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Unit - 2
UNIT - II: BASIC SOCIOLOGICAL CONCEPTS:
a. Society
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b. Community
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c. Social Structure
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d. Social System
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e. Role & Status
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f. Social Values
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g. Culture
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h. Socialization
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I. Social Group (Meaning, Characteristics/Elements and Types)

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Society
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Meaning:
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The term society has been derived from the Latin word ‘Socius’ which means a companion,
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association or fellowship. It is because man always lives in the company of his fellow beings.
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This led George Simmel to remark that sociability is the essence of society.
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Definition of Society:
Morris Ginsberg defined society as, "A society is a collection of individuals united by certain
relations or mode of behaviour which mark them off from others who do not enter into
these relations or who differ from them in behavious."
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As per G.D.M. Cole, "Society is the complex of organised associations and institutions with a
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community."
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According to Muclver society is "a web of social relationship."
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As per Prof. Giddings, "Society is the union itself, the organisation, the sum of formal
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relations in which associating individuals are bound together." ts
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According to Lapiere, "The term society refers not to group of people, but to the complex
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pattern of the norms of interaction, that arise among and between them"
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Characteristics of Society:
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1. Population : A society must have a population. Without a group of people no society

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could be formed. Of course, society refers not to a group of people but to a system of social
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relationships. But for the establishment of social relationships a group of people is

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necessary. This population is a self perpetuating individual who reproduces itself through
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some sort of mating relationship. Hence it is the first requirement of society.

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2. It is a complex system: It is ever-changing. Due to continuous change in people’s roles,

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rights, duties, and conditions, the whole social structure gets changed. Its nature changed
from simple to complex due to its dynamic nature.
3. It is a means of social control: It has its own ways and means of controlling the behavior
of its members. It has various formal as well as informal means of social control. It means it

has customs, traditions, conventions and folkways, mores, manners, etiquettes, laws,
legislations, police, court, and other formal or informal means of social control to regulate
the behavior of its members.
4. It consists of culture: Each society is distinct from others. Every society is unique because
it has one way of life, called culture. Human societies are distinguished from animal societies
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because of the culture we share.
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5. Mutual interaction and awareness: It is a group of people in continuous interaction with
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each other. Social interaction is made possible because of mutual awareness. So without
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interaction and awareness, there are no societies.
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6. Society is abstract:
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We may see the people but cannot see society or social structure. Social relationships are
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invisible and abstract. We can just realize them but cannot see or touch them. Therefore,
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society is abstract.
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7. Likeness and difference in society:

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Society involves both likeness and difference. If people are all exactly alike, their
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relationships would be limited. There would be little give-and- take and little reciprocity. If all
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men thought alike, felt alike, and acted alike, if they had the same standards and same
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interests, if they all accepted the same customs and echoed the same opinions without
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questioning and without variation, civilization could never have advanced and culture would
have remained rudimentary. Thus, society needs difference also for its existence and
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continuance.
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8. Cooperation and conflict in society:
Cooperation and conflict are universal elements in human life. Society is based on
cooperation but because of internal differences, there is conflict also among its members.

No individual is self-sufficient. Thus, cooperation is the most elementary process of social life
without which society is impossible.
9. Society is a process and not a product:
Society exists only as a time sequence. It is becoming, not a being; a process and not a
product. In other words, as soon as the process ceases, the product disappears. The product
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of a machine endures after the machine has been scrapped. To some extent the same is true
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not only of material relics of man’s past culture but even of his immaterial cultural
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achievements.
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10. Society as a system of stratification:
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Society provides a system of stratification of statuses and classes that each individual has a
relatively stable and recognizable position in the social structure.
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11. Permanent Nature:

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Permanency is another important characteristic of society. It is not a temporary organisation

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of individuals. Society continues to exist even after the death of individual members. Society
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is a coherent organisation.
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12. Society is Dynamic:

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The very nature of society is dynamic and changeable. No society is static. Every society
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changes and changes continuously. Old customs, traditions, folkways, mores, values and
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institutions got changed and new customs and values took place. Society changes from its
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traditional nature to modern nature. Hence it is one of the most important characteristics of
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society.
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13. Comprehensive Culture:
Culture is another important characteristic of society. Each and every society has its own
culture which distinguishes it from others. Culture is the way of life of the members of a

society and includes their values, beliefs, art, morals etc. Hence culture is comprehensive
because it fulfills the necessities of social life and is culturally self-sufficient. Besides each
and every society transmits its cultural pattern to the succeeding generations.
14. Something more than mere collection of individuals:
No doubt society consists of individuals. But mere collection of individuals is not society. It is
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something more than that and something beyond the individual. Durkheim is right when he
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remarked that society is more than the sum of its parts i.e. individuals.
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15. Accommodation and Assimilation:
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These two associative social processes are also important for the smooth functioning and
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continuity of society. Hence it is also another characteristic of society.
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Advantages of a Society
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(a) It promotes teamwork.

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(b) It teaches cooperation.

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(c) It teaches to share and care.

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(d) It brings in synergy.

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(e) It sets norms of behaviour for peaceful living.

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(f) In economic society, it reduces the cost of living.

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(g) It provides physical and psychological protection.

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(h) It provides a balance between independence and inter-dependence.
Disadvantages of a Society
(a) It sets norms and thus curbs individual freedom to grow.
(b) Society uses coercive methods for compliance of social norms.

(c) Coercion can be physical and mental, which is detrimental to the general health of an
individual.
Community
The word "community" derives from the Old French comuneté, which comes from the Latin
communitas"community", "public spirit" A community is a small or large social unit (a group
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of people) who have something in common, such as norms, religion, values, or identity.
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Communities often share a sense of place that is situated in a given geographical area (e.g. a
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country, village, town, or neighborhood) or in virtual space through communication
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platforms. Durable relations that extend beyond immediate genealogical ties also define a
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sense of community. People tend to define those social ties as important to their identity,
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practice, and roles in social institutions like family, home, work, government, society, or
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humanity, at large. Although communities are usually small relative to personal social ties
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(micro-level), "community" may also refer to large group affiliations, such as national
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communities, international communities, and virtual communities.

