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A Concise
Introduction to
Logic
Fourteenth Edition
Patrick J. Hurley
University of San Diego
Australia ● Brazil ● Canada ● Mexico ● Singapore ● United Kingdom ● United States
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Patrick J. Hurley
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Printed in the United States of America

Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2023
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To Linda
It is wrong always, everywhere, and for anyone,

to believe anything upon insufficient evidence.
–W. K. Clifford
Nothing can be more important than the art of

formal reasoning according to true logic.
–Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
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Brief Contents
Part I Informal Logic

1 Basic Concepts 1
2 Language: Meaning and Definition 70
3 Informal Fallacies 107
Part II Formal Logic

4 Categorical Propositions 175
5 Categorical Syllogisms 231
6 Propositional Logic 275
7 Natural Deduction in Propositional Logic 336
8 Predicate Logic 390
Part III Inductive Logic

9 Analogy and Legal and Moral Reasoning 447
10 Causality and Mill’s Methods 467
11 Probability 490
12 Statistical Reasoning 506
13 Hypothetical/Scientific Reasoning 526
14 Science and Superstition 543
Answers to Selected Exercises 571
Glossary/Index 615
iv
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Contents
Preface xi
1 Basic Concepts 1
1.1 Arguments, Premises, and Conclusions 1
Exercise 1.1 6
1.2 Recognizing Arguments 12

Exercise 1.2 21
1.3 Deduction and Induction 29

Exercise 1.3 35
1.4 Validity, Truth, Soundness, Strength, and Cogency 39

Exercise 1.4 48
1.5 Argument Forms: Proving Invalidity 52

Exercise 1.5 56
1.6 Extended Arguments 58

Exercise 1.6 62
2 Language: Meaning and Definition 70

2.1 Varieties of Meaning 70
Exercise 2.1 74
2.2 The Intension and Extension of Terms 80

Exercise 2.2 83
2.3 Definitions and Their Purposes 84

Exercise 2.3 89
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2.4 Definitional Techniques 92
Exercise 2.4 97
2.5 Criteria for Lexical Definitions 101

Exercise 2.5 103
3 Informal Fallacies 107

3.1 Fallacies in General 107
Exercise 3.1 109
3.2 Fallacies of Relevance 110

Exercise 3.2 120
3.3 Fallacies of Weak Induction 125

Exercise 3.3 135
3.4 Fallacies of Presumption, Ambiguity,

and Illicit Transference 141
Exercise 3.4 152
3.5 Fallacies in Ordinary Language 159

Exercise 3.5 164
4 Categorical Propositions 175

4.1 The Components of Categorical Propositions 175
Exercise 4.1 178
4.2 Quality, Quantity, and Distribution 179

Exercise 4.2 182
4.3 Venn Diagrams and the Modern Square of

Opposition 183
Exercise 4.3 193
4.4 Conversion, Obversion, and Contraposition 194

Exercise 4.4 200
4.5 The Traditional Square of Opposition 203

Exercise 4.5 208
4.6 Venn Diagrams and the Traditional

Standpoint 213
Exercise 4.6 217
vi Contents
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4.7 Translating Ordinary Language Statements into
Categorical Form 219
Exercise 4.7 224
5 Categorical Syllogisms 231

5.1 Standard Form, Mood, and Figure 231
Exercise 5.1 235
5.2 Venn Diagrams 238

Exercise 5.2 245
5.3 Rules and Fallacies 248

Exercise 5.3 253
5.4 Reducing the Number of Terms 255

Exercise 5.4 257
5.5 Ordinary Language Arguments 258

Exercise 5.5 260
5.6 Enthymemes 261

Exercise 5.6 263
5.7 Sorites 266

Exercise 5.7 269
6 Propositional Logic 275

6.1 Symbols and Translation 275
Exercise 6.1 283
6.2 Truth Functions 287

Exercise 6.2 294
6.3 Truth Tables for Propositions 296

Exercise 6.3 301
6.4 Truth Tables for Arguments 304

Exercise 6.4 306
6.5 Indirect Truth Tables 310

Exercise 6.5 316
6.6 Argument Forms and Fallacies 318

Exercise 6.6 327
Contents vii
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7 Natural Deduction in Propositional Logic 336
7.1 Rules of Implication I 336
Exercise 7.1 341
7.2 Rules of Implication II 347

Exercise 7.2 350
7.3 Rules of Replacement I 355

Exercise 7.3 359
7.4 Rules of Replacement II 366

Exercise 7.4 369
7.5 Conditional Proof 377

Exercise 7.5 380
7.6 Indirect Proof 382

Exercise 7.6 384
7.7 Proving Logical Truths 387

Exercise 7.7 388
8 Predicate Logic 390

8.1 Symbols and Translation 390
Exercise 8.1 396
8.2 Using the Rules of Inference 398

Exercise 8.2 404
8.3 Quantifier Negation Rule 408

Exercise 8.3 411
8.4 Conditional and Indirect Proof 413

Exercise 8.4 415
8.5 Proving Invalidity 418

Exercise 8.5 421
8.6 Relational Predicates and Overlapping Quantifiers 423

Exercise 8.6 429
8.7 Identity 432

Exercise 8.7 439
viii Contents
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9 Analogy and Legal and Moral Reasoning 447
9.1 Analogical Reasoning 447
9.2 Legal Reasoning 450
9.3 Moral Reasoning 453
Exercise 9 457
10 Causality and Mill’s Methods 467

10.1 “Cause” and Necessary and Sufficient Conditions 467
10.2 Mill’s Five Methods 469
10.3 Mill’s Methods and Science 477
Exercise 10 482
11 Probability 490
11.1 Theories of Probability 490
11.2 The Probability Calculus 494
Exercise 11 502
12 Statistical Reasoning 506

12.1 Evaluating Statistics 506
12.2 Samples 507
12.3 The Meaning of “Average” 511
12.4 Dispersion 512
12.5 Graphs and Pictograms 516
12.6 Percentages 518
Exercise 12 520
13 Hypothetical/Scientific Reasoning 526

13.1 The Hypothetical Method 526
13.2 Hypothetical Reasoning: Four Examples from
Science 529
Contents ix
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13.3 The Proof of Hypotheses 534
13.4 The Tentative Acceptance of Hypotheses 536
Exercise 13 538
14 Science and Superstition 543

14.1 Distinguishing Between Science and Superstition 543
14.2 Evidentiary Support 544
14.3 Objectivity 548
14.4 Integrity 552
14.5 Abusing Science 556
Exercise 14 560
Answers to Selected Exercises 571

Glossary/Index 615
x Contents
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Preface
The most immediate benefit derived from the study of logic is the skill needed to
construct sound arguments of one’s own and to evaluate the arguments of others. In
accomplishing this goal, logic instills a sensitivity for the formal component in lan-
guage, a thorough command of which is indispensable to clear, effective, and meaning-
ful communication. On a broader scale, by focusing attention on the requirement for
reasons or evidence to support our views, logic provides a fundamental defense against
the prejudiced and uncivilized attitudes that threaten the foundations of our demo-
cratic society. Finally, through its attention to inconsistency as a fatal flaw in any theory
or point of view, logic proves a useful device in disclosing ill-conceived policies in the
political sphere and, ultimately, in distinguishing what makes sense from what makes
no sense. This book is written with the aim of securing these benefits.
Note to the Instructor

The image on the front cover is intended to convey the message that logic is the key
to all learning. Keys open doors. Logic is the key that opens the door to reasoned dis-
course and dialogue, unlocking an important opportunity for learning. Through logic,
students learn to support their views with reasons and to open their minds to the rea-
sons of others. Logic creates a common foundation upon which individuals who hold
opposing points of view can learn from each other. What might otherwise devolve into
a shouting match of conflicting opinions becomes a venue for the rational exchange of
ideas.
To promote the achievement of this goal, this new edition adopts the theme that
learning logic is empowering. In this context, saying that logic is empowering does
not mean that logic is properly used to overpower one’s opponents, to smash their
arguments. Rather, it means that logic empowers both the arguer and the listener
to enter into a rational exchange where each is free to explore the strengths and
weaknesses of the arguments presented on both sides. Logic lays the foundation for
a meeting of minds and is therefore one of the great civilizing elements in human
society. To implement the empowerment theme, each chapter begins with a brief
selection explaining how the content of the chapter is empowering. While the inclu-
sion of these selections may be the most visible change in the new edition, as you
proceed through the book, you will encounter additional improvements that are less
visible.
xi
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New to This Edition
Each chapter of the book now begins with a signature paragraph explaining how and why
the content of the chapter is empowering. These “Empowerment” selections replace the
“How Logical Are You?” selections in the prior edition. Examples and exercises throughout
the book have been updated, featuring current situations and young personalities drawn
from an ethnically diverse population that students will readily recognize. In the section
relating to induction, more treatment is given to probabilities and odds, and how to com-
pute the one from the other. Further, in the final chapter, new treatment is given to the cor-
rupting influence of corporate money on what we take to be scientific truth. From the start,
a chief motivator of this new edition has been Diversity and Inclusion. The book has been
especially tuned to respect and value all individuals, regardless of marital status, gender,
ethnicity, religious orientation, or socioeconomic status. We are committed to the view that
such a perspective constitutes the best environment for learning anything, and it will help
students feel at home when studying logic.
Hallmark Features
● Chapters are organized so that earlier sections provide the foundation for later ones.
Later sections can be skipped by instructors opting to do so.
● The main points are always presented up front so students cannot possibly miss
them.
● Relevant and up-to-date examples are used extensively.
● Key terms are introduced in boldface type and defined in the Glossary/Index.
● Central concepts are illustrated in graphic boxes.
● Numerous exercises, many drawn from real-life sources such as newspapers, text-
books, and magazines, are included to perfect student skills—the current edition
includes over 2,700 exercises.
● Biographical vignettes of prominent logicians are included to give logic a human face.
● Dialogue exercises illustrate the application of logical principles to real-life situations.
● Venn diagrams for syllogisms are presented in a novel and more effective way, using
color to identify the relevant areas.
● End-of-chapter summaries facilitate student review.
● The solution to every third exercise is provided in the Answers to Selected Exercises
section, so students can easily check their work.
● A robust digital platform offers thousands of autograded practice questions that
boost students’ confidence in mastering logic. These are accompanied by video and
tutorial help resources.
● Multimedia resources, such as Learning Logic, offer students stepped-out tutorials
on challenging Logic concepts and applications.
xii Preface
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Ways of Approaching This Textbook
In general, the material in each chapter is arranged so that certain later sections can
be skipped without affecting subsequent chapters. For example, those wishing a brief
treatment of natural deduction in both propositional and predicate logic may want
to skip the last three sections of Chapter 7 and the last four (or even five) sections of
Chapter 8. Chapter 2 can be skipped altogether, although some may want to cover the
first section of that chapter as an introduction to Chapter 3. Finally, Chapters 9 through
14 depend only slightly on earlier chapters, so these can be treated in any order one
chooses. However, Chapter 14 does depend in part on Chapter 13.
Type of Course
Informal logic
Traditional course, critical- Course emphasizing
logic course reasoning course modern formal logic
Recommended Chapter 3 Chapter 1 Chapter 1

material Chapter 4 Chapter 2 Sections 4.1–4.3
Chapter 5 Chapter 3 Section 4.7
Chapter 6 Chapter 4 Sections 6.1–6.5
Sections Sections 5.1–5.3 Chapter 7
7.1–7.4 Sections 5.5–5.6 Chapter 8
Sections 6.1–6.4 Truth Trees supplement
Section 6.6
Chapter 9
Chapter 12
Chapter 13
Chapter 14
Critical Think-
ing and Writing
supplement
Optional Chapter 2 Section 5.4 Chapter 3
material Sections Section 5.7 Sections 4.4–4.6
7.5–7.7 Section 6.5 Sections 5.1–5.2
Chapters 9–14 Chapter 10 Section 5.7
Chapter 11 Section 6.6
To the Student
Imagine that you are interviewing for a job. The person across the desk asks about your
strengths, and you reply that you are energetic, enthusiastic, and willing to work long
hours. Also, you are creative and innovative, and you have good leadership skills. Then
the interviewer asks about your reasoning abilities. You reply that you have always con-
sidered your reasoning abilities to be excellent.
“Can you point to any evidence of this ability?” the interviewer asks.
“Well,” you reply, “in college I took a course in logic, and I easily earned an ‘A.’”
“I’m impressed,” says the interviewer. “You sound like exactly the kind of job can-
didate we are looking for. Your reasoning abilities will combine with your other
talents for a powerful effect.”
Preface xiii
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“I’m happy to hear you say that,” you reply. “But could you elaborate on that last
point?”
“I’ll be happy to,” the interviewer says. “Reasoning skills are essential to good
judgment. Your reasoning ability and good judgment will combine with your cre-
ativity to yield projects that truly benefit our company, they will convince our other
employees that you are leading them in the right direction, and they will blend
with your enthusiasm to inspire others to do their best. Further, your willingness to
work long hours will guarantee that your efforts will pay off in the end.”
“Then, does that mean that you have a place for me?” you ask.
“Absolutely,” says the interviewer. “I will be delighted to recommend you for a
highly responsible position in our company.”
The point of this brief dialogue is that good reasoning skills are essential to doing any-
thing right. The businessperson uses reasoning skills in writing a report or preparing
a presentation, the scientist uses them in designing an experiment or clinical trial, the
department manager uses them in maximizing worker efficiency, and the lawyer uses
them in composing an argument to a judge or jury. And that’s where logic comes in.
The chief purpose of logic is to develop good reasoning skills. In fact, logic is so impor-
tant that when the liberal arts program of studies was formulated fifteen hundred years
ago, logic was selected as one of the original seven liberal arts. Logic remains to this day
a central component of a college or university education.
From a more pragmatic angle, logic is important to earning a good score on any of the
several tests required for admission to graduate professional schools—the LSAT, GMAT,
MCAT, GRE, and so on. Obviously, the designers of these tests recognize that the ability
to reason logically is a prerequisite to success in these fields. Also, logic is a useful tool in
relieving what has come to be called math anxiety. For whatever reason, countless students
today are terrified of any form of reasoning that involves abstract symbols. If you happen to
be one of these students, you should find it relatively easy to master the use of logical sym-
bols, which are closely tied to ordinary language, and your newly found comfort with these
symbols will carry over into the other, more difficult fields.
In addition to the existing and new features described in the “New to This Edition”
section of this preface, WebAssign also includes the following supplements. Critical
Thinking and Writing offers practice in writing arguments about real-life topics; Truth
Trees present a standard introduction to the method of truth trees, which can be used
as a supplement or alternative to the truth-table method; and Logic and Graduate-
Level Admission Tests shows how the principles learned in studying logic can be used
to answer questions on the LSAT, GMAT, MCAT, and GRE. Finally, Existential Import
traces the history of existential import through the logic of Aristotle and George Boole.
Why Learning Logic Is Empowering

In 2019, Stanford Graduate School of Education published the results of a study of
11,000 letters written by teenaged students to the 2016 U.S. presidential candidates.
xiv Preface
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One might have expected that the letters would have been filled with bombastic lan-
guage or emotionally charged appeals to the candidates. But no. What the researchers
found is that the majority of letters appealed to logic in expressing their point. The stu-
dents used reasons and evidence to present their positions. There had been no required
format to follow in writing these letters, so why the appeal to logic?
As we will see throughout this textbook, logic empowers both arguer and listener. Non-
logical strategies are often coercive, manipulative, and dishonest. Sometimes evidence
is withheld, or the arguer attempts to make the listener feel threatened or emotionally
overwhelmed. The goal of such strategies is to trick listeners into believing something
they might not believe if all the relevant evidence were made available. Trickery fails to
respect the listener’s ability to evaluate evidence rationally. And it is counterproductive
for the arguer, since the listener typically ends up feeling cheated rather than convinced.
Empowerment through logic is very different from attempting to gain power over
other people by manipulating or coercing them. For example, suppose someone tries
to get you to believe something by making you feel afraid—afraid of losing something
like social status or money. In the end, if you are taken in by the manipulator’s scheme,
the manipulator “wins” and you “lose.” You believe something, not on the basis of freely
understanding that a conclusion follows on the basis of evidence, but rather as an out-
come of coercion. This type of manipulation is a zero-sum game. There is only one
winner. If the manipulation succeeds, the manipulator wins and you lose.
Logical reasoning, on the other hand, is a win-win strategy. The arguer presents evi-
dence or reasons relevant to the conclusion, and, if the reasoning is solid, the listener
is persuaded and freely consents to the conclusion. In effect, the arguer presents evi-
dence in a way that invites listeners to open their minds to new ways of evaluating the
evidence presented. The effectiveness of logical persuasion is manifest by the listener’s
free embrace of the conclusion advanced. Once listeners understand how the conclu-
sion follows from the evidence, they freely accept the conclusion and make it their own.
The listeners are then motivated to present the same line of reasoning to others. In this
manner, logical reasoning provides a solid basis for consensus building.
Logic provides a set of basic principles that are the same for everyone. It resembles math-
ematics in this respect. Mathematical reasoning is so convincing because, if you follow the
rules, you can’t go astray. It provides a sure and solid foundation for arriving at conclusions.
Logic does the same thing. Because the rules of logic are universal in the same way that the
rules of math are universal, there is no opportunity for manipulation or fabrication. The
rules work equally to everyone’s advantage. Everyone wins. In this way, logic is the founda-
tion of all productive negotiations. Good arguments facilitate a meeting of minds. Good
arguments facilitate mutual understanding and encourage cooperation. In effect, logic
may be the most powerful engine for preserving peace yet created by the human mind.
Online Learning Platform: WebAssign

