j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 6 : 3 0 3 e3 1 4

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Identification of intermetallics in the laser-welded

joint of rare-earth magnesium alloy and the
corresponding strengthening mechanisms

Yanfei Chen a, Zhengqiang Zhu a,*, Jixue Zhou b, Fei Zhao a

a
School of Advanced Manufacturing, Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330031, PR China
b
Advanced Materials Institute, Shandong Academy of Sciences, Ji'nan, 250014, PR China

article info abstract

Article history: Morphology and distribution of intermetallic compounds in the heat-affected zone (HAZ)
Received 23 June 2023 are easily altered during welding thermal cycles, contributing to the softening of the HAZ.
Accepted 24 July 2023 Finding solutions to mitigate the softening and enhance the strength of the joint is
Available online 26 July 2023 currently at the forefront of Mg alloy processing and manufacturing. In this work, 0.7 mm
thick Ce-containing Mg alloy sheets were successfully joined using fiber laser welding. The
Keywords: microstructure of the joint was observed employing scanning electron microscopy (SEM),
Laser welding energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM).
Rare-earth Accordingly, the phase compositions in both HAZ and fusion zone (FZ) were determined.
Magnesium alloys Subsequently, the mechanical properties of the joint were evaluated through tensile-shear
Cerium and hardness tests. The results revealed that the HAZ experienced softening, retaining
Heat-affected zone 76.6% of the strength of the base metal in the tensile-shear test. Interestingly,
intermetallics composed of conventional alloying elements within the HAZ transformed
into coral-like structures during the welding thermal cycles, whereas the morphology and
distribution of intermetallics containing rare-earth (RE) elements barely changed. As a
result, the joint exhibited cracks along the boundaries of the coral-like precipitates during
tensile loading. In comparison, both intermetallics consisting of conventional elements
and those containing RE elements were fragmented into micron-sized fine particles in the
FZ, leading to an increase in the strength of the FZ. Ultimately, the mechanisms respon-
sible for the softening of the HAZ and the strengthening of the FZ were elucidated, pre-
senting a promising welding solution for Mg alloys.
© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC
BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

electronics [1e3]. Notably, the modification of Mg alloys with RE

1. Introduction
Magnesium alloys, known for being the lightest structural ma-
terials, offer unparalleled advantages in various industries such
as lightweight automotive, aviation/aerospace, and consumer
elements further refines the grains and forms thermally stable
RE strengthening intermetallic compounds in the alloy [4],
which enhances specific properties of the alloy and broaden
their applications [5] Particularly, the use of high-abundance RE
elements, such as La/Ce/Y, holds significant advantages in