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Types of Community:
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There are two types of communities: Rural and Urban communities, due to different social
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conditions in both rural and urban areas. Rural Community Rural community is a natural
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phenomenon. It is present in every society of the world having a distinct culture and pattern
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of social life. It is actually a product of natural free will of the people having extreme
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similarity in their objectives and ambitions of living. Agriculture is the main identity and
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element. People of this community mostly have. Face to face interaction with a high degree
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of homogeneity in their identities. Basic urban facilities like school, hospital, market,
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municipal office, police station etc. are usually missing in this community. Urban Community
Urban community is the opposite of rural community. The urban people's lifestyles are
highly impersonal with each other along with a high degree of complexity and heterogeneity
in their living style and identities. It is actually a product of rational choice. A complex

division of labour with specialization in their jobs is the identity of the urban community.
Modern civic facilities are usually available.
Characteristics of Community:
(1) A group of people: A group of people is the most fundamental or essential characteristic
or element of a community. This group may be small or large but community always refers to
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a group of people. Because without a group of people we can’t think of a community, when
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a group of people live together and share a common life and binded by a strong sense of
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community consciousness at that moment a community is formed. Hence a group of people
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is the first pre-requisites of a community.
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(2) A definite locality: It is the next important characteristic of a community. Because the
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community is a territorial group. A group of people alone can’t form a community. A group
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of people forms a community only when they reside in a definite territory. The territory
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need not be fixed forever. A group of people like nomadic people may change their
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habitations. But the majority community is settled and a strong bond of unity and solidarity
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is derived from their living in a definite locality.

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(3) Community Sentiment: It is another important characteristic or element of community.

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Because without community sentiment a community can’t be formed only with a group of
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people and a definite locality. Community sentiment refers to a strong sense of feeling
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among the members or a feeling of belonging together. It refers to a sentiment of common

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living that exists among the members of a locality. Because of common living within an area
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for a long time a sentiment of common living is created among the members of that area.
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With this the members emotionally identify themselves. This emotional identification of the
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members distinguishes them from the members of other communities.
(4) Neutrality: Communities are naturally organized. It is neither a product of human will nor
created by an act of government. It grows spontaneously. Individuals became members by
birth.

(5) Permanence: Community is always a permanent group. It refers to a permanent living of

individuals within a definite territory. It is not temporary like that of a crowd or association.
(6) Similarity: The members of a community are similar in a number of ways. As they live
within a definite locality they lead a common life and share some common ends. Among the
members similarity in language, culture, customs, andtraditions and in many other things is
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observed. Similarities in these respects are responsible for the development of community
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sentiment.
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(7) Wider Ends: A community has wider ends. Members of a community associate not for
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the fulfillment of a particular end but for a variety of ends. These are natural for a
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community.
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A community is marked by total organized social life. It means a community includes all
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aspects of social life. Hence a community is a society in miniature.
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(9) A Particular Name: Every community has a particular name by which it is known to the
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world. Members of a community are also identified by that name. For example, people living
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in Odisha are known as odia.

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(10) No Legal Status: A community has no legal status because it is not a legal person. It has
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no rights and duties in the eyes of law. It is not created by the law of the land.
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(11) Size of Community: A community is classified on the basis of its size. It may be big or
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small. Village is an example of a small community whereas a nation or even the world is an
example of a big community. Both types of community are essential for human life.
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(12) Concrete Nature: A community is concrete in nature. As it refers to a group of people

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living in a particular locality we can see its existence. Hence it is concrete.

Social Structure
Meaning of social structure:
Social structure refers to the pattern of social relationships in a society. Such structure
regulates the interactions among members of the society, providing guidelines within the
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cultural norms for achieving the goals defined by cultural values. Generally, social structure
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maintains societal stability. However, when the social structure and the societal values
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become incompatible, the structure must embrace social change to allow the society to
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survive and continue healthy development. In every society there is a structural system, the
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society wishes to preserve it and is not interested in changing that unless there are sound
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reasons for the same.
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Definition:
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Social structure is one of the key concepts of sociology. But sociologists are not in complete
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agreement about its definitions. Briefly speaking, a good structure is one in which there is a
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regularity and a kind of permanency. Several Sociologists and social anthropologists have
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tried to define it. some of the important definitions of social structure are as follows:
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According to Radcliffe Brown : “Social structure consists of the sum total of all the social
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relationships of all individuals at a given moment of time.”

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According to Ginsberg : “Social structure is concerned with the principal forms of social
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organization, i.e., types of Groups, associations and the complex of these which continue
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societies.”
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According to Persons : “Social structure is the term applied to the particular arrangement of
the interrelated institutions, agencies and social patterns, as well as the statuses and roles
which each person assumes in the group.”

Characteristics of Social Structure :
(1) Social Structure is abstract.
(2) Social structure is related to the external nature of society.
(3) Sequence in units of Social Structure.
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(4) Every Unit of Social Structure has a definite Position.
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(5) Social structure is influenced by local features.
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(6) Hierarchy of sub structure in Social Structure.
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(7) Social Structure is relatively a permanent concept.
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(8) Elements of disintegration are also found in the social structure.
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Conclusion :
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Thus social structure means more fundamental or basic patterns of social relations in a given
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society or social system. It describes the way in which society is organized into predictable
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relationships and patterns of social interaction. These patterns are to some extent
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independent of the particular individual, as they exert a force that shapes individual
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behavior and the identity of the society. Social structure cannot be fixed, static, and
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universal. Not only must a society be open to adjustment and transformation in response to
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changes both internal and external to itself, but also even in a "globalized" world there
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remain significant differences in the ways in which people live and relate to each other and
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their environment. The future of human society, if it is to be peaceful and satisfying to all
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people, requires that we understand both the varieties of social structure that such a world
could have, and the processes of social change required to achieve and maintain them.

Social System
Meaning:
The term “system” means an orderly arrangement of constituent units. A social system is an
orderly and systematic arrangement of social interaction. Social system is made up of a
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plurality of individuals. They interact with others according to shared norms and meaning
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within the social system. Within a social system, there are various sub-systems like political
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system, religious system, economic system etc. They interact with each other according to
shared norms and meanings within the social system.
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Characteristics of Social System:
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1. Social system is based on the interaction of the plurality of individuals.
2. The interaction must carry a meaning.
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3. Social system is a unity. Here, various parts like institutions, customs, traditions,
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procedures and laws are arranged in an integrated manner.
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4. In a social system, there exists a functional relationship between different parts.
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5. Social system is related to the cultural system. Culture determines the nature of
interrelation and interaction.
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6. Social system has an environmental aspect. It is related to a particular age, a definite

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territory and a particular society. Environment has an impact over the whole
activities of life.
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Characteristics of Social System:

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Social system has certain characteristics. These characteristics are as follows:

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1. System is connected with the plurality of Individual actors:

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It means that a system or social system cannot be borne as a result of the activity of one
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individual. It is the result of the activities of various individuals. For a system, or social
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system, interaction of several individuals has to be there.

