THE HUMAN BODY An Orientation

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OVERVIEW OF ANATOMY AND

PHYSIOLOGY
Anatomy: The study of structure

Subdivisions:
­ Gross or macroscopic (e.g., regional, surface, and systemic anatomy)
­ Microscopic (e.g., cytology and histology)
­ Developmental (e.g., embryology)

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 OVERVIEW OF ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY
Physiology: The study of function at many levels
Subdivisions are based on organ systems (e.g., renal or cardiovascular physiology)

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PRINCIPLE OF COMPLEMENTARITY
Anatomy and physiology are inseparable.
­ Function always reflects structure
­ What a structure can do depends on its specific form

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 QUESTION:

1. List all of the organ systems and their

organs.

An organ – a distinct structure composed of two or more

types of tissue, with a specific function.

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ORGAN SYSTEMS
INTERRELATIONSHIPS

All cells depend on organ systems

to meet their survival needs
Organ systems work cooperatively
to perform necessary life functions

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 QUESTION:

2. What characteristics distinguish a living

organism from an inanimate object?

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NECESSARY LIFE FUNCTIONS

1. Maintaining boundaries between internal and external environments
­ Plasma membranes
­ Skin

2. Movement (contractility)
­ Of body parts (skeletal muscle)
­ Of substances (cardiac and smooth muscle)

3. Responsiveness: The ability to sense and respond to stimuli

­ Withdrawal reflex
­ Control of breathing rate

4. Digestion
­ Breakdown of ingested foodstuffs
­ Absorption of simple molecules into blood

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 NECESSARY LIFE FUNCTIONS
5. Metabolism: All chemical reactions that occur in body cells
­ Catabolism and anabolism

6 Excretion: The removal of wastes from metabolism and digestion

­ Urea, carbon dioxide, faeces

7. Reproduction
­ Cellular division for growth or repair
­ Production of offspring

8 Growth: Increase in size of a body part or of organism

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SURVIVAL NEEDS
1. Nutrients
­ Chemicals for energy and cell building
­ Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, vitamins

2. Oxygen
­ Essential for energy release (ATP production)

3 Water
­ Most abundant chemical in the body
­ Site of chemical reactions

4. Normal body temperature

­ Affects rate of chemical reactions

5 Appropriate atmospheric pressure

­ For adequate breathing and gas exchange in the lungs

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 HOMEOSTASIS
Maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment despite
continuous outside changes
A dynamic state of equilibrium

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HOMEOSTATIC CONTROL MECHANISMS

Involve continuous monitoring and regulation of many factors
(variables)
Nervous and endocrine systems accomplish the communication via
nerve impulses and hormones

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 COMPONENTS OF A CONTROL MECHANISM
1. Receptor (sensor)
­ Monitors the environment
­ Responds to stimuli (changes in controlled variables)

2 Control center
­ Determines the set point at which the variable is maintained
­ Receives input from receptor
­ Determines appropriate response

3. Effector
­ Receives output from control center
­ Provides the means to respond
­ Response acts to reduce or enhance the stimulus (feedback)

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QUESTION:

3. After running a marathon, you will get

dehydrated, and usually get thirsty which
results in you drinking lots of fluids. Discuss
whether thirst is part of a negative or
positive feedback control system.

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 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
The response reduces or shuts off the original stimulus
Examples:
­ Regulation of body temperature (a nervous mechanism)
­ Regulation of blood volume by ADH (an endocrine mechanism)

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NEGATIVE FEEDBACK: REGULATION OF BLOOD

VOLUME BY ADH
Receptors sense decreased blood volume
Control center in hypothalamus stimulates pituitary gland to release
antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
ADH causes the kidneys (effectors) to return more water to the blood

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 POSITIVE FEEDBACK
The response enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus
May exhibit a cascade or amplifying effect
Usually controls infrequent events e.g.:
­ Enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin
­ Platelet plug formation and blood clotting

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HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
Disturbance of homeostasis
­ Increases risk of disease
­ Contributes to changes associated with aging

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 HOMEWORK VIDEO PART 1
Name a disease resulting from homeostatic imbalance and two
characteristics of that disease.

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ANATOMICAL POSITION
Standard anatomical body position:
­ Body erect
­ Feet slightly apart
­ Palms facing forward

By Osteomyoamare - Own work, CC BY 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=10681472

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Table 1.1

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Table 1.1

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Table 1.1

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Table 1.1

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Table 1.1

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HOMEWORK VIDEO PART 2

Demonstrate an understanding of the 11 orientation and directional
terms covered in this presentation.

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 Two major divisions of body:
­ Axial - Head, neck, and trunk

REGIONAL TERMS ­ Appendicular - Limbs

Regional terms designate specific areas

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BODY PLANES Plane: Flat surface along which body or

structure is cut for anatomical study

Sagittal plane Frontal (coronal) plane

­ Divides body vertically into right and ­ Divides body vertically into anterior
left parts and posterior parts
­ Produces a sagittal section
Transverse (horizontal) plane
Midsagittal (median) plane ­ Divides body horizontally into superior
­ Lies on midline and inferior parts
­ Produces a cross section
Parasagittal plane
­ Not on midline Oblique section
­ Cuts made diagonally

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 BODY CAVITIES
Dorsal cavity
­ Protects nervous system
Two subdivisions:
­ Cranial cavity
­ Encases brain
­ Vertebral cavity
­ Encases spinal cord
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VENTRAL BODY CAVITIES
Thoracic cavity subdivisions:
­ Two pleural cavities
­ Each houses a lung
­ Mediastinum
­ Contains pericardial cavity
­ Surrounds thoracic organs
­ Pericardial cavity
­ Encloses heart
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Ventral cavity
­ Houses internal organs (viscera)
­ Two subdivisions (separated by
diaphragm):
­ Thoracic cavity
­ Abdominopelvic cavity
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Abdominopelvic cavity
subdivisions:
­ Abdominal cavity
­ Contains stomach, intestines, spleen, and liver
­ Pelvic cavity
­ Contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs,
and rectum
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 SEROUS
MEMBRANE
(SEROSA)

Thin, double-layered
membrane separated
by serous fluid
­ Parietal serosa lines
internal body walls
­ Visceral serosa covers the
internal organs

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ABDOMINOPELVIC QUADRANTS
DIVISIONS USED PRIMARILY BY MEDICAL PERSONNEL

Right upper Left upper

quadrant quadrant
(RUQ) (LUQ)

Right lower Left lower

quadrant quadrant
(RLQ) (LLQ)

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Figure 1.11

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 ABDOMINOPELVIC REGIONS

Liver Diaphragm
Right Left
Epigastric
hypochondriac hypochondriac
region
region region Gallbladder Stomach

Ascending colon of Transverse colon

Right Left
lumbar Umbilical lumbar large intestine of large intestine
region Descending colon
region region Small intestine
of large intestine
Cecum
Right iliac Hypogastric Left iliac Initial part of
(inguinal) (pubic) (inguinal) Appendix sigmoid colon
region region region
Urinary bladder

(a) Nine regions delineated by four planes (b) Anterior view of the nine regions showing the superficial organs

NINE DIVISIONS USED PRIMARILY BY ANATOMISTS

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Figure 1.12

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OTHER BODY CAVITIES

Oral and digestive

cavities
Nasal cavity
Orbital cavities
Middle ear cavities
Synovial cavities

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