* Corresponding author. School of Advanced Manufacturing, Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330031, PR China.
E-mail address: 350906320003@email.ncu.edu.cn (Z. Zhu).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.07.204
2238-7854/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
304 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 6 : 3 0 3 e3 1 4
preparing heat-resistant, high-performance, and cost-effective
Mg alloys. However, fabricating complex components inevi-
tably requires welding and joining [1]. Unfortunately, the
impact of welding heat on the precipitation and distribution of
intermetallic compounds within the alloy is generally irre-
versible, particularly for intermetallics with poor thermal sta-
bility [6]. As a result, the mechanical properties of the HAZ are
compromised due to alterations in the microstructure of those
intermetallic compounds [7].
For instance, the prominent intermetallic compound in
widely used industrial AZ, AM, and AS alloys, Mg17Al12, ex-
hibits a relatively low melting point (Tm) of 460
C [8]. Similarly,
the melting points of MgZn2 and Mg2Zn3 in AZ and ZK alloys
are only 588
C [9] and 595
C [9], respectively. Apparently,
these melting points are lower than that of the Mg matrix
(648
C [10], which represents the temperature achievable in
the HAZ). It is worth noting that the aforementioned in-
termetallics exhibit relatively high precipitation levels in Mg
alloys. As the temperature in HAZ increases with decreasing
distance from the boundary of the FZ, it becomes evident the
precipitation and distribution of these primary intermetallics
within the HAZ are prone to change during the welding
thermal cycles [11]. Therefore, achieving high-quality welding
of Mg alloys, particularly in terms of mitigating the softening
of HAZ and optimizing structures of grains and intermetallic
compounds within it, remains a crucial frontier in the
manufacturing of Mg alloy components.
Laser welding is outstanding for its high energy density,
rapid heating rate, and low and precise heat input [12].
Consequently, intermetallics in the HAZ merely bear a brief
exposure to the welding heat, which in turn results in a nar-
row HAZ [13]. It is important to note that laser welding is a
fusion welding process that achieves joining without relying
on the plasticity of Mg alloys, as is the case in friction stir
welding [14]. Additionally, uniformly distributed fine inter-
metallic compounds are obtained in the FZ due to the heat
flow agitation generated by the laser beam penetrating the
molten pool [15]. These characteristics make laser welding
highly suitable for joining Mg alloys [16]. It is of interest that RE
intermetallics exhibit excellent thermal stability [17]. Partic-
ularly Al-containing RE intermetallics possess relatively high
melting points [18]. Studies by Czerwinski [19] and Uporova
[20] reported the melting points of potential intermetallics in
Mg alloys, such as Al11Ce3 [19] and Al2Ce [20], to be 1253
C [19]
and 1455
C [20], respectively. Apparently, the presence of
thermally stable intermetallics within the HAZ is crucial in
reducing the impact of welding heat on the microstructure
and maintaining its strength. Evidently, the combination of
laser welding and RE intermetallic compounds in the welding
of Mg alloys presents an ideal solution for minimizing soft-
ening of the HAZ and achieving high-quality joints.
Results by Cao [21] indicate that when 2 mm thick ZE41A-
T5 sheets were welded using a 2.5 kW Nd: YAG laser, the FZ
width ranged from 0.8 to 1.3 mm, while the HAZ width
reached an astonishing 2 mm. It is evident that an excessively
wide HAZ has an adverse effect on the mechanical perfor-
mance of the joint. Yan [22] conducted laser welding on an
Mg3Nde0.2Zne0.4Zr (NZ30K) alloy. Hardness tests revealed
that the hardness of the base metal was 58 HV. However, both
the FZ and HAZ showed a decrease in hardness, with a
reduction of 9 HV compared to the base metal. This indicates
that neither the development of a finer-grained structure nor
the presence of Mg12Nd particles in the FZ and HAZ contrib-
utes to the hardness of the welded joint. Srinivasan [23] ach-
ieved successful welding of 2.5 mm thick AZ31 alloy
employing a 2.2 kW Nd: YAG laser. Microstructural analysis of
the FZ revealed an average grain size of approximately 12 mm.
Additionally, fine particles with sizes <1 mm were distributed
throughout the matrix and along the grain boundaries. Ten-
sile tests indicated that the joint cracked at the interface be-
tween FZ and HAZ, indicating that the HAZ is the weakest
region of the joint [23]. It is evident that although Mg alloys can
be welded using laser welding, existing experimental results
and literature consistently indicate that the strength of HAZ
and FZ is closely related to the intermetallic compounds
within them [24]. However, the underlying mechanisms gov-
erning these relationships, particularly the measures for
regulating and controlling the morphology and distribution of
intermetallics during thermal cycles, remain unclear. The
complexity of these mechanisms increases further when RE
intermetallics are involved. Therefore, further research is
needed to gain a better understanding of how to control the
solidification microstructure and determine its impact on the
mechanical properties of the joints.
In this paper, Ce-containing Mg alloys were joined through
fiber laser welding. Detailed microstructural observations of
the joint were performed using SEM, EDS, and TEM. Special
emphasis was placed on the variations in the morphology and
distribution of intermetallic compounds within the HAZ and
FZ. The mechanical properties of the joint were evaluated
through hardness and tensile-shear tests. The results indi-
cated that the formation of coral-like precipitates in the HAZ,
caused by the welding heat, had a negative impact on the
mechanical properties of the HAZ. In contrast, the FZ exhibits
uniformly dispersed micron-sized fine particles, contributing
to the enhancement of its mechanical properties. Conse-
quently, the joint cracked along the HAZ, particularly the
boundaries of coral-like precipitates within the HAZ, which
was close to the interface between FZ and HAZ, making the
HAZ the weakest part of the joint. The aforementioned results
highlight the significance of RE intermetallics in mitigating the
influence of welding heat on the microstructure of Mg alloys.
The mechanisms behind the softening of the HAZ and the
strengthening of the FZ were thus elucidated, providing a
feasible welding solution for Mg alloy components subjected
to thermal cycling conditions.
2. Sample preparation and research details
2.1. Materials used
To investigate the distribution and evolution mechanisms of
RE intermetallics in both HAZ and FZ, an AZ series Mg alloy
comprising 0.4 wt% Ce was used, and the elemental compo-
sition is shown in Table 1. Welding sheets were cut from Mg
alloy ingot (as-cast) using a linear cutting machine. Then the
sheets were ground to sizes of 50 mm  10 mm  0.7 mm using
1500# abrasive paper. Prior to laser welding, the sheets were
cleaned with alcohol and thoroughly dried.
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 6 : 3 0 3 e3 1 4
Table 1 e The elemental composition of the rare-earth Mg alloy comprising 0.4 wt% Ce (wt.%).
Element Al Zn Mn
wt.% 3.156 1.098 0.385
2.2. Welding parameters
Welding experiments were performed using a 3 kW fiber laser
system (IPG Photonics YLS-3000-SM). The welding parameters
were set as follows: a welding power of 500 W, a laser head
tilted at 10
from the vertical direction, a defocusing distance
of 0 mm, and a welding speed of 5 mm/s. As depicted in Fig. 1,
the upper sheet and bottom sheet were overlapped for a dis-
tance of 15 mm. During the welding process, the welded joint
was shielded with argon gas until it was completely cooled.
2.3. Test details
Test specimens were obtained from the welded joints with a
linear cutting machine. 3D morphology of the weld was ob-
tained employing a Keyence VHX-7000 digital microscope.