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2. Aim and Object:

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Human interactions or activities of the individual actors should not be aimless or without
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object. These activities have to be according to certain aims and objects. The expression of
different social relations borne as a result of human interaction.

3. Order and Pattern amongst various Constituent Units:

Mere coming together of various constituent units from the social system does not
necessarily create a social system. It has to be according to a pattern, arrangement and
order. The underlined unity amongst various constituent units brings about ‘social system’.
4. Functional Relationship is the Basis of Unity:
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We have already seen different constituent units have a unity in order to form a system. This
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unity is based on functional relations. As a result of functional relationships between
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different constituent units an integrated whole is created and this is known as the social
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system.
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5. Physical or Environmental Aspect of Social System:
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It means that every social system is connected with a definite geographical area or place,
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time, society etc. In other words it means that the social system is not the same at different
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times, at different places and under different circumstances. This characteristic of the social
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system again points out towards its dynamic or changeable nature.

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6. Linked with Cultural System:

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Social system is also linked with the cultural system. It means that a cultural system brings
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about unity amongst different members of the society on the basis of cultures, traditions,
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religions etc.
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7. Expressed and implied Aims and Objects:

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Social system is also linked with expressed and implied aims. In other words, it means that
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the social system is the coming together of different individual actors who are motivated by
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their aims and objectives and their needs.

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8. Characteristics of Adjustment:
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Social system has the characteristic of adjustment. It is a dynamic phenomenon which is

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influenced by the changes caused in the social form. We have also seen that the social
system is influenced by the aims, objects and the needs of the society. It means that the
social system shall be relevant only if it changes itself according to the changed objects and
needs. It has been seen that change takes place in the social system due to human needs,
environment and historical conditions and phenomena.

9. Order, Pattern and Balance:

Social system has the characteristics of pattern, order and balance. Social system is not an
integrated whole but putting together of different units. This coming together does not take
place in a random and haphazard manner. There is an order am’ balance.
It is so because different units of the society do not work as independent units but they do
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not exist in a vacuum but in a socio-cultural pattern. In the pattern different units have
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different functions and roles. It means that there is a pattern and order in the social system.
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Role
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Definition of Role
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According to Young and Mack, “A role is the function of a status”.
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Robert Biersted defines that “role is the dynamic or the behavioural aspect of status ….. A
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role is what an individual does in the status he occupies”.
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According to Duncan Mitchell, “A social role is the expected behaviour associated with a
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social position”.
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As per Kingsley Davis, role refers to “the manner in which a person actually carries out the
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requirements of his position”.

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Social Status:
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Social status, also called status, is the relative rank that an individual holds, with attendant
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rights, duties, and lifestyle, in a social hierarchy based upon honour or prestige. Status may
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be ascribed—that is, assigned to individuals at birth without reference to any innate

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abilities—or achieved, requiring special qualities and gained through competition and
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individual effort. Ascribed status is typically based on sex, age, race, family relationships, or
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birth, while achieved status may be based on education, occupation, marital status,
accomplishments, or other factors.

The word status implies social stratification on a vertical scale. People may be said to occupy
high positions when they are able to control, by order or by influence, other people’s
conduct; when they derive prestige from holding important offices; or when their conduct is
esteemed by others. Relative status is a major factor in determining the way people behave
toward each other.
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One’s status tends to vary with social context. For example, the position of a man in his kin
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group helps determine his position in the larger community. The Native American Hopi
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lineage, although unnamed, contains the mechanism for transmitting rights to land, houses,
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and ceremonial knowledge and is thus vital to personal status. Among the Tallensi of Ghana,
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a boy who has lost his father is head of a household and therefore counts as an elder; a
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middle-aged man living under his father’s roof is formally a child. Status may be governed by
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occupational considerations; thus, in parts of sub-Saharan Africa blacksmiths commonly
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form a separate group of low status. In the Hindu caste system, sweepers are at the bottom
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of the scale because they handle excrement.

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Social value
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Social values form an important part of the culture of the society. Values account for the
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stability of social order. They provide the general guidelines for social conduct. Values such
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as fundamental rights, patriotism, respect for human dignity, rationality, sacrifice,

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individuality, equality, democracy etc. guide our behaviour in many ways. Values are the
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criteria people use in assessing their daily lives; arrange their priorities and choose between
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alternative courses of action.

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G.R. Leslie, R.F. Larson, H.L. Gorman says, “Values are group conceptions of the relative
desirability of things”.

According to H.M. Johnson, “Values are general standards and may be regarded as higher
order norms”.
Young and Mack write, “Values are assumption, largely unconscious, of what is right and
important”.
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Michael Haralambos says “A value is a belief that something is good and worthwhile. It
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defines what is worth having and worth striving”.
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According to Peter Worsley, “Values are general conceptions of “the good”, ideas about the
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kind of ends that people should pursue throughout their lives and throughout the many
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different activities in which they engage”.
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In simple words, values may be defined as measures of goodness or desirability.

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Values are standards of social behaviour derived from social interaction and accepted as
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constituent facts of social structure. They are objects that social conditions desire. These are
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culturally defined goals and involve “sentiments and significance.” These consist of
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“aspirational reference.”
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Values are expected to be followed for judging and evaluating social interaction, goals,
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means, ideas, feelings and the expected conduct. Without such an evaluating standard, it
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would be difficult to judge individual behaviour or social action. Values aim to integrate
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expected individual behaviour and social action. It tends to forestall tension and as such
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have a tension management role.

