B V RAJU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

VISHNUPUR, NARSAPUR, MEDAK, TS.-502313

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

LAB MANUAL OF

SOLAR PV SYSTEMS LAB

I M.TECH (EPS)- I SEMESTER

R22 Regulations
 B V RAJU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(UGC AUTONOMOUS)
VISHNUPUR, NARSAPUR, MEDAK(DIST), T.S. 502313

Department Electrical & Electronics Engineering

Certificate

This is to certify that .............................................................. of…….... year ….….

semester bearing hall ticket number .................... has successfully completed the

work in......................................... laboratory during academic year 20 - 20

Faculty In-charge

Internal Examiner External Examiner

Head of the Department

 COURSE FILE CONTENTS - LABORATORY

S.NO. TOPIC
S
1. Cover Page – In pre format
2. Vision and Mission of the Institute
3. Vision and Mission of the Department
4. Program Outcomes
5. Program Educational Objectives
6. Course Outcomes
7. CO –PO Mapping
8. Instructions to students
9. DO’S and DON’TS
10. Lab Grading
11. Rules for Maintaining Laboratory Record
12. Graduate Attributes (as per NBA)
13. Conduction of Practical Examination
14. Contents (Syllabus as per Regulations)
15. List of experiments to be conducted along with Add on Experiments
16. Overview of the Lab
17. Experiments write up
18. Viva-voce questions
19. Question Bank
 INSTITUTE

VISION
To create and nurture competent engineers and managers who would be enterprise leaders
throughout the world with a sound background in ethics and societal responsibilities.

MISSION
Committed to providing a positive and professional learning environment where all students
are inspired to strive for excellence in becoming competent engineers, technology innovators
and leaders in a global society through a cohesive network of parents, students, college staff
and industry.

DEPARTMENT

VISION
To achieve excellence in undergraduate education, meaningful & innovative
research and service dedicated to advancing the field of electrical and electronics engineering.

MISSION
To pursue excellence in electrical and electronics engineering education and research by
providing positive and professional, high quality, relevant education using latest
technology and educational techniques.
To enable student's skills to effectively communicate, analyze, create, and link knowledge
in the multi-disciplinary fields, with the emphasis on quantitative approaches and methods.
To inspire student community to work in cohesion, that exemplifies the core and ethical
values for the purpose of improving and developing systems that solve complex problems
including, analytical, design and research skills for their career growth.
Toinvolveitselfwithtechnology-orientedexpertiseandalsotocontributetothe social uplift of
the society.

PROGRAMME EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

(PEO’s)
PEO1: To develop the concepts of electrical and electronics engineering in design and
product realization to meet the needs of industry and organizations.
PEO2:To demonstrate their ability To work effectively as a responsible professional in a
team and as an individual.
PEO3: To have an understanding of the importance of life-long learning and professional
development with a background that allows in pursuing advanced studies in electrical and
electronics engineering or related fields.
 PROGRAMME OUTCOMES (PO’S)
Engineering Graduates will be able to:
1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
2. Problemanalysis:Identify,formulate,reviewresearchliterature,andanalyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineeringsciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering
problems and design system components or processes that meet thespecified
needswithappropriateconsiderationforthepublichealthandsafety,andthe cultural, societal,
and environmentalconsiderations.
4. Conductinvestigationsofcomplexproblems:Useresearch-basedknowledge and
research methods including design interpretation of data, and synthesis of the of
experiments, analysis and information to provide validconclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent
responsibilities relevant to the professional engineeringpractice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
engineeringsolutionsinsocietalandenvironmentalcontexts,anddemonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainabledevelopment.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities
and norms of the engineeringpractice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinarysettings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities
withtheengineeringcommunityandwithsocietyatlarge,suchas,beingable to comprehend
and write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations,
and give and receive clearinstructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and applythese to one’s own work, as a
member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinaryenvironments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and
abilitytoengageinindependentandlife-longlearninginthebroadestcontext of
technologicalchange.

PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs):

PSO 1: Engineering graduates can explore knowledge of electrical & electronics engineering
in core as well as multidisciplinary areas in innovative, dynamic and challenging environment,
for the research-based teamwork.
PSO 2: Engineering graduates can provide hands on experience in the fields of Non-
conventional and Renewable Energies.
 INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS

1. Students should report to the concerned labs as per the time table schedule.
2. Students who turn up late to the labs will in no case be permitted to perform the experiment
scheduled for theday.
3. After completion of the experiment, certification of the concerned staff in-charge in the
observation book isnecessary.
4. Students should bring a note book of about 100 pages and should enter the readings/observations
into the note book while performing theexperiment.
5. The record of observations along with the detailed experimental procedure of the experiment
performed in the immediate last session should be submitted and certified by the staff member in-
charge.
6. Notmorethanthreestudentsinagrouparepermittedtoperformtheexperimentona setup.
7. The group-wise division made in the beginning should be adhered to, and no mix up of student
among different groups will be permittedlater.
8. Thecomponentsrequiredpertainingtotheexperimentshouldbecollectedfromstores in-charge after
duly filling in the requisitionform.
9. When the experiment is completed, students should disconnect the setup made by them, and
should return all the components/instruments taken for thepurpose.
10. Anydamageoftheequipmentorburn-outofcomponentswillbeviewedseriouslyeither by putting
penalty or by dismissing the total group of students from the lab for the semester/year.
11. Students should be present in the labs for the total scheduledduration.
12. Students are required to prepare thoroughly to perform the experiment before coming
toLaboratory.
13. Proceduresheets/datasheetsprovidedtothestudents’groupsshouldbemaintained
neatly and to be returned after the experiment.
14. Students must take care of their valuablethings.
15. Before entering to lab, must prepare for Viva for which they are going to conduct experiment.
16. Before switch on the SUPPLY, Students must show the connections to one of the faculties
orinstructors.
17. After the completion of the experiment students should return the components to the respective
labinstructors.
18. Before leaving the lab, should check whether they have switch off the power supplies and keep
their chairsproperly.
 DO’S
ANDDON’TS
D
O
’PROPER DRESS HAS TO BE MAINTAINED WHILE ENTERING IN THE LAB. (BOYS
STUCK IN AND SHOES, GIRLS WITH APRON)
:
ALLSTUDENTSSHOULDCOMETOTHELABWITHNECESSARYTOOLS.(CUTTINGPLIE
RS
6”, INSULATION REMOVER AND PHASE TESTER)
STUDENTS SHOULD CARRY OBSERVATION NOTES AND RECORD COMPLETED
IN ALL ASPECTS.
CORRECT SPECIFICATIONS OF THE EQUIPMENT HAVE TO BE MENTIONED IN
THE CIRCUIT DIAGRAM.
STUDENT SHOULD BE AWARE OF OPERATING EQUIPMENT.
STUDENTS SHOULD BE AT THEIR CONCERNED EXPERIMENT TABLE;
UNNECESSARY MOMENT IS RESTRICTED.
STUDENT SHOULD FOLLOW THE INDENT PROCEDURE TO RECEIVE AND
DEPOSIT THE EQUIPMENT FROM THE LAB STORE ROOM.
AFTER COMPLETING THE CONNECTIONS STUDENTS SHOULD VERIFY THE
CIRCUITS BY THE LAB INSTRUCTOR.
THE READINGS MUST BE SHOWN TO THE LECTURER IN-CHARGE FOR
VERIFICATION.
BEFORE LEAVING THE LAB, STUDENTS MUST ENSURE THAT ALL SWITCHES
ARE IN THE OFF POSITION AND ALL THE CONNECTIONS ARE REMOVED.
ALL PATCH CORDS AND STOOLS SHOULD BE PLACED AT THEIR ORIGINAL
POSITIONS.

DON’Ts:
DON’T COME LATE TO THE LAB.
DON’T ENTER INTO THE LAB WITH GOLDEN RINGS, BRACELETS AND
BANGLES. DON’T MAKE OR REMOVE THE CONNECTIONS WITH POWER
ON.
DON’T SWITCH ON THE SUPPLY WITHOUT VERIFYING BY THE STAFF
MEMBER. DON’T SWITCH OFF THE MACHINE WITH LOAD.
DON’T LEAVE THE LAB WITHOUT THE PERMISSION OF THE LECTURER IN-
CHARGE.
 LAB GRADING
 The faculty will examine your notebooks during lab period and assign a grade based upon the
quality and contents of your pre-labwork.

 Continuous InternalEvaluation(CIE) 40MARKS

(a) Day-to-dayassessment : 30Marks
(b) InternalExamination : 10Marks

 Semester EndEvaluation(SEE) - 60MARKS

(At the end of the semester)

 There will be TEN lab experiments and a one internal lab test of 30marks.

 Each lab contains four parts as follows.

1. Observation (5 marks per lab): Each student should read the lab material and finish the
observation before the lab. Pre-lab work should be turned in at the beginning of each lab
session. Late observations will not be accepted.
2. Viva(10marksperlab): There will be viva for each lab. The questions in the viva come
from the lab material. No viva marks will be given if you are more than 10 minutes late.
3. Lab record (15 marks per lab): Students will write a lab report according to the format
specified and turn it in at the beginning of the next lab session. Late lab reports will not be
accepted.
4. At the end of the semester all notebooks will be collected for a final grade by the faculty.
5. Penalty for incomplete work: If any of the 3 parts is missed, a score of zero will be
reported by the faculty for that lab.
 RULES FOR MAINTAINING LABORATORY
RECORD

1. Write your name, Roll number and subject on the outside front cover of the record. Write the
same information on the inside firstpage.
2. Update Table of Contents every time you start each newexperiment.
3. Always use pen and write neatly andclearly
4. Start each new topic (experiment, notes, calculation, etc.) on a right-side (odd numbered)page
5. Proper care should be taken to make it readable, even if you have badhandwriting
6. Date to be written every page on the top right-sidecorner
7. Right side pages should consist of
Title of experiment
Aim/Objectives Components
Required Theory
Procedure described clearly in steps
Theoretical Calculations
Result
8. Right side pages should consistof
Circuit diagram/Connection diagram
Tables
Model Calculations
Graphs
1. Heading:
The experiment identification (number) should be at the top of each page. Date should be at the top of the first
page of each day's experimental work.

2. Object:
A brief but complete statement of what you intend to find out or verify in the experiment should be at the
beginning of each experiment

3. Diagram:
A circuit diagram should be drawn and labeled so that the actual experiment circuitry could be
easilyduplicatedatanytimeinthefuture.Beespeciallycarefultorecordallcircuitchangesmade during theexperiment.
4. Equipment List:
List those items of equipment which have a direct effect on the accuracy of the data. It may be necessary later
to locate specific items of equipment for rechecks if discrepancies develop in the results.

5. Procedure:
In general, lengthy explanations of procedures are unnecessary. Be brief. Short commentaries
alongsidethecorrespondingdatamaybeused.Keepinmindthefactthattheexperimentmustbe reproducible from the
information given in your notebook.

6. Data:
Think carefully about what data is required and prepare suitable data tables. Record instrument
readingsdirectly.Donotusecalculatedresultsinplaceofdirectdata;however,calculated results may be recorded in
the same table with the direct data. Data tables should be clearly identified and each data column labeled and
headed by the proper units of measure.

7. Calculations:
Not always necessary but equations and sample calculations are often given to illustrate the treatment of the
experimental data in obtaining the results.

8. Graphs:
Graphsareusedtopresentlargeamountsofdatainaconcisevisualform.Datatobepresentedin graphical form should
be plotted in the laboratory so that any questionable data points can be checked while the experiment is still
set up. The grid lines in the notebook can be used for most graphs. If special graph paper is required, affix the
graph permanently into the notebook. Give all graphs a short descriptive title. Label and scale the axes. Use
units of measure. Label each curve if more than one on agraph.

9. Results:
The results should be presented in a form which makes the interpretation easy. Large amounts of numerical
results are generally presented in graphical form. Tables are generally used for small amounts of results.
Theoretical and experimental results should be on the same graph or arrange in the same table in a way for
easy correlation of these results.

10. Conclusion:
This is your interpretation of the results of the experiment as an engineer. Be brief and specific. Give reasons
for important discrepancies.

9. Use labels and captions for figures and tables

10. Attach Graphs, printouts and plots of data as needed. Stick printouts(A4 Size)on the right side of
the lab record
11. Strictly observe the instructions given by the Teacher/ Lab Instructor.

Graduate Attributes (as per NBA)

1. Engineering Knowledge
2. ProblemAnalysis
3. Modern ToolUsage
 CONDUCTION OF PRACTICAL EXAMINATION
1. All laboratory experiments (1 to 10 nos) are to be included for practicalexamination.
2. Students are allowed to pick one experiment from the lot.
3. Strictly follow the instructions as printed on the cover page of answerscript.
4. Marksdistribution:
Experiment marks will be awarded as per given instructions for internal and external Exam

Sl. No Marks Split up Maximum marks (40) Marks obtained

(A) Internal Assessment

1 Pre/ Post Lab questions 5
Preparation of 5
2
observation (Avg. of 10 Experiments)

Preparation of Lab 10
3
record (Avg. of 10 Experiments)
4 Internal Exam 10
Total 30
(B) External Assessment

Sl. No Marks Split up Maximum marks (60) Marks obtained

Circuit Diagram and

1 10
write-up
2 Execution of experiment 15

Calculation & Plotting

3 15
graphs
4 Evaluation of Result 15
5 Viva 15
Total 70
Total (A+B) 100

5. Changeofexperimentisallowedonlyonceandmarksallottedtotheprocedure partto be madezero.

STUDENTS ARE STRICTLY WARNED THAT FULL COST
OF THE METER WILL BE RECOVERED FROM THE
INDIVIDUAL WHO HAS DAMAGED IT IN SUCH A
MANNER.
Ihavereadandunderstandtheserulesandprocedures.Iagreetoabidebythese

rules and procedures at all times while using these facilities. I understand

that

failuretofollowtheserulesandprocedureswillresultinmyimmediatedismissal

from the laboratory and additional disciplinary action may betaken.

Name of the Student:

Roll No:

Signature:
 INDEX PAGE
DATE MANUAL
RECOR SIGNATURE OF
OF MARKS
S.NO NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT (5M)
D
SUBMISSION MARKS
CONDUCTION REPETITION OPTIONA
OF RECORD (10M) STUDENT FACULTY
L
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

NOTE:
IF THE STUDENT FAILS TO ATTEND THE REGULAR LAB, THE EXPERIMENT HAS TO BE COMPLETED IN THE SAME
WEEK. THEN THE MANUAL/OBSERVATION AND RECORD WILL BE EVALUATED FOR 50% OF MAXIMUM MARKS.
 SOLAR PV SYSTEMS LAB

COURSE OBJECTIVES:
 To learn Single PV module I-V and P-V characteristics & measure solar
radiation intensity
 To learn the effect of tilt angle on solar PV panel and I-V , P-V
characteristics of series and parallel
modules
 To understand the efficiency of Solar PV panel at different irradiance levels
 To understand the Stand-alone system using Combine AC and DC load
system with battery
 To learn the PV module with variable load, hot spot detection and pumping
system

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
(Any Ten of the below experiments are to be conducted.)
1. Single PV module I-V and P-V characteristics with radiation and
temperature changing effect.
2. Measurement of Intensity of solar radiation
3. Study of Effect of tilt angle on solar PV panel
4. I-V and P-V characteristics with series and parallel combination of
modules.
5. Effect of shading and Effect of tilt angle on I-V and P-V characteristics of
solar module.
6. To determine the efficiency of Solar PV panel at different irradiance levels
7. Study of Stand-alone system using Combine AC and DC load system with
battery.
8. Observe the output voltage waveform of inverter in auto mode.
9. Variables Affecting Solar Panel Output
10. Effect of Load on Solar Panel Output
11.Experimental study of solar PV pumping system.
12.Hot-spot detection in solar PV modules using thermal Image.

COURSE OUTCOMES: The course enable the students will be able to,
 Experiment on Single PV module I-V and P-V characteristics & measure
solar radiation intensity. (L4)
 Experiment on the effect of tilt angle on solar PV panel and I-V, P-V
characteristics of series and
parallel modules. (L4)
 Experiment on efficiency of Solar PV panel at different irradiance levels. (L4)
 Experiment on Stand-alone system using Combine AC and DC load system
with battery. (L4)
 Experiment on PV module with variable load, hot spot detection and
pumping system. (L4)
 1. Single PV module I-V and P-V characteristics with
radiation and temperature changing effect

AIM: To study voltage and current characteristics of a solar cell/module for different
illumination levels.

APPARATUS:

S.No Equipment Model Ratings

1 I-V curve tracer DS100-Day star 600V-DC, 20 Amp
2 PV module Poly/Titan STC- 1000W/m2 , 25 Celsius
3 Pyranometer CMP11 Sensitivity- (9.44*10^-6)vm^2/w
4 Thermocouple PT100 -
5 IVPC Software - -
6 Laptop - -

PANEL RATINGS:
P mp= 240wp Voc= 37.56V
V mp= 30.23V Isc= 8.44A
I mp= 7.94A Power Tolerance= 2.5%

THEORY:

Silicon PV modules are highly reliable, but performance problems do arise, and the
industry needs fast and accurate ways to detect them. The stakeholders in newly built systems
want to verify that all the PV modules are of a consistent quality, that they were not damaged
during shipment or assembly, and that the array is producing at the contracted capacity.
These stakeholders would also like a permanent record of the as-built system performance, a
benchmark for comparison as arrays age and degrade—particularly in cases where warranty
negotiations are required. Later in the system’s life cycle, operations and management (O&M)
or asset management companies want to evaluate the health of older arrays and have the
ability to efficiently locate an ailing module.

These are all potential applications for I-V curve tracers, which can provide both a
qualitative visual representation and a quantitative measure of PV performance. Curve
tracing equipment was developed for testing transistors and diodes in the semiconductor
industry. Now it is a workhorse in PV R&D and manufacturing, for use with both individual
cells and modules. It also has a long history of use in field testing of PV arrays, a use that is
likely to increase in frequency as more affordable and user-friendly products become
available.

In an effort to demystify I-V curve tracers, here I explain how these devices work and
how they can be used to commission and troubleshoot PV arrays. The basic characteristics of
a healthy I-V curve are described, as well as characteristics that indicate the most common
classes of PV array performance impairments. I present rules of thumb for the successful use
of I-V curve tracers in the field, which is inherently more challenging than taking
measurements in controlled settings like a factory or laboratory. I also provide tips on how to
avoid common measurement and data analysis mistakes. When properly attained and
analyzed, I-V curve traces provide the most comprehensive measurement possible of PV
module or array performance.

I-V Curve Measurements:

I-V curves or traces are measured by sweeping the load on a PV source over a range
of currents and voltages. Curve tracers accomplish this by loading a PV module or string at
different points across its operating range between 0 V and Voc. At each point, the output
current and voltage are measured simultaneously. The load presented by the curve tracer may
be resistive, reactive (typically capacitive) or electronic. Field test gear uses resistive or
capacitive loading, whereas reference I-V test systems at research facilities tend to use
electronic loads. The I-V curve may be swept in either direction.

In field test equipment, the actual I-V measurement sweep typically requires less than
a second. However, there is a sweep speed limit for certain cell types. High-efficiency cell
technologies from Sanyo, Sun Power and other manufacturers cannot be swept arbitrarily fast.
Because these cells store considerably more charge, more time is required for the cells to
reach steady-state operating conditions at each point in the curve. A rough guideline is that
the sweep rate for high-efficiency cells should not exceed 10 V per second per cell.

I-V CURVE REFRESHER:

I-V curves, which appear on every PV module datasheet, represent all of the
combinations of current and voltage at which the module can be operated or loaded.
Normally simple in shape, these curves actually provide the most complete measure of the
health and capacity of a PV module or array, providing much more information than
traditional electrical test methods.

A normal-shaped I-V curve is shown in Figure 1. The maximum power point (Pmp)
of the I-V curve—the Courtesy Integrated Energy Systems, Pittsburg Unified School District,
Sage Renewables, Solmetric, Stellar Energy Solutions product of the maximum power
current (Imp) and the maximum power voltage (Vmp)—is located at the knee of the curve.
At lower voltages, between the knee and the short-circuit current (Isc), the current is less
dependent on voltage. At higher voltages, between the knee and open-circuit voltage (Voc),
the current drops steeply with increasing voltage. The output current of a typical crystalline
silicon PV module drops 65% in the upper 10% of its output voltage range. It is not
uncommon for an I-V curve to be displayed with its associated power-voltage (P-V) curve,
which is also shown in Figure 1. The value of power at each voltage point is calculated using
the corresponding current from the I-V curve. The peak of the P-V curve (Pmax), of course,
occurs at Vmp.
Benefits of Curve Tracing:

The benefits of curve tracing are substantial. In addition to measuring Isc and Voc,
curve tracing also captures all of the operating points in between these values, including the
current and voltage of the MPP and thus the maximum power value itself. The overall shape
of the I-V curve can be analyzed to give clues to performance issues in ways that traditional
test methods cannot. Further, the maximum output-power rating for individual PV modules
or strings can be obtained without an inverter or the attendant uncertainties of the individual
inverter efficiency.

“I-V curve tracing is the most informative measurement that can be performed on a
PV module or array. The visual shape of the curve provides immediate diagnostic insight for
a PV specialist. When coupled with the associated solar irradiance and temperature data, it
provides a quantified comparison to expected performance.
PROCEDURE:

1. For calibrated performance measurements, install an irradiance sensor in the plane of

the array and stick a temperature sensor to the backside of a thermally representative
module.
2. After ensuring that the PV source circuits are not under load, open each touch-safe
fuse holder in the combiner box
3. Using an alligator clip or similar connector, connect one test lead to the positive bus
bar and another to the negative bus bar.
4. You can now test each of the PV source circuits one at a time by closing the
appropriate fuse holder and initiating an I-V curve trace.
5. The test process can take as little as 10 to 15 seconds per source circuit, and the data
are saved electronically.

OUTPUT:

RESULT:
Thus, voltage and current characteristics of a solar cell/module for different
illumination levels are obtained.
 2. INTENSITY OF SOLAR RADIATION
AIM:To measure the Intensity of solar radiation

APPARATUS:

S.No Equipment Model

1 Pyranometer(KIPP & ZONEN) CMP11
2 Thermocouple PT100
3 Data cable CR3000
4 Software Cable Elnet(4.0)

SPECIFICATIONS:
1. Horizontal Global Radiation
2. 17 degrees tilt
THEORY:
A pyranometer is a type of actinometer used to measure broadband solar irradiance
on a planar surface and is a sensor that is designed to measure the solar radiation flux density
(W/m2) from a field of view of 180 degrees. The name pyranometer stems from Greek, "pyr -
πῦρ" meaning "fire" and "ano - ἄνω" meaning "above, sky".
A typical pyranometer does not require any power to operate.
The solar radiation spectrum extends approximately from 300 to 2,800 nm.
Pyranometers usually cover that spectrum with a spectral sensitivity that is as “flat” as
possible.
To make a measurement of irradiance, it is required by definition that the response to
“beam” radiation varies with the cosine of the angle of incidence, so that there will be a full
response when the solar radiation hits the sensor perpendicularly (normal to the surface, sun
at zenith, 0 degrees angle of incidence), zero response when the sun is at the horizon (90
degrees angle of incidence, 90 degrees zenith angle), and 0.5 at 60 degrees angle of incidence.
It follows that a pyranometer should have a so-called “directional response” or “cosine
response” that is close to the ideal cosine characteristic.
Design of Pyranometer:
In order to attain the proper directional and spectral characteristics, a pyranometer’s main
components are:

 A thermopile sensor with a black coating. This sensor absorbs all solar radiation, has
a flat spectrum covering the 300 to 50,000 nanometer range, and has a near-perfect
cosine response.
 A glass dome. This dome limits the spectral response from 300 to 2,800 nanometers
(cutting off the part above 2,800 nm), while preserving the 180 degrees field of view.
Another function of the dome is that it shields the thermopile sensor from convection.
The black coating on the thermopile sensor absorbs the solar radiation. This radiation is
converted to heat. The heat flows through the sensor to the pyranometer housing. The
thermopile sensor generates a voltage output signal that is proportional to the solar radiation.

When sunlight falls on a pyranometer, the thermopile sensor produces a proportional

response typically in 30 seconds or less: the more sunlight, the hotter the sensor gets and the
greater the electric current it generates. The thermopile is designed to be precisely linear (so
a doubling of solar radiation produces twice as much current) and also has a directional
response: it produces maximum output when the Sun is directly overhead (at midday) and
zero output when the Sun is on the horizon (at dawn or dusk). This is called a cosine response
(or cosine correction), because the electrical signal from the pyranometer varies with the
cosine of the angle between the Sun's rays and the vertical.
How does a pyranometer work?

Here's what you'll find inside a really high-quality pyranometer that uses a thermopile to
measure solar radiation:
 1. Outer dome made from a hemisphere of optical-quality glass.
2. Inner dome made from a smaller hemisphere of optical glass.
3. Black carbon disk (illuminated by the Sun) absorbs a broad range of wavelengths of
solar radiation and acts as the sensing element.
4. Second, control disk (not illuminated by the Sun) acts as a comparison and
compensating element. Any sources of temperature rise other than solar heat (perhaps
an air-conditioning unit positioned nearby) will warm both disks equally, so we can
be reasonably confident that the difference between the two disks (and the
temperature rise we're measuring) is caused only by the Sun.
5. Thermopile temperature sensor compares the temperature rise of the two disks.
6. Output lead (usually about 10m or 30ft long).
7. Replaceable silica gel cartridge (desiccant) absorbs moisture to prevent dew forming
inside on cold nights.
8. Adjustable screw legs let you level the pyranometer using its built-in, high-precision
spirit level, which is sensitive to a fraction of a degree (not shown on this diagram).

PROCEDURE:

1. Launch your data logger. Make a note of the battery status.

2. If your data logger software is installed inside on a desktop computer, promptly return
the data logger to the observing site. When you reconnect the pyranometer cable(s),
make sure they are seated firmly in their jacks. If you have more than one
pyranometer, be sure you reinstall the cables in the original order.
3. Check your pyranometer's level and make sure the diffuser is clean. Clean diffusers
by wiping them gently with a lint-free cloth or tissue. You can moisten the cloth or
tissue, but to not use abrasive or soapy cleaners of any kind. If the diffuser appears to
 be extremely dirty and will not wipe clean, you can moisten the cloth or tissue with a
little rubbing alcohol.
4. After a week, download your data. The first step is to stop the logger, using software.
(You cannot "stop" the logger except under software control.) Then download the
data and save it. If you previously determined that your logger's battery needed
changing, do it now.
5. Plot the data to make sure everything looks normal. Optionally, for your own use,
export the data to an Excel-compatible.
6. As soon as possible, relaunch your logger to minimize the "down time" for your data.
7. Record the date and time of the download in your site log, along with any other
relevant observations.

