ABE113 Lecture 1 Introduction

THEORY OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND
ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES OF AB STRUCTURES

DESIGN, ENERGY AND POWER
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND
ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES
In this lesson you will…
• Define and explain farm structures;
• Explain the functions and classifications of farm structures;
• Solve problems related to structural analysis and basic mechanics; and
• Discuss laws and regulations related to building structures.
INTRODUCTION TO FARM STRUCTURES
 A farm can be defined as a parcel of land which is
developed by way of vegetation removal and land
preparation for the purpose of producing crops
and livestock.
 The production of such items may be either for
family consumption, for sale to generate income
or both.
 The buildings and adjacent grounds of such a
farm are referred to as farm structures.
 The term farm structures have a dual meaning
either as a discipline or a facility.
➢Farm Structure as a Facility
•As a facility, a farm structure refers to an
item or building which is either originally
designed or fabricated, previously
existing for other uses or considered of no
use, but which has been converted for use
within and occasionally outside a farm.
•Although, structures and buildings are
used interchangeably, they are not exactly
the same.
➢Farm Structure as a Facility
• Buildings refers to shelters, which provide
accommodation for human beings, livestock, farm
produce and farm machinery while structures
include both buildings and non-sheltered structures
such as roads, bridges, fences, towers and
agricultural dams which either allow access to the
farm, provide security or are for multipurpose uses.
• The distinction between a structure and a building is
therefore the presence or absence of a wall and roof
which provides a shelter.
➢Farm Structure as a Discipline
•As a discipline, farm structures which
can also be referred to as farm
structures and environment or farm
structures and conveniences, is the
branch of agricultural engineering
that deals with the provision and
maintenance of built-up facilities
within and occasionally outside the
farm environment.
• A farm structures engineer is a
specialist in the fields of agricultural
and civil engineering whose interests,
education, training and experience
have developed the knowledge of
scientific principles, construction
materials, construction procedures
and economics necessary to direct the
design, construction, utilization and
maintenance of farm houses, barns,
sheds, silos and related structures.
 Farm structures are shelters for farm
animals or crops.
 It could also be a shelter for processing
or storing products of farm animals or
crops, or for storing or repairing farm
implements.
 A structure can be defined as an object whose
purpose is to carry a set of loads or forces, from
one place to another (Mijinyawa, 2009).
 The aim is usually to transmit the applied
loading from somewhere in space to the ground
without collapsing and without deforming
excessively.
 By this broad definition, the list of structures
would be inexhaustible ranging from a small
kitchen stool to a ship on the high sea or aircraft
❑William and Todd (2000) outlined some common
characteristics of structures as follows:
 They are designed to carry load in space.
 They are usually supported either on the ground or
on another structure (though exceptions such as
the airplanes are possible) with reaction forces
generated at the support points.
 The applied loads and reactions cause forces to be
generated within the members of the structure.
 The structural members must not collapse or (in
most cases) deform excessively under these forces.
WORK AND THE WORK-ENERGY THEOREM
 The two primary functions of farm
structures are to provide a conducive
environment for the humans, livestock
and produce that may occupy such a
structure and to support the loads due to
such occupants.
 The objective of structural analysis is
therefore to determine appropriate
building components and sizes that will
be adequate to withstand the expected
loads.
FUNCTIONS OF FARM STRUCTURES
1. Regulation of Environmental Factors
 Some important environmental factors are the temperature
and relative humidity.
 The interaction between those factors gives rise to a
number of other factors that affect the performance and
comfort of human beings, livestock and the quality of crops
especially while in storage.
 The ability to regulate these factors to such a level that is
required for optimum human and livestock comfort and the
quality of stored produce is a basic requirement of some
farm structures.
 Examples are vapor barriers and insulation materials to
regulate the temperature and relative humidity in an
enclosure occupied by either human beings or livestock, or
where harvested produce are stored.
2. Protection
 Farm structures offer protection to human beings,
livestock, cultivated crops and harvested produce, and
machinery in a number of ways.
 They offer shelter against rain, sun and wind –the
combined effect of which can greatly reduce the farmer ‘s
efficiency, productivity of livestock, quality of crops and
cause wear and tear or rusting of machinery components.
 In some cases, farm buildings are needed to offer
protection against the attack of enemies.
 Some farm structures provide security against pilferage
especially of poultry products and stored produce.
 Vandalization and pilfering of machine parts are checked
through keeping them in fenced yards with lockable
gates.
3. Accessibility
 Farm structures such as roads,
bridges and culverts provide
access from farms to urban areas
and vice versa.
 This is important for effective
communication, conveyance of
farm inputs which include labor,
machinery, seeds/seedlings, agro-
chemicals and fertilizers to the
farms and the evacuation of
harvested farm produce from
farms to the urban areas.
CLASSIFICATION OF FARM STRUCTURES
There are two major ways of classifying it: these are the material of
construction and the utilization of the structures.
➢Classification of Farm Structures based on material of construction
 Based on the material of construction, farm structures may be
grouped into earth, wooden, concrete, plastic and steel structures.
 Under this classification, a structure is placed in a group depending
on the material which is predominantly used in its construction.
➢Classification of Farm Structures based on utilization of the
structures
 The utilization criterion groups farm structures into farm houses,
building for crop production, buildings for processing agricultural
produce, crop storage structures, buildings for livestock and
miscellaneous structures.
 Under this criterion, a structure is placed in a group based on its
utilization.
Classification Functions Specific Examples
1. Farm - They are for human habitation providing - These include dwellings built to standard to
houses accommodation for all persons that have to be accommodate employees, their nucleus
accommodated on the farm. and extended family members and visitors.
- They provide facilities and conveniences suitable - Remodeled or improvised buildings can
for a comfortable living such as sleeping, laundry, serve as well.
cooking and relaxation.
- They protect accommodated persons against
inclement weather conditions such as rain,
sunshine and cold, security especially at night
against wild animals.
2. Buildings - They are used in situations where the ambient - Greenhouses, screen houses,
for Crop conditions require some modifications for crop glasshouses and growth chambers.
Production production.
- They are now being used on farms for commercial
3. Buildings for - This provide convenient - Oil palm processing center, cassava processing
processing environment in terms of space and center, abattoir, fish smoking kilns and timber yards.
agricultural produce health wise for processing activities
to be carried out.
- They provide conducive
environment for those who may be
involved in the processing activities.
4. Crop Storage - Provide conducive environment for - Cribs, silos, warehouses, platforms, barns, cold
Structures the long-term storage of agricultural rooms, underground pits, evaporative coolers.
produce.
- They are equally of adequate
capacity to meet the required
volume of storage and strong
enough to resist the imposed loads.
5. Livestock Structures - Regulation of environmental - Barns, sheds, pens, yards for goats, sheep, pigs
conditions such as temp. and cattle. Battery cages, deep litter house for
and humidity to ensure poultry. Fish ponds and tanks as well.
increased yield and
production of milk, meat and
good quality eggs.
- It also reduces drudgery of
animal husbandry in terms of
ease of getting feed and
water to them quickly.
6. Miscellaneous Structures - Its function depends on the - Implement sheds, garages, farm workshops, fuel
type of structure. depots, water and wastewater treatment plants,
dams, fences, roads, bridges and culverts.
REVIEW OF RELATED CONCEPTS
➢Structural Analysis and Basic Mechanics
 A structure is designed to perform a certain function.
 To perform this function satisfactorily it must have sufficient strength and rigidity.
 Economy, and an attractive appearance are also of importance in structural design.
 Structures are subjected to a variety of loads either singly or in combination.
 These include the self-weight of the materials used for construction as well as the weight of products stored,
animals housed or water dammed.
 The short-term loads due to wind and even earthquakes must also be included.
 The designer must have an understanding of the nature and significance of these forces and apply this
knowledge to the design, materials and methods of construction if the structure is to safely survive all
situations.
 Each of the various elements, such as ties, struts and beams, has a unique purpose in maintaining the
integrity of the structure and must be designed to have sufficient strength to withstand the maximum stress
to which it may be subjected.
 The many building materials available differ greatly in their resistance to loading
and in other characteristics that relate to their use in various building elements.
 They must be selected carefully to be suitable for the type or types of loading
which are determined during the structural design procedure.
 Structural design is the methodical investigation of the stability, strength and
rigidity of structures.
 The basic objective in structural analysis and design is to produce a structure
capable of resisting all applied loads without failure during its intended life.
 The primary purpose of a structure is to transmit or support loads. If the
structure is improperly designed or fabricated, or if the actual applied loads
exceed the design specifications, the device will probably fail to perform its
intended function, with possible serious consequences.
 A well-engineered structure greatly minimizes the possibility of costly failures.
 Structural design could either involve rigorous calculations or selection based on
a code of practice.
 Design codes, codes of practice or standards are documents which provide
information on the sizes of construction materials and methods of assembly that
are adequate to resist various loads.
 They are developed from long term research or local practices which have proved
safe over a long period of observation.
 Codes of practice take into account not only the properties of the materials and
loading, but in addition the environment where it is used.
 Codes of practice are therefore country based and those suited to the place of
work must be consulted.
➢Basic Principles of Statics
 Statics is the branch of mechanics that
deals with the equilibrium of stationary
bodies under the action of forces.
 The other main branch – dynamics – deals
with moving bodies, such as parts of
machines.
❑Static equilibrium
 A planar structural system is in a state of static equilibrium
when the resultant of all forces and all moments is equal to zero,
i.e.
 Ʃfx = 0 this means that the resultant of all horizontal external
forces is zero
 Ʃfy = 0 this means that the resultant of all vertical external
forces is zero
 ƩMa = 0 this means that the sum of all moments about any
point is zero.
 where F refers to forces and M refers to moments of