Functions of Values:
1. Values provide goals or ends for the members to aim for.
2. Values provide for stabilities and uniformities in group interaction. They hold the society
together because they are shared in common. Some sociologists argue that shared values
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form the basis for social unity. Since they share the same values with others, the members of
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society are likely to see others as “people like themselves”. They will therefore, have a sense
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of belonging to a social group. They will feel a part of the wider society.
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3. Values bring legitimacy to the rules that govern specific activities. The rules are accepted
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as rules and followed mainly because they embody the values that most people accept. The
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Americans for example, believe that the capitalist organization is the best one because it
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allows people to seek success in life.
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4. Values help to bring about some kind of adjustment between different sets of rules.
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People seek the same kinds of ends or goals in different fields of their life. Hence, it is
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possible for them to modify the rules to help the pursuit of this end.
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For example, if the Indian people cherish the value of “the principle of equality”, then they
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will have to modify the rules governing the interpersonal relationship of husband and wife;
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and man and woman. As and when new activities emerge, people create rules in the light of
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their beliefs about what is ‘good’ and ‘right’.

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Culture
Introduction:
Culture is the sum-total of human achievements or the total heritage of man which can be
transmitted to men by communication and tradition. It is a way of life of the people in a
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certain geographical area. Lifestyle and social pattern of a society being the direct
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consequence of the accumulated heritage of ages past distinguish and differentiate one
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community from another.
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Meaning of culture:
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Culture is moral, intellectual and spiritual discipline for advancement, in accordance with the
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norms and values based on accumulated heritage. It is imbibing and making our own, the
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lifestyle and social pattern of the group one belongs to. Culture is a system of learned
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behaviour shared by and transmitted among the members of the group.

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Culture is a collective heritage learned by individuals and passed from one generation to
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another. The individual receives culture as part of social heritage and in turn, may reshape
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the culture and introduce changes which then become part of the heritage of succeeding
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generations.
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Definition of culture:
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Mlinowlski defines culture as the handiwork of man and the medium through which he
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achieves his ends.
Bierstedt defines culture as “Culture is the complex whole that consists of everything we
think and do and have as members of society.”

Characteristics of Culture:
1. Learned Behaviour:
Culture is learned behaviour. It is not biological; we do not inherit it. Much of learning
culture is unconscious. We learn culture from families, peers, institutions, and media. The
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process of learning culture is known as enculturation.
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2. Culture is Abstract:
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Culture exists in the minds or habits of the members of society. Culture is the shared ways of
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doing and thinking. There are degrees of visibility of cultural behaviour, ranging from the
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regularised activities of persons to their internal reasons for doing so. We cannot see culture
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as such, we can only see human behaviour. This behaviour occurs in regular, patterned
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fashion and it is called culture.
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3. Culture is a Pattern of Learned Behaviour:

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The definition of culture indicates that the learned behaviour of people is patterned. Each
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person’s behaviour often depends upon some particular behaviour of someone else. The
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point is that, as a general rule, behaviours are somewhat integrated or organized with
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related behaviours of other persons.

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4. Culture is the Products of Behaviour:

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Culture learnings are the products of behaviour. As the person behaves, there occur changes
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in him. He acquires the ability to swim, to feel hatred toward someone, or to sympathize
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with someone. They have grown out of his previous behaviours.
In both ways, then, human behaviour is the result of behaviour. The experiences of other
people are impressed on one as he grows up, and also many of his traits and abilities have
grown out of his own past behaviours.

5. Culture includes Attitudes, Values Knowledge:
There is widespread error in the thinking of many people who tend to regard the ideas,
attitudes, and notions which they have as “their own”. It is easy to overestimate the
uniqueness of one’s own attitudes and ideas. When there is agreement with other people it
is largely unnoticed, but when there is a disagreement or difference one is usually conscious
93
of it. Your differences however, may also be cultural. For example, suppose you are a
64
Catholic and the other person a Protestant.
24
86
84
6. Culture also includes Material Objects:
pa
Man’s behaviour results in creating objects. Men were behaving when they made these
ap
things. To make these objects required numerous and various skills which human beings
gradually built up through the ages.
ts
Man has invented something else and so on.
ha
w
Occasionally one encounters the view that man does not really “make” steel or a battleship.
s
All these things first existed in a “state nature”.

se
as
cl
Man merely modified their form, changed them from a state in which they were to the state
w
la
in which he now uses them. The chair was first a tree which man surely did not make. But
hi
the chair is more than trees and the jet airplane is more than iron ore and so forth.
s
ak
in
7. Culture is shared by the Members of Society:

m
@
The patterns of learned behaviour and the results of behaviour are possessed not by one or
e
ub
a few person, but usually by a large proportion. Thus, many millions of persons share such
ut
behaviour patterns as Christianity, the use of automobiles, or the English language.

Yo
Persons may share some part of a culture unequally. For example, as Americans do the
Christian religion. To some persons Christianity is the all important, predominating idea in

life. To others it is less preoccupying/important, and to still others it is of marginal

significance only.
Sometimes the people share different aspects of culture. For example, among the Christians,
there are – Catholic and Protestant, liberal or conservation, as clergymen or as laymen. The
93
point to our discussion is not that culture or any part of it is shred identically, but that it is
64
shared by the members of society to a sufficient extent.
24
86
8. Culture is Superorganic:
84
Culture is sometimes called super organic. It implies that “culture” is somehow superior to
pa
“nature”. The word super-organic is useful when it implies that what may be quite a different
ap
phenomenon from a cultural point of view. ts
ha
w
For example, a tree means different things to the botanist who studies it, the old woman
s
se
who uses it for shade in the late summer afternoon, the farmer who picks its fruit, the
as
motorist who collides with it and the young lovers who carve their initials in its trunk. The
cl
w
same physical objects and physical characteristics, in other words, may constitute a variety
la
hi
of quite different cultural objects and cultural characteristics.

s
ak
in
9. Culture is Pervasive:
m
@
Culture is pervasive; it touches every aspect of life. The pervasiveness of culture is manifest
e
in two ways. First, culture provides an unquestioned context within which individual action
ub
and response take place. Not only emotional action but relational actions are governed by
ut
Yo
cultural norms. Second, culture pervades social activities and institutions.

10. Culture is a way of Life:
Culture means simply the “way of life” of a people or their “design for living.” A culture is a
historically derived system of explicit and implicit designs for living, which tends to be shared
by all or specially designed members of a group.
93
Explicit culture refers to similarities in word and action which can be directly observed. For
64
example, adolescent cultural behaviour can be generalized from regularities in dress,
24
mannerism and conversation. Implicit culture exists in abstract forms which are not quite
86
84
obvious.
pa
11. Culture is a human Product:
ap
ts
Culture is not a force, operating by itself and independent of the human actors. There is an
ha
unconscious tendency to defy culture, to endow it with life and treat it as a thing. Culture is
w
s
a creation of society in interaction and depends for its existence upon the continuance of
se
society.
as
cl
w
In a strict sense, therefore, culture does not ‘do’ anything on its own. It does not cause the
la
hi
individual to act in a particular way, nor does it ‘make’ the normal individual into a
s
ak
maladjusted one. Culture, in short, is a human product; it is not independently endowed

in
with life.
m
@
e
12. Culture is Idealistic:

ub
ut
Culture embodies the ideas and norms of a group. It is the sum-total of the ideal patterns
Yo
and norms of behaviour of a group. Culture consists of the intellectual, artistic and social
ideals and institutions which the members of the society profess and to which they strive to
confirm.

13. Culture is transmitted among members of Society:
The cultural ways are learned by persons from persons. Many of them are “handed down”
by one’s elders, by parents, teachers, and others [of a somewhat older generation]. Other
cultural behaviours are “handed up” to elders. Some of the transmission of culture is among
contemporaries.
93
64
For example, the styles of dress, political views, and the use of recent labour saving devices.
24
One does not acquire a behaviour pattern spontaneously. He learns it. That means that
86
84
someone teaches him and he learns. Much of the learning process both for the teacher and
the learner is quite unconscious, unintentional, or accidental.
pa
ap
14. Culture is Continually Changing: ts
ha
There is one fundamental and inescapable attribute (special quality) of culture, the fact of
w
s
unending change. Some societies sometimes change slowly, and hence in comparison to
se
other societies seem not to be changing at all. But they are changing, even though not
as
cl
obviously so.
w
la
hi
15. Culture is Variable:

s
ak
Culture varies from society to society, group to group. Hence, we say the culture of India or
in
m
England. Further culture varies from group to group within the same society. There are
@
subcultures within a culture. Clusters of patterns which are both related to the general
e
ub
culture of the society and yet distinguishable from it are called subcultures.
ut
Yo
16. Culture is an integrated system:
Culture possesses an order and system. Its various parts are integrated with each other and
any new element which is introduced is also integrated.

17. Language is the Chief Vehicle of Culture:
Man lives not only in the present but also in the past and future. He is able to do this
because he possesses language which transmits to him what was learned in the past and
enables him to transmit the accumulated wisdom to the next generation. A specialised
language pattern serves as a common bond to the members of a particular group or
93
subculture. Although culture is transmitted in a variety of ways, language is one of the most
64
important vehicles for perpetuating cultural patterns.
24
86
84
Conclusion:
pa
Thus, to conclude, culture is everything which is socially learned and shared by the members
ap
ts
of a society. It is culture that, in the wide focus of the world, distinguishes individual from
ha
individual, group from group and society.
w
s
se
as
Meaning of Socialization
cl
At the time of birth, the human infant knows nothing about what a society or social
w
behaviour is. Yet as the child grows up, they keep learning not just about the physical world,
la
hi
but about what it means to be a good or bad person, what kind of behaviour will be
s
applauded and what kind will be disapproved. Socialisation can be defined as the process
ak
whereby the helpless infant gradually becomes a self-aware, knowledgeable person, skilled
in
in the ways of the culture into which he is born. Indeed without socialisation an individual
m
would not behave like a human being.

@
A child, in the first instance, is a member of a family. But he is also a member of a larger
e
ub
kin-group (a clan) consisting of brothers, sisters and other relatives of the parents. The
family into which he is born may be a nuclear or extended family. It is also a member of a
ut
larger society such as a tribe or subcaste, a clan, a religious and linguistic group.
Yo
Membership of these groups and institutions imposes certain behavioural norms and values
on each member. Corresponding to these memberships there are roles that are performed,
e.g. that of a son, a daughter, a grandchild or a student. These are multiple roles, which are
performed simultaneously. The process of learning the norms, attitudes, values or
behavioural patterns of these groups begins early in life and continues throughout one’s life.
The norms and values may differ within a society in different families belonging to different
castes, regions or social classes or religious groups according to whether one lives in a village

or a city or one belongs to a tribe and if to a tribe, to which tribe. Indeed the very language
that one speaks depends on the region one comes from. Whether the language is closer to a
spoken dialect or to a standardised written form depends on the family and the
socio-economic and cultural profile of the family.
Characteristics/ Features of Socialization
The following are some the important features/ characteristic of Socialization –
93
64
1. Socialization can take place formally and informally:
24
Formal socialization takes place through direct instruction and education in schools
86
and colleges. Family is considered as the primary and the most influential source of
84
education. Children learn their language, customs, norms and values in the family.
pa
ap
2. Socialization is a gradual process:
ts
ha
Socialization is a life-long process. It does not cease when a child becomes an adult.
w
Socialization occurs in an orderly manner and follows a certain sequence which, in

general, is the same for most children. The rate and speed of development may vary
s
se
in individual cases.
as
cl
3. Socialization is a product of interaction

w
la
hi
Socialization is a product of interaction of the organism and its environment. But it

s
is not possible to indicate exactly in what proportion heredity and environment

ak
contribute to an Individual’s Socialization.

in
m
@
4. Socialization is a continuous process -

e
ub
Socialization does not stop at any time. It continues from the moment of conception
until a person dies. It can take place at a slow or a rapid rate but at a regular pace
ut
Yo
rather than by leaps and bounds. However, there may be a break in the continuity of
growth due to illness, starvation or malnutrition or other environmental factors or
some abnormal conditions in the child’s life.