Microstructural observations were performed using the Key-
ence VHX-7000 optical microscope and a ZEISS EVO MA 10
SEM with an accelerating voltage of 20 KV and a probe current
of 150 pA after inlaying, grinding, polishing, and etching. The
etching agent was prepared by mixing 1 ml of HNO3, 1 g of
oxalic acid, and 99 ml of pure water. Elemental composition
analysis of the intermetallics was performed using an Oxford
X-Max EDS system integrated with the Zeiss SEM. The crystal
structures of the intermetallics within the fusion zone were
determined using an FEI Talos F200X scanning TEM (STEM)
operated at 200 kV. Thin sections for use in TEM were pre-
pared employing a FEI Scios focused ion beam/SEM (FIB-SEM)
system with a Gaþ ion beam current of 1.6 nA at 20 kV. The
EDAX TEAM type EDS integrated with the FIB-SEM was used to
confirm the target before and after the FIB cutting. Tensile
tests were carried out using a Care IBTC-5000 in-situ stretch-
ing system at a stretching rate of 0.01 mm/s. For the hardness
test, a Huaying HV-1000 micro-hardness tester was used with
test forces of 100 gf and 50 gf, respectively, and a holding time
Fig. 1 e The schematic diagram of laser welding.
305
Si Fe Cu Ce Mg
0.167 0.029 0.014 0.436 Balance
of 10 s. The detailed indentation locations and spacing are
shown in Fig. 2.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Intermetallic compounds in the base metal
In order to investigate the impact of the welding heat on the
welded joint, the microstructure of the base metal was
observed in advance. The results are displayed in Fig. 3. It is
clear that secondary and precipitated phases in the alloy are
uniformly distributed. Additionally, three types of interme-
tallic compounds with typical morphological features are
identified, supported by morphological and elemental
composition analysis (EDS mapping), as illustrated in Fig. 3(b
and e). These intermetallic compounds include long needle-
like Al11Ce3, short rod-like/granular Al10Ce2Mn7 distributed
in grains, and island-shaped Mg17Al12 and MgZn2 at grain
boundaries. The characterization of these intermetallic com-
pounds is detailed in our previous work [25,26].
The distribution rules of intermetallic compounds in the
alloy are closely related to the solidification process of the
MgeAleZneMneCe system. Phase diagrams of Mg-Al [27],
Mg-Zn [9], and AleCe [28] are illustrated in Fig. 4. Clearly, the
eutectic points of Mg17Al12 and MgZn2 are 437
C [29] and
416
C [9], respectively, both of which are close in value and
lower than the melting point of a-Mg (648
C [10]). The
comparative results indicate that Mg17Al12 and MgZn2 pre-
cipitate at the end of the solidification of the alloy system,
which also explains why they are predominantly distributed
along grain boundaries. Detailed mechanisms are elaborated
in our previous work [30].
Similarly, Al11Ce3 forms in the alloy through the Liq /
Al11Ce3 þ Al transformation at 641
C [28], according to the
findings by Michael [28]. Studies conducted by Yang [32,33]
and Coury [34] reported that Al10Ce2Mn7 transforms from
Al8CeMn4 at temperatures around 700
C. For a multi-
component system, alloying elements lower the melting
point of the system. Therefore, it is evident that the eutectic
point of Al11Ce3 (641
C) is close to or even higher than the
melting point of the MgeAleZneMneCe system (with a
maximum of 648
C, which is the Tm of a-Mg). As a result, it can
be inferred that Al11Ce3 and Al10Ce2Mn7 occur in the melt
before the solidification of the alloy and are primarily
distributed within the grains. Thus, the distribution charac-
teristics and corresponding mechanisms of Al11Ce3 and Al10-
Ce2Mn7 in the alloy are well interpreted.
3.2. Morphology of the welded joint
The Mg alloy sheets were laser welded, and the morphology of
the resulting joint is shown in Fig. 5. Both the surface and
cross-sectional morphology of the weld reveal an effective
306 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 6 : 3 0 3 e3 1 4