Built by educators, WebAssign provides flexible settings at every step to customize your
course with online activities and secure testing to meet learners’ unique needs. Students
Preface xv
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get everything in one place, including rich content and study resources designed to fuel
deeper understanding, plus access to a dynamic, interactive eTextbook. Proven to help
hone problem-solving skills, WebAssign helps you help learners in any course format.
For more information, visit https://www.cengage.com/webassign.
Study Smarter
Ever wonder if you studied enough? WebAssign from Cengage can help.
WebAssign is an online learning platform for your math, statistics, physical sciences,
and engineering courses. It helps you practice, focus your study time, and absorb what
you learn. When class comes—you’re way more confident.
With WebAssign, you will:
● Get instant feedback and grading on your assignments
● Know how well you understand concepts
● Watch videos and tutorials when you’re stuck
● Perform better on in-class activities
Ancillaries for the Instructor

Additional instructor resources for this product are available online at the Cengage
Instructor Center—an all-in-one resource for class preparation, presentation, and test-
ing. Resources available for download from the Cengage Instructor Center include:
Instructor’s Manual
Includes solutions to all the exercises in the textbook.
Solutions and Answer Guide

This manual contains solutions to all exercises from the text, including Chapter Review
Exercises and Chapter Tests, located in the instructor companion site and the WebAssign
Resources tab.
Cengage Testing Powered by Cognero

Cognero is a flexible online system that allows you to author, edit, and manage test
bank content online. You can create multiple tests in an instant and deliver them from
your LMS, your classroom, or export to printable PDF or Word format for in-class
assessment. This is available online via the Cengage Instructor Center.
PowerPoint Slides
The PowerPoint® slides are ready-to-use, visual outlines of each section that can be
easily customized for your lectures.
Presentations include activities, examples, and opportunities for student engagement

and interaction.
xvi Preface
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Educator’s Guide
Describes the content and activities available in the accompanying WebAssign course—
including videos, prebuilt assignments, and other exercise types—that you can integrate
into your course to support your learning outcomes and enhance student engagement
and success.
Acknowledgments
For their reviews and suggestions leading to this fourteenth edition I want to thank the
following:
Benjamin Arah, Bowie State University; Philip Blosser, Sacred Heart Major Seminary; Michael
Clabaugh, College of St. Scholastica; Steven Gerrard, Williams College; Yan Mikhaylov,
College of Southern Nevada; Dr. Teresa I. Reed, Quincy University; Robert Robinson, City
College of New York-CUNY; Adam R. Thompson, University of Nebraska-Lincoln; Elizabeth
J.M. Wakeman, The College of Idaho.
Of course any errors or omissions that may remain are the result of my own oversight.
Those who have contributed reviews and suggestions leading to the thirteen previous
editions, and to whom I express my continued thanks, are the following:
Karl Aho, Baylor University; James T. Anderson, University of San Diego; Carol Anthony,
Villanova University; Benjamin Arah, Bowie State University; Joseph Asike, Howard University;
Harriet E. Baber, University of San Diego; Kent Baldner, Western Michigan University; James
Baley, Mary Washington College; Jerome Balmuth, Colgate University; Victor Balowitz, State
University of New York, College at Buffalo; Ida Baltikauskas, Century College; Gary Baran,
Los Angeles City College; Robert Barnard, University of Mississippi; Peter Barry, Saginaw
Valley State University; Gregory Bassham, Kings College; Thora Bayer, Xavier University of
Louisiana; David Behan, Agnes Scott College; John Bender, Ohio University, Athens; James O.
Bennett, University of Tennessee, Knoxville; Victoria Berdon, IUPU Columbus; Robert Berman,
Xavier University of Louisana; Kevin Berry, Ohio University; Joseph Bessie, Normandale Com-
munity College; John R. Bosworth, Oklahoma State University; Andrew Botterell, University of
Toronto; Jeff Broome, Arapahoe Community College; Tom Browder, University of Nevada, Las
Vegas; Harold Brown, Northern Illinois University; Kevin Browne, Indiana University Southeast;
Ken Buckman, University of Texas, Pan American; Robert Burch, Texas A&M University;
Keith Burgess-Jackson, University of Texas, Arlington; Michael Byron, Kent State University;
Scott Calef, Ohio Wesleyan University; Gabriel Camacho, El Paso Community College; James
Campbell, University of Toledo; Joseph Keim Campbell, Washington State University; Loren
Cannon, Humboldt State University; Charles Carr, Arkansas State University; William Carroll,
Coppin State University; Jennifer Caseldine-Bracht, IUPU Fort Wayne; John Casey, Northern
Illinois University; Robert Greg Cavin, Cypress College; Ping-Tung Chang, University of Alaska;
Prakash Chenjeri, Southern Oregon University; Drew Christie, University of New Hampshire;
Timothy Christion, University of North Texas; Ralph W. Clarke, West Virginia University; David
Clowney, Rowan University; Darryl Cohen, Mesa Community College; Michael Cole, College
of William and Mary; Michael Coledu, Reedley College; Louis Colombo, Bethune-Cookman
University; Michael J. Colson, Merced College; William F. Cooper, Baylor University;
William Cornwell, Salem State College; Victor Cosculluela, Polk Community College;
Preface xvii
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Mike Coste, Front Range Community College; Ronald R. Cox, San Antonio College; Houston
A. Craighead, Winthrop University; Donald Cress, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb; Richard
La Croix, State University College at Buffalo; Jack Crumley, University of San Diego; Rosibel
Cruz, Harold Washington College; Drew Dalton, Florida Southern College; Linda Damico,
Kennesaw State University; Ray Darr, Southern Illinois University; William J. DeAngelis, North-
eastern University; Joseph DeMarco, Cleveland State University; Paul DeVries, Wheaton Col-
lege; Jill Dieterle, Eastern Michigan University; Mary Domski, University of New Mexico;
Beverly R. Doss and Richard W. Doss, Orange Coast College; Paul Draper, Purdue University;
William A. Drumin, King’s College, Pennsylvania; Clinton Dunagan, Saint Philips College;
Jeffrey Easlick, Saginaw Valley State University; Benjamin Easton, Azusa Pacific University;
Paul Eckstein, Bergen Community College; Anne M. Edwards, Austin Peay State University;
Samantha Emswiler, John Tyler Community College; Michael Epperson, California State Uni-
versity, Sacramento; Lenore Erickson, Cuesta College; Cassandra Evans, San Diego City Col-
lege; Frank Fair, Sam Houston State University; Evan Fales, University of Iowa; Thompson
Faller, University of Portland; William Ferraiolo, San Joaquin Delta College; Albert Filice, Mesa
Community College; Lewis S. Ford, Old Dominion University; Gary Foulk, Indiana State
University, Terre Haute; Timothy C. Fout, University of Louisville; LeAnn Fowler, Slippery Rock
University; Craig Fox, California University of Pennsylvania; Thomas H. Franks, Eastern
Michigan University; Bernard D. Freydberg, Slippery Rock University; Thomas J. Frost, Biola
University/Long Beach City College; Dick Gaffney, Siena College; George Gale, University of
Missouri–Kansas City; Pieranna Garavaso, University of Minnesota at Morris; Paul Gass, Coppin
State University; Dimitria Gatzia, The University of Akron Wayne College; Dimitria Gatzia,
University of Akron Wayne College; Joseph Georges, El Camino College; Kevin Gibson, Uni-
versity of Colorado; James Granitto, Santiago Canyon College; Victor Grassian, Los Angeles
Harbor College; Catherine Green, Rockhurst University; James Greene, Northern Michigan
University; Harold Greenstein, SUNY Brockport; J. Randall Groves, Ferris State University;
Shahrokh Haghighi, California State University; Alexander W. Hall, Clayton State University;
Dean Hamden, Montclair State University; Courtney Hammond, Cuyamaca College; Ken
Hanly, Brandon University; Anthony Hanson, West Valley College; Merle Harton, Edward
Waters College; Larry Hauser, Alma College; Deborah Heikes, University of Alabama in Hunts-
ville; Ryan Hickerson, Western Oregon University; Douglas Hill, Saddleback College and
Golden West College; Ronald Hill, University of San Diego; Lawrence Hinman, University of
San Diego; Lynn Holt, Mississippi State University; Jeremy Hovda, Minneapolis Community &
Technical College; John B. Howell, III, Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary; R. I. G.
Hughes, University of South Carolina, Columbia; Peter Hutcheson, Texas State University;
Debby Hutchins, Gonzaga University; William H. Hyde, Golden West College; Ron Jackson,
Clayton State University; William Jamison, University of Alaska Anchorage; Sandra Johanson,
Green River Community College; Richard A. Jones, Howard University; Russel Jones, Univer-
sity of Oklahoma; Gary Jones, University of San Diego; Glenn C. Joy, Texas State University,
San Marcos; Olin Joynton, North Harris County College; Grant Julin, St. Francis University;
Patrick Kenny, Onondaga Community College; Glen Kessler, University of Virginia; Charles F.
Kielkopf, Ohio State University; Moya Kinchla, Bakersfield College; Kristin Klamm-Doneen,
Anoka Ramsey Community College; Bernard W. Kobes, Arizona State University; Keith W.
Krasemann, College of DuPage; Sandra LaFave, West Valley College, Saratoga,
California; William Lawhead, University of Mississippi; Stephen Leach, University of Texas–Pan
American; Stephen Leach, UTPA; Richard Lee, University of Arkansas; Lory Lemke, University
of Minnesota, Morris; Robert Levis, Pasadena City College; Chenyang Li, Monmouth College,
xviii Preface
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Monmouth, Illinois; Chris M. Lorkowski, Kent State University; Chris Lorkowski, Kent State
University–Trumbull Campus; Keane Lundt, Massachusetts College of Liberal Arts; Ardon
Lyon, City University of London; Scott MacDonald, University of Iowa; Ian MacKinnon, The
University of Akron; Krishna Mallick, Salem State College; Thomas Manig, University of
Missouri–Columbia; James Manns, University of Kentucky; Dalman Mayer, Bellevue Commu-
nity College; Larry D. Mayhew, Western Kentucky University; Leemon McHenry, California
State University Northridge; Robert McKay, Norwich University; Rick McKita, Colorado State
University; Phillip McReynolds, Pennsylvania State University; Erik Meade, Southern Illinois
University–Edwardsville; Noel Merino, Humboldt State University; Kenneth R. Merrill,
University of Oklahoma; Daniel Metz, Metropolitan State College of Denver (Program chair at
CCCOnline); Daniel Metz, Metropolitan State College of Denver; Thomas Michaud, Wheeling
Jesuit College; George D. Miller, DePaul University; Richard Miller, East Carolina University;
Alexander Miller, Piedmont Technical College; Dolores Miller, University of Missouri–Kansas
City; Frederick Mills, Bowie State University; Jeff Mitchell, Arkansas Tech University; John Mize,
Long Beach City College; Mike Monge, Orange Coast College; Allyson Mount, Keene State
College; Seyed Mousavian, University of Alberta; Dwayne Mulder, California State University,
Fresno; John D. Mullen, Dowling College; Madeline Muntersbjorn, University of Toledo; Henry
Nardone, Kings College; Nathaniel Nicol, Washington State University; Theresa Norman,
South Texas Community College; David O’Connor, Seton Hall University; Tim O’Neill, Roches-
ter Community and Technical College; Elane O’Rourke, Moorpark College; Brendan O’Sullivan,
Rhodes College; Len Olsen, Georgia Southern University; Stephen Pacheco, University of
San Diego; Joseph Pak, Los Angeles City College; Christopher Pallotti, Los Angeles Valley
College/CSUN; Christopher Pearson, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville; Rodney Peffer,
University of San Diego; Linda Peterson, University of San Diego; Robert G. Pielke, El Camino
College; Cassandra Pinnick, Western Kentucky University; Nelson Pole, Cleveland State Uni-
versity; Norman Prigge, Bakersfield State University; Gray Prince, West Los Angeles College;
R. Puligandla, University of Toledo; T. R. Quigley, Oakland University; Nani Rankin, Indiana
University at Kokomo; Robert Redmon, Virginia Commonwealth University; Bruce
Reichenbach, Augsburg College; Herminia Reyes, San Diego State University; Fernando
Rincon-Tellez, Piedmont Technical College; David Ring, Southern Methodist University; Tony
Roark, Boise State University; Matthew Roberts, Patrick Henry College; Phyllis Rooney,
Oakland University; Michael Rooney, Pasadena City College; Beth Rosdatter, University of
Kentucky; Michelle M. Rotert, Rock Valley College; Paul A. Roth, University of Missouri–Saint
Louis; Daniel Rothbart, George Mason University; Robert Rupert, University of Colorado,
Boulder; Sam Russo, El Camino College; Frank Ryan, Kent State University; Eric Saidel, George
Washington University; Kelly Salsbery, Stephen F. Austin State University; Paul Santelli, Siena
College; Stephen Satris, Clemson University; Philip Schneider, George Mason University;
James D. Schumaker, University of North Carolina at Charlotte; Stephanie Semler, Radford
University; Pat Sewell, University of North Texas; Elizabeth Shadish, El Camino College;
Joseph G. Shay, Boston College; Candice Shelby, University of Colorado Denver; Janet
Simpson, Suffolk County Community College; Robert Skipper, St. Mary’s University;
Aeon Skoble, Bridgewater State College; Matthew Slater, Bucknell University; Kent Slinker,
Pima Community College; Dennis L. Slivinski, California State University, Channel Islands;
Joshua Smith, Central Michigan University; Arnold Smith, Youngstown State University;
John-Christian Smith, Youngstown State University; Paula Smithka, University of Southern
Mississippi; Eric W. Snider, University of Toledo; Joseph Snyder, Anne Arundel Community
College; Bob Snyder, Humboldt University; Lynne Spellman, University of Arkansas;
Preface xix
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David Stern, University of Iowa; Sean Stidd, Wayne State University; James Stuart, Bowling
Green State University; Paul Studtmann, Davidson College; Krys Sulewski, Edmonds Commu-
nity College; John Sullins, Sonoma State University; Weimin Sun, California State University,
Northridge; Corine Sutherland, Cerritos College; Robert Sutton, Cape Fear Community Col-
lege; Catherine S. Sutton, Virginia Commonwealth University; John Sweigart, James Madison
University; Clarendon Swift, Moorpark College; Wayne Swindall, California Baptist College;
Mojgan Taheri, California State University, Northridge; Brian Tapia, Foothill College; Bangs
Tapscott, University of Utah; J. Ramon Tello, Shasta College; Mark Thames, El Centro College;
Jan Thomas, University of Arkansas at Little Rock; Phil Thompson, Eastern Illinois University;
Michael Thune, Joliet Junior College; Richard Tieszen, San Jose State University; Larry Udell,
West Chester University; Ted Ulrich, Purdue University; Robert Urekew, University of Louisville;
William Uzgalis, Oregon State University; William Vanderburgh, Wichita State University;
Michael Ventimiglia, Sacred Heart University; Susan Vineberg, Wayne State University; Mark
Vopat, Youngstown State University; Thomas H. Warren, Solano College; Andrew J. Waskey,
Dalton State University; Roy Weatherford, University of South Florida; Chris Weigand, Our
Lady of the Lake University; David Weinburger, Stockton State College; Paul Weirich, Univer-
sity of Missouri–Columbia; David Weise, Gonzaga University; Dennis Weiss, York College of
Pennsylvania; Robert Wengert, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign; Shannon Grace
Werre, Edmonds Community College; Gerald Joseph Williams, Seton Hall University; Derrick
Willis, Temple College; Frank Wilson, Bucknell University; W. Kent Wilson, University of Illinois,
Chicago; Katherine D. Witzig, Southwestern Illinois College; Sandra Woien, Mesa Community
College; Stephen Wykstra, Calvin College; Julie Yoo, California State University, Northridge;
Elaine Yoshikawa, Arizona State University; Marie Zaccaria, Georgia Perimeter College; Jeffrey
Zents, University of Texas; Xiaoyu Zhu, Antelope Valley College.
Finally, it has been a pleasure working with the Senior Portfolio Product Manager for
Philosophy, Vanessa Coloura, Senior Content Manager Michael Lepera, and Senior
Learning Designer Powell Vacha. Most of all, I want to thank my wife, Linda Peterson,
for her countless suggestions and support.
xx Preface
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1 Basic Concepts
1.1 Arguments, Premises, and Conclusions