forces.
➢Static determinacy
 In structural analysis, the assignment is usually to determine the magnitudes and
directions of the forces that will act on a structure in service.
 This itself depends on the way and manner in which the structure is supported
and the number of supports used.
 It may happen that the number of support reactions to be determined is not more
than three in which case; they can be evaluated using the three equations of static
equilibrium.
 If on the contrary, the need arises to determine more than three unknown
reactions, then the three equations of static equilibrium will not be enough to
determine the unknowns.
 While the former case is said to be statically determinate, the latter is not.
Determinacy:
 A structure in which the reactions can be determined using only the three equations of
static equilibrium is said to be statically determinate while if the three equations are
inadequate to determine all the reactions, the structure is said to be statically
indeterminate.
 The degree of indeterminacy is the difference between the number of reactions to be
determined and the number of equations of static equilibrium.
 If a body is in equilibrium under the action of coplanar forces, the statics equations above
must apply.
 In general, three independent unknowns can be determined from the three equations.
 Note that if applied and reaction forces are parallel (i.e., in one direction only), then only
two separate equations can be obtained and thus only two unknowns can be determined.
 Such systems of forces are said to be statically determinate.
r= 3n, statically determinate
r > 3n, statically indeterminate
n= the total parts of structure members
r= the total number of unknown reactive force and moment components
➢Stability
 Recall that for a body to be in a state of static equilibrium, there are three
equations which are
 Σ fx = 0,
 Σ fy = 0
 ΣMz = 0.
 To solve these equations, there has to be three unknown elements.
 If there are less than three unknowns, the three simultaneous equations
cannot be solved completely.
 The implication of this is that the structure does not have enough
supports and is statically unstable.
 In general, therefore, if there are fewer than three unknown independent
reaction elements, there are not enough unknowns to satisfy the three
equations of static equilibrium simultaneously.
 Fewer than three unknown reactions are therefore insufficient to keep a planar structure
in equilibrium when it is acted upon by a general system of loads.
 Under such a condition, a structure is said to be statically unstable.
 From the above, it would appear as if the presence of at least three reactions in a planar
structure automatically makes the structure stable.
 This is not true as there is an exception.
 If there are three or more reactions but arranged in such a way that motion is still possible
in any direction, then the structure is unstable due to the way the reactions are arranged.
 This is referred to as geometrical instability or geometrically unstable.
 In general, therefore, the stability of a structure is determined not only by the number of
reaction elements but also by their arrangement.
 Usually, unstable structures are also statically indeterminate.
➢Reactions
 Imagine that a crib has been fabricated and left on the ground.
 If wind were to blow past the structure and of adequate magnitude, the structure will continue
to move.
 In order to prevent this, there must be a way of holding the structure in place such that when
external forces act on it, it cannot move.
 This is provided by what are called supports.
 They may or may not be part of the structure but when they have to be used, they are secured
onto the structure.
 When external forces act on the structure, these supports react against the tendency of the
structure to move.
 Forces are therefore generated within the supports called the reactions.
 There are various types of supports depending on the structure and the
type of loads it is subjected to.
 Some of such supports which are commonly encountered in farm
structures are the roller, pin, built-in and fixed-end supports.
 Structural components are usually held in equilibrium by being secured to
rigid fixing points; these are often other parts of the same structure.
 The fixing points or supports will react against the tendency of the
applied forces (loads) to cause the member to move.
 The forces generated in the supports are called reactions.
 In general, a structural member has to be held or supported at a minimum
of two points (an exception to this is the cantilever).
a) Roller support
 In a roller support, the reaction is normal to the supporting surface only.
 The roller supports are not capable of resisting movement in the horizontal
direction.
 The supports themselves can move in the horizontal direction as in a sliding door.
 The reactive force of a roller support is directed through the center of the pin. If the
rollers are frictionless, they can transmit only a pressure which is normal to the
surface on which they roll.
 Hence a roller support supplies a resultant reactive force which acts normal to the
surface on which the rollers roll and is directed through the center of the hinge pin.
 It is therefore evident that a roller support supplies a reactive force which is
applied at a known point and acts in a known direction but the magnitude of which
is unknown.
 Roller supports are usually detailed so that they can supply reaction acting either
away from or towards the supporting surface.
b) Pin or Hinged Support
 The hinged or pin support is fixed in position i.e its location is fixed. It can neither
move vertically nor horizontally but it can rotate. It is capable of resisting
movement in both the vertical and horizontal directions. An example of this is
shown in Table 1 below.
 In the hinge support, it is assumed that the pin of the hinge is frictionless in the
pinhole, the contact pressures between the pin and its hole are normal to the
circular contact surface and directed through the center of the pin.
 The reaction R, that the support supplies to the structure completely counteracts
the action of the force P (the external load) and therefore R and P are collinear and
numerically equal but act in opposite directions. It is therefore evident that a hinge
support supplies a reactive force the line of action of which is known to pass
through the center of the hinge pin but the magnitude and direction of which are
unknown.
 These two unknown elements of such a reaction could also be represented by the
unknown magnitudes of its horizontal and vertical components, R respectively, both
acting through the center of the hinge pin.
c) Built-in Support
 In a built-in support, the support is fixed in position in
that its location is fixed and there is no freedom of
rotation implying that the direction is also fixed.
 It provides three reactions which are a vertical and
horizontal reactions and a bending moment. The degree
of freedom is nil.
 The determination of the reactions developed by this
support requires the knowledge of three parameters.
 These are the direction and magnitude of a force passing
through any point chosen at will and the magnitude of the
moment about the same point.
d) Fixed Support
 A fixed support encases the member so that both
translation and rotation of the end of the member are
prevented.
 A fixed support therefore supplies a reaction, the
magnitude, the point of application and the direction
of which are all unknown.
 These three unknown elements may also be
considered to be a force which acts through a specific
point but has an unknown magnitude and direction,
and a couple of unknown magnitude.
 For example, the three unknown elements could be selected as a couple, and a
horizontal and a vertical force, the two later acting through the center of gravity
of the end cross-section.
RESULTANT OF PARALLEL FORCES
 If two or more parallel forces are applied to a horizontal beam, then theoretically
the beam can be held in equilibrium by the application of a single force (reaction)
which is equal and opposite to the resultant, R.
 The equilibrant of the downward forces must be equal and opposite to their
resultant.
 This provides a method for calculating the resultant of a system of parallel forces.
 However, two reactions are required to ensure the necessary stability and a more
likely arrangement will have two or more supports.
 The reactions RA and RB must both be vertical, since there is no horizontal force
component.
 Furthermore, the sum of the reaction forces RA and RB must be equal to the sum
of the downward acting forces.
BEAM REACTIONS
COUPLES
 Two equal, parallel and opposite but not

colinear forces are said to be a couple.
 A couple acting on a body produces
rotation.
 Note that the couple cannot be balanced
by a single force.
 To produce equilibrium another couple
of equal and opposite moment is
required.
LOADING SYSTEMS
 Before any of the various load effects (tension, compression,
bending, etc.) can be considered, the applied loads must be
rationalized into a number of ordered systems.
 Irregular loading is difficult to deal with exactly, but even the most
irregular loads may be reduced and approximated to a number of
regular systems.
 These can then be dealt with in mathematical terms using the
principle of superposition to estimate the overall combined effect.
 Concentrated loads
-are those that can be assumed to act at a single point, e.g. a weight
hanging from a ceiling, or a person pushing against a box.
 Concentrated loads are represented by a single arrow drawn in the
direction, and through the point of action, of the force.
 The magnitude of the force is always indicated.
 Uniformly distributed loads, written as UDL, are those that can be
assumed to act uniformly over an area or along the length of a structural
member, e.g. roof loads, wind loads, or the effect of the weight of water on
a horizontal surface.
 For the purpose of calculation, a UDL is normally considered in a plane.
SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT OF BEAMS
 A beam is a structural member subject to lateral loading in which the
developed resistance to deformation is of a flexural character.
 The primary load effect that a beam is designed to resist is that of bending
moments but, in addition, the effects of transverse or vertical shearing
forces must be considered.
 Shear force (Q)is the algebraic sum of all the transverse forces acting to
the left or to the right of the chosen section.
 Bending moment (M) at any transverse cross-section of a straight beam is
the algebraic sum of the moments, taken about an axis passing through
the centroid of the cross-section, of all the forces applied to the beam on
either side of the chosen cross-section.
SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT OF BEAMS
SHEAR-FORCE (SF) AND BENDING-MOMENT (BM)
DIAGRAMS
 Representative diagrams of the distribution of shearing forces and bending moments are often
required at several stages in the design process.
 These diagrams are obtained by plotting graphs with the beams as the base and the values of
the particular effect as ordinates.
 It is usual to construct these diagrams in sets of three, representing the distribution of loads,
shearing forces and bending moments respectively.
 These graphical representations provide useful information regarding:
1. The most likely section where a beam may fail in shear or in bending.
2. Where reinforcement may be required in certain types of beam, e.g. concrete beams.
3. The shear-force diagram will provide useful information about the bending moment at
any point.
4. The bending-moment diagram gives useful information on the deflected shape of the
beam.
BASIC STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
 Tension members
 Slender structural members subjected to tensile stress (e.g., tie rods, hangers)
 Beams
 Structural member subjected to loads perpendicular to the long axis of the member
 Normally in horizontal position (e.g., floor joists, girders) but sometimes found in an
inclined and vertical position (e.g., rafters in roof and studs)
 Compression members
 Vertical members that resist axial compressive loads (e.g., columns)
 Combined members
 Members subjected to combined effects of compression/tension and bending (e.g.,
beam columns)
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF STRESS ANALYSIS
 Stress- internal resistance to an external force
 Basic Stress Formula:
σ=P/A
where:
σ- unit stress (Pa)
P- external force (N)
A- cross sectional area (m2)
 Assumptions:
 Stress is uniformly distributed over the area
 Load is axial or perpendicular to the area
TYPES OF SHEAR
➢Three Basic Kinds of Stress
 Compression- results from a force that tends to compress or crush a
member
 Tension- results from a force that tends to stretch or elongate a member
 Shear- results from the tendency of two equal and parallel forces, acting
in opposite directions, to cause adjoining surfaces of a member to slide
one on the other.

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ABE113 Lecture 1 Introduction

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THEORY OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND

ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES OF AB STRUCTURES

 where F refers to forces and M refers to moments of

 Two equal, parallel and opposite but not

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