5. Socialization is rapid if there is more humanity among the- agencies of

socialization:
Socialization takes place rapidly if the agencies’ of socialization are more unanimous
in their ideas and skills. When there is conflict between the ideas, examples and skills
transmitted at home and those transmitted by school or peers, socialization of the
individual tends to be slower and ineffective.
93
64
6. Socialization proceeds from general to specific responses-
24
86
General activity always precedes specific activity. The early responses of the baby are
84
very general in nature which is gradually replaced with specific ones. The earliest
emotional responses of the newborn are generally diffused excitement and this
pa
slowly gives way to specific emotional patterns of anger, joy, fear, etc. Babies wave
ap
their arms in general, random movements before they are capable of such specific
responses as reaching for an object held before them. ts
ha
w
7. Socialization involves change-

s
se
The human being is never static. From the moment of conception to the time of
as
death, the person is undergoing changes.

cl
w
la
8. Socialization is often predictable-

s hi
ak
Psychologists have observed that each phase has certain Socialization common traits
in
and characteristics. The rate of Socialization for each child is fairly constant. The
m
consequence is that it is possible for us to predict at an early age the range within
@
which the child is likely to fall.

e
ub
9. Socialization is unique-
ut
Yo
Each child is an unique individual. No two children can be expected to behave or

develop in an identical manner although they are of the same age. For example, in
the same class, a child who comes from a deprived environment cannot be expected
to do as well in studies as a child of the same ability whose parents put high value on
education and encourage the child to study.

10. Socialization is an individualized process:
These individual differences arise because each child is controlled by a unique

combination of hereditary endowment and environmental factors. All children
therefore do not reach the same point at the same Socialization age.
93
64
Agents of socialization
24
Socialization helps people learn to function successfully in their social worlds. This learning
86
takes place through interaction with various agents of socialization, like peer groups and
84
families, plus both formal and informal social institutions. Following are the main agents of
socialization-
pa
ap
ts
ha
w
s
se
as
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w
la
s hi
ak
in
m
@
e
ub
ut
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Social Group Agents
Social groups often provide the first experiences of socialization. Families, and later peer
groups, communicate expectations and reinforce norms. People first learn to use the
tangible objects of material culture in these settings, as well as being introduced to the
beliefs and values of society.
93
64
24
Family
86
84
Family is the first agent of socialization. Mother and father, siblings and grandparents, plus
pa
members of an extended family, all teach a child what he or she needs to know. For
ap
example, they show the child how to use objects (such as clothes, computer, eating utensils,
ts
books, bikes); how to relate to others (some as “family,” others as “friends,” still others as
ha
“strangers” or “teachers” or “neighbors”); and how the world works (what is “real” and what
w
s
is “imagined”). Family as an agent of Socialization includes teaching and learning about an

se
unending array of objects and ideas. However, families do not socialize children in a vacuum.
as
cl
Many social factors affect the way a family raises its children. For example, we can use
w
sociological imagination to recognize that individual behaviors are affected by the historical
la
hi
period in which they take place.

s
ak
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Sociologists recognize that race, social class, religion, and other societal factors play an
m
important role in socialization. For example, poor families usually emphasize obedience and
@
conformity when raising their children, while wealthy families emphasize judgment and
e
ub
creativity. This may occur because working-class parents have less education and more
ut
repetitive-task jobs for which it is helpful to be able to follow rules and conform. Wealthy
Yo
parents tend to have better education and often work in managerial positions or careers
that require creative problem solving, so they teach their children behaviors that are
beneficial in these positions. This means children are effectively socialized and raised to take
the types of jobs their parents already have, thus reproducing the class system. Likewise,

children are socialized to abide by gender norms, perceptions of race, and class-related
behaviors.
Peer Groups
93
A peer group is made up of people who are similar in age and social status and who share
64
interests. Peer group socialization begins in the earliest years, such as when kids on a
24
playground teach younger children the norms about taking turns, the rules of a game, or
86
how to shoot a basket. As children grow into teenagers, this process continues. Peer groups
84
are important to adolescents in a new way, as they begin to develop an identity separate
pa
from their parents and exert independence. Additionally, peer groups provide their own
ap
opportunities for socialization since kids usually engage in different types of activities with
ts
ha
their peers than they do with their families. Peer groups provide adolescents’ first major
w
socialization experience outside the realm of their families. Interestingly, studies have shown
s
that although friendships rank high in adolescents’ priorities, this is balanced by parental
se
as
influence.
cl
w
la
Institutional Agents
s hi
ak
The social institutions of our culture also inform our socialization. Formal institutions—like
in
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schools, workplaces, and the government—teach people how to behave in and navigate
@
these systems. Other institutions, like the media, contribute to socialization by inundating us
e
ub
with messages about norms and expectations.

ut
Yo
School
Children spend a lot of their time in school, which makes it hard to deny the importance
school has on their socialization. Students are not in school only to study math, reading,

science, and other subjects—the manifest function of this system. Schools also serve a latent
function in society by socializing children into behaviors like practicing teamwork, following a
schedule, and using textbooks.
School and classroom rituals, led by teachers serving as role models and leaders, regularly
reinforce what society expects from children. Sociologists describe this aspect of schools as
93
64
the hidden curriculum, the informal teaching done by schools.
24
For example, schools build a sense of competition into the way grades are awarded and the
86
84
way teachers evaluate students. When children participate in a relay race or a math contest,
they learn there are winners and losers in society. When children are required to work
pa
ap
together on a project, they practice teamwork with other people in cooperative situations.
ts
The hidden curriculum prepares children for the adult world. Children learn how to deal with
ha
bureaucracy, rules, expectations, waiting their turn, and sitting still for hours during the day.
w
Schools in different cultures socialize children differently in order to prepare them to

s
se
function well in those cultures.

as
cl
Schools also socialize children by teaching them about citizenship and national pride.
w
la
Textbooks include subjects like History and Geography that help students learn about their
hi
country’s history and physical qualities of their country.

s
ak
in
The Workplace
m
@
Just as children spend much of their day at school, many adults at some point invest a
e
ub
significant amount of time at the place of employment. Although socialized into their culture
ut
since birth, workers require new socialization into a workplace, in terms of both material
Yo
culture (such as how to operate the copy machine) and nonmaterial culture (such as
whether it’s okay to speak directly to the boss or how to share the refrigerator).