1.2 Recognizing Arguments
1.3 Deduction and Induction
1.4 Validity, Truth, Soundness, Strength, and Cogency
1.5 Argument Forms: Proving Invalidity
1.6 Extended Arguments
1.1 Arguments, Premises, and Conclusions

Learning how to construct good arguments is empowering.
Suppose there is an upcoming election for Sheriff, and one of the candidates
is Timberly Brown. One of your friends urges that you vote against Brown.
“I just don’t trust her,” she says. “I get a bad feeling when I see her. I don’t
like her attitude. And I also don’t like her smile or the way she dresses.” Are
these good reasons to vote against Brown? Has your friend given you a good
argument?
L ogic may be defined as the organized body of knowledge, or science, that

evaluates arguments. All of us encounter arguments in our day-to-day experi-
ence. We read them in books and newspapers, hear them on television, and for-
mulate them when communicating with friends and associates. The aim of logic
is to develop a system of methods and principles that we may use as criteria for
evaluating the arguments of others and as guides in constructing arguments of
our own. Among the benefits to be expected from the study of logic is an increase
in confidence that we are making sense when we criticize the arguments of others
and when we advance arguments of our own.
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An argument, in its simplest form, is a group of Where is Khartoum? (question)
statements, one or more of which (the premises) are Let’s go to a movie tonight. (proposal)
claimed to provide support for, or reasons to believe, I suggest you get contact lenses. (suggestion)
one of the others (the conclusion). Every argument Turn off the TV right now. (command)
may be placed in either of two basic groups: those Fantastic! (exclamation)
in which the premises really do support the conclu-
The statements that make up an argument are
sion and those in which they do not, even though
divided into one or more premises and exactly
they are claimed to. The former are said to be good
one conclusion. The premises are the state-
arguments (at least to that extent), the latter bad
ments that set forth the reasons or evidence, and
arguments. The purpose of logic, as the science that
the conclusion is the statement that the evidence
evaluates arguments, is thus to develop methods and
is claimed to support or imply. In other words,
techniques that allow us to distinguish good argu-
the conclusion is the statement that is claimed to
ments from bad.
follow from the premises. Here is an example of
As is apparent from the given definition, the term
an argument:
argument has a very specific meaning in logic. It does
not mean, for example, a mere verbal fight, as one All film stars are celebrities.
might have with one’s parent, spouse, or friend. Let Zendaya is a film star.
us examine the features of this definition in greater Therefore, Zendaya is a celebrity.
detail. First of all, an argument is a group of statements.
A statement is a sentence that is either true or false— The first two statements are the premises; the third is
in other words, typically a declarative sentence or the conclusion. (The claim that the premises support
a sentence component that could stand as a declarative or imply the conclusion is indicated by the word
sentence. The following sentences are statements: “therefore.”) In this argument the premises really
do support the conclusion, and so the argument is a
Chocolate truffles are loaded with calories. good one. But consider this argument:
Melatonin helps relieve jet lag. Some film stars are men.
Political candidates always tell the complete Zoe Saldana is a film star.
truth. Therefore, Zoe Saldana is a man.
No wives ever cheat on their husbands.
In this argument the premises do not support the
Naomi Osaka plays tennis and Kevin Durant
conclusion, even though they are claimed to, and so
plays basketball.
the argument is not a good one.
The first two statements are true, and the second One of the most important tasks in the analysis
two false. The last one expresses two statements, of arguments is being able to distinguish premises
both of which are true. Truth and falsity are called from conclusions. If what is thought to be a conclu-
the two possible truth values of a statement. Thus, sion is really a premise, and vice versa, the subse-
the truth value of the first two statements is true, the quent analysis cannot possibly be correct. Many
truth value of the second two is false, and the truth arguments contain indicator words that provide
value of the last statement, as well as that of its com- clues in identifying premises and conclusion. Some
ponents, is true. typical conclusion indicators are
Unlike statements, many sentences cannot be therefore accordingly entails that
said to be either true or false. Questions, proposals, wherefore we may conclude hence
suggestions, commands, and exclamations usually thus it must be that it follows that
cannot, and so are not usually classified as state- consequently for this reason implies that
ments. The following sentences are not statements: we may infer so as a result
2 Chapter 1 Basic Concepts
98683_ch01_ptg01.indd 2 02/02/23 3:37 PM

Whenever a statement follows one of these indica- and the conclusion is “Pregnant women should never
tors, it can usually be identified as the conclusion. By use recreational drugs.”
process of elimination, the other statements in the In reviewing the list of indicators, note that “for
argument are the premises. Example: this reason” is a conclusion indicator, whereas “for the
reason that” is a premise indicator. “For this reason”
Tortured prisoners will say anything just to (except when followed by a colon) means for the
relieve the pain. Consequently, torture is not reason (premise) that was just given, so what follows
a reliable method of interrogation.
is the conclusion. On the other hand, “for the reason
The conclusion of this argument is “Torture is not a that” announces that a premise is about to be stated.
reliable method of interrogation,” and the premise is Sometimes a single indicator can be used to iden-
“Tortured prisoners will say anything just to relieve tify more than one premise. Consider the following
the pain.” argument:
It is vitally important that wilderness areas be
preserved, for wilderness provides essential
habitat for wildlife, including endangered
Claimed species, and it is a natural retreat from the
Premises
evidence stress of daily life.
The premise indicator “for” goes with both “Wil-
derness provides essential habitat for wildlife,
including endangered species,” and “It is a natural
retreat from the stress of daily life.” These are the
What is claimed premises. By method of elimination, “It is vitally
Conclusion to follow from
the evidence important that wilderness areas be preserved” is
the conclusion.
Some arguments contain no indicators. With
If an argument does not contain a conclusion these, the reader/listener must ask such questions
indicator, it may contain a premise indicator. Some as: What single statement is claimed (implicitly) to
typical premise indicators are follow from the others? What is the arguer trying to
prove? What is the main point in the passage? The
since as answers to these questions should point to the con-
as indicated by given that clusion. Example:
because seeing that
for for the reason that Modernizing our nation’s crumbling infra-
in that inasmuch as structure is long overdue. Many of our
may be inferred from owing to bridges are practically falling down, and our
transit system is in dire ned of repair. Further-
Any statement following one of these indicators can more, making these improvements would
usually be identified as a premise. Example: create jobs for millions of workers.
The conclusion of this argument is the first state-
Pregnant women should never use recre-
ment, and all of the other statements are premises.
ational drugs, since the use of these drugs
can jeopardize the development of the
The argument illustrates the pattern found in most
fetus. arguments that lack indicator words: The intended
conclusion is stated first, and the remaining state-
The premise of this argument is “The use of these ments are then offered in support of this first state-
drugs can jeopardize the development of the fetus,” ment. When the argument is restructured according
Section 1.1 Arguments, Premises, and Conclusions 3
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to logical principles, however, the conclusion is In the first argument, the opening statement serves
always listed after the premises: merely to introduce the topic, so it is not part of the
argument. The premise is the second statement, and
P1: Many of our bridges are practically fall-
ing down.
the conclusion is the last statement. In the second
P2: Our transit system is in dire need of repair. argument, the final statement merely makes a pass-
P3: Making these improvements would ing comment, so it is not part of the argument. The
create jobs for millions of workers. premises are the first three statements, and the state-
C: Modernizing our nation’s crumbling infra- ment following “for these reasons” is the conclusion.
structure is long overdue. Closely related to the concepts of argument and
statement are those of inference and proposition.
When restructuring arguments such as this, one An inference, in the narrow sense of the term, is
should remain as close as possible to the original the reasoning process expressed by an argument.
version, while at the same time attending to the In the broad sense of the term, “inference” is used
requirement that premises and conclusion be com- interchangeably with “argument.” Analogously, a
plete sentences that are meaningful in the order in proposition, in the narrow sense, is the meaning or
which they are listed. information content of a statement. For the purposes
Note that the first two premises are included of this book, however, “proposition” and “statement”
within the scope of a single sentence in the original are used interchangeably.
argument. For the purposes of this chapter, com-
pound arrangements of statements in which the
various components are all claimed to be true will be Note on the History of Logic
considered as separate statements. The person who is generally credited as the father
Passages that contain arguments sometimes con- of logic is the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle
tain statements that are neither premises nor con- (384–322 b.c.e.). Aristotle’s predecessors had been
clusions. Only statements that are actually intended interested in the art of constructing persuasive argu-
to support the conclusion should be included in the ments and in techniques for refuting the arguments of
list of premises. If, for example, a statement serves others, but it was Aristotle who first devised system-
merely to introduce the general topic, or merely atic criteria for analyzing and evaluating arguments.
makes a passing comment, it should not be taken as Aristotle’s chief accomplishment is called syllo-
part of the argument. Examples: gistic logic, a kind of logic in which the fundamen-
The claim is often made that malpractice tal elements are terms, and arguments are evaluated
lawsuits drive up the cost of health care. as good or bad depending on how the terms are
But if such suits were outlawed or severely arranged in the argument. Chapters 4 and 5 of this
restricted, then patients would have no textbook are devoted mainly to syllogistic logic. But
means of recovery for injuries caused by Aristotle also deserves credit for originating modal
negligent doctors. Hence, the availability of logic, a kind of logic that involves such concepts
malpractice litigation should remain intact. as possibility, necessity, belief, and doubt. In addi-
Massive federal deficits push up interest rates tion, Aristotle catalogued several informal fallacies,
for everyone. Servicing the debt gobbles up a topic treated in Chapter 3 of this book.
a huge portion of the federal budget, which After Aristotle’s death, another Greek philosopher,
lowers our standard of living. And big deficits Chrysippus (280–206 b.c.e.), one of the founders of
also weaken the value of the dollar. For these the Stoic school, developed a logic in which the funda-
reasons, Congress must make a determined mental elements were whole propositions. Chrysippus
effort to cut overall spending and raise taxes. treated every proposition as either true or false and
Politicians who ignore this reality imperil the developed rules for determining the truth or falsity
future of the nation. of compound propositions from the truth or falsity of
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their components. In the course of doing so, he laid the had already begun to lose its unique identity in the
foundation for the truth-functional interpretation of Middle Ages, was ignored altogether, and the logic
the logical connectives presented in Chapter 6 of this of Aristotle was studied only in highly simplistic
book and introduced the notion of natural deduction, presentations. A reawakening did not occur until
treated in Chapter 7. two hundred years later through the work of Gott-
For thirteen hundred years after the death of fried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716).
Chrysippus, relatively little creative work was done in Leibniz, a genius in numerous fields, attempted
logic. The physician Galen (c.e. 129–ca. 199) devel- to develop a symbolic language or “calculus” that
oped the theory of the compound categorical syllo- could be used to settle all forms of disputes, whether
gism, but for the most part philosophers confined in theology, philosophy, or international relations.
themselves to writing commentaries on the works of As a result of this work, Leibniz is sometimes cred-
Aristotle and Chrysippus. Boethius (ca. 480–524) is ited with being the father of symbolic logic. Leibniz’s
a noteworthy example. efforts to symbolize logic were carried into the nine-
The first major logician of the Middle Ages was teenth century by Bernard Bolzano (1781–1848).
Peter Abelard (1079–1142). Abelard reconstructed In the middle of the nineteenth century, logic
and refined the logic of Aristotle and Chrysippus commenced an extremely rapid period of develop-
as communicated by Boethius, and he originated a ment that has continued to this day. Work in symbolic
theory of universals that traced the universal charac- logic was done by many philosophers and mathema-
ter of general terms to concepts in the mind rather ticians, including Augustus De Morgan (1806–1871),
than to “natures” existing outside the mind, as Aristo- George Boole (1815–1864), William Stanley Jevons
tle had held. In addition, Abelard distinguished argu- (1835–1882), and John Venn (1834–1923). The rule
ments that are valid because of their form from those bearing De Morgan’s name is used in Chapter 7 of
that are valid because of their content, but he held that this book. Boole’s interpretation of categorical prop-
only formal validity is the “perfect” or conclusive vari- ositions and Venn’s method for diagramming them
ety. This textbook follows Abelard on this point. are covered in Chapters 4 and 5. At the same time a
After Abelard, the study of logic during the revival in inductive logic was initiated by the British
Middle Ages flourished through the work of numer- philosopher John Stuart Mill (1806–1873), whose
ous philosophers. A logical treatise by William of methods of induction are presented in Chapter 10.
Sherwood (ca. 1200–1271) contains the first expres- Across the Atlantic, the American philosopher
sion of the “Barbara, Celarent . . .” poem quoted in Charles Sanders Peirce (1839–1914) developed a
Section 5.1 of this book, and the Summulae Logi- logic of relations, invented symbolic quantifiers,
cales of Peter of Spain (ca. 1205–1277) became the and suggested the truth-table method for formu-
standard textbook in logic for three hundred years. las in propositional logic. These topics are covered
However, the most original contributions from this in Chapters 6 and 8 of this book. The truth-table
period were made by William of Ockham (ca. 1285– method was completed independently by Emil Post
1347). Ockham extended the theory of modal logic, (1897–1954) and Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951).
conducted an exhaustive study of the forms of valid Toward the end of the nineteenth century, the
and invalid syllogisms, and further developed the foundations of modern mathematical logic were laid
idea of a metalanguage, a higher-level language used by Gottlob Frege (1848–1925). His Begriffsschrift
to discuss linguistic entities such as words, terms, sets forth the theory of quantification presented in
and propositions. Chapter 8 of this text. Frege’s work was continued
Toward the middle of the fifteenth century, a into the twentieth century by Alfred North White-
reaction set in against the logic of the Middle Ages. head (1861–1947) and Bertrand Russell (1872–1970),
Rhetoric largely displaced logic as the primary whose monumental Principia Mathematica attempted
focus of attention; the logic of Chrysippus, which to reduce the whole of pure mathematics to logic.
98683_ch01_ptg01.indd 5 02/02/23 3:37 PM

The Principia is the source of much of the symbolism theory there exists an undecidable formula—that
that appears in Chapters 6, 7, and 8 of this text. is, a formula such that neither it nor its negation
During the twentieth century, much of the work is derivable from the axioms of the system. Other
in logic focused on the formalization of logical sys- developments included multivalued logics and the
tems and on questions dealing with the complete- formalization of modal logic. Most recently, logic
ness and consistency of such systems. A now-famous has made a major contribution to technology by
theorem proved by Kurt Gödel (1906–1978) states providing the conceptual foundation for the elec-
that in any formal system adequate for number tronic circuitry of digital computers.
Exercise 1.1
I. Each of the following passages contains a single argument. Using the letters “P” and
“C,” identify the premises and conclusion of each argument, writing premises first and
conclusion last. List the premises in the order in which they make the most sense (usu-
ally the order in which they occur), and write both premises and conclusion in the form
of separate declarative sentences. Indicator words may be eliminated once premises
and conclusion have been appropriately labeled. The exercises marked with a star are
answered in the back of the book.
★1. Carbon monoxide molecules happen to be just the right size and shape, and
happen to have just the right chemical properties, to fit neatly into cavities
within hemoglobin molecules in blood that are normally reserved for oxygen
molecules. Consequently, carbon monoxide diminishes the oxygen-carrying
capacity of blood.
(Nivaldo J. Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2nd ed.)
2. Since the good, according to Plato, is that which furthers a person’s real
interests, it follows that in any given case when the good is known, men will
seek it.
(Avrum Stroll and Richard Popkin, Philosophy
and the Human Spirit)
3. As the denial or perversion of justice by the sentences of courts, as well as in
any other manner, is with reason classed among the just causes of war, it will
follow that the federal judiciary ought to have cognizance of all causes in which
the citizens of other countries are concerned.
(Alexander Hamilton, Federalist Papers, No. 80)
★4. When individuals voluntarily abandon property, they forfeit any expectation of
privacy in it that they might have had. Therefore, a warrantless search or seizure
of abandoned property is not unreasonable under the Fourth Amendment.
( Judge Stephanie Kulp Seymour, United States v. Jones)
5. Artists and poets look at the world and seek relationships and order. But they
translate their ideas to canvas, or to marble, or into poetic images. Scientists
try to find relationships between different objects and events. To express the
98683_ch01_ptg01.indd 6 02/02/23 3:39 PM

order they find, they create hypotheses and theories. Thus the great scientific
theories are easily compared to great art and great literature.
(Douglas C. Giancoli, The Ideas of Physics, 3rd ed.)
6. The fact that there was never a land bridge between Australia and mainland
Asia is evidenced by the fact that the animal species in the two areas are very
different. Asian placental mammals and Australian marsupial mammals have
not been in contact in the last several million years.
( T. Douglas Price and Gary M. Feinman, Images of the Past)
★7. It really does matter if you get enough sleep. We need sleep to think clearly,
react quickly, and create memories. Studies show that people who are taught
mentally challenging tasks do better after a good night’s sleep. Other research
suggests that sleep is needed for creative problem solving.
(U.S. National Institutes of Health,
“Your Guide to Healthy Sleep”)
8. The classroom teacher is crucial to the development and academic success
of the average student, and administrators simply are ancillary to this effort.
For this reason, classroom teachers ought to be paid at least the equivalent of
administrators at all levels, including the superintendent.
(Peter F. Falstrup, letter to the editor)
9. An agreement cannot bind unless both parties to the agreement know what
they are doing and freely choose to do it. This implies that the seller who
intends to enter a contract with a customer has a duty to disclose exactly what
the customer is buying and what the terms of the sale are.
(Manuel G. Velasquez, “The Ethics of Consumer Production”)
★10. Punishment, when speedy and specific, may suppress undesirable behavior,
but it cannot teach or encourage desirable alternatives. Therefore, it is cru-
cial to use positive techniques to model and reinforce appropriate behavior
that the person can use in place of the unacceptable response that has to
be suppressed.
( Walter Mischel and Harriet Mischel, Essentials of Psychology)
11. Profit serves a very crucial function in a free-enterprise economy, such as our
own. High profits are the signal that consumers want more of the output of the
industry. High profits provide the incentive for firms to expand output and for
more firms to enter the industry in the long run. For a firm of above-average
efficiency, profits represent the reward for greater efficiency.
(Dominic Salvatore, Managerial Economics, 3rd ed.)
12. Cats can think circles around dogs! My cat regularly used to close and lock the
door to my neighbor’s doghouse, trapping their sleeping Doberman inside. Try
telling a cat what to do, or putting a leash on him—he’ll glare at you and say,
“I don’t think so. You should have gotten a dog.”
(Kevin Purkiser, letter to the editor)
★13. Since private property helps people define themselves, since it frees people
from mundane cares of daily subsistence, and since it is finite, no individual
98683_ch01_ptg01.indd 7 02/02/23 3:41 PM

should accumulate so much property that others are prevented from accumu-
lating the necessities of life.
(Leon P. Baradat, Political Ideologies,
Their Origins and Impact)
14. To every existing thing God wills some good. Hence, since to love any thing is
nothing else than to will good to that thing, it is manifest that God loves every-
thing that exists.
( Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica)
15. Women of the working class, especially wage workers, should not have more
than two children at most. The average working man can support no more and
the average working woman can take care of no more in decent fashion.
(Margaret Sanger, Family Limitations)
★16. Radioactive fallout isn’t the only concern in the aftermath of nuclear explo-
sions. The nations of planet Earth have acquired nuclear weapons with an
explosive power equal to more than a million Hiroshima bombs. Studies sug-
gest that explosion of only half these weapons would produce enough soot,
smoke, and dust to blanket the earth, block out the sun, and bring on a nuclear
winter that would threaten the survival of the human race.
( John W. Hill and Doris K. Kolb, Chemistry
for Changing Times, 7th ed.)
17. An ant releases a chemical when it dies, and its fellows then carry it away to the com-
post heap. Apparently the communication is highly effective; a healthy ant painted
with the death chemical will be dragged to the funeral heap again and again.
(Carol R. Ember and Melvin Ember,
Cultural Anthropology, 7th ed.)
18. Every art and every inquiry, and similarly every action and pursuit, is thought
to aim at some good; and for this reason the good has rightly been declared to
be that at which all things aim.
(Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics)
★19. Poverty offers numerous benefits to the nonpoor. Antipoverty programs pro-
vide jobs for middle-class professionals in social work, penology, and public
health. Such workers’ future advancement is tied to the continued growth of
bureaucracies dependent on the existence of poverty.
( J. John Palen, Social Problems)
20. Corn is an annual crop. Butcher’s meat, a crop which requires four or five years
to grow. As an acre of land, therefore, will produce a much smaller quantity of
the one species of food than the other, the inferiority of the quantity must be
compensated by the superiority of the price.
(Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations)
21. Neither a borrower nor lender be
For loan oft loses both itself and friend,
And borrowing dulls the edge of husbandry.
( William Shakespeare, Hamlet I, 3)
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★22. The stakes in whistleblowing are high. Take the nurse who alleges that phy-
sicians enrich themselves in her hospital through unnecessary surgery; the
engineer who discloses safety defects in the braking systems of a fleet of new
rapid-transit vehicles; the Defense Department official who alerts Congress
to military graft and overspending: all know that they pose a threat to those
whom they denounce and that their own careers may be at risk.
(Sissela Bok, “Whistleblowing and Professional Responsibility”)
23. If a piece of information is not “job relevant,” then the employer is not entitled qua
employer to know it. Consequently, since sexual practices, political beliefs, asso-
ciational activities, etc., are not part of the description of most jobs, that is, since
they do not directly affect one’s job performance, they are not legitimate informa-
tion for an employer to know in the determination of the hiring of a job applicant.
(George G. Brenkert, “Privacy, Polygraphs, and Work”)
24. Many people believe that a dark tan is attractive and a sign of good health, but
mounting evidence indicates that too much sun can lead to health problems.
One of the most noticeable effects is premature aging of the skin. The sun also
contributes to certain types of cataracts, and, what is most worrisome, it plays
a role in skin cancer.
( Joseph M. Moran and Michael D. Morgan,
Meteorology, 4th ed.)
★25. Contrary to the tales of some scuba divers, the toothy, gaping grin on the
mouth of an approaching shark is not necessarily anticipatory. It is generally
accepted that by constantly swimming with its mouth open, the shark is simply
avoiding suffocation. This assures a continuous flow of oxygen-laden water
into their mouths, over their gills, and out through the gill slits.
(Robert A. Wallace et al., Biology: The Science of Life)
26. Not only is the sky blue [as a result of scattering], but light coming from it
is also partially polarized. You can readily observe this by placing a piece of
Polaroid (for example, one lens of a pair of Polaroid sunglasses) in front of
your eye and rotating it as you look at the sky on a clear day. You will notice a
change in light intensity with the orientation of the Polaroid.
(Frank J. Blatt, Principles of Physics, 2nd ed.)
27. Since the secondary light [from the moon] does not inherently belong to the
moon and is not received from any star or from the sun, and since in the whole
universe there is no other body left but the earth, what must we conclude?
What is to be proposed? Surely we must assert that the lunar body (or any
other dark and sunless orb) is illuminated by the earth.
(Galileo Galilei, The Starry Messenger)
★28. Anyone familiar with our prison system knows that there are some inmates
who behave little better than brute beasts. But the very fact that these prisoners
exist is a telling argument against the efficacy of capital punishment as a deter-
rent. If the death penalty had been truly effective as a deterrent, such prisoners
would long ago have vanished.
(“The Injustice of the Death Penalty,” America)
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29. Though it is possible that REM sleep and dreaming are not necessary in the
adult, REM deprivation studies seem to suggest otherwise. Why would REM
pressure increase with deprivation if the system is unimportant in the adult?
(Herbert L. Petri, Motivation: Theory and Research, 2nd ed.)
30. We say that an end pursued in its own right is more complete than an end pursued
because of something else, and that an end that is never choiceworthy because of
something else is more complete than ends that are choiceworthy both in their
own right and because of this end. Hence, an end that is always choiceworthy in its
own right, and never because of something else, is complete without qualification.
(Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics)
II. The following arguments were taken from magazine and newspaper editorials and let-
ters to the editor. In most instances the main conclusion must be rephrased to capture
the full intent of the author. Write out what you interpret the main conclusion to be.
★1. University administrators know well the benefits that follow notable success in
college sports: increased applications for admissions, increased income from
licensed logo merchandise, more lucrative television deals, postseason game
revenue, and more successful alumni fund drives. The idea that there is some-
thing ideal and pure about the amateur athlete is self-serving bunk.
(Michael McDonnell, letter to the editor)
2. In a nation of immigrants, people of diverse ethnic backgrounds must have a common
bond through which to exchange ideas. How can this bond be accomplished if there
is no common language? It is those who shelter the immigrant from learning English
by encouraging the development of a multilingual society who are creating a xeno-
phobic atmosphere. They allow the immigrant to surround himself with a cocoon
of language from which he cannot escape and which others cannot penetrate.
(Rita Toften, letter to the editor)
3. The health and fitness of our children has become a problem partly because
of our attitude toward athletics. The purpose of sports, especially for children,
should be to make healthy people healthier. The concept of team sports has
failed to do this. Rather than learning to interact and cooperate with others,
youngsters are taught to compete. Team sports have only reinforced the notion
that the team on top is the winner, and all others are losers. This approach does
not make sports appealing to many children, and some, especially among the
less fit, burn out by the time they are twelve.
(Mark I. Pitman, “Young Jocks”)
★4. College is the time in which a young mind is supposed to mature and acquire
wisdom, and one can only do this by experiencing as much diverse intellectual
stimuli as possible. A business student may be a whiz at accounting, but has he
or she ever experienced the beauty of a Shakespearean sonnet or the bound-
less events composing Hebrew history? Most likely not. While many of these
neoconservatives will probably go on to be financially successful, they are rob-
bing themselves of the true purpose of collegiate academics, a sacrifice that
outweighs the future salary checks.
( Robert S. Griffith, “Conservative College Press”)
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5. History has shown repeatedly that you cannot legislate morality, nor does
anyone have a right to. The real problem is the people who have a vested inter-
est in sustaining the multibillion-dollar drug industry created by the laws
against drugs. The legalization of drugs would remove the thrill of breaking
the law; it would end the suffering caused by unmetered doses, impurities, and
substandard paraphernalia. A huge segment of the underground and extra-
legal economy would move into a legitimate economy, taking money away from
criminals, eliminating crime and violence, and restoring many talented people
to useful endeavor.
( Thomas L. Wayburn, letter to the editor)
6. Infectious disease is no longer the leading cause of death in this country,
thanks to antibiotics, but there are new strains of bacteria that are resistant
to—and others that grow only in the presence of—antibiotics. Yet Congress
wants to cut the National Institutes of Health budget. Further cuts would leave
us woefully unprepared to cope with the new microbes Mother Nature has
cooking in her kitchen.
( Valina L. Dawson, letter to the editor)
★7. A person cannot reject free will and still insist on criminality and codes of
moral behavior. If people are compelled by forces beyond their control (genes
or environment), then their actions, no matter how vile, are excusable. That
means the Nuremberg trials of Nazi murderers were invalid, and all prison
gates should be flung open. The essence of our humanity is the ability to choose
between right and wrong, good and evil, and act accordingly. Strip that from us
and we are mere animals.
(Rabbi Gilbert S. Rosenthal, letter to the editor)
8. Ideally, decisions about health care should be based on the doctor’s clinical
judgment, patient preference, and scientific evidence. Patients should always
be presented with options in their care. Elective cesarean section, however, is
not used to treat a problem but to avoid a natural process. An elective surgery
like this puts the patient at unnecessary risk, increases the risk for complica-
tions in future deliveries, and increases health-care costs.
(Anne Foster-Rosales, M.D., letter to the editor)
9. Parents who feel guilty for the little time they can (or choose to) spend with
their children “pick up” after them—so the children don’t learn to face the con-
sequences of their own choices and actions. Parents who allow their children to
fail are showing them greater love and respect.
(Susan J. Peters, letter to the editor)
★10. Most of the environmental problems facing us stem, at least in part, from the
sheer number of Americans. The average American produces three quarters
of a ton of garbage every year, consumes hundreds of gallons of gasoline, and
uses large amounts of electricity (often from a nuclear power plant, coal burn-
ing, or a dam). The least painful way to protect the environment is to limit
population growth.
(Craig M. Bradley, letter to the editor)
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III. Define the following terms:
logic premise inference
argument conclusion proposition
statement conclusion indicator syllogistic logic
truth value premise indicator modal logic
IV. Answer “true” or “false” to the following statements:

1. The purpose of the premise or premises is to set forth the reasons or evidence
given in support of the conclusion.
2. Some arguments have more than one conclusion.
3. All arguments must have more than one premise.
4. The words “therefore,” “hence,” “so,” “since,” and “thus” are all conclusion indicators.
5. The words “for,” “because,” “as,” and “for the reason that” are all premise indicators.
6. In the strict sense of the terms, inference and argument have exactly the same
meaning.
7. In most (but not all) arguments that lack indicator words, the conclusion is the
first statement.
8. Any sentence that is either true or false is a statement.
9. Every statement has a truth value.
10. Aristotle is the person usually credited with being the father of logic.
V. Create the following arguments:

1. An argument having one or more premise indicators and the conclusion:
“Uniforms should/should not be required in high schools.”
2. An argument having a conclusion indicator and the conclusion: “The legal
drinking age should/should not be lowered to 18.”
3. An argument having no indicator words and the conclusion: “Renewable forms
of energy should/should not be subsidized by the government.”
1.2 Recognizing Arguments

Not all passages contain arguments. Because logic In the previous section of this book we learned
deals with arguments, it is important to be able to that every argument has at least one premise and
distinguish passages that contain arguments from exactly one conclusion. The premise or premises set
those that do not. In general, a passage contains an forth the alleged evidence or reasons, and the con-
argument if it purports to prove something; if it does clusion asserts what is claimed to follow from the
not do so, it does not contain an argument. alleged evidence or reasons. This definition of an
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Prominent
Logicians Aristotle 384–322 b.c.e.
A
ristotle was born in Stagira, a small Greek town
situated on the northern coast of the Aegean
Sea. His father was a physician in the court of
King Amyntas II of Macedonia, and the young Aristotle
was a friend of the king’s son, Philip, who was later
to become king himself and the father of Alexander
the Great. When he was about seventeen, Aristotle
was sent to Athens to further his education in Plato’s
Academy, the finest institution of higher learning in
the Greek world. After Plato’s death Aristotle left for
Science History Images/Alamy Stock Photo

Assos, a small town on the coast of Asia Minor, where
he married the niece of the local ruler.
Six years later, Aristotle accepted an invitation to
return to Macedonia to serve as tutor of the young
Alexander. When Alexander ascended the throne fol-
lowing his father’s assassination, Aristotle’s tutorial
job was finished, and he departed for Athens where
he set up a school near the temple of Apollo Lyceus.
The school came to be known as the Lyceum, and three categorical propositions. He showed how cat-
Alexander supported it with contributions of money egorical syllogisms can be catalogued in terms of
and specimens of flora and fauna derived from his mood and figure, and he developed a set of rules
far-flung conquests. After Alexander’s death, an anti- for determining the validity of categorical syllo-
Macedonian rebellion forced Aristotle to leave Athens gisms. Also, he showed how the modal concepts
for Chalcis, about thirty miles to the north, where he of possibility and necessity apply to categorical
died one year later at the age of sixty-two. propositions. In addition to the theory of the syl-
Aristotle is universally recognized as the originator logism, Aristotle advanced the theory of definition
of logic. He defined logic as the study of the process by genus and difference, and he showed how argu-
by which a statement follows by necessity from one or ments could be defective in terms of thirteen forms
more other statements. The most fundamental kind of of informal fallacy.
statement, he thought, is the categorical proposition, Aristotle made profound contributions to many
and he classified the four kinds of categorical proposi- areas of human learning including biology, physics,
tions in terms of their being universal, particular, affir- metaphysics, epistemology, psychology, aesthetics,
mative, and negative. He also developed the square ethics, and politics. However, his accomplishments in
of opposition, which shows how one such proposition logic were so extensive and enduring that two thou-
implies the truth or falsity of another, and he identified sand years after his death, the great philosopher
the relations of conversion, obversion, and contrapo- Immanuel Kant said that Aristotle had discovered
sition, which provide the basis for various immediate everything that could be known about logic. His logic
inferences. was not superseded until the end of the nineteenth
His crowning achievement is the theory of the cat- century when Frege, Whitehead, and Russell devel-
egorical syllogism, a kind of argument consisting of oped modern mathematical logic.
Section 1.2 Recognizing Arguments 13
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argument expresses what is needed for a passage to justified in calling the passage an argument. The first
contain an argument: statement is the conclusion, and the other two are
the premises.
1. At least one of the statements must claim to
In deciding whether there is a claim that evidence
present evidence or reasons.
supports or implies something, keep an eye out for
2. There must be a claim that the alleged evidence (1) premise and conclusion indicator words and
supports or implies something—that is, a claim (2) the presence of an inferential relationship
that something follows from the alleged evidence between the statements. In connection with these
or reasons. points, however, a word of caution is in order. First,
It is not necessary that the premises present actual the mere occurrence of an indicator word by no
evidence or true reasons nor that the premises actu- means guarantees the presence of an argument. For
ally support the conclusion. But at least the premises example, consider the following passages:
must claim to present evidence or reasons, and there Since Edison invented the phonograph, there
must be a claim that the evidence or reasons support have been many technological innovations.
or imply something. Also, you should recognize that
the second claim is not equatable with the intentions Since Edison invented the phonograph, he
deserves credit for a major technological
of the arguer. Intentions are subjective and, as such,
innovation.
are usually not accessible to the evaluator. Rather,
this claim is an objective feature of an argument In the first passage the word “since” is used in a tem-
grounded in its language or structure. poral sense. It means “from the time that.” Thus, the
In deciding whether a passage contains an argu- first passage is not an argument. In the second pas-
ment, the claim that the alleged reasons or evidence sage “since” is used in a logical sense, and so the pas-
supports or implies something is usually the more sage is an argument.
important of the two. Such a claim can be either explicit The second cautionary point is that it is not always
or implicit. An explicit claim is usually asserted by easy to detect the occurrence of an inferential rela-
premise or conclusion indicator words (“thus,” “since,” tionship between the statements in a passage, and
“because,” “hence,” “therefore,” and so on). Example: one may have to review a passage several times before
The Ebola virus has yet to be eradicated, making a decision. In reaching such a decision, one
and it kills on average 50 percent of those may find it helpful to mentally insert the word “there-
it infects. Thus, Ebola remains a threat to fore” before the various statements to see whether it
human health. makes sense to interpret one of them as following
from the others. Even with this mental aid, however,
The word “thus” expresses the claim that something
the decision whether a passage contains an inferential
is being inferred, so the passage is an argument.
relationship (as well as the decision about indicator
An implicit claim exists if there is an inferential
words) often involves a heavy dose of interpretation.
relationship between the statements in a passage, but
As a result, not everyone will agree about every pas-
the passage contains no indicator words. Example:
sage. Sometimes the only answer possible is a condi-
The genetic modification of food is risky tional one: “If this passage contains an argument, then
business. Genetic engineering can intro- these are the premises and that is the conclusion.”
duce unintended changes into the DNA of To assist in distinguishing passages that contain
the food-producing organism, and these arguments from those that do not, let us now inves-
changes can be toxic to the consumer. tigate some typical kinds of nonarguments. These
The inferential relationship between the first state- include simple noninferential passages, expository
ment and the other two constitutes an implicit passages, illustrations, explanations, and conditional
claim that evidence supports something, so we are statements.
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Simple Noninferential Passages at an adequate profit and that the services and
products we offer must be better than those
Simple noninferential passages are unproblematic offered by competitors.
passages that lack a claim that anything is being (Robert D. Hay and Edmund R.
proved. Such passages contain statements that could Gray, “Introduction to Social
be premises or conclusions (or both), but what is Responsibility”)
missing is a claim that any potential premise sup-
ports a conclusion or that any potential conclusion is After 400 years of racism toward Blacks, the
supported by premises. Passages of this sort include treatment of Asians and the antipathy toward
warnings, pieces of advice, statements of belief or any religion besides Christianity, the privileged
class should be working to make the country
opinion, loosely associated statements, and reports.
more equitable, not scrambling to preserve
A warning is a form of expression that is
their ability to lord over everyone. Putting up
intended to put someone on guard against a danger-
with a little discomfort is a small price to pay for
ous or detrimental situation. Examples:
a country where you are judged on your merits,
Watch out that you don’t slip on the ice. not your skin.
(Susan Polifronio, “All I Can
Whatever you do, never confide personal
Say Is Grow Up”)
secrets to Blabbermouth Bob.
Because neither of these statements asserts any claim
If no evidence is given to prove that such statements
that a belief or opinion is supported by evidence, or
are true, then there is no argument.
that it supports some conclusion, there is no argument.
A piece of advice is a form of expression that
Loosely associated statements may be about
makes a recommendation about some future deci-
the same general subject, but they lack a claim that
sion or course of conduct. Examples:
one of them is proved by the others. Example:
You should keep a few things in mind before Not to honor men of worth will keep the people
buying a used car. Test drive the car at vary- from contention; not to value goods that are
ing speeds and conditions, examine the oil hard to come by will keep them from theft; not
in the crankcase, ask to see service records, to display what is desirable will keep them from
and, if possible, have the engine and power being unsettled of mind.
train checked by a mechanic. (Lao-Tzu, Thoughts from the
Before accepting a job after class hours, I Tao Te Ching)
would suggest that you give careful consid-
Because there is no claim that any of these state-
eration to your course load. Will you have
ments provides evidence or reasons for believing
sufficient time to prepare for classes and
another, there is no argument.
tests, and will the job produce an excessive
drain on your energies?
A report consists of a group of statements that
convey information about some topic or event.
As with warnings, if there is no evidence that is Example:
intended to prove anything, then there is no argument.
A statement of belief or opinion is an expres- The period of 1648–1789 was one of competi-
sion about what someone happens to believe or tion among the primary monarchs of Europe.
think about something. Examples: Wars among the great powers were frequent
but limited. France made major efforts to
We believe that our company must develop and become paramount, but the balance of power
produce outstanding products that will perform operated to block French expansion.
a great service or fulfill a need for our custom- (Steven L. Spiegel, World
ers. We believe that our business must be run Politics in a New Era)
98683_ch01_ptg01.indd 15 02/02/23 3:47 PM

These statements could serve as the premises There are three familiar states of matter: solid,
of an argument, but because the author makes no liquid, and gas. Solid objects ordinarily maintain
claim that they support or imply anything, there is their shape and volume regardless of their loca-
no argument. Another type of report is the news tion. A liquid occupies a definite volume, but
report: assumes the shape of the occupied portion of
its container. A gas maintains neither shape nor
Witnesses said they heard a loud crack before volume. It expands to fill completely whatever
a balcony gave way at a popular nightspot, container it is in.
dropping dozens of screaming people fourteen (John W. Hill and Doris K.
feet. At least eighty people were injured at the Kolb, Chemistry for Changing
Diamond Horseshoe casino when they fell onto Times, 7th ed.)
broken glass and splintered wood. Investiga-
tors are waiting for an engineer’s report on the
There is a stylized relation of artist to mass audi-
deck’s occupancy load.
ence in the sports, especially in baseball. Each
(Newspaper clipping)
player develops a style of his own—the swagger
Again, because the reporter makes no claim that as he steps to the plate, the unique windup a
these statements imply anything, there is no pitcher has, the clean-swinging and hard-driving
argument. hits, the precision quickness and grace of infield
One must be careful, though, with reports about and outfield, the sense of surplus power behind
arguments: whatever is done.
(Max Lerner,
“The Air Force faces a serious shortage of America as a Civilization)
experienced pilots in the years ahead, because
repeated overseas tours and the allure of high- In each passage the topic sentence is stated first, and
paying jobs with commercial airlines are winning the remaining sentences merely develop and flesh
out over lucrative bonuses to stay in the ser- out this topic sentence. These passages are not argu-
vice,” says a prominent Air Force official. ments, because they lack an inferential claim. How-
(Newspaper clipping) ever, expository passages differ from simple nonin-
ferential passages (such as warnings and pieces of
Properly speaking, this passage is not an argument,
advice) in that many of them can also be taken as
because the author of the passage does not claim
arguments. If the purpose of the subsequent sen-
that anything is supported by evidence. Rather, the
tences in the passage is not only to flesh out the topic
author reports the claim by the Air Force official
sentence but also to prove it, then the passage is an
that something is supported by evidence. If such
argument. Example:
passages are interpreted as “containing” arguments,
it must be made clear that the argument is not the Skin and the mucous membrane lining the
author’s but one made by someone about whom the respiratory and digestive tracts serve as
author is reporting. mechanical barriers to entry by microbes. Oil-
gland secretions contain chemicals that weaken
or kill bacteria on skin. The respiratory tract is
Expository Passages lined by cells that sweep mucus and trapped
An expository passage is a kind of discourse that particles up into the throat, where they can
begins with a topic sentence followed by one or more be swallowed. The stomach has an acidic pH,
sentences that develop the topic sentence. If the which inhibits the growth of many types of
objective is not to prove the topic sentence but only bacteria.
to expand it or elaborate it, then there is no argument. (Sylvia S. Mader,
Examples: Human Biology, 4th ed.)
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In this passage the topic sentence is stated first, first selection, the word “thus” indicates how some-
and the purpose of the remaining sentences is not thing is done—namely, how chemical elements and
only to show how the skin and mucous membranes compounds can be represented by formulas. In the
serve as barriers to microbes but also to prove that second, the examples cited are intended to illustrate
they do this. Thus, the passage can be taken as both the meaning of the word “deciduous.” It pins down
an expository passage and an argument. the meaning by providing concrete instances.
In deciding whether an expository passage should However, as with expository passages, many illus-
be interpreted as an argument, try to determine trations can be taken as arguments. Such arguments
whether the purpose of the subsequent sentences in are often called arguments from example. Here
the passage is merely to develop the topic sentence is an instance of one:
or also to prove that it is true. In borderline cases,
ask yourself whether the topic sentence makes a Although most forms of cancer, if untreated,
claim that everyone accepts or agrees with. If it does, can cause death, not all cancers are life
the passage is probably not an argument. In real-life threatening. For example, basal cell carci-
situations authors rarely try to prove something is noma, the most common of all skin cancers,
can produce disfigurement, but it almost
true when everyone already accepts it. However, if
never results in death.
the topic sentence makes a claim that many people
do not accept or have never thought about, then the In this passage the example given is intended to
purpose of the remaining sentences may be both to prove the truth of “Not all cancers are life threat-
prove the topic sentence is true as well as to develop ening.” Thus, the passage is best interpreted as an
it. If this is so, the passage is an argument. argument.
Finally, if even this procedure yields no definite In deciding whether an illustration should be
answer, the only alternative may be to say that if interpreted as an argument, determine whether
the passage is taken as an argument, then the first the passage merely shows how something is done
statement is the conclusion and the others are the or what something means, or whether it also pur-
premises. ports to prove something. In borderline cases it
helps to note whether the claim being illustrated
is one that practically everyone accepts or agrees
Illustrations with. If it is, the passage is probably not an argu-
An illustration is an expression involving one or ment. As already noted, in real-life situations
more examples that is intended to show what some- authors rarely attempt to prove what everyone
thing means or how it is done. Illustrations are often already accepts. But if the claim being illustrated
confused with arguments because many illustrations is one that many people do not accept or have
contain indicator words such as “thus.” Examples: never thought about, then the passage may be
interpreted as an argument.
Chemical elements, as well as compounds, Thus, in reference to the first two examples we
can be represented by molecular formulas.
considered, most people are aware that elements and
Thus, oxygen is represented by “O2,” water
compounds can be expressed by formulas—practi-
by “H2O,” and sodium chloride by “NaCl.”
cally everyone knows that water is H2O—and most
A deciduous tree is any tree that loses its people have at least a vague idea of what a deciduous
leaves during the winter. For example, tree is. But they may not have ever considered
maples are deciduous. And so are elms, pop- whether some forms of cancer are not life threaten-
lars, hawthorns, and alders. ing. This is one of the reasons for evaluating the first
These selections are not arguments, because they two examples as mere illustrations and the last one
make no claim that anything is being proved. In the as an argument.
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Explanations explanandum event—not to prove that it occurred.
In other words, the purpose of the explanans is to
One of the most important kinds of nonargument is
show why something is the case, whereas in an argu-
the explanation. An explanation is an expression
ment, the purpose of the premises is to prove that
that purports to shed light on some event or phe-
something is the case.
nomenon. The event or phenomenon in question is
In the first example given, the fact that the sky
usually accepted as a matter of fact. Examples:
is blue is readily apparent to everyone. The state-
The sky appears blue from the earth’s surface ment that light rays from the sun are scattered
because light rays from the sun are scattered by particles in the atmosphere is not intended to
by particles in the atmosphere. prove that the sky is blue, but rather to show why
Golf balls have a dimpled surface because it is blue. In the second example, practically every-
the dimples reduce air drag, causing the ball one knows that golf balls have a dimpled surface.
to travel farther. The purpose of the passage is to explain why they
have a dimpled surface—not to prove that they do.
Navel oranges are called by that name
because they have a growth that resembles
Similarly, in the third example, it is obvious that
a human navel on the end opposite the naval oranges are called naval oranges. The pur-
stem. pose of the passage is to shed light on why they
have this name.
Every explanation is composed of two distinct Thus, to distinguish explanations from argu-
components: the explanandum and explanans. ments, identify the statement that is either the
The explanandum is the statement that describes explanandum or the conclusion (usually this is the
the event or phenomenon to be explained, and statement that precedes the word “because”). If this
the explanans is the statement or group of state- statement describes an accepted matter of fact, and
ments that purports to do the explaining. In the first if the remaining statements purport to shed light on
example, the explanandum is the statement “The this statement, then the passage is an explanation.
sky appears blue from the earth’s surface” and the This method usually works to distinguish argu-
explanans is “Light rays from the sun are scattered ments from explanations. However, some passages
by particles in the atmosphere.” can be interpreted as both explanations and argu-
ments. Examples:
Argument Explanation Women become intoxicated by drinking a

smaller amount of alcohol than men because
Accepted
Premises Explanans men metabolize part of the alcohol before
facts
it reaches the bloodstream, whereas women
Claimed do not.
Claimed to
to shed Household bleach should never be mixed
prove
light on
with ammonia because the combina-
Conclusion Explanandum Accepted tion releases chlorine gas, which is highly
fact
poisonous.
The purpose of these passages could be to prove

Explanations are sometimes mistaken for argu- the first statement to those who do not accept it as
ments because they often contain the indicator fact, and to shed light on that fact to those who do
word “because.” Yet explanations are not argu- accept it. Alternately, the passage could be intended
ments, because in an explanation the purpose of the to prove the first statement to a person who accepts
explanans is to shed light on, or to make sense of, the its truth on blind faith or incomplete experience,
98683_ch01_ptg01.indd 18 02/02/23 3:47 PM

and simultaneously to shed light on this truth. a conditional statement as those about chocolate
Thus, these passages can be correctly interpreted as and school boards.
both an explanation and an argument.
Perhaps the greatest problem confronting the
effort to distinguish explanations from argu- Conditional statements
ments lies in determining whether something Antecedent Consequent
is an accepted matter of fact. Obviously, what is
accepted by one person may not be accepted by If then .
another. Thus, the effort often involves determin-
ing which person or group of people the passage is Consequent Antecedent
directed to—the intended audience. Sometimes the
source of the passage (textbook, newspaper, tech- if .
nical journal, etc.) will decide the issue. But when
the passage is taken totally out of context, ascer-
taining the source may prove impossible. In those Conditional statements are not arguments,
circumstances the only possible answer may be to because they fail to meet the criteria given earlier. In
say that if the passage is an argument, then such- an argument, at least one statement must claim to
and-such is the conclusion and such-and-such are present evidence, and there must be a claim that this
the premises. evidence implies something. In a conditional state-
ment, there is no claim that either the antecedent or
the consequent presents evidence. In other words,
Conditional Statements there is no assertion that either the antecedent or the
A conditional statement is an “if . . . then . . .” consequent is true. Rather, there is only the assertion
statement; for example: that if the antecedent is true, then so is the conse-
quent. Of course, a conditional statement as a whole
If chocolate contains caffeine, then chocolate may present evidence because it asserts a relation-
impairs sleep. ship between statements. Yet when conditional state-
If school boards ban books, then they jeopar- ments are taken in this sense, there is still no argu-
dize the educational process. ment, because there is then no separate claim that
Every conditional statement is made up of two this evidence implies anything.
component statements. The component statement Some conditional statements are similar to argu-
immediately following the “if ” is called the ante- ments, however, in that they express the outcome
cedent, and the one following the “then” is called of a reasoning process. As such, they may be said
the consequent. (Occasionally, the word “then” to have a certain inferential content. Consider the
is left out, and occasionally the order of anteced- following:
ent and consequent is reversed.) In the first exam-
If sugary drinks cause heart disease and
ple, the antecedent is “Professional football games
diabetes, then sugary drinks should be
incite violence in the home,” and the consequent
regulated.
is “The widespread approval given to this sport
should be reconsidered.” In both of these exam- The link between the antecedent and consequent
ples, there is a meaningful relationship between resembles the inferential link between the prem-
antecedent and consequent. However, such a rela- ises and conclusion of an argument. Yet there is a
tionship need not exist for a statement to count difference because the premises of an argument
as conditional. The statement “If Miley Cyrus is a are claimed to be true, whereas no such claim is
singer, then Denver is in Colorado” is just as much made for the antecedent of a conditional statement.
98683_ch01_ptg01.indd 19 02/02/23 3:47 PM

Accordingly, conditional statements are not argu- argument, depending on such factors as the pres-
ments.* Yet their inferential content may be reex- ence of indicator words and an inferential relation-
pressed to form arguments: ship between the statements.
Conditional statements are especially important
Sugary drinks cause heart disease and diabetes.
in logic (and many other fields) because they express
Therefore, sugary drinks should be regulated.
the relationship between necessary and sufficient
Finally, while no single conditional statement is conditions. A is said to be a sufficient condition
an argument, a conditional statement may serve as for B whenever the occurrence of A is all that is
either the premise or the conclusion (or both) of an needed for the occurrence of B. For example, being
argument, as the following examples illustrate: a dog is a sufficient condition for being an animal.
On the other hand, B is said to be a necessary
If North Korea is developing ballistic missiles,
condition for A whenever A cannot occur without
then North Korea is a threat to world peace.
North Korea is developing ballistic missiles.
the occurrence of B. Thus, being an animal is a nec-
Therefore, North Korea is a threat to world essary condition for being a dog.
peace. The difference between sufficient and necessary
conditions is a bit tricky. So, to clarify the idea fur-
If our borders are porous, then terrorists can ther, suppose you are given a large, closed cardboard
enter the country at will. box. Also, suppose you are told there is a dog in the
If terrorists can enter the country at will, then all box. Then you know for sure there is an animal in
of us are less secure. the box. No additional information is needed to draw
Therefore, if our borders are porous, then all of
this conclusion. This means that being a dog is suffi-
us are less secure.
cient for being an animal. However, being a dog is not
The relation between conditional statements and necessary for being an animal, because if you are told
arguments may now be summarized as follows: that the box contains a cat, you can conclude with
equal certainty that it contains an animal. In other
1. A single conditional statement is not an argument.
words, it is not necessary for the box to contain a dog
2. A conditional statement may serve as either for it to contain an animal. It might equally well con-
the premise or the conclusion (or both) of an tain a cat, a mouse, a squirrel, or any other animal.
argument. On the other hand, suppose you are told that
3. The inferential content of a conditional state- whatever might be in the box is not an animal. Then
ment may be reexpressed to form an argument. you know for certain there is no dog in the box. The
reason you can draw this conclusion is that being
The first two rules are especially pertinent to the
an animal is necessary for being a dog. If there is no
recognition of arguments. According to the first
animal, there is no dog. However, being an animal is
rule, if a passage consists of a single conditional
not sufficient for being a dog, because if you are told
statement, it is not an argument. But if it consists of
that the box contains an animal, you cannot, from this
a conditional statement together with some other
information alone, conclude that it contains a dog. It
statement, then, by the second rule, it may be an
might contain a cat, a mouse, a squirrel, and so on.
These ideas are expressed in the following condi-
*In saying this we are temporarily ignoring the possibility of these state- tional statements:
ments being enthymemes. As we shall see in Chapter 5, an enthymeme
is an argument in which a premise or conclusion (or both) is implied If X is a dog, then X is an animal.
but not stated. If, to this example, we add the premise “Sugary drinks If X is not an animal, then X is not a dog.
cause heart disease and diabetes” and the conclusion “Therefore,
sugary drinks should be regulated,” we have a complete argument. To
decide whether a conditional statement is an enthymeme, we must be The first statement says that being a dog is a
familiar with the context in which it occurs. sufficient condition for being an animal, and the
98683_ch01_ptg01.indd 20 02/02/23 3:47 PM

second that being an animal is a necessary condition condition and in another way a sufficient condition.
for being a dog. However, a little reflection reveals The terminology of sufficient and necessary condi-
that these two statements say exactly the same tions will be used in later chapters to express defini-
thing. Thus, each expresses in one way a necessary tions and causal connections.
Summary
In deciding whether a passage contains an argument, you should look for three things:
(1) indicator words such as “therefore,” “since,” “because,” and so on; (2) an inferential relation-
ship between the statements; and (3) typical kinds of nonarguments. But remember that the mere
occurrence of an indicator word does not guarantee the presence of an argument. You must check
to see that the statement identified as the conclusion is claimed to be supported by one or more of
the other statements. Also keep in mind that in many arguments that lack indicator words, the con-
clusion is the first statement. Furthermore, it helps to mentally insert the word “therefore” before
the various statements before deciding that a statement should be interpreted as a conclusion. The
typical kinds of nonarguments that we have surveyed are as follows:
warnings reports
pieces of advice expository passages
statements of belief illustrations
statements of opinion explanations
loosely associated statements conditional statements
Keep in mind that these kinds of nonargument are not mutually exclusive, and that, for example,
one and the same passage can sometimes be interpreted as both a report and a statement of opin-
ion, or as both an expository passage and an illustration. The precise kind of nonargument a pas-
sage might be is nowhere near as important as correctly deciding whether or not it is an argument.
After working the exercises in this section, you may, if you wish, proceed directly to Section 1.6
[“Extended Arguments”].
Exercise 1.2
I. Determine which of the following passages are arguments. For those that are, identify
the conclusion. For those that are not, determine the kind of nonargument.
★1. The turkey vulture is called by that name because its red featherless head
resembles the head of a wild turkey.
2. If public education fails to improve the quality of instruction in both primary
and secondary schools, then it is likely that it will lose additional students to
the private sector in the years ahead.
3. Freedom of the press is the most important of our constitutionally guaranteed
freedoms. Without it, our other freedoms would be immediately threatened.
Furthermore, it provides the fulcrum for the advancement of new freedoms.
98683_ch01_ptg01.indd 21 02/02/23 3:47 PM

★4. A mammal is a vertebrate animal that nurses its offspring. Thus, cats and dogs
are mammals, as are sheep, monkeys, rabbits, and bears.
5. It is strongly recommended that you have your house inspected for termite
damage at the earliest possible opportunity.
6. Mosquito bites are not always the harmless little irritations most of us take
them to be. For example, some mosquitoes carry West Nile virus, and people
who are infected can become very sick or even die.
★7. If stem-cell research is restricted, then future cures will not materialize.
If future cures do not materialize, then people will die prematurely. Therefore,
if stem-cell research is restricted, then people will die prematurely.
8. Fictional characters behave according to the same psychological probabilities
as real people. But the characters of fiction are found in exotic dilemmas
that real people hardly encounter. Consequently, fiction provides us with
the opportunity to ponder how people react in uncommon situations, and to
deduce moral lessons, psychological principles, and philosophical insights
from their behavior.
( J. R. McCuen and A. C. Winkler, Readings for Writers, 4th ed.)
9. I believe that it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples
who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside
pressures. I believe that we must assist free peoples to work out their own desti-
nies in their own way. I believe that our help should be primarily through eco-
nomic and financial aid, which is essential to economic stability and orderly
political processes.
(President Truman, Address to Congress, 1947)
★10. Five college students who were accused of sneaking into the Cincinnati Zoo
and trying to ride the camels pleaded no contest to criminal trespass yesterday.
The students scaled a fence to get into the zoo and then climbed another fence
to get into the camel pit before security officials caught them, zoo officials said.
11. Mortality rates for women undergoing early abortions, where the procedure
is legal, appear to be as low as or lower than the rates for normal childbirth.
Consequently, any interest of the state in protecting the woman from an inher-
ently hazardous procedure, except when it would be equally dangerous for her
to forgo it, has largely disappeared.
( Justice Blackmun, Roe v. Wade)
12. The pace of reading, clearly, depends entirely upon the reader. He may read
as slowly or as rapidly as he can or wishes to read. If he does not understand
something, he may stop and reread it, or go in search of elucidation before
continuing. The reader can accelerate his pace when the material is easy or less
than interesting, and can slow down when it is difficult or enthralling. If what
he reads is moving he can put down the book for a few moments and cope with
his emotions without fear of losing anything.
(Marie Winn, The Plug-In Drug)
98683_ch01_ptg01.indd 22 02/02/23 3:47 PM

★13. Any unit of length, when cubed, becomes a unit of volume. Thus, the cubic
meter, cubic centimeter, and cubic millimeter are all units of volume.
(Nivaldo J. Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 2nd ed.)
14. Lions at Kruger National Park in South Africa are dying of tuberculosis. “All
of the lions in the park may be dead within ten years because the disease is
incurable, and the lions have no natural resistance,” said the deputy director of
the Department of Agriculture.
15. Economics is of practical value in business. An understanding of the overall
operation of the economic system puts the business executive in a better posi-
tion to formulate policies. The executive who understands the causes and con-
sequences of inflation is better equipped during inflationary periods to make
more-intelligent decisions than otherwise.
(Campbell R. McConnell, Economics, 8th ed.)
★16. Bear one thing in mind before you begin to write your paper: Famous
literary works, especially works regarded as classics, have been thoroughly
studied to the point where prevailing opinion on them has assumed the
character of orthodoxy.
( J. R. McCuen and A. C. Winkler, Readings for Writers,
4th ed.)
17. Young people at universities study to achieve knowledge and not to learn a
trade. We must all learn how to support ourselves, but we must also learn how
to live. We need a lot of engineers in the modern world, but we do not want a
world of modern engineers.
( Winston Churchill, A Churchill Reader, ed. Colin R. Coote)
18. No business concern wants to sell on credit to a customer who will prove
unable or unwilling to pay his or her account. Consequently, most business
organizations include a credit department which must reach a decision on the
credit worthiness of each prospective customer.
( Walter B. Meigs and Robert F. Meigs, Accounting)
★19. For organisms at the sea surface, sinking into deep water usually means death.
Plant cells cannot photosynthesize in the dark depths. Fishes and other ani-
mals that descend lose contact with the main surface food supply and them-
selves become food for strange deep-living predators.
(David H. Milne, Marine Life and the Sea)
20. Since the 1950s a malady called whirling disease has invaded U.S. fishing
streams, frequently attacking rainbow trout. A parasite deforms young fish,
which often chase their tails before dying, hence the name.
(“Trout Disease—A Turn for the Worse,” National Geographic)
21. Dachshunds are ideal dogs for small children, as they are already stretched and
pulled to such a length that the child cannot do much harm one way or the
other.
(Robert Benchley, quoted in Cold Noses and Warm Hearts)
98683_ch01_ptg01.indd 23 02/02/23 3:47 PM

Another random document with
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“THE FOLLY” ON THE THAMES
Close by Cuper’s Stairs (where the visitors to Cuper’s Gardens

landed) and opposite Somerset House, there was generally moored
during the summer months a sort of castellated house-boat,
notorious as The Folly.[284]
It consisted of a strong barge on which was a deck platform,
surrounded by a balustrade, and contained a saloon provided with
large windows and divided into boxes and compartments. At each of
the four angles of the deck was a turret, giving the whole something
of the appearance of a floating castle.
This “whimsical piece of architecture” (as Thomas Brown calls it)
[285] was in existence soon after the Restoration, and in 1668 was
visited by Pepys.[286] It was intended, says Brown, “as a musical

summer-house for the entertainment of quality where they might
meet and ogle one another ... but the ladies of the town finding it as
convenient a rendezvous for their purpose ... dash’d the female
quality out of countenance and made them seek a more retired
conveniency” for their “amorous intrigues.” Queen Mary (II.) once
paid it a visit, and the proprietor endeavoured to re-christen it The
Royal Diversion. It continued, however, to be popularly known as
The Folly, and already in 1700 had ceased to have any quality to
boast of, at least among its female frequenters.
“THE FOLLY,” BEFORE circ. 1720.

Thomas Brown describes a visit that he made about 1700.
Rowing up to the side in a boat he found himself scrutinised by a
crowd of women both young and old, and (as he puts it) “of all sorts
and sizes.” Some of these ladies were dancing and tripping airily
about the deck, and some tattling to their beaux; but many of the
company, including certain long-sworded bullies, were crowded into
the boxes in the saloon where they sat, smoking, and drinking burnt
brandy. “In short, it was such a confused scene of folly, madness and
debauchery” that Thomas Brown, by no means a squeamish person,
stepped again into his boat “without drinking.”
The Folly in its later days was occasionally visited by people who
at least worked honestly for their living, and the draper’s apprentice,
when his shop was shut, would row up with his sweetheart for an
evening’s amusement at this curious haunt.[287]
The Folly was in existence till 1720, and perhaps for more than
thirty years later, but the character of its frequenters, and the
gambling that took place at what was known as its Golden Gaming
Table, at last led to its suppression as a public resort. It was suffered
to fall into such decay that its material was burnt for fire-wood.
Near that part of the river where the Folly was usually moored the
famous Chinese junk was anchored about 1848, and visited by
thousands of sight-seers.[288]
[Thomas Brown’s Amusements Serious and Comical, Part ii. “The
Thames”; Wheatley’s London Past and Present, “Folly”; E. Hatton’s
New View of London, 1708, ii. 785; Wilkinson’s Londina, vol. i. No. 88;
also vol. ii. “Cuper’s Gardens”; Walford, iii. 290; Larwood and Hotten,
History of Signboards, 509; manuscript notes, &c. in “Public Gardens”
collection in Guildhall Library, London.]
VIEWS.
1. A view of Whitehall from the water, showing the Folly Musick
House on the Thames. Engraved in Wilkinson’s Londina Illustrata, vol.
i. No. 88, from a drawing taken about the time of James II. “in the
possession of Thomas Griffiths, Esq.”
2. The Southern Front of Somerset House with its extensive
Gardens, &c., showing the Folly. A drawing by L. Knyff, about 1720,
engraved by Sawyer Junior, and published (1808) in J. T. Smith’s sixty
additional plates to his Antiquities of Westminster. This is copied, with
a short account of the Folly, in E. W. Brayley’s Londiniana (1829), vol.
iii. 130, 300. It is substantially the same as the view on a larger scale
engraved by Kip in Strype’s Stow, 1720, ii. bk. 4, p. 105. Cp. also an
engraving (W. Coll.) “Somerset House, La Maison de Somerset.” L.
Knyff del. I. Kip sc. undated, before 1720?
BELVEDERE HOUSE AND GARDENS, LAMBETH
Belvedere House and Gardens were near Cuper’s Gardens,[289]

but a little higher up the river (south side). They were opposite York
Buildings in the Strand, and extended from the present Belvedere
Road (then called Narrow Wall) to the water’s edge. Some modern
writers speak of the gardens as a place of public entertainment in the
reign of Queen Anne, but there seems no evidence of this, and in
1719 or 1720 the premises were in the possession of a Mr. English
(or England), who at that time sold them to the Theobald family. In
1757, Belvedere House was the private residence of Mr. James
Theobald.
In the early part of 1781, “the house called Belvedere” was taken
by one Charles Bascom, who opened it as an inn, with the added
attractions of “pleasant gardens and variety of fish-ponds.” He
professed in his advertisements, to accommodate his guests with
choice wines and with eating of every kind in season, after the best
manner, especially with “the choicest river-fish which they may have
the delight to see taken.”
The gardens could not have been open later than 1785, for in that
year part of the ground was turned into the Belvedere (timber)
Wharf, and part was occupied by the machinery of the Lambeth
water-works.
[Advertisement in The Freethinker for April 28, 1781, quoted in
Wilkinson’s Londina, vol. ii. “Cuper’s Gardens,” notes, and in Nichols’s
Lambeth, Nichols’s Bibl. Top. Brit. ii. Appendix, 158; map in Strype’s
Stow (1720), vol. ii. book 6, p. 83, Appendix; Manning and Bray,
Surrey, iii. 467; Brayley and Mantell, Surrey, iii. 393; Howard’s
Historical Anecdotes of some of the Howard Family, 106; Wheatley’s
London P. and P. s.v. “Belvedere Road.”]
RESTORATION SPRING GARDENS,
ST. GEORGE’S FIELDS
The Restoration Tavern was in existence in the early part of the

reign of Charles II.[290] In 1714 there was a new cock-pit in its
grounds and a great match of cock fighting was announced to take
place there; “two guineas a battle, and twenty guineas the odd
battle” all the week, beginning at four o’clock. The races and popular
sports then frequent in St. George’s Fields probably brought
additional custom to the house.
In the gardens of the tavern was a purging spring which was
advertised[291] in 1733 as already well-known for the cure of all
cancerous and scorbutic humours. About the same year a second
spring was discovered, a chalybeate “of the nature of Piermont
Water but superior.” The water was obtainable every day at the
gardens,[292] and was declared to “far exceed” the water at the
neighbouring Dog and Duck. Dr. Rendle says that it must have been
the mere soakage of a swamp, but whatever may have been the
virtues of the spring it was probably before long eclipsed by its rival
at the Dog and Duck, though the Restoration was in existence in
1755 and perhaps for some years later.
In 1771 the garden, or at any rate about an acre of it, was taken
by William Curtis,[293] the author of Flora Londinensis, who formed a
Botanical Garden there which was afterwards open to subscribers
until 1789, when the botanist removed to another garden in the more
salubrious air of Brompton.
Restoration Garden is marked in the map in Stow’s Survey, 1755,
as abutting on the western side of Angel Street (a continuation of the
Broad Wall), southern end. In a map of the Surrey side of the
Thames showing the proposed roads from Blackfriars Bridge (circ.
1768) the ground is marked as “Public House Gardens” and
“Gardens.” The Half-way House from the Borough to Westminster
Bridge is marked immediately south of the gardens; and still further
south is the Westminster Bridge Road, the end east of the Asylum.
St. Saviour’s Union, Marlborough Street (near the New Cut), is now
near the site.
[Rendle and Norman, Inns of Old Southwark (1888), pp. 367, 368;
and see Notes.]
THE FLORA TEA GARDENS (OR MOUNT GARDENS),
WESTMINSTER BRIDGE ROAD
The Flora Tea Gardens (or Mount Gardens), were on the right
hand side of the Westminster Bridge Road going towards the
Obelisk, and opposite the Temple of Flora. They were in existence
about 1796–7. The gardens were well kept and contained “genteel
paintings.” They were open on week-days and on Sundays till about
11 p.m., and the admission was sixpence.
Among the frequenters were democratic shopmen, who might be
heard railing against King and Church, and a good many ladies
respectable and the reverse. The “Sunday Rambler” (1796–7)
describes the company as very orderly, but at some time before
1800 the place was suppressed on account of dissolute persons
frequenting it.
Some small cottages were then built in the middle of the garden,
which retained a rural appearance till shortly before 1827, when
several rows of houses, “Mount Gardens,” were erected on the site.
[The Flora Tea Gardens described in A Modern Sabbath (1797),
chap. viii., are evidently identical with the Mount Gardens mentioned
by Allen (Lambeth, 335), though he does not mention their alternative
name (cp. Walford, vi. 389). Allen (loc. cit.) is the authority for the
suppression of the gardens.]
THE TEMPLE OF FLORA
The Temple of Flora stood hard by the Temple of Apollo, in the

middle of Mount Row on the left hand side of Westminster Bridge
Road, going towards the Obelisk, and was separated by Oakley
Street from the Apollo Gardens (Temple of Apollo). Concerts were
given every evening in the season, and the place is described as
“beautifully fitted up with alcoves and exotics.”
In the hot house was “an elegant statue of Pomona,” a
transparency of Flora, and at the lower end of the garden, a natural
cascade and fountain. “The entrance and the gardens,” were
advertised in July 1789 as being formed by the proprietor into an
exact imitation of the admired Temple of Flora, which he had
constructed at the Grand Gala at Ranelagh.
Some special entertainments were given in June and July in
honour of the King’s recovery, and the Grand Temple of Flora, an
“elegant and ingenious imitation of Nature in her floral attire,” was
then illuminated with nearly a thousand variegated lamps amid
wreaths of flowers twining round pillars “made in imitation of Sienna
marble.” Fireworks and water-works were also displayed; a large star
of lamps was suspended above the cascade, and (in the absence of
nightingales) “a variety of singing birds” were imitated. The
admission for these special entertainments was one shilling, and the
gardens were illuminated from eight till the closing time at eleven.
Light refreshments were served consisting of orgeat, lemonade,
“confectionary,” strawberries and cream.
There is evidence[294] that in the first few years of its existence
(1788–1791) the place was visited by some people of good position,
but it afterwards became the haunt of dissolute characters and of
young apprentices.[295] The author of A Modern Sabbath describes
(circ. 1796) the boxes in the gardens as “neatly painted” like most of
the company who were to be seen there about ten in the evening.
The admission appears to have been now reduced to sixpence.
In 1796 the proprietor, a man named Grist, was indicted for
keeping the place as a disorderly house, and was ordered (May 30)
to be confined for six months in the King’s Bench Prison,[296] and in
all probability the Temple of Flora was then finally closed.
Mme. Lamotte, the heroine of the famous Diamond Necklace
affair, ended her strange career (23 August, 1791) in her house near
the Temple of Flora, a place of amusement that, it is likely enough,
she frequented.[297]
[A Modern Sabbath (1797), chap. viii.; Public Advertiser, 2 July,
1789 (fêtes of June and July); Brayley and Mantell, Surrey, iii. 399;
Allen’s Lambeth, 321.]
APOLLO GARDENS (OR TEMPLE OF APOLLO)
These gardens were on the left hand side of the Westminster

Bridge Road going from Westminster to the Obelisk, and were
situated nearly where the engineering factory of Messrs. Maudslay,
Sons and Field now stands and opposite the present Christ Church
Congregational Chapel.[298]
Walter Claggett, the proprietor (at one time a lessee of the
Pantheon[299] in Oxford Street) opened the place in October 1788
with an entertainment given in the concert room, which is described
as a fine building with “a kind of orrery in the dome, displaying a
pallid moon between two brilliant transparencies.” In this building
was an orchestra containing a fine-toned organ, and in the opening
concert, given before nearly one thousand three hundred people, a
band of about seventy instrumental and vocal performers took part,
the organist being Jonathan Battishill.
Previous to the opening for the season in April 1790, the gardens
were much altered and a room was arranged for large dinner parties.
In the gardens were a number of “elegant pavilions or alcoves”
ornamented with the adventures of Don Quixote and other paintings.
In 1792 (May-July) there was music every evening and fantoccini
were exhibited. In this year the concerts took place in a covered
promenade described as the Grand Apollonian Promenade. Mr.
Flack, junior, was the leader of the band; Mr. Costelow the organist,
and the vocalists were Mr. Binley, Miss Wingfield, Mrs. Leaver, and
Mrs. Iliff, the last-named one of the Vauxhall singers in 1787. New
overtures, &c., “composed by Messrs. Haydn and Pleyel since their
arrival in this Kingdom” were advertised for performance.
The season began in April or May, and the visitor on entering at
five o’clock or later, paid a shilling or sixpence (1792) receiving in
exchange a metal check entitling him to refreshments. No charge
was made for the concert. At about nine o’clock many persons who
had “come on” from other public places visited the Apollo for hot
suppers, and the gardens and promenade were illuminated,
sometimes with two thousand lamps. The proprietor prided himself
on “the superior excellence of the Music and Wines.” He boasted,
moreover, of the patronage of the nobility and gentry, and vaunted
the “chastity and dignity” of the place, though it was probably owing
to the presence of some of these late arriving visitors that the Apollo
Gardens speedily acquired an unenviable reputation.
In 1792 the place was known to be a resort of cheats and
pickpockets. We hear of one Elizabeth Smith, a smartly dressed
young woman, about eighteen, being charged in 1792 at the
Guildhall with “trepanning a Miss Ridley,” a beautiful girl ten years of
age, whom she had taken with her to the Apollo and the Dog and
Duck, and left crying on Blackfriars Bridge, after stealing her fine
sash.
The Apollo was suppressed by the magistrates, probably about
1793.[300] The proprietor himself became bankrupt; the orchestra
was removed to Sydney Gardens, Bath;[301] and the Temple of
Apollo fell into a ruinous state and its site was eventually built upon.
[A collection of newspaper cuttings relating to London, &c. (section,
Apollo Gardens) in Guildhall Library, London (Catal. ii. 546); “Public
Gardens” collection (newspaper cuttings, &c.) in Guildhall Library
(Catal. ii. 761); Brayley and Mantell, Surrey, iii. 399; Allen’s Lambeth,
319; Walford, vi. 343, 389; A Modern Sabbath, chap. viii.]
VIEWS.
There appear to be no extant views. The site may be ascertained
from Horwood’s Plan, 1799; and from Willis’s Plan, 1808. In the Crace
Coll. (Cat. p. 122, No. 69) are “Two drawn plans of a plot of land
called the Apollo Gardens, lying next the Westminster Bridge Road to
the Obelisk,” by T. Chawner.
DOG AND DUCK, ST. GEORGE’S FIELDS
(St. George’s Spa)
The Dog and Duck was in existence as a small inn as early as

1642.[302] In its vicinity were three or four ponds in which, no doubt,
the brutal sport of hunting ducks with spaniels was at one time
practised,[303] and near the place were mineral springs whose
properties were known as early as 1695, though the water does not
appear to have been advertised for sale till about 1731,[304] when
the Dog and Duck had taken to itself the imposing sub-title of St.
George’s Spaw. At this time the water was sold at the pump for
fourpence a gallon, and was stated to be recommended by eminent
physicians for gout, stone, king’s evil, sore eyes, and inveterate
cancers. A dozen bottles could be had at the Spa (circ. 1733–1736)
for a shilling.
From about 1754 till 1770 the water was in considerable repute,
and new buildings appear to have been erected for the
accommodation of visitors. There was a long room for breakfasting
(1754), a bowling-green, and a swimming-bath (1769) two hundred
feet long and nearly one hundred feet broad. Tea and coffee were to
be had in the afternoon. At this period people of good position seem
to have frequented the Spa or to have sent for the water. We find
Miss Talbot writing about the place to Mrs. Carter, and Dr. Johnson
suggested the use of the water to Mrs. Thrale.[305]
The proprietors issued (1760) to subscribers an admission ticket
handsomely struck in silver with a portrait of Lazare Rivière, the
famous Professor of Medicine, on its obverse.[306]
The St. James’s Chronicle ranked the water with that of
Tunbridge, Cheltenham, and Buxton.
Physicians of repute described its curative properties, and
affirmed it to be excellent for cutaneous afflictions and for cancer
which it would certainly arrest, even if it did not cure. This water,
which was advertised as an aperient (Epsom Salts being also kept
on the premises), came at a much later date—1856—under the
observation of Dr. Rendle, the historian, and, as it happened, the
Officer of Health in that year for the Parish of St. George’s,
Southwark. Rendle procured an analysis of water from the superficial
well, formerly the spring, on the site of the old Dog and Duck and
was forced to describe it as “a decidedly unsafe water” containing
impurities, eighty grains per gallon, chiefly alkaline chlorides,
sulphates and nitrates, gypsum and carbonate of lime, with a little
phosphoric acid.
But we return to the year 1770, about which time the Dog and
Duck took a new lease of life. A temporary circus established in St.
George’s Fields by Sampson, of The Three Hats, Islington, was the
cause of much additional custom being brought to the tavern, and
Mrs. Hedger who kept the house was obliged to send for her son
who was then a youth in a stable-yard at Epsom. Young Hedger
soon saw the possibilities of the place. He gradually improved the
premises and in a few years was making a large income from the
tavern and its tea-garden, which was much frequented, especially on
Sundays.[307] The garden was well laid out and contained “a pretty
piece of water” doubtless one of the old ducking ponds, and at one
time a band played in the garden for the delectation of the week-day
visitors. At night, the long room was brilliantly lighted for the
company who assembled to dance, drink, and listen to the strains of
the organ. Under Hedger, however, the character of the company
went from bad to worse. The “rowdy” delights of the Dog and Duck
are indicated, though probably with an exaggerated coarseness, in
Garrick’s Prologue to “The Maid of the Oaks” acted at Drury Lane in
1775:—
St. George’s Fields, with taste and fashion struck,
Display Arcadia at the Dog and Duck,
And Drury misses here in tawdry pride,
Are there “Pastoras” by the fountain side;
To frowsy bowers they reel through midnight damps,
With Fauns half drunk, and Dryads breaking lamps.[308]
In about ten years the Dog and Duck had become a place of
assignation and the haunt of “the riff-raff and scum of the town.” One
of its frequenters, Charlotte Shaftoe, is said to have betrayed seven
of her intimates to the gallows. At last, on September 11, 1787, the
Surrey magistrates refused to renew the license. Hedger, like the
Music Hall managers of our own time, was not easily beaten. He
appealed to the City of London, and two City justices claiming to act
as justices in Southwark, renewed the license seven days after its
refusal by the County magistrates. The legality of the civic
jurisdiction in Surrey was tried in 1792 before Lord Kenyon and other
judges, who decided against it. The license of the Dog and Duck was
then made conditional on its being entirely closed on Sundays.[309]
In 1795 the bath and the bowling-green were advertised as
attractions and the water might be drunk on the usual terms of
threepence each person. About 1796 the place was again open on
Sundays, but the license was lost. This difficulty the proprietor
surmounted by engaging a Freeman of the Vintners Company, who
required no license, to draw the wine that was sold on the premises.
The “Sunday Rambler” who visited the place (circ. 1796) one
evening about ten o’clock found a dubious company assembled. He
recognised a bankrupt banker and his mistress; a notorious lady
named Nan Sheldon; and another lady attired in extreme fashion
and known as “Tippy Molly,” though once she had been a modest
Mary Johnson. De Castro (Memoirs), with a certain touch of pathos,
describes the votaries of the Dog and Duck in its later days as “the
children of poverty, irregularity and distress.”[310] It would, indeed, be
easy to moralise on the circumstance that the place was soon to
become the inheritance of the blind and the lunatic. In or before 1799
the Dog and Duck was suppressed, and the premises, after having
been used as a public soup-kitchen, became in that year the
establishment of the School for the Indigent Blind, an institution
which remained there till 1811.
“LABOUR IN VAIN” (ST. GEORGE’S SPA IN BACKGROUND,
1782.)
Meanwhile, the enterprising Hedger, had made a good use of his
profits by renting (from about the year 1789) a large tract of land in
St. George’s Fields at low rates from the managers of the Bridge
House Estate. The fine for building was £500, but Hedger
immediately paid this penalty, and while sub-letting a portion of the
ground, ran up on the rest a number of wretched houses which
hardly stood the term of his twenty-one years’ lease. From this
source he is said to have derived £7,000 a year. He died in the early
part of the present century,[311] having obtained the title of The King
of the Fields, and the reputation of a “worthy private character.” He
left his riches to his eldest son, whom the people called the Squire.
The Dog and Duck was pulled down in 1811 for the building of the
present Bethlehem Hospital, the first stone of which was laid on 18
April, 1812. The old stone sign of the tavern, dated 1716, and
representing a spaniel holding a duck in its mouth, and the Arms of
the Bridge House Estate, was built into the brick garden-wall of the
Hospital where it may still be seen close to the actual site of the once
notorious Dog and Duck.
[Trusler’s London Adviser (1786), pp. 124, 164; Fores’s New Guide
(1789), preface, p. vi; Allen’s London, iv. 470, 482, 485; A Modern
Sabbath, 1797, chap. viii.; Wheatley’s London P. and P. s.v. “St.
George’s Fields” and “Dog and Duck”; Humphreys’s Memoirs of De
Castro (1824), 126, ff.; Manning and Bray, Surrey, iii. 468, 554, 632,
701; Allen’s Lambeth, p. 7, 347; Gent. Mag. 1813, pt. 2, 556; Rendle
and Norman, Inns of Old Southwark, p. 368, ff.; Walford, vi. 343, 344,
350–352, 364; Larwood and Hotten, Signboards, 196, 197; Notes and
Queries, 1st ser. iv. 37; newspaper cuttings in W. Coll.]
VIEWS.
1. The old Dog and Duck Tavern, copied from an old drawing 1646,
water-colour drawing by T. H. Shepherd, Crace, Cat. p. 646. No. 27.
2. The Dog and Duck in 1772. A print published 1772. Crace, Cat.
p. 646, No. 28.
3. Woodcut of exterior, 1780, in Chambers’s Book of Days, ii. 74.
4. “Labour in Vain, or Fatty in Distress” (St. George’s Spa in the
background), print published by C. Bowles, 1782, Crace, Cat. p. 647,
No. 35, and W. Coll.
5. Engraving of the exterior, 1788 (W. Coll.).
6. Interior of the Assembly Room. A stipple engraving, 1789,
reproduced in Rendle and Norman, Inns of Old Southwark, 373.
7. Sign of Dog and Duck, engraved in Walford, vi. 344; cp. Crace,
Cat. p. 646, No. 32, and Rendle and Norman, Inns of Old Southwark,
p. 369.
THE BLACK PRINCE, NEWINGTON BUTTS
The Black Prince at Newington Butts possessed, about 1788, a

pleasant garden frequented for trap-ball playing. There is a view (W.
Coll.) of the tavern and garden printed for C. Bowles, 22 Sept., 1788.
THE BLACK PRINCE, NEWINGTON BUTTS, 1788.

LAMBETH WELLS
In the last century Lambeth Marsh and the fields in the

neighbourhood were a favourite resort of Londoners for running-
matches and outdoor sports, and the Lambeth Wells offered the
special attractions of music and mineral water-drinking. The Wells
(opened to the public before 1697) were situated in Three Coney
Walk, now called Lambeth Walk, and consisted of two springs,
distinguished as the Nearer and Farther Well. The water was sent
out to St. Thomas’s Hospital and elsewhere at a penny a quart, and
the poor had it free.
The usual charge for admission for drinking the waters was
threepence, including the music, which, about 1700, began at seven
in the morning, and was continued on three days of the week till
sunset, and on other days till two. The season began in the spring,
usually on Easter Monday.
Attached to the Wells was a Great Room, in which concerts and
dancing took place. During the season of 1697 there was a “consort”
every Wednesday of “vocal and instrumental musick, consisting of
about thirty instruments and voices, after the manner of the musick-
meeting in York Buildings, the price only excepted,” each person to
pay for coming in but one shilling. These concerts began originally at
2.30 p.m., but afterwards at six, when no person was admitted in a
mask.
About 1700 these shilling concerts seem to have been
discontinued, but the Wells remained in some repute till about 1736,
when they found a rival in the spring of the Dog and Duck, and the
attendance fell off.
In 1740 the owner was named Keefe. About 1750, under his
successor Ireland, a musical society under the direction of Sterling
Goodwin, organist of St. Saviour’s, Southwark, gave a monthly
concert there. At the same period Erasmus King, once coachman to
Dr. Desaguliers, read lectures there and exhibited experiments in
natural philosophy (admission sixpence). There were gala dancing-
days in 1747, and in 1752 (June 27), when a “penny wedding in the
Scotch manner was celebrated for the benefit of a young couple.”
At a later date (after 1755?[312]) the place was condemned as a
nuisance, and the magistrates refused the dancing licence. The
Great Room was then used for Methodist services, and the music-
gallery for the pulpit, but the preacher (we are told) being disturbed
greatly in his enthusiastic harangues was obliged to quit, and the
premises were afterwards built on, or devoted to various purposes,
with the exception of the dwelling-house, which (before 1786) was
turned into a tavern, under the sign of the Fountain. The present
Fountain public-house, erected on the site of the older Fountain in
1829, is No. 105 Lambeth Walk, nearly opposite Old Paradise Street
(formerly Paradise Row). The Wells themselves, though long closed,
were still in existence in 1829, but a house was subsequently built
over them.
Brayley and Mantell (Surrey, iii. 400) writing about 1841, say that
part of the grounds continued “long within memory” to be used as a
tea-garden.
[Nichols’s Parish of Lambeth (1786), p. 65, ff.; Gent. Mag. 1813, pt.
2, p. 556; Manning and Bray, Surrey, iii. 468; Brayley and Mantell,
Surrey, iii. 399, ff.; Allen’s Lambeth, p. 346, ff.; Walford, vi. 389].
MARBLE HALL, VAUXHALL
Marble Hall was situated on the Thames, at the spot afterwards

occupied by the southern abutment of Vauxhall Bridge. Part of the
road to the bridge now occupies the site.
Joseph Crosier, the proprietor in 1740, “enlarged, beautified and
illuminated” the gardens,[313] and built a Long Room facing the river,
which was opened in May 1740, and used for dancing during the
spring and summer.
From circ. 1752–1756 the proprietor was Naphthali Hart,[314]
teacher of music and dancing, who held assemblies at Marble Hall in
the season, devoting his energies in the winter to Hart’s Academy,
Essex House, Essex Street, Strand, where (as his advertisements
state) “grown gentlemen are taught to dance a minuet and country
dances in the modern taste, and in a short time.” “Likewise
gentlemen are taught to play on any instrument, the use of the small
Sword and Spedroon.” “At the same place is taught musick, fencing,
French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, High German, Low Dutch,
Navigation, or any other part of the Mathematicks.” “A sprightly youth
is wanted as an apprentice.”
In the spring of 1756 Marble Hall was opened as a coffee house
and tavern, but little appears to be known of it after this date, though
it was in existence till about August 1813, when the abutment of
Vauxhall Bridge on the Surrey side was begun.
[Advertisements in “Public Gardens” collection in Guildhall Library,
London; Manning and Bray, Surrey, iii. 484, and map, p. 526; Allen’s
Lambeth, 368; Walford, vi. 339.]
THE CUMBERLAND TEA-GARDENS AND TAVERN, VAUXHALL
Originally Smith’s Tea-Gardens
These small gardens, about one acre and a half in extent, were
pleasantly situated on the south bank of the Thames, immediately to
the south of Vauxhall Bridge (built 1811–1816). Under the name of
Smith’s Tea-Gardens they were probably in existence some years
previous to 1779. “A Fête Champêtre, or Grand Rural Masked Ball,”
with illuminations in the garden and the rooms, was advertised to
take place on 22 May, 1779, at 10 p.m., the subscription tickets being
one guinea.
About May 1784 the gardens were taken by Luke Reilly, landlord
of the Freemasons’ Tavern in Great Queen Street, who changed the
name to the Cumberland (or Royal Cumberland) Gardens.[315] At
this time they were open in the afternoon and evening, and visitors to
Vauxhall Gardens sometimes had refreshments there in the arbours
and tea-room while waiting for Vauxhall to open; or adjourned thither
for supper when tired of the larger garden.
In August 1796 a silver cup given by the proprietor was competed
for on the river by sailing boats. In 1797 a ten years’ lease of the
gardens and tavern was advertised to be sold for £1,000.
From 1800 to 1825 the gardens were much frequented by
dwellers in the south of London. Between three and four o’clock in
the morning of May 25, 1825, the tavern was discovered to be on
fire. The engines of Vauxhall Gardens and of the various Insurance
Offices came on the scene, but the fire raged for more than an hour,
and the tavern and the ball-room adjoining were completely
destroyed and the plantation and garden greatly injured. In October
of the same year the property on the premises was sold by the
lessors under an execution and at that time the gardens were, it
would seem, finally closed.[316]
WATERSIDE ENTRANCE TO CUMBERLAND GARDENS.
The South Lambeth Water Works occupied the site for many
years and the Phœnix Works of the South Metropolitan Gas
Company are now on the spot.[317]
[Newspaper cuttings in W. Coll.; Walford, vi. 389, 449; Timbs,
Curiosities of London (1868), p. 18, and Club Life, ii. 261; Picture of
London, 1802, 1823 and 1829; the Courier for 25 and 26 May, 1825;
Allen, Lambeth, p. 379.]
VIEWS.
“Cumberland Gardens, &c.” A view by moonlight of the waterside
entrance to the gardens. Undated (circ. 1800?). W. Coll.
The gardens are well marked in Horwood’s Plan, D. 1799.
VAUXHALL GARDENS
§ 1. 1661–1728
These, the most famous of all the London pleasure gardens, were
known in their earliest days as the New Spring Garden at Vauxhall,
and continued till late in the eighteenth century to be advertised as
Spring Gardens.[318]
The Spring Garden was opened to the public shortly after the
Restoration, probably in 1661.[319] It was a prettily contrived
plantation, laid out with walks and arbours: the nightingale sang in
the trees; wild roses could be gathered in the hedges, and cherries
in the orchard. The Rotunda, the Orchestra, and the Triumphal
Arches, distinctive features of the later Vauxhall, were then non-
existent, and the proprietor’s house from which refreshments were
supplied was probably the only building that broke the charm of its
rural isolation. It was a pleasant place to walk in, and the visitor
might spend what he pleased, for nothing was charged for
admission. It soon became one of the favourite haunts of Pepys,
who first visited it on 29 May 1662. On hot summer days, he would
take water to Foxhall with Deb and Mercer and his wife, to stroll in
the garden alleys, and eat a lobster or a syllabub. On one day in May
(29, 1666) he found two handsome ladies calling on Mrs. Pepys. He
was burdened with Admiralty business—“but, Lord! to see how my
nature could not refrain from the temptation, but I must invite them to
go to Foxhall, to Spring Gardens.”
In a few years the Spring Garden became well known. Fine
people came thither to divert themselves and the citizen also spent
his holiday there, “pulling off cherries [says Pepys] and God knows
what.” The song of the birds was charming, but from about 1667
more sophisticated harmony was furnished by a harp, some fiddles,
and a Jew’s trump. About this time the rude behaviour of the gallants
of the town began to be noted at the Spring Garden. Gentlemen like
“young Newport” and Harry Killigrew, “a rogue newly come back out
of France, but still in disgrace at our Court,” would thrust themselves
into the supper-arbours and almost seize on the ladies, “perhaps civil
ladies,” as Pepys conjectures. “Their mad talk [he adds] did make
my heart ake,” though he himself, at a later time, was found at the
gardens eating and drinking with Mrs. Knipp, “it being darkish.”
During the last thirty years of the seventeenth century, the Spring
Garden, if less perturbed by the Killigrews and Newports, was not a
little notorious as a rendezvous for fashionable gallantry and intrigue.
“’Tis infallibly some intrigue that brings them to Spring Garden” says
Lady Fancyful in ‘The Provoked Wife’ (1697), and Tom Brown
(Amusements, 1700, p. 54) declares that in the close walks of the
gardens “both sexes meet, and mutually serve one another as
guides to lose their way, and the windings and turnings in the little
Wildernesses are so intricate, that the most experienced mothers
have often lost themselves in looking for their daughters.” It is not
hard to picture Mrs. Frail “with a man alone” at Spring Garden;
Hippolita eating a cheese-cake or a syllabub “with cousin,” and the
gallant of Sedley’s ‘Bellamira’ (1687) passing off on Thisbe the fine
compliments that he had already tried on “the flame-coloured
Petticoat in New Spring Garden.”
On the evening of 17 May, 1711, Swift (it is interesting to note)
visited the gardens with Lady Kerry and Miss Pratt, “to hear the
nightingales.”[320] The visit of Addison’s Sir Roger in the spring of
1712 is classical.[321] “We were now arrived at Spring Garden, which
is exquisitely pleasant at this time of year. When I considered the
fragrancy of the walks and bowers, with the choirs of birds that sung
upon the trees, and the loose tribe of people that walked under their
shades, I could not but look upon the place as a kind of Mahometan
Paradise.” You must understand, says the Knight, there is nothing in
the world that pleases a man in love so much as your nightingale.
“He here fetched a deep sigh, and was falling into a fit of musing,
when a mask, who came behind him, gave him a gentle tap upon the
shoulder, and asked him if he would drink a bottle of mead with her.”
The old Knight bid the baggage begone, and retired with his friend
for a glass of Burton and a slice of hung beef. He told the waiter to
carry the remainder to the one-legged waterman who had rowed him
to Foxhall, and, as he left the garden animadverted upon the morals
of the place in his famous utterance on the paucity of nightingales.
In 1726 the Spring Garden is singled out as one of the London
sights,[322] but it would seem that it had fallen into disrepute, and
that fresh attractions and a management less lax were now
demanded.[323]
§ 2. 1732–1767.
In 1728 Mr. Jonathan Tyers, the true founder of Vauxhall Gardens,
obtained from Elizabeth Masters a lease of the Spring Gardens for
thirty years at an annual rent of £250, and by subsequent purchases
(in 1752 and 1758) became the actual owner of the estate. He
greatly altered and improved the gardens, and on Wednesday 7
June 1732 opened Vauxhall with a Ridotto al fresco. The visitors
came between nine and eleven in the evening, most of them wearing
dominoes and lawyers’ gowns, and the company did not separate till
three or four the next morning. The later Vauxhall numbered its
visitors by thousands, but at this fête only about four hundred people
were present, and the guard of a hundred soldiers stationed in the
gardens, with bayonets fixed, was an unnecessary precaution. Good
order prevailed, though a tipsy waiter put on a masquerading dress,
and a pickpocket stole fifty guineas from a visitor, “but the rogue was
taken in the fact.” A guinea ticket gave admission to this
entertainment, which was repeated several times during the summer.
From about 1737 the Spring Gardens began to present certain
features that long remained characteristic. The admission at the gate
was one shilling, the regular charge till 1792, and silver tickets were
issued admitting two persons for the season, which began in April or
May.[324]
An orchestra containing an organ was erected in the garden, and
the concert about this time lasted from five or six till nine. About 1758
this orchestra was replaced by a more elaborate ‘Gothic’ structure
“painted white and bloom colour” and having a dome surmounted by
a plume of feathers. The concert was at first instrumental, but in
1745 Tyers added vocal music, and engaged Mrs. Arne, the elder
Reinhold, and the famous tenor, Thomas Lowe, who remained the
principal singer at Vauxhall till about 1763.
VAUXHALL TICKET BY
HOGARTH (AMPHION ON
DOLPHIN).
On the opening day of the season of 1737 “there was (we read) a
prodigious deal of good company present,” and by the end of the
season Pinchbeck was advertising his New Vauxhall Fan with a view
of the walks, the orchestra, the grand pavilion, and the organ.
The proprietor was fortunate in the patronage of Frederick Prince
of Wales, who had attended the opening Ridotto and often visited
Vauxhall till his death in 1751.[325] On 6 July, 1737, for instance, His
Royal Highness with several ladies of distinction and noblemen of
his household came from Kew by water to the Gardens, with music
attending. The Prince walked in the Grove, commanded several airs
and retired after supping in the Great Room.
Of fashionable patronage Vauxhall had, indeed, no lack till a very
late period of its existence; but the place was never exclusive or
select, and at no other London resort could the humours of every
class of the community be watched with greater interest or
amusement. “Even Bishops (we are assured) have been seen in this
Recess without injuