FA cement composites

Despite the limitation of the research on the FA-cement system influenced by GO, the inclusion mech-
anism of GO and FA in the GOFA-cement system can play a synergistic role and improve the rheolog-
ical properties, such as reducing the agglomeration and increasing the fluidity of the slurry. thereby
reducing the detrimental pores and increasing the mechanical properties of hardened composite cement
paste [25]. The effect of GO on the hydration of cement is closely related to the amount, dispersion,
and agglomeration state of GO, the type of dispersant, the particle size, and oxidation degree of GO.
Fig. 1 [30] presents the schematic diagram of the hydration mechanism of GO in the FA-cement system.
It can be seen that the FA particles have a round shape and a smooth surface. When GO is added to the
FA-cement system, the GO will be adsorbed onto the FA particles because of its large specific surface
area. With the deepening of cement hydration, cement hydration products are continuously generated
and effect the second hydration reaction of FA which led to change the hydration process of GOFA-
cement system, while GO is likely to combine with the calcium ions of the hydrated products [26,27].
This phenomenon has also been found with other nanomaterials, such as nano-silica, nano-titanium
dioxide [28], and nano-boehmite [29].
Qin. et al [30] had been systematiclly investigated the effect of GO on pore structure, mechanical
strength of FA-cement system and hydration process at early and later ages. The study demonstrated
that GO at dosage of 0.01 wt% and 0.03 wt% has a limited acceleration effect on the early hydration of
FA-cement system, but it accelerated the overall hydration of the system in later stage by accelerating
the secondary hydration reaction of FA. Meanwhile, the pore structure investigations indicated that the
addition of GO, and FA can significantly reduce the total volume of pore structure, capillary pore and
macropores at 60 days as shown in Fig. 2 [30], and refine the CH crystal which maybe efficient for the
interface bonding force between CH and C-S-H gel. These two important factors may reflect on the
strength of the material beneficially by increasing significantly the compressive and flexural strength
of the hardened composite cement paste. GO and FA can play a synergistic influence and counteract
the drawback of each other [31].

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14 fib International PhD Symposium in Civil Engineering
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Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of the hydration mechanism of GO-FA-cement system [30]
FA can offset the reduction of the fluidity of fresh cement paste after GO inclusion and GO can offset
the low strength of the hardened cement paste. This enhancement was also confirmed by characteriza-
tion techniques such as (XRD, FTIR, NMR, and SEM) analyses [31]. Similar reduction of macropores
has also been reported in GO-reinforced cement paste [32,18].
Fig. 2 Effect of GO on the pore structure of hardened composite paste at 60 d [30]
This demonstration is consistent with a study has been investigated the mechanical and durability prop-
erties of cement mortar containing SF and FA with GO inclusion [33]. It confirms that the mechanical
properties significantly improved in rate 16.1% for flexural strength at 0.05 wt% of GO dosage and
12.4% for the compressive strength at 0.03 wt% of GO dosages, with standard curing of 28 days; in
addition the durability properties of mortar were extremely improved when GO was 0.03 wt%, moreo-
ver, the impermeability was 80% higher than reference specimens, and the strength retention rate under
sulphate corrosion was also the highest as shown in Fig. 3.
The improvement in dispersion of GO nanosheets was offered by the incorporation of SF in cement
paste and by separating the GO nanosheets from adhering calcium ions; this led to prevent the aggre-
gation of GO nanosheets in cement paste [34]. Based on experiments have been evaluated the mechan-
ical properties and surface abrasion resistance of high-volume fly ash (HVFA) concrete (60% cement
replacement by class C fly ash) modified by GO [35]; the study demonstrates the admixing GO at a
small dosage (0.01–0.1% by weight of binder) can significantly enhance the compressive strength and
surface abrasion resistance of HVFA concrete. GO nanosheets can serve as nano-reinforcements when
admixing GO in HVFA mixtures that absorb the fracture energy and alleviate the propagation of mi-
crocracks thereby improving the mechanical properties [36]. Results were confirmed by XRD, and
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SEM/EDS analyses and no significant chemical changes were detected in the GO-modified HVFA
mixture [37,38]. This was also consistent with experiments results have been done on ultra-high-per-
b
formance concrete (UHPC) with a high volume of SCMs consisting of (class F FA, GGBS, and SF)
[36].
if
(a) (b)
Fig. 3 (a) Flexural strength at various ages under standard curing and sulphate attack;
(b) compressive strength at various ages under standard curing and sulphate attack [33]
There is another advantage of inclusion GO and FA in cement system. A study has been conducted the
workability and mechanical properties in addition of analysing the microstructure for cementitious
grouting pastes with different FA and GO dosages and high w/c ratio of 0.6. The results show that the
negative impact of GO on the workability of the fresh grouting pastes has been controlled to less than
2% due to the favour of a high w/c ratio, which inhibits the adsorption effect of GO between the cement
particles. Regarding the mechanical performance, it indicated that the mechanical properties gradually
decreased by 11.6–59.9% with the increase of fly ash content. Meanwhile, the addition of GO can
remedy the mechanical performance of the specimens [39].
2.2 GO-GGBS cement composites

The use of supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) can improve the environmental footprint of
civil construction by reducing the cement demands of binders. Ground granulated blast furnace slag
(GGBS) is one of the most used supplementary cementitious materials [40]. The addition of GGBS to
the cement matrix, commonly in the range of 30-50%, has been shown to enhance the fluidity propor-
tionally with the GGBS content [41]. Regarding the affirmative influence of GGBS on concrete work-
ability, a similar promising trend was reported by the literature [42–44].
Fig. 4 Compressive strength (1 to 28 days) vs. degree of hydration for nanomaterial-modified slag
cements [45]
GGBS has been frequently studied as an SCM but has not previously been considered as a potential
additive to nano-modified cement pastes. To date, few studies have considered the reactivity in the
This
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presence of nanomaterials. However, the fellow section addresses this research gap and a promising
b
group of nanomaterials: graphene (G) and graphene oxide (GO), to understand the impact of these
nanomaterials on the evolution of the slag-containing cementitious materials.
Bhojaraju et al. [45] have investigated the impact of GO on the hydration reaction of GGBS cement
composites. The study demonstrated, according to the thermogravimetric analysis, that the combination
if
of GO and slag exhibits a high degree of hydration despite the low quantity of heat released, which
indicates that the thermodynamics of the hydration reaction of the composite has been changed through
alternative chemistry which is less exothermic. Furthermore, as shown in Fig. 4 [45,46], a relatively
strong positive correlation existed between compressive strength and degree of hydration.
It was observed that the incorporation of GGBS in cement mixtures containing GO considerably
influenced the rheological behaviour, fluidity, resistivity, and strength properties. it can increase the
flow diameter especially for dosages of at least 30wt%, meanwhile improving the compressive [47] and
resistivity significantly in 28 days for GO modified mixtures as shown in Fig. 5, moreover, results
shows that mixtures containing 0.03% GO and 45% GGBS have the highest formation factor among
the mixtures testes [48].
Fig. 5 Resistivity and compressive strength for all mixtures bar charts (28 days) [48]
Conclusions
In this paper, the influence of graphene oxide (GO) nanomaterial on SCMs based cement composites
such as fly ash and GGBS cement system was reviewed, following up on the recent advancements in
research and literature of the GO’s influences on materials behaviour, following conclusions may be
drawn:
▪ GO's enormous surface area, nucleation sites for GO interaction, and varied functional
groups-based oxygen generate a linkage and contribute to unique behaviour and properties in
the cementitious matrix.
▪ The main challenges could face in GO cement system were difficulties in dispersion, adverse
effects on workability and fluidity properties on higher dosages; thus, the incorporation of
SCMs in GO cement paste exhibited a promising enhancement regarding these issue in addi-
tion of strength improvements the polycarboxylate ether-based superplasticizers could also
maintain the workability of cement materials.
▪ GO and FA can play a synergistic influence and counteract the drawback of each other, uti-
lizing fly ash in GOFA cement system had been notes promising improvement in mechanical
behaviour, it can cooperate to limit the acceleration at early hydration in, but it will accelerate
the hydration at later stage by accelerating the secondary hydration reaction of FA, due to the
adsorbed of GO on to FA particles surface.
▪ GO-GGBS cement system exhibit a unique relationship between the total heat flow and
degree of hydration, which exhibited high degree of hydration while low heat quantity
released, this could consider as practical advantage to application which need lower releases
heat during cement hydration such as large volumes cement application.
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▪ The incorporation of another common SCMs such SF, MK, etc. have also shows enhance-
ment in GO cement, but better result exhibit with incorporating of superplasticizer.
b
▪ The combination of nanomaterials such as GO and SCMs in cement system is still limited in
research fields. Extended studies are needed in the near future to meet the requirements of
advanced engineering materials. The following issues have to be addressed:
▪ minimise the excessive cost involved in the production of GO. It will facilitate the industries'
if
ability to manufacture GO on a mass scale for effective utilisation by the construction
industries.
▪ efficient practical methods for improving the workability of the mixture and limiting the
inconsistency in the mix proportions in the presence of GO in cement composite.
▪ comprehensive experimental assessment and applications of GO in concrete from both
material and structural performance. in addition to sustaining the durability and mechanical
properties for a prolonged period.
Acknowledgements
The Stipendium Hungaricum Scholarship Programme is highly acknowledged for supporting the Ph.D.
study and research work of the first author.
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© fédération internationale du béton (fib).

14th fib PhD Symposium

Edited by: M. di Prisco, A. Meda, G.L. Balázs

© Fédération Internationale du Béton – International Federation for Structural Concrete

Marco di Prisco, Alberto Meda and Gyorgy Balazs

Simone Spagnuolo - University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, Italy

Diego Gino – Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy

Diego Talledo – University IUAV of Venice, Italy

Fabio Di Carlo - University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, Italy

Ilaria Giannetti - University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, Italy

Simona Bianchi – TU Delft, The Netherlands

Elena Ciampa - University of Sannio, Italy

Antonio Conforti - University of Brescia, Italy

Simone Labò - University of Bergamo, Italy

Costantino Menna - University of Naples Federico II, Italy

Giovanni Minafò - University of Palermo, Italy

Daniele Perrone - University of Salento, Italy

Luca Pozza - University of Bologna, Italy

Giulio Zani – Polytechnic University of Milan, Italy

Marco di Prisco (Chair) - Polytechnic University of Milan, Italy

Alberto Meda (Vice-Chair) - University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, Italy

David Fernandez-Ordonez (Vice-Chair) – fib International

Akio Kasuga (fib President) - fib International

Edoardo Cosenza - University of Naples Federico II, Italy

Maria Antonietta Aiello – University of Salento, Italy

Joao Almeida - University of Lisbon, Portugal

Domenico Asprone - University of Naples Federico II, Italy

György L. Balázs - Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Hungary

Patrick Bamonte – Polytechnic University of Milan, Italy

Beatrice Belletti – University of Parma, Italy

Antonio Bilotta - University of Naples Federico II, Italy

Mikael Braestrup - Ramboll, Engineering Company, Denmark

Paolo Castaldo -Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy

Henry Chris - Atkins, Engineering and design company, United Kingdom

Matteo Colombo – Polytechnic University of Milan, Italy

Dario Coronelli - Polytechnic University of Milan, Italy

Hugo Corres Peiretti - Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain

Manfred Curbach - Technische Univeritat Dresden, Germany

Frank Dehn - Karlsruhe Institut of Technology (KIT), Germany

Wit Derkowski - Linnaeus University, Sweden

Iria Doniak - Member of the fib Presidium

Rolf Eligehausen - Universität Stuttgart, Germany

Vyacheslav Falikman - Deputy President of fib

Liberato Ferrara - Polytechnic University of Milan, Italy

Stephen Foster - Moscow State University of Civil Engineering, Russia

Paolo Franchin - Sapienza Rome University, Italy

Hans Rudolf Ganz - Ganz Consulting, Swizerland

Natividad Garcia - Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral (ESPOL), Ecuador

Petr Hájek - Czech Technical University in Prague, Czech Republic

Steinar Helland - S Helland Konsult, Norway

Alper Ilki - Instanbul Technical University, Turkey

Eduardo Julio - Instituto Superior Técnico, Portugal

Milan Kalny - Pontex Consulting Engineering, Czech Republic

Lidia La Mendola – University of Palermo, Italy

Xilin Lu - Tongji University, China

Giuseppe Mancini - Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy

Marco Menegotto – aicap, Italy

Fausto Minelli – University of Brescia, Italy

Harald Muller - Karlsruhe Institut of Technology (KIT), Germany

Tor Ole Olsen - Past President of fib

Joao Pacheco - University of Lisbon, Portugal

Fulvio Parisi - University of Naples Federico II, Italy

Maria Rosaria Pecce - University of Naples Federico II, Italy