Different jobs require different types of socialization. In the past, many people worked a
single job until retirement. Today, the trend is to switch jobs at least once a decade. This
means that people must become socialized to, and socialized by, a variety of work
environments.
93
Religion
64
24
While some religions are informal institutions, here we focus on practices followed by formal
86
institutions. Religion is an important avenue of socialization for many people. India, being a
84
secular country, is full of various temples, churches, mosques, and similar religious
pa
institutions where people gather to worship and learn. Like other institutions, these places
ap
teach participants how to interact with the religion’s material culture. For some people,
ts
ha
important ceremonies related to family structure—like marriage and birth—are connected
w
to religious celebrations. Many religious institutions also uphold gender norms and
s
contribute to their enforcement through socialization. From ceremonial rites of passage that
se
as
reinforce the family unit to power dynamics that reinforce gender roles, organized religion
cl
fosters a shared set of socialized values that are passed on through society.
w
la
s hi
Government
ak
in
m
Although we do not think about it, many of the rites of passage people go through today are
@
based on age norms established by the government. To be defined as an “adult” usually

e
means being eighteen years old, the age at which a person becomes entitled to vote, eligible
ub
to apply for driving licence and being treated as an adult by law. And sixty-five years old is
ut
Yo
the start of “old age” since most people become eligible for senior citizenship benefits at
that point.
Each time we embark on one of these new categories—senior, adult, taxpayer—we must be
socialized into our new role. Seniors must learn and make use of the Social Security, pension

and other such benefits provided to them by the government. These government dictates
mark the points at which we require socialization into a new category.
Mass Media
93
Mass media distribute impersonal information to a wide audience, via television,
64
newspapers, radio, and the Internet. As we spend a lot of our time in front of different mass
24
media, it greatly influences social norms. People learn about objects of material culture (like
86
new technology and transportation options), as well as nonmaterial culture—what is true
84
(beliefs), what is important (values), and what is expected (norms).
pa
ap
Conclusion: ts
ha
w
Thus, our direct interactions with social groups, like families and peers, teach us how others
s
se
expect us to behave. Likewise, a society’s formal and informal institutions socialize its
as
population. Schools, workplaces, and the media communicate and reinforce cultural norms
cl
and values. Socialization has three primary goals: teaching impulse control and developing a conscience,
w
la
preparing people to perform certain social roles, and cultivating shared sources of meaning and value.
s hi
ak
in
m
Social Group (Meaning, Characteristics/Elements and Types)

@
e
ub
Introduction
ut
Yo
Social group is a collection of two or more persons interacting together in an orderly way on
the basis of shared expectations about each other’s behaviour. As a result of this interaction,
the members of a group feel a common sense of belonging.
Though a social group is a collection of individuals; all collectivities do not constitute a social
group. A group is distinct from an aggregate (people waiting at railway station or bus stand)
of members which do not interact with one another. The essence of the social group is not

physical closeness or contact between the individuals but a consciousness of joint

interaction.
This consciousness of interaction may be present even though there is no personal contact
between individuals. For example, we are members of a national group and think of
ourselves as nationals even though we are acquainted with only a few people.
Definition of social group
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According to Williams, “A social group is a given aggregate of people playing interrelated
24
roles and recognized by themselves or others as a unit of interaction.”
86
84
The Sociological conception of group has come to mean as indicated by Mckee, ” a plurality
of people as actors involved in a pattern of social interaction, conscious of sharing common
pa
understanding and of accepting some rights and obligations that accrue only to members.
ap
According to Green, “A group is an aggregate of individuals which persist in time, which has
ts
one or more interests and activities in common and which is organised.”
ha
w
According to Maclver and Page “Any collection of human beings who are brought into social
s
relationship with one another”.

se
as
Thus, social relationships involve some degree of reciprocity and mutual awareness among
the members of the group.
cl
w
la
hi
Meaning of Social Group:

s
ak
in
m
A social group consists of such members having reciprocal relations. The members are
@
bound by a sense of unity. Their interests are common and behaviour is similar. They are
bound by the common consciousness of interaction. Thus, a family, a village, a nation, a
e
ub
political party or a trade union can also be considered as a social group.

ut
In short, a group means a group of associated members, reciprocally interacting with one
Yo
another. Viewed in this way, all old men between fifty and sixty or men belonging to a
particular income level are regarded as ‘aggregates’ or ‘quasi-groups’. They may become
groups when they are in interaction with one another and have a common purpose. People
belonging to a particular income level may constitute a social group when they consider
themselves to be a distinct unit with special interest.

There are large numbers of groups such as primary and secondary, voluntary and involuntary
groups and so on. Sociologists have classified social groups on the basis of size, local
distribution, permanence, degree of intimacy, type of organisation and quality of social
interaction etc.
Characteristics of Social Groups:
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Following are the important characteristics of social group:
24
86
1. Mutual attachment:
84
The members of a social group must be mutually related to one another. A mere aggregate
pa
of individuals cannot constitute a social group unless reciprocal awareness exists among
ap
them. Mutual attachment, is therefore, regarded as its important and distinctive feature. It
forms an essential feature of a group. ts
ha
w
2. One or more Common Interests:

s
se
Groups are mostly formed for the fulfillment of certain interests. The individuals who form a
as
group should possess one or more than one common interests and ideals. It is for the
cl
realization of common interests that they meet together. Groups always originate, start and
w
la
proceed with a common interest.

s hi
3. Sense of Unity:
ak
in
m
Each social group requires a sense of unity and a feeling of sympathy for the development of
@
a feeling or sense of belongingness. The members of a social group develop common loyalty
or feeling of sympathy among themselves in all matters because of this sense of unity.
e
ub
ut
4. We-feeling:
Yo
A sense of we-feeling refers to the tendency on the part of the members to identify
themselves with the group. They treat the members of their own group as friends and the
members belonging to other groups as outsiders. They cooperate with those who belong to
their groups and all of them protect their interests unitedly. We-feeling generates sympathy,
loyalty and fosters cooperation among members.