CALCULATIONS:
 Solar PV Systems Lab
M.Tech (EPS), AY: 2022-2023

PRACTICAL VALUES:(example for one particular day)

S.No Time Irradiance on horizontal Irradiance on 17 degrees tilt
Tilt towards south
1 10:00 am 583 685
2 11:00 am 789 915
3 12:00 pm 833 948
4 1:00 pm 427 449
5 2:00 pm 864 920
6 3:00 pm 60 86
7 4:00 pm 98 102
8 5:00 pm 192 194
9 6:00 pm 41 42

OUTPUT GRAPH:

RESULT:
Thus, Intensity of solar radiation is measured.

M.Tech (PEES), EEED-BVRIT

 Solar PV Systems Lab
M.Tech (EPS), AY: 2022-2023

3. Study of Effect of tilt angle on solar PV panel

AIM: To study the effect of surrounding ambient temperature effect of solar PV panel
performance in the field condition.
APPARATUS:

S.No Equipment Model Ratings

1 I-V curve tracer DS100-Day star 600V-DC, 20 Amp
2 PV module Poly/Titan STC- 1000W/m2 , 25 Celsius
3 Pyranometer CMP11 Sensitivity- (9.44*10^-6)vm^2/w
4 Thermocouple PT100 -
5 Voltmeter 0-100V DC -
6 Ammeter 0-10Amps -

Theory:
Recently, the massive consumption and exhaustion of fossil fuel resulted in enormous
interest to utilize renewable sources of energy such as solar energy. Photovoltaic power is
an established technology and has recently experienced rapid growth over the last ten
years.
A solar cell basically is a p-n semiconductor junction. When exposed to light, a dc
current is generated. PVs offer several advantages such as: high reliability, low
maintenance cost, no environmental pollution, and absence of noise.

The equivalent circuit of the PV cell is shown in Fig 1.

The PV curves vary with solar insolation and module temperature. Equation (1) and (2)
are used to
describe the characteristics of PV array.

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 Solar PV Systems Lab
M.Tech (EPS), AY: 2022-2023

Where: IPV is the PV module current (A), IL is the light generated current (A), I is the
diode saturation current, q is the charge of electron (coulomb), K is the Boltzmann's
constant (j/K), A is the diode factor, T is the module temperature (K), RS is module series
resistance (ohm), R is module parallel resistance (ohm), VPV is the module output voltage
(V), and P is the extracted PV power (W).

2 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON PV PERFORMANCE

Solar cells vary under temperature changes. The change in temperature will affect the
power output
from the cells. The voltage is highly dependent on the temperature and an increase in
temperature will
decrease the voltage.

M.Tech (PEES), EEED-BVRIT

 Solar PV Systems Lab
M.Tech (EPS), AY: 2022-2023

Figure 2 shows the effect of temperature on I-V characteristic of PV module at constant radiation.
With decreasing temperature, PV current decrease slightly but PV voltage increase clearly. As
figure 3 indicates, output power of photovoltaic module increases with decreasing temperature.

PV Module Efficiency as a Function of Operating Temperature

The solar cell power conversion efficiency can be given as:

Where Imax and V max are the current and voltage for maximum power, corresponding to solar intensity
(I(t)) and AC
is Area of solar cell. The correlations expressing the PV cell temperature (TC) as a function of weather
variables such as
the ambient temperature (Ta), solar radiation (I(t)), etc. will be discussed in this section. The effect of
temperature on the electrical efficiency of a PV cell/module can be obtained by using the fundamental
equations.

The basically effect leads to a relation in the form:

M.Tech (PEES), EEED-BVRIT

 Solar PV Systems Lab
M.Tech (EPS), AY: 2022-2023

M.Tech (PEES), EEED-BVRIT

 Solar PV Systems Lab
M.Tech (EPS), AY: 2022-2023

4. I-V and P-V characteristics with series and parallel

combination of modules.

AIM: To study the effect of series-parallel connection of solar panels and effecting the
power output during partial shading of solar panels.
APPARATUS:

S.No Equipment Model Ratings

1 I-V curve tracer DS100-Day star 600V-DC, 20 Amp
2 PV module Poly/Titan STC- 1000W/m2 , 25 Celsius
3 Pyranometer CMP11 Sensitivity- (9.44*10^-6)vm^2/w
4 Thermocouple PT100 -
5 IVPC Software - -
6 Laptop - -

PANEL RATINGS:
P mp= 240wp Voc= 37.56V
V mp= 30.23V Isc= 8.44A
I mp= 7.94A Power Tolerance= 2.5%

THEORY:

shading is a problem in PV modules since shading just one cell in the module can reduce the
power output to zero

Shading of a Single Cell

The output of a cell declines when shaded by a tree branch, buliding or module dust. The output
declines proportionally to the amount of shading. For completely opaque objects such as a leaf,
the decline in current output of the cell is proportional to the amount of the cell that is obscured.

M.Tech (PEES), EEED-BVRIT

 Solar PV Systems Lab
M.Tech (EPS), AY: 2022-2023

Moving the grey rectangle over the solar cell. The current is
reduced by the amount of shading.

Shading of a Module
The cells in a module are all connected in series. Shading a single cell causes the current in the
string of cells to fall to the level of the shaded cell.

A number of series/parallel connected PV modules are used to form a solar array for a
desired voltage and current level. Performance of a series connected string of solar cells
is adversely affected if all its cells are not equally illuminated (partially shaded). In a
solar array spread over vast area, it is likely that shadow may fall over some of its cells

M.Tech (PEES), EEED-BVRIT

 Solar PV Systems Lab
M.Tech (EPS), AY: 2022-2023

due to tree leaves falling over it, birds or bird litters on the array, shade of a neighboring
construction etc. In a series connected string of cells, all the cells carry the same current.
Even though a few cells under shade produce less photon current but these cells are also
forced to carry the same current as the other fully illuminated cells. The shaded cells may
get reverse biased, acting as loads, draining power from fully illuminated cells. If the
system is not appropriately protected, hot-spot problem can arise and in several cases, the
system can be irreversibly damaged. Nowadays there is an increasing trend to integrate
the solar PV arrays at the design level in the building itself. In such cases it is difficult to
avoid partial shading of array due to neighboring buildings throughout the day in all the
seasons. This makes the study of partial shading of modules a key issue. In recent years,
the impact of partial shading on the PV array performance has been widely discussed.

PRACTICAL VALUES:
S.No Partial Shading Voltage Current
percentage
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Result:

M.Tech (PEES), EEED-BVRIT

 Solar PV Systems Lab
M.Tech (EPS), AY: 2022-2023

5. Effect of shading and Effect of tilt angle on I-V and P-V

characteristics of solar module.

AIM: To study the effect of series-parallel connection of solar panels and effecting the
power output during partial shading of solar panels.
APPARATUS:

S.No Equipment Model Ratings

1 I-V curve tracer DS100-Day star 600V-DC, 20 Amp
2 PV module Poly/Titan STC- 1000W/m2 , 25 Celsius
3 Pyranometer CMP11 Sensitivity- (9.44*10^-6)vm^2/w
4 Thermocouple PT100 -
5 IVPC Software - -
6 Laptop - -

PANEL RATINGS:
P mp= 240wp Voc= 37.56V
V mp= 30.23V Isc= 8.44A
I mp= 7.94A Power Tolerance= 2.5%

THEORY:

shading is a problem in PV modules since shading just one cell in the module can reduce the
power output to zero

Shading of a Single Cell

The output of a cell declines when shaded by a tree branch, building or module dust. The output
declines proportionally to the amount of shading. For completely opaque objects such as a leaf,
the decline in current output of the cell is proportional to the amount of the cell that is obscured.

M.Tech (PEES), EEED-BVRIT

 Solar PV Systems Lab
M.Tech (EPS), AY: 2022-2023

Moving the grey rectangle over the solar cell. The current is
reduced by the amount of shading.

Shading of a Module
The cells in a module are all connected in series. Shading a single cell causes the current in the
string of cells to fall to the level of the shaded cell.

A number of series/parallel connected PV modules are used to form a solar array for a
desired voltage and current level. Performance of a series connected string of solar cells
is adversely affected if all its cells are not equally illuminated (partially shaded). In a
solar array spread over vast area, it is likely that shadow may fall over some of its cells

M.Tech (PEES), EEED-BVRIT

 Solar PV Systems Lab
M.Tech (EPS), AY: 2022-2023

due to tree leaves falling over it, birds or bird litters on the array, shade of a neighboring
construction etc. In a series connected string of cells, all the cells carry the same current.
Even though a few cells under shade produce less photon current but these cells are also
forced to carry the same current as the other fully illuminated cells. The shaded cells may
get reverse biased, acting as loads, draining power from fully illuminated cells. If the
system is not appropriately protected, hot-spot problem can arise and in several cases, the
system can be irreversibly damaged. Nowadays there is an increasing trend to integrate
the solar PV arrays at the design level in the building itself. In such cases it is difficult to
avoid partial shading of array due to neighboring buildings throughout the day in all the
seasons. This makes the study of partial shading of modules a key issue. In recent years,
the impact of partial shading on the PV array performance has been widely discussed.

PRACTICAL VALUES:
S.No Partial Shading Voltage Current
percentage
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Result:

M.Tech (PEES), EEED-BVRIT

 Solar PV Systems Lab
M.Tech (EPS), AY: 2022-2023

6. To determine the efficiency of Solar PV panel at different

irradiance levels

M.Tech (PEES), EEED-BVRIT

 Solar PV Systems Lab
M.Tech (EPS), AY: 2022-2023

M.Tech (PEES), EEED-BVRIT

 Solar PV Systems Lab
M.Tech (EPS), AY: 2022-2023

M.Tech (PEES), EEED-BVRIT

 Solar PV Systems Lab
M.Tech (EPS), AY: 2022-2023

8. Observe the output voltage waveform of inverter in auto

mode.

AIM:To determine efficiency of DC/AC Solar inverter.

APPARATUS:

1. Solar panel array- 3.36KWP

2. Power-One String Inverter- 6KW
3. Elmeasure Energy Meter (LG5310)
4. Elmeasure Energy Meter (EDC1100)
5. AC/DC Clamp Meter

THEORY:

A power inverter is an electronic device that changes direct current (DC) to alternating
current (AC).

Inverters are used in many applications including as part of any AC residential or commercial
solar power system. An inverter converts direct current (DC) power coming from a solar panel
or solar array into AC current which can be used to power loads that run on alternating current
electricity. They are also used in utility-scale solar power generating plants.

A typical inverter requires a stable source of DC power capable of supplying power demands.
There two main commercially available types of inverters, modified sine wave and sine wave.

A solar inverter has a power rating which is expressed in watts or kilowatts. This is the amount
of power that will be available to the device the inverter is powering. Smaller popular consumer
and commercial inverters are designed to mimic power coming from your wall sockets typically
range from 150 to 3000 watts.

Grid-tied inverters direct electricity from your solar power array into the electric power
distribution system, also known as the main power grid. A solar inverter can also be connected
to a battery bank and used by an off-grid solar power system. Solar inverters have special
functions adapted for use with photovoltaic arrays, including maximum power point tracking and
anti-islanding protection. Some grid-tie solar panels come with a micro-inverter built into the
panel to convert direct current from individual solar panels into alternating current for the
electric grid.

There are two basic types of inverters for residential applications: string inverters and micro
inverters.
 String inverters: String inverters are large boxes mounted near your power meter or
main fuse box. In the vast majority of applications, only one inverter is used. It's of critical
importance to design the "strings" of PV panels that feed into an inverter, a job that's almost
always better left to the experts.

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 Solar PV Systems Lab
M.Tech (EPS), AY: 2022-2023

String inverters are the least costly option for the amount of energy a system can output, and
the technology has been proven over years of widespread use. But keep in mind that shading
becomes a problem because arrays are arranged into series and parallel "strings." If a single
panel is shaded, the entire string suffers, and the total energy output of the inverter suffers as
well.

 Micro inverters: Micro inverters are the new fad. Each PV panel is outfitted with its
own inverter, and the output of each is AC (which matches grid power). The number of
micro inverters matches the number of PV panels. In the future, it's likely that the vast
majority of systems will use micro inverters, but for now they're relatively new and the
reliability risk is high.

Pay attention to these specifications:

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 Solar PV Systems Lab
M.Tech (EPS), AY: 2022-2023

 CEC-Rated Power Output: This tells you the maximum output watts from the inverter
and varies over operating temperature.
 Maximum recommended PV input power: This must never be exceeded by the power
output from the combined panels or the output becomes clipped, which means that your
inverter runs inefficiently. In other words, you must match the inverter to the panel array
properly. Use PV Watts (enter "PV Watts" into your search engine) to find out whether your
inverter is large enough for the array you're considering.
 Maximum open circuit voltage: The PV array's maximum open circuit voltage must
always be less than the inverter's limit or damage may occur. Calculating this number for a
given array is a complex engineering problem.
 PV Start Voltage: This tells you when the inverter will begin to operate. In the morning,
when the sun comes up, the PV panels begin to output power, but inverters require a
minimum amount before they start outputting their own power into the grid. This is an
important specification because it relates to the overall efficiency of a system. You want
your system to run as long as possible over the course of a day.
 Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) Range: MPPT circuits enable the inverter to
harvest the most amount of energy over the course of a day.

PROCEDURE FOR MEASURING EFFICIENCY:

EFFICIENCY MEASUREMENT CONDITIONS &CALCULATIONS:

Rated output efficiency

Rated output efficiency will be calculated from measured data as follows: nR

= (Po / Pi) * 100 (1)
Where
nR is the rated output efficiency (%);
Po is the rated output power from the inverter (kW);
Pi is the input power to the inverter at rated output (kW).

Partial output efficiency

Partial output efficiency will be calculated from measured data as follows:

npar = (Pop / Pip) * 100 (2)
Where
npar is the partial output efficiency (%);
Pop is the partial output power from the inverter (kW);
Pip is the input power to the inverter at partial output (kW).

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 Solar PV Systems Lab
M.Tech (EPS), AY: 2022-2023

PRACTICAL READINGS:(Date: June 24)

Time (hrs.) DC input Power(KW) AC output Power(kW) Efficiency (%)
6:00 am 26 25 0.9615
7:00 am 302 295 0.9768
8:00 am 637 627 0.9843
9:00 am 1229 1200 0.9764
10:00 am 1693 1664 0.9828
11:00 am 2143 2091 0.9757
12:00 pm 2231 2178 0.9762
1:00 pm 1176 1161 0.9872
2:00 pm 2210 2158 0.9764

OUTPUT:
Average efficiency of the DC/AC solar inverter is 0.9774
GRAPH:

RESULT:
Thus, efficiency of DC/AC Solar inverter is determined.

M.Tech (PEES), EEED-BVRIT

 Solar PV Systems Lab
M.Tech (EPS), AY: 2022-2023

9. Variables Affecting Solar Panel Output

AIM: To analyze the grid connected PV system using PVsyst software.
APPARATUS:
1. PVsyst Software
2. Laptop
THEORY:
Grid-connected photovoltaic systems represent important systems for potential use in all
countries. Small grid-connected systems for use in detached or semi-detached houses are
especially promising developments. They will mean an important saving of conventional energy.
The energy produced by a grid-connected photovoltaic system depends on (i) climatic factors
(incident irradiation and module working temperature), (ii) inverter characteristics (yield,
working point and operation threshold, defined as the minimum required power to connect the
inverter to the grid) and (iii) the coupling system to the grid, which depends on the
characteristics of the energy produced by the inverter and on grid stability and availability.
Characterization of the photovoltaic generator:
In the manufacturer’s manual, the nominal power of the photovoltaic modules is referred
to standard conditions (STC): temperature of cell equal to 25°C, irradiance equal to 1000 W/m2 ,
and solar spectrum AM 1.5. It is well-known that manufacturers classify modules within the
same model according to their nominal power referred to standard conditions 6 10%. As a result,
it is difficult to know, in practice, the real installed power and, hence, to quantify the mismatch
losses which are due to the dispersion of the module electrical characteristic parameters. The
steps followed to obtain the real installed power have been: (i) measurement, under outdoor
conditions, of the characteristic I–V curve for the modules, (ii) correction of the curves to
standard conditions and determination of their electrical characteristic parameters, and (iii)
following the laws of modules association, determination of both the real peak power installed
and the losses due to dispersion of parameters.

Adding further particularities of your project:

After this first "standard" simulation, you can progressively add the specificities of your
particular project. You are advised to perform a new simulation at each step in order to check its
effect and pertinence - especially by analyzing the "Loss diagram".

Far shadings, Horizon profile:

This is only suited for shading objects sufficiently far from your PV system, so that the
shadings may be considered global on your array. The distance of the shading object should be,
say, over about 10 times the PV system size. The Horizon Profile is defined as a curve, set of
(Height, Azimuth) points.
The FarShadings operate in an ON/OFF mode: i.e. at a given time, the sun is or is not
present on the field. When the sun is behind the horizon the beam component becomes null. But
the diffuse component, supposed isotropic - coming from all points of the sky vault seen by the
collectors with an identical intensity - is not much affected.
Clicking the "Horizon" button will open a graph of the sun paths at your location.

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 Solar PV Systems Lab
M.Tech (EPS), AY: 2022-2023

Defining horizon line by hand:

The horizon (Height, Azimuth) values may be recorded on-site using a compass and a
clinometer (measuring the height angles) or a land surveyor instrument.
You can move any red point by dragging it with the mouse, or define accurately
its values in Edit boxes.
For creating a new point right-click anywhere. For deleting a point right-click on this point.
You can of course save this horizon as a file for further use in others projects in PVsyst.
Importing Horizon from Solmetric "SunEye" instrument:
The "SunEye" records the horizon line using a fisheye camera, and provides results as
files. You should choose the "ObstructionElevation.csv" file. Don't use the "Sky0x_PVsyst.hor"
file, which was elaborated by Solmetrics for the old versions 4.xx of PVsyst.
Note: You should correct the data if near objects are represented in the record.
Importing Horizon from the "Carnaval" software:
Carnaval is georeferred software (including altimetric data) able to establish a horizon
line for any place given by its exact geographical coordinates - Latitude and Longitude -
in France and neighbors. You should not use the near objects option in this software for
establishing far shadings PVsyst masks.
Carnaval produces a file named “YourProject.masque.txt". Please rename this file by
removing the ".masque" characters as PVsyst doesn't accept file names with 2 points.
Importing Horizon from the “Horiz'ON" software:
The "Camera Master" tool is a specialized support for your Photo Camera, which allows
taking several photography’s with a horizontal reference (every 20° in azimuth). The software
"Horiz'ON" gathers these photos as a single panorama on which you can draw the horizon line
by mouse. This produces a file directly readable in PVsyst.
Note: when established using a georeferred grid (like Carnaval or Meteonorm), the exact
location should be carefully defined. This may be determined using Google Earth or a GPS.
Please remind that a degree in latitude is 111 km, a minute is 1850 m and a second is 31m.

Near shadings, 3D construction:

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 Solar PV Systems Lab
M.Tech (EPS), AY: 2022-2023

If you have near shading masks, you should construct your PV installation and the
neighbors as a 3D scene (see the dedicated tutorial). The previous instruments (including
SunEye) cannot help for this construction, which should be realized using architect's planes or
equivalent, including heights indications.
You will performed the simulation with linear shadings (irradiance deficit, lower
estimation of the shading effect), and then "according to module strings” (upper bound of the
electrical effect, higher estimation of the shading losses).
Finally, for the definitive report to be transmitted to your customer, you can choose an
intermediate value for the electrical effect, taking the by-pass diode recovery into account. For
this you have to choose an intermediate fraction of electrical effect, which will depend on your
system geometry. But we don’t have well-established value to propose at the moment (60 to
80%??? - Higher for regular shadings like shed mutual shadings!).
Note: The near shading loss doesn't cumulate with the far shadings: when the sun is behind the
horizon, the beam component is null, and therefore there is no near shading contribution.
Final layout of your system:
There is in principle no relation in the program between the definition of the system, and
the definition of your 3D scene. Except that at the end of the process the program will check the
compatibility of these different parts. Namely it will require that the plane orientations are
identical, and that you have defined a sufficient sensitive area in the 3D scene for installing the
PV modules defined in your system.
But PVsyst doesn't check the real physical (geometrical) compatibility. In a second step,
you should check the arrangement of your modules, and eventually modify the system definition
(number of modules in series and parallel) in order to build a realistic installation. PVsyst doesn't
offer specific tool for this try-and-error process in the present state.

Array losses:
Finally there are several parameters which are fixed by PVsyst as reasonable default
values for your early simulations, but that you should modify according to the specificities of
your system. These are available in the "System" definition dialog, button "Detailed losses".
Thermal Losses:
The thermal behavior of the array is computed at each simulation step, by a thermal
balance. This establishes the instantaneous operating temperature, to be used by the PV modules
modelling.
The thermal balance involves the "Heat loss factor" U = Uc + Uv · Wind Speed
[W/m²·K]. In practice we advise not to use the wind dependency, as the wind speed is usually
not well defined in the meteo data, and the Uv is not well known. Therefore we put Uv = 0 and
include an average wind effect in the constant term.
According to our own measurements on several systems, PVsyst proposes:
- Uc = 29 W/m²K for complete free air circulation around the collectors ("nude" collectors).
- Uc = 15 W/m²K for integration (back insulated), as only one surface participates to the
convection/radiation cooling.

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 Solar PV Systems Lab
M.Tech (EPS), AY: 2022-2023

- We don't have well-established values for intermediate situations with back air circulation. Our
measurement on quasi-horizontal modules on a steel roof, 8 cm spacing and not jointive
collectors, gave 18 W/m²K;
Note: up to the version 5.1, the default value was 29 W/m² (free standing). From this version the
default is set to 20 W/m² as more and more installations are integrated.
The thermal loss effect is visible on the array loss diagram.
Wiring Losses:
The wiring ohmic resistance induces losses (R · I²) between the power available from the
modules and that at the terminals of the array. These losses can be characterized by just one
parameter R defined for the global array.
The program proposes a default global wiring loss fraction of 1.5% with respect to the
STC running conditions. But you have a specific tool for establishing and optimizing the ohmic
losses (press "Detailed Calculation" button). This tool asks for the average length of wires for
the string loops, and between the intermediate junction boxes and the inverter, and helps the
determination of the wire sections.
Note: remember that the wiring loss behaves as the square of the current. Therefore operating at
half power (500 W/m²) will lead to only a quarter of the relative loss. The effective loss during a
given period will be given as a simulation result and shown on the loss diagram. It is usually of
the order of one half to 60% of the above specified relative loss when operation at MPP.
This part also includes the definition of eventual losses between the output of the inverter
and the injection point (energy counter). You have just to define the distance and the loss will
also appear in the loss diagram.
Module quality loss:
The aim of this parameter is to reflect the confidence that you put in the matching of your
real module set performance, with respect to the manufacturer's specification. The default PVsyst
value is half the lower tolerance of the modules.
The result in the "Array loss diagram" is not exactly the specified value, at this is
referenced to the STC when in the diagram value it is with respect to the previous energy.
Mismatch loss:
Losses due to "mismatch" are related to the fact that the real modules in the array do not
rigorously present the same I/V characteristics. Remember that in a string the worst module
drives the string's current.
The button "Detailed computation" helps the understanding of this phenomenon, and
gives indications on the loss parameter to be set for the simulation, according to your hypothesis
on your effective module set.
This parameter acts as a constant loss during the simulation. It is lower for thin film
modules. It could be about null when sorting the modules according to their real performance
(flash-test results provided by the manufacturer).
Note: There is probably a correlation between these 2 last parameters. The Module quality loss is
rather related to the average of the module's distribution, when the mismatch refers to its width.
Soiling loss:
To our experience, the soiling effect is about negligible in middle-climate residential
situations.

M.Tech (PEES), EEED-BVRIT

 Solar PV Systems Lab
M.Tech (EPS), AY: 2022-2023

It may become significant is some industrial environments (for example near railway
lines), or in desert climates. The monthly definition allows for taking periodical cleaning or rains
into account.
This parameter may also be used for describing a snow effect (for example put 50% in
winter month with 15 day’s coverage).
IAM loss:
The incidence loss (reflections due to the fresnel's laws) is sufficiently well defined by
parametrization proposes by the "Ashrae” (US standards office). You will in principle never
modify this parameter.
Note: Assuming an isotropic diffuse, the IAM factor on the diffuse part is computed by an
integral over all spaces directions, which include important low-incidence contributions.

PROCEDURE:
Collect the simulation results from the PVsyst software. As it contains the data of
balances and main results and also the graphs showing the monthly performance of the arrays in
the gird connected system. Collect the losses values of the whole year form the loss diagram.
PRACTICAL DATA:
New simulation variant
Balances and main results

GlobHor T Amb GlobInc GlobEff EArray E_Grid EffArrR EffSysR

kWh/m² °C kWh/m² kWh/m² KWh kWh % %

January 160.1 22.88 190.7 185.5 15046 14725 12.25 11.99
February 165.8 25.97 188.4 183.3 14125 13822 11.64 11.39
March 204.5 31.17 215.0 209.0 15632 15304 11.29 11.06
April 207.1 29.91 202.9 196.8 15217 14896 11.65 11.40
May 203.6 32.18 189.1 182.8 13996 13686 11.50 11.24
June July 158.6 27.87 145.7 140.6 11244 10985 11.98 11.71
August 145.1 26.27 136.7 131.7 10919 10671 12.41 12.13
September 139.9 26.31 135.3 130.8 10748 10503 12.34 12.06
October 144.6 26.26 145.6 141.0 11488 11232 12.26 11.98
November 150.2 24.35 160.8 156.0 12844 12573 12.41 12.15
December 151.5 24.81 177.3 172.1 13810 13523 12.10 11.84
154.2 22.62 189.4 183.8 14907 14596 12.23 11.97
Year 1985.1 26.72 2077.0 2013.5 159975 156514 11.96 11.70

Legends: GlobHor Horizontal global irradiation EArray Effective energy at the output of the array
T Amb Ambient Temperature E_Grid Energy injected into grid
GlobInc Global incident in coll. Plane EffArrR Effic. Eout array / rough area
GlobEff Effective Global, corr. for IAM and shadings EffSysR Effic. Eout system / rough area

GRAPH:

M.Tech (PEES), EEED-BVRIT

 Solar PV Systems Lab
M.Tech (EPS), AY: 2022-2023

LOSS DIAGRAM:

RESULT:
Thus, Performance analysis of grid connected PV system using PVsyst software is
determined.

M.Tech (PEES), EEED-BVRIT

 Solar PV Systems Lab
M.Tech (EPS), AY: 2022-2023

10.Effect of Load on Solar Panel Output

AIM: To analyze the grid connected PV system using PVsyst software.

APPARATUS:
3. PVsyst Software
4. Laptop
THEORY:
Grid-connected photovoltaic systems represent important systems for potential use in all
countries. Small grid-connected systems for use in detached or semi-detached houses are
especially promising developments. They will mean an important saving of conventional energy.
The energy produced by a grid-connected photovoltaic system depends on (i) climatic factors
(incident irradiation and module working temperature), (ii) inverter characteristics (yield,
working point and operation threshold, defined as the minimum required power to connect the
inverter to the grid) and (iii) the coupling system to the grid, which depends on the
characteristics of the energy produced by the inverter and on grid stability and availability.
Characterization of the photovoltaic generator:
In the manufacturer’s manual, the nominal power of the photovoltaic modules is referred
to standard conditions (STC): temperature of cell equal to 25°C, irradiance equal to 1000 W/m2 ,
and solar spectrum AM 1.5. It is well-known that manufacturers classify modules within the
same model according to their nominal power referred to standard conditions 6 10%. As a result,
it is difficult to know, in practice, the real installed power and, hence, to quantify the mismatch
losses which are due to the dispersion of the module electrical characteristic parameters. The
steps followed to obtain the real installed power have been: (i) measurement, under outdoor
conditions, of the characteristic I–V curve for the modules, (ii) correction of the curves to
standard conditions and determination of their electrical characteristic parameters, and (iii)
following the laws of modules association, determination of both the real peak power installed
and the losses due to dispersion of parameters.

Adding further particularities of your project:

After this first "standard" simulation, you can progressively add the specificities of your
particular project. You are advised to perform a new simulation at each step in order to check its
effect and pertinence - especially by analyzing the "Loss diagram".

Far shadings, Horizon profile:

This is only suited for shading objects sufficiently far from your PV system, so that the
shadings may be considered global on your array. The distance of the shading object should be,
say, over about 10 times the PV system size. The Horizon Profile is defined as a curve, set of
(Height, Azimuth) points.
The FarShadings operate in an ON/OFF mode: i.e. at a given time, the sun is or is not
present on the field. When the sun is behind the horizon the beam component becomes null. But
the diffuse component, supposed isotropic - coming from all points of the sky vault seen by the
collectors with an identical intensity - is not much affected.
Clicking the "Horizon" button will open a graph of the sun paths at your location.

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M.Tech (EPS), AY: 2022-2023

Defining horizon line by hand:

The horizon (Height, Azimuth) values may be recorded on-site using a compass and a
clinometer (measuring the height angles) or a land surveyor instrument.
You can move any red point by dragging it with the mouse, or define accurately
its values in Edit boxes.
For creating a new point right-click anywhere. For deleting a point right-click on this point.
You can of course save this horizon as a file for further use in others projects in PVsyst.
Importing Horizon from Solmetric "SunEye" instrument:
The "SunEye" records the horizon line using a fisheye camera, and provides results as
files. You should choose the "ObstructionElevation.csv" file. Don't use the "Sky0x_PVsyst.hor"
file, which was elaborated by Solmetrics for the old versions 4.xx of PVsyst.
Note: You should correct the data if near objects are represented in the record.
Importing Horizon from the "Carnaval" software:
Carnaval is georeferred software (including altimetric data) able to establish a horizon
line for any place given by its exact geographical coordinates - Latitude and Longitude -
in France and neighbors. You should not use the near objects option in this software for
establishing far shadings PVsyst masks.
Carnaval produces a file named “YourProject.masque.txt". Please rename this file by
removing the ".masque" characters as PVsyst doesn't accept file names with 2 points.
Importing Horizon from the “Horiz'ON" software:
The "Camera Master" tool is a specialized support for your Photo Camera, which allows
taking several photography’s with a horizontal reference (every 20° in azimuth). The software
"Horiz'ON" gathers these photos as a single panorama on which you can draw the horizon line
by mouse. This produces a file directly readable in PVsyst.
Note: when established using a georeferred grid (like Carnaval or Meteonorm), the exact
location should be carefully defined. This may be determined using Google Earth or a GPS.
Please remind that a degree in latitude is 111 km, a minute is 1850 m and a second is 31m.

Near shadings, 3D construction:

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 Solar PV Systems Lab
M.Tech (EPS), AY: 2022-2023

If you have near shading masks, you should construct your PV installation and the
neighbors as a 3D scene (see the dedicated tutorial). The previous instruments (including
SunEye) cannot help for this construction, which should be realized using architect's planes or
equivalent, including heights indications.
You will performed the simulation with linear shadings (irradiance deficit, lower
estimation of the shading effect), and then "according to module strings” (upper bound of the
electrical effect, higher estimation of the shading losses).
Finally, for the definitive report to be transmitted to your customer, you can choose an
intermediate value for the electrical effect, taking the by-pass diode recovery into account. For
this you have to choose an intermediate fraction of electrical effect, which will depend on your
system geometry. But we don’t have well-established value to propose at the moment (60 to
80%??? - Higher for regular shadings like shed mutual shadings!).
Note: The near shading loss doesn't cumulate with the far shadings: when the sun is behind the
horizon, the beam component is null, and therefore there is no near shading contribution.
Final layout of your system:
There is in principle no relation in the program between the definition of the system, and
the definition of your 3D scene. Except that at the end of the process the program will check the
compatibility of these different parts. Namely it will require that the plane orientations are
identical, and that you have defined a sufficient sensitive area in the 3D scene for installing the
PV modules defined in your system.
But PVsyst doesn't check the real physical (geometrical) compatibility. In a second step,
you should check the arrangement of your modules, and eventually modify the system definition
(number of modules in series and parallel) in order to build a realistic installation. PVsyst doesn't
offer specific tool for this try-and-error process in the present state.

Array losses:
Finally there are several parameters which are fixed by PVsyst as reasonable default
values for your early simulations, but that you should modify according to the specificities of
your system. These are available in the "System" definition dialog, button "Detailed losses".
Thermal Losses:
The thermal behavior of the array is computed at each simulation step, by a thermal
balance. This establishes the instantaneous operating temperature, to be used by the PV modules
modelling.
The thermal balance involves the "Heat loss factor" U = Uc + Uv · Wind Speed
[W/m²·K]. In practice we advise not to use the wind dependency, as the wind speed is usually
not well defined in the meteo data, and the Uv is not well known. Therefore we put Uv = 0 and
include an average wind effect in the constant term.
According to our own measurements on several systems, PVsyst proposes:
- Uc = 29 W/m²K for complete free air circulation around the collectors ("nude" collectors).
- Uc = 15 W/m²K for integration (back insulated), as only one surface participates to the
convection/radiation cooling.

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 Solar PV Systems Lab
M.Tech (EPS), AY: 2022-2023

- We don't have well-established values for intermediate situations with back air circulation. Our
measurement on quasi-horizontal modules on a steel roof, 8 cm spacing and not jointive
collectors, gave 18 W/m²K;
Note: up to the version 5.1, the default value was 29 W/m² (free standing). From this version the
default is set to 20 W/m² as more and more installations are integrated.
The thermal loss effect is visible on the array loss diagram.
Wiring Losses:
The wiring ohmic resistance induces losses (R · I²) between the power available from the
modules and that at the terminals of the array. These losses can be characterized by just one
parameter R defined for the global array.
The program proposes a default global wiring loss fraction of 1.5% with respect to the
STC running conditions. But you have a specific tool for establishing and optimizing the ohmic
losses (press "Detailed Calculation" button). This tool asks for the average length of wires for
the string loops, and between the intermediate junction boxes and the inverter, and helps the
determination of the wire sections.
Note: remember that the wiring loss behaves as the square of the current. Therefore operating at
half power (500 W/m²) will lead to only a quarter of the relative loss. The effective loss during a
given period will be given as a simulation result and shown on the loss diagram. It is usually of
the order of one half to 60% of the above specified relative loss when operation at MPP.
This part also includes the definition of eventual losses between the output of the inverter
and the injection point (energy counter). You have just to define the distance and the loss will
also appear in the loss diagram.
Module quality loss:
The aim of this parameter is to reflect the confidence that you put in the matching of your
real module set performance, with respect to the manufacturer's specification. The default PVsyst
value is half the lower tolerance of the modules.
The result in the "Array loss diagram" is not exactly the specified value, at this is
referenced to the STC when in the diagram value it is with respect to the previous energy.
Mismatch loss:
Losses due to "mismatch" are related to the fact that the real modules in the array do not
rigorously present the same I/V characteristics. Remember that in a string the worst module
drives the string's current.
The button "Detailed computation" helps the understanding of this phenomenon, and
gives indications on the loss parameter to be set for the simulation, according to your hypothesis
on your effective module set.
This parameter acts as a constant loss during the simulation. It is lower for thin film
modules. It could be about null when sorting the modules according to their real performance
(flash-test results provided by the manufacturer).
Note: There is probably a correlation between these 2 last parameters. The Module quality loss is
rather related to the average of the module's distribution, when the mismatch refers to its width.
Soiling loss:
To our experience, the soiling effect is about negligible in middle-climate residential
situations.

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 Solar PV Systems Lab
M.Tech (EPS), AY: 2022-2023

It may become significant is some industrial environments (for example near railway
lines), or in desert climates. The monthly definition allows for taking periodical cleaning or rains
into account.
This parameter may also be used for describing a snow effect (for example put 50% in
winter month with 15 day’s coverage).
IAM loss:
The incidence loss (reflections due to the fresnel's laws) is sufficiently well defined by
parametrization proposes by the "Ashrae” (US standards office). You will in principle never
modify this parameter.
Note: Assuming an isotropic diffuse, the IAM factor on the diffuse part is computed by an
integral over all spaces directions, which include important low-incidence contributions.

PROCEDURE:
Collect the simulation results from the PVsyst software. As it contains the data of
balances and main results and also the graphs showing the monthly performance of the arrays in
the gird connected system. Collect the losses values of the whole year form the loss diagram.
PRACTICAL DATA:
New simulation variant
Balances and main results

GlobHor T Amb GlobInc GlobEff EArray E_Grid EffArrR EffSysR

kWh/m² °C kWh/m² kWh/m² KWh kWh % %

January 160.1 22.88 190.7 185.5 15046 14725 12.25 11.99
February 165.8 25.97 188.4 183.3 14125 13822 11.64 11.39
March 204.5 31.17 215.0 209.0 15632 15304 11.29 11.06
April 207.1 29.91 202.9 196.8 15217 14896 11.65 11.40
May 203.6 32.18 189.1 182.8 13996 13686 11.50 11.24
June July 158.6 27.87 145.7 140.6 11244 10985 11.98 11.71
August 145.1 26.27 136.7 131.7 10919 10671 12.41 12.13
September 139.9 26.31 135.3 130.8 10748 10503 12.34 12.06
October 144.6 26.26 145.6 141.0 11488 11232 12.26 11.98
November 150.2 24.35 160.8 156.0 12844 12573 12.41 12.15
December 151.5 24.81 177.3 172.1 13810 13523 12.10 11.84
154.2 22.62 189.4 183.8 14907 14596 12.23 11.97
Year 1985.1 26.72 2077.0 2013.5 159975 156514 11.96 11.70

Legends: GlobHor Horizontal global irradiation EArray Effective energy at the output of the array
T Amb Ambient Temperature E_Grid Energy injected into grid
GlobInc Global incident in coll. Plane EffArrR Effic. Eout array / rough area
GlobEff Effective Global, corr. for IAM and shadings EffSysR Effic. Eout system / rough area

GRAPH:

M.Tech (PEES), EEED-BVRIT

 Solar PV Systems Lab
M.Tech (EPS), AY: 2022-2023

LOSS DIAGRAM:

M.Tech (PEES), EEED-BVRIT

 Solar PV Systems Lab
M.Tech (EPS), AY: 2022-2023

RESULT:
Thus, Performance analysis of grid connected PV system using PVsyst software is
determined.

M.Tech (PEES), EEED-BVRIT

 Solar PV Systems Lab
M.Tech (EPS), AY: 2022-2023

11.Experimental study of solar PV pumping system.

AIM: To study the performance of solar PV pumping system.

APARATURS:
1. Water well
2. PV array
3. DC pump
4. Pump controller
5. Wiring
6. Discharge pipe
7. Storage tank

THEORY:
Solar-powered ground water pumping systems are often considered for use in livestock
and remote watering applications instead of other forms of alternative energy because they are
durable, can be mobile and exhibit long- term economic benefits. Generally, alternative power is
considered most feasible when the cost of tapping into the closest public power grid far
outweighs the costs of using alternative power. There are several technology alternatives for
supplying power, or lift, to ground water systems including: wind turbines, windmills,
generators, and solar arrays. The driving factors for selecting the appropriate technology are
regional feasibility, water demand, system efficiencies, and initial and long-term costs. Other
factors often include the need for power and water reserves in the form of batteries and livestock
tanks.
Expectations and Costs:

The average daily water consumption for a cow/calf pair in Colorado during the summer
is approximately 20 gallons per day. A typical solar-powered system might serve 50 cow/calf
pairs. This is a total of 1,000 gallons needed per day. The cost of a system that serves 50
cow/calf pairs can easily reach $10,000.

Most economical SPPS will not provide enough water and pressure for the required
demand of community indoor plumbing. However, a SPPS is sufficient to meet the indoor
plumbing needs of a small building or a remote cabin.

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 Solar PV Systems Lab
M.Tech (EPS), AY: 2022-2023

Site location:

The site location plays a major part in the feasibility of a SPPS. Peak sunlight hours (PSH)
differ slightly across Colorado. The general rule is that the less PSH available, the more
expensive the required photovoltaic (PV) array and pump. System costs increase when more
storage is needed to compensate for the limited exposure of the PV array to peak sunlight hours.
Most of Colorado has a PSH of between 5.0 and 6.0. Another factor is the climate of the region.
Solar powered systems are not typically designed for extremely cold weather (temperature less
than minus 20 degrees C or minus 4 degrees F). However, the systems can be insulated to handle
colder temperatures.

System Security:

Another important aspect to consider is security. The PV array is one of the most
expensive components of the system and it should be protected from theft, vandalism, and
livestock. It is strongly recommended that provisions be made to put a small fence around the
array. The fence needs to have enough set-back that it does not cast a shadow on the array.

The pump should be specifically designed for solar power. It is strongly recommended to
purchase the pump controller from the same manufacturer as the pump. Using another
manufacturer could cause several unforeseen problems and even invalidate the pump’s warranty.
If the pump does not contain a built-in check valve, one should be installed to keep the water
from flowing back into the well. Very few pumps can handle reverse flow without reducing the
life expectancy of the pump. Pumps that are designed to drain during non-operation are meant
for extremely cold conditions to keep water from freezing in the lines. The pump should be set
no deeper than 2 feet above the bottom of the well to help prevent heavy silt and sand from
entering the pump’s intake and causing it to seize. The storage tank should be sized to hold at
least three days’ worth of water demand to account for evenings and cloudy days. If the
controller is not attached to the array mounting bracket it can be placed in a secure shed or pump
house, preferably water tight and dust free.

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 Solar PV Systems Lab
M.Tech (EPS), AY: 2022-2023

An estimate of the required flow rate of the pump can be determined by the following equation:

PROCEDURE:

1. Choose pumping form a deep well, to tank storage.

2. Define the water needs (may be yearly, seasonal or in monthly values).
3. Define the pumping static depth if varying along the year (may be seasonal or monthly).
4. Choose a pump model, taking the nominal Head into account (pumps are colored in green for
suitable, orange for not optimal or red for not suited devices).
5. Choose the number of pumps for reaching the required nominal power (all pumps wired
in parallel)
6. Choose a PV module (also Green/Orange/Red), and a suitable PV array configuration
(proposed by PVsyst).
7. Choose the Regulation mode: again the Green/Orange/Red colors indicate the suitable
choices, according to the previously chosen System type, Pump model and Pumps

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 Solar PV Systems Lab
M.Tech (EPS), AY: 2022-2023

number. A collection of specific Warning messages explain the reasons of incompatibilities

or poor design.
8. The chosen Regulation strategy fixes the available set of regulating devices. There is
a Default Regulating device corresponding to each strategy, with all parameters
automatically adjusted according to the system (the system-dependent parameters will be re-
evaluated just before the simulation).
9. If “Battery Buffered” configuration, you still have to define the battery pack.
10. All system running specificities are defined in the Controller/Regulation device. This
includes namely the boundary operating conditions (Tank full, dry running, Power, Voltage,
Current limits, etc.)
11. In most cases the controller holds parameters specific to the system configuration strategy,
which should be defined by the user (for example, Irradiance thresholds for pumps cascading
or array reconfiguration, converter input voltages, etc.).

OUTPUT:

RESULT:

M.Tech (PEES), EEED-BVRIT