Fig. 2 e The schematic diagram of the test details. (a) microstructural observation of the joint, (b) hardness mapping test,
(c) hardness test of the HAZ, (d) tensile-shear test.

Fig. 3 e Intermetallic compounds in the base metal. (a) OM image, (b) magnified view of the intermetallics, (c) SEM image of
intermetallics, (d) BSE (Back-scattered electron) image of the intermetallics, (e) EDS mapping of the intermetallics.

Fig. 4 e The phase diagrams. (a) MgeAl binary phase diagram [31], (b) MgeZn binary phase diagram [9], (c) AleCe binary
phase diagram [29].
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Fig. 5 e The morphology of the weld. (a) 3D view of the joint, (b) height of weld reinforcement, (c) surface of the weld,
(d) cross-section of the weld.

connection between the sheets without any apparent defects.
Furthermore, the fusion zone exhibits a funnel shape, and the
central region of the weld is slightly elevated, forming a weld
reinforcement with a height of approximately 175 mm, as
depicted in Fig. 5(a and b). Notably, the width of the fusion
zone on the upper surface measures approximately 1150 mm,
while on the contact interface, it is 783 mm. Both values exceed
the thickness of a single sheet (0.7 mm). The specific di-
mensions are indicated in Fig. 5(c and d). Interestingly, sig-
nificant HAZ is not prominently observed at low magnification
(Fig. 5(d)), which can be partly attributed to the narrow width
of the HAZ.
3.3. Mechanical properties of the welded joint
Given that the sheets are lap welded, the stretching of the
joint is a coupling of tensile and shear [35,36]. The theoretical
fracture process of the joint is illustrated in Fig. 6(b) [37].
Notably, the deformation characteristics observed during the
realistic stretching are highly consistent with the theoretical
process, with the angles between the stretching direction and
the deformed sections approaching 45
, measuring 44.3
and
42.4
, respectively. Accordingly, the thickness center planes of
the two sheets aligned with each other as the load increases,
as depicted in Fig. 6(a). Eventually, the welded joint fractures
at a position near the interface between the fusion zone and
base metal, which is inferred as the HAZ. The cross-sectional
morphology of the fracture in Fig. 7(b and c) and the hardness
test results in Fig. 8 strongly support the above deduction,
indicating that the HAZ is the weakest part of the welded joint
[7].
The tensile-shear curves in Fig. 6(c) suggest that the
maximal tensile force for a 5 mm-wide welded joint is 469 N,
corresponding to an engineering stress of 134 MPa. In contrast,
the maximum tensile force and engineering stress for the base
metal with same width and thickness (width of 5.02 mm and
thickness of 0.70 mm) are 616 N and 175 MPa, respectively. The
comparison implies that the tensile strength of the weakest
part of the welded joint reaches 76.6% of the tensile strength
of the base metal. Moreover, there is a little disparity in
deformation displacement between the two samples,
measured at the same gauge length of 5 mm.
It is important to note that the tensile-shear of the welded
joint is essentially the stretching of the HAZ [36]. This is
because as the applied load increases, the lap-welded joint
gradually rotates until the thickness centers of the two sheets

Fig. 6 e The tensile-shear test of the welded joint. (a) realistic stretching of the sample, (b) schematic diagram of the tensile-
shear process, (c) tensile-shear curves.
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Fig. 7 e Cross-sectional morphology of the fracture. (a) interface between the fusion zone and base metal, (b) cross-sectional
morphology of the fracture, (c) a magnified view of the crack position.

align along the tensile direction [36,38]. Importantly, the
fusion zone invariably serves as the center of the rotation (or
motion) [36]. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that the
width of the fusion zone at the contact interface of the two
sheets exceeds the thickness of a single sheet (Fig. 5(d)), and
the strength of the fusion zone surpasses that of the HAZ
(Fig. 8). Consequently, the ultimate load-bearing capacity is
primarily transferred to the weakest region of the joint, i.e.,
the HAZ [39]. A comprehensive illustration of this process is
given in Fig. 6(b). Evidently, the tensile-shear test conducted
on the laser welded joint serves as a composite evaluation of
the plasticity and strength of the HAZ [37], since the HAZ was
the sole region subjected to bending during the test. Analysis
of the tensile-shear results in Fig. 6(c) indicates that although
the HAZ is softened, the extent of reduction remains limited
compared to the base metal. Moreover, the strength and
plasticity of the HAZ are preserved at a relatively high level.
Hardness tests similarly support the above findings. The
hardness mapping results in Fig. 8(b) reveal a notable
enhancement in the hardness of the fusion zone, with an
average value of 61.40 HV. In contrast, the hardness of the
HAZ decreases to approximately 49.26 HV, while that of the
base metal is 54.58 HV. At this point, it is clear that the HAZ is
the weakest part of the joint [40]. Therefore, it becomes
apparent that the key to enhancing the quality of the laser-
welded joint lies in improving the strength and plasticity of
the HAZ [41], and the primary method to achieve this is the
optimization of the microstructure of the HAZ [42].
3.4. Intermetallic compounds in the heat-affected zone
The microstructure of HAZ is shown in Fig. 9(a), revealing that
the width of the HAZ is narrow, measuring only 200e300 mm.
Utilizing EDS, it is evident that intermetallic compounds
within the HAZ include needle-like Al11Ce3, granular (or short
rod-like) Al10Ce2Mn7, and island-shaped eutectic of Mg17Al12
and MgZn2 with a coral-like internal structure. The XRD
identification of these intermetallic compounds is thoroughly
documented in our previous work [43].
It is noteworthy that RE intermetallics retain their original
morphology in the HAZ and even in the fusion zone that is
close to the boundary, as indicated in Fig. 9(d). However,
morphology of intermetallics consisting of conventional ele-
ments changes significantly during the welding thermal cycle.

Fig. 8 e Hardness test of the welded joint. (a) indentation location, (b) hardness mapping result, (c) hardness in the
horizontal direction at different depths (corresponding to the line numbers in (a)), (d) indentation of the HAZ, (e) hardness of
HAZ, FZ, and base metal.
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 6 : 3 0 3 e3 1 4 309

Fig. 9 e Intermetallic compounds in the HAZ. (a) metallographic image of the joint, (b) magnified view of the HAZ, (c) SEM
image of the joint, (d) magnified view of intermetallics at the boundary of FZ, (e) EDS results of intermetallics in the HAZ.

Specifically, conventional intermetallics in the HAZ are
transferred from the classical lamellar structure of eutectic to
a coral-like structure (Fig. 10(e and f)), whereas those in the
fusion zone are transformed into micron-sized fine particles
(Fig. 10(b and c)). Of interest is that these fine particles in the
fusion zone are uniformly distributed, yet they tend to
agglomerate near the boundaries of the fusion zone, as
depicted in Figs. 9(d) and 10(b and c).
Fracture analysis suggests that variations in the precipi-
tation of conventional intermetallics easily lead to a reduc-
tion in the mechanical properties of the alloy. The welded
joint cracks precisely at the locations where these conven-
tional intermetallics gather, specifically at the boundaries of
the fusion zone, as shown in Fig. 10(a). Additionally, the coral-
like precipitates in the HAZ also trigger and facilitate the
failure of the joint [44]. The assertion is supported by the

Fig. 10 e Relationship between fracture and microstructure of the HAZ. (a) fracture at the boundary of the fusion zone, (b, c)
SEM/BSE image of the intermetallics at the boundary of the fusion zone, (d) fracture within the HAZ, (e) magnified view of
intermetallics in the HAZ, (f) EDS results of the intermetallics.
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Fig. 11 e Intermetallics in the fusion zone. (aec) OM/SEM/BSE image of the fusion zone, (d) magnified view of intermetallics,
(e) corresponding BSE image of the intermetallics, (f) EDS results.

sectional morphology of the fracture and the corresponding
microstructure depicted in Fig. 10(d and e). EDS dotting results
in Fig. 10(f) indicate that the coral-shaped precipitates within
the HAZ and the agglomerated particles near the fusion zone
boundary are both composed of Mg17Al12 and MgZn2,
revealing that the key to preserving the mechanical proper-
ties of the joint is to maintain or optimize the morphology and
distribution of thermally unstable intermetallics in the alloy
[12,45].
Noteworthy, RE intermetallics are thermally stable, miti-
gating the impact of welding heat on the strength of the HAZ
[46]. However, the situation is different for intermetallics
consisting of conventional elements in the HAZ, as the
melting points of Mg17Al12 and MgZn2 are 460
C [8] and 588
C
[9,47], respectively, both lower than the temperature inside
the HAZ during welding. As a result, the Mg17Al12 and MgZn2
originally in the HAZ melt and flow along the interstices be-
tween grains, resulting in the formation of round-headed

Fig. 12 e Preparation of the thin-section with FIB-SEM. (a) location of the target, (b) morphology of the target, (c) platinum
deposition, (d) FIB cutting, (e) the thin section, (f) EDS mapping of the thin section.
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 6 : 3 0 3 e3 1 4 311

island-shaped precipitates with coral-like internal structure
in the HAZ, influenced by liquid surface tension [48]. Mean-
while, the grains remain in a solid state.
3.5. Intermetallic compounds in the fusion zone
Tensile-shear and hardness tests indicate that the fusion zone
is strengthened. Metallographic and SEM observations of the
fusion zone in Fig. 11 reveal that all the intermetallics in the
fusion zone appear in the form of micron/submicron-sized
fine particles. In addition, grains in the fusion zone trans-
form into dendrites, with fine particles distributed along the
branches. BSE imaging and EDS mapping results in Fig. 11(e
and f) demonstrate that Ce-containing intermetallics are also
fragmented into fine particles, which are mapped in bright-
white color and indicated by arrows in Fig. 11(e). However,
SEM and EDS are powerless in identifying the phase compo-
sitions of these intermetallics. Therefore, a TEM method is
needed.
The thin-section used in TEM was prepared with FIB-SEM,
and the preparation process is illustrated in Fig. 12. As Al11Ce3
is needle-shaped, the cutting position of the thin-section was
carefully designed to include both Al10Ce2Mn7 and Al11Ce3, as
indicated by arrows in Fig. 12(b and e). The elemental
composition of the prepared thin-section was verified in
advance using BSE imaging and EDS mapping in FIB-SEM
(Fig. 12(e and f)), confirming that the target is the desired
AleMneCe and AleCe intermetallics.
A typical dark-field (DF) image of the thin-section is illus-
trated in Fig. 13(a). The bonding interface between the Ce-
containing intermetallic and the Mg matrix is clearly distin-
guished based on atomic contrast (Z-contrast). Consequently,
selected area electron diffraction (SAED) was performed on
Al10Ce2Mn7, Al11Ce3, and a-Mg regions, respectively, and the
resulting diffraction patterns are shown in Fig. 13(b, e, h).
Calibration of these diffraction patterns reveals that the
zone axis is [_201] (Miller indices) for the a-Mg region and
[110] for the Al10Ce2Mn7 region. While that of the Al11Ce3

Fig. 13 e TEM results of intermetallics in the fusion zone. (a) dark field image of the thin-section, (b) SEAD of Al10Ce2Mn7,
(c) theoretical pattern of Al10Ce2Mn7 in zone axis of [110], (d) dark field image of Al11Ce3, (e) SEAD of Al11Ce3, (f) theoretical
pattern of Al11Ce3 in zone axis of [001], (g) EDS mapping results of Al11Ce3, (h) SEAD of a-Mg, (i) theoretical pattern of a-Mg in
zone axis of [201].
312 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 6 : 3 0 3 e3 1 4
region is [001]. Theoretical diffraction patterns calculated
based on these results are highly consistent with those ob-
tained from the SEAD experiments, as illustrated in Fig. 13(c,
f, i), verifying the accuracy of the TEM calibrations performed
in this work. Therefore, it is evident that the intermetallic
compounds originally in the base metal, including both
conventional and RE intermetallics (such as Al11Ce3, Al10-
Ce2Mn7, Mg17Al12, etc.), are fragmented into micron or
submicron-sized particles within the fusion zone. Subse-
quently, these particles mix and disperse uniformly along
the dendrites. At this point, the phase composition of in-
termetallics within the fusion zone becomes apparent, and
the underlying strengthening mechanisms of the fusion zone
are uncovered [49].
3.6. Strengthening mechanisms of the FZ and HAZ
The strengthening mechanism of the fusion zone by micron-
sized fine particles (comprising both fragmented conven-
tional and RE intermetallics) has been well understood [49].
The principal mechanisms primarily revolve around the
pinning of dislocations and impeding their motion [50],
thereby suppressing plastic deformation and enhancing
strength. This phenomenon is explained by the classical
Orowan mechanism [51], where dislocations bypass these
micron-sized intermetallics, generating dislocation loops
encircling them, thus resulting in additional alloy strength-
ening [52].
It is of interest that RE intermetallics in the HAZ retain their
original morphology and distribution. In contrast, conven-
tional intermetallics (i.e. Mg17Al12 and MgZn2), primarily
located at the grain boundaries of the base metal, melt [5].
Subsequently, they flow along the grain boundaries and
infiltrate the interstices between grains/subgrains. This
Fig. 14 e Tensile-shear fracture of the welded joint. (a) fracture of the joint, (b) magnified view of the joint, (c) BSE image of
the joint, (d) Al11Ce3 on the fracture, (e) BSE image of the Al11Ce3, (f) EDS mapping of the joint.
process gives rise to heat-affected products with a round-
headed morphology and a coral-like internal structure in the
HAZ [53]. It is important to note that both Mg17Al12 and MgZn2
exhibit incoherent interfacial relationships with the Mg ma-
trix, resulting in weak interfacial bonding between them [54].
Consequently, during tensile-shear loading, the weakly
bonded interfaces fracture preferentially. Typical fractures
are shown in Fig. 14.
It should be noted that the tensile-shear test of lap joints
involves plastic deformation and axial stretching, which pla-
ces high demands on the comprehensive mechanical prop-
erties (plasticity and strength) of the joints [55]. Upon
observing Fig. 14(b, c, and f), it becomes evident that the
content of RE intermetallics on the fracture surface is rela-
tively low, with conventional intermetallics being the pre-
dominant type. These findings similarly indicate that cracks
originating from conventional intermetallics in the HAZ are
the primary mechanism leading to joint failure, as detailed in
Figs. 7 and 10.
Interestingly, Al11Ce3 exhibits a long needle-like fibrous
shape, while Al10Ce2Mn7 appears as short rod-like or granular
structures, both of which positively contribute to joint
strength enhancement [56]. However, despite its beneficial
effects, Al11Ce3 possesses brittleness and hardness as an
intermetallic compound. It tends to break into smaller seg-
ments during significant bending or deformation of the alloy
matrix, which triggers the ultimate failure of the joint.
Evidently, the alterations in the morphology and distribution
of conventional intermetallics in the HAZ are responsible for
the softening of the HAZ, while the key to maintaining the
mechanical performance of the HAZ lies in the thermally
stable RE intermetallics. The aforementioned characteristics
of RE intermetallics are of great significance for achieving
high-quality welding of Mg alloys.
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 6 : 3 0 3 e3 1 4
4. Conclusion
(1) The Mg alloy comprising 0.4 wt% Ce was successfully
jointed using fiber laser welding. The resulting HAZ is
narrow, measuring only 200e300 mm. Additionally, the
fusion zone exhibited a width of 1150 mm on the top
surface of the joint and 783 mm at the contact interface,
both surpassing the thickness of a single sheet.
(2) During the welding process, conventional in-
termetallics in the HAZ melt, then they flow and
permeate into the interstices between grains, forming
coral-like precipitates. Tensile-shear and hardness tests
indicate that these coral-like precipitates, along with
fine particles aggregated at the FZ boundaries,
contribute to joint failure, making the HAZ the weakest
part of the joint. However, RE intermetallics in the HAZ
retain their original morphology and distribution,
maintaining the tensile-shear strength of the HAZ at
76.6% of the tensile strength of the base metal.
(3) Both conventional and RE intermetallics are fragmented
into micron/submicron-sized fine particles and
dispersed uniformly in the fusion zone, thereby effec-
tively enhancing the strength of the FZ.
(4) TEM results demonstrate that the phase compositions
of these fine particles within the fusion zone are
Al11Ce3, Al10Ce2Mn7, and Mg17Al12, revealing the stirring
effect of heat flow on the molten pool.
(5) Based on the above results, the softening mechanism of
the HAZ and the hardening mechanism of the FZ are
revealed, presenting a feasible welding solution for Mg
alloy components serving in thermal cycling conditions.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgment
This work was supported by (1) Key Research and Develop-
ment Program of Jiangxi Province (No.20203BBG73070); (2)
Natural Science Foundation of Jiangxi Province-General Proj-
ect (No.20202BABA204009).
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