5. Similarity of Behaviour:
For the fulfillment of common interest, the members of a group behave in a similar way.
Social groups represent collective behaviour. The-modes of behaviour of the members of a
group are more or less similar.
6. Group Norms:
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Each and every group has its own ideals and norms and the members are supposed to follow
24
these. He who deviates from the existing group-norms is severely punished. These norms
86
may be in the form of customs, folkways, mores, traditions, laws etc. They may be written or
unwritten. The group exercises some control over its members through the prevailing rules
84
or norms.
pa
ap
Types or Classification of Groups:
ts
ha
Different sociologists have classified groups in different ways. Social groups are not only
w
innumerable but also diverse. It is not possible to study all the groups. A systematic study of
groups needs a classification. Various thinkers have chosen many criteria or bases for the
s
se
classification of social groups such as size, kind of contact, nature of interests, degree of
as
organisation and degree of permanence etc. Following are some of the most commonly seen
classification of social groups-
cl
w
Some of these bases have received more attention than others.

la
hi
1. Involuntary, voluntary and delegate groups:

s
ak
On the basis of structure, social groups can be divided into three types - involuntary,
in
voluntary and delegate groups. An involuntary group is that to which man has no choice,
m
which is based on kinship such as the family, tribe or clan. A voluntary group is one which a
@
man joins of his volition or wishes. At any time he is free to withdraw his membership from
e
this group. A delegate group is one to which a man joins as a representative of a number of
ub
people either elected or nominated by them. Parliament or Assembly is a delegate group.

ut
Yo
2. Vertical and horizontal groups:

On the basis of strata or statstrata or statusesuses, social groups can be divided into two
major types – the vertical and the horizontal. The vertical group includes persons of different
strata or statuses. But the horizontal group includes persons of the same status. A nation, for
instance, is a vertical group, while a class represents horizontal grouping.
3. Genetic and congregate:

F.H. Giddings classifies groups into genetic and congregate. The genetic group is the family in
which a man is born involuntarily. The congregate group is the voluntary group to which he
joins voluntarily.
4. Unsocial, pseudo-social, antisocial and pro-social groups:
Social groups can be divided into four types on the basis of their relations to other groups.
They are unsocial, pseudo-social, antisocial and pro-social groups. An unsocial group is one
93
which largely lives to itself and for itself and does not participate in the larger society of
64
which it is a part. It does not mix-up with other groups and remains aloof from them.
24
86
But it never goes against the interests of the larger group. A pseudo-social group participates
in the larger group of which it is a part but mainly for its own gain and not for the greater
84
good. An antisocial group is one, which acts against the interest of the larger group of which
pa
it is a part. A pro-social group is the reverse of the antisocial group. It works for the larger
ap
interest of the society of which it is a part.
5. Primary and secondary groups:
ts
ha
Groups can be classified into two types on the basis of kind of contact - primary and
w
secondary groups. In the primary group, there is face-to-face, close and intimate relationship
s
se
among the members such as in the family. But in a secondary group the relationships among
the members are indirect, impersonal and superficial such as the political party, a city and
as
trade union etc.

cl
w
6. In-group and out-group:

la
W.G. Sumner made a division of groups into in-group and out-group. The groups with which
s hi
the individual identifies himself are his in-groups such as his family, tribe, college, occupation
ak
etc. All other groups to which he does not belong are his out-groups.
in
m
@
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ut
Yo

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What to study: ts
ha
w
What to read and how to read Torts :

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LLbetdAWYBA
s
se
What to read and how to read Constitution 1 : https://youtu.be/dBhEbkU3yIk

as
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Frequently Asked Questions:

w
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hi
Which books to buy for LL.B. course: https://youtu.be/Tq-aqsog_yM

s
Can an average student clear LL.B.?: https://youtu.be/iRoFtcrDqGI

ak
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About Me: MINAKSHI LAW CLASSES

Minakshi Goswami, LL.M. (NLU, Assam) |WhatsApp message: 8431632737|

I. Social Group (Meaning, Characteristics/Elements and Types)

Minakshi Goswami, LL.M. (NLU, Assam) |WhatsApp message: 8431632737|

1. Population : A society must have a population. Without a group of people no society

relationships. But for the establishment of social relationships a group of people is

some sort of mating relationship. Hence it is the first requirement of society.

2. It is a complex system: It is ever-changing. Due to continuous change in people’s roles,

Minakshi Goswami, LL.M. (NLU, Assam) |WhatsApp message: 8431632737|

7. Likeness and difference in society:

8. Cooperation and conflict in society:

Minakshi Goswami, LL.M. (NLU, Assam) |WhatsApp message: 8431632737|

9. Society is a process and not a product:

11. Permanent Nature:

Permanency is another important characteristic of society. It is not a temporary organisation

12. Society is Dynamic:

13. Comprehensive Culture:

Minakshi Goswami, LL.M. (NLU, Assam) |WhatsApp message: 8431632737|

14. Something more than mere collection of individuals:

(a) It promotes teamwork.

(b) It teaches cooperation.

(c) It teaches to share and care.

(d) It brings in synergy.

(e) It sets norms of behaviour for peaceful living.

(f) In economic society, it reduces the cost of living.

(g) It provides physical and psychological protection.

(h) It provides a balance between independence and inter-dependence.

(a) It sets norms and thus curbs individual freedom to grow.

(b) Society uses coercive methods for compliance of social norms.

Minakshi Goswami, LL.M. (NLU, Assam) |WhatsApp message: 8431632737|

communities, international communities, and virtual communities.

Minakshi Goswami, LL.M. (NLU, Assam) |WhatsApp message: 8431632737|

is derived from their living in a definite locality.

(3) Community Sentiment: It is another important characteristic or element of community.

among the members or a feeling of belonging together. It refers to a sentiment of common

members distinguishes them from the members of other communities.

Minakshi Goswami, LL.M. (NLU, Assam) |WhatsApp message: 8431632737|

(5) Permanence: Community is always a permanent group. It refers to a permanent living of

in Odisha are known as odia.

(12) Concrete Nature: A community is concrete in nature. As it refers to a group of people

living in a particular locality we can see its existence. Hence it is concrete.

Minakshi Goswami, LL.M. (NLU, Assam) |WhatsApp message: 8431632737|

Meaning of social structure:

relationships of all individuals at a given moment of time.”

Minakshi Goswami, LL.M. (NLU, Assam) |WhatsApp message: 8431632737|

Characteristics of Social Structure :

(1) Social Structure is abstract.

(2) Social structure is related to the external nature of society.

(3) Sequence in units of Social Structure.

Minakshi Goswami, LL.M. (NLU, Assam) |WhatsApp message: 8431632737|

6. Social system has an environmental aspect. It is related to a particular age, a definite

Characteristics of Social System:

Social system has certain characteristics. These characteristics are as follows:

1. System is connected with the plurality of Individual actors:

system, interaction of several individuals has to be there.

2. Aim and Object:

Minakshi Goswami, LL.M. (NLU, Assam) |WhatsApp message: 8431632737|

3. Order and Pattern amongst various Constituent Units:

system again points out towards its dynamic or changeable nature.

6. Linked with Cultural System:

7. Expressed and implied Aims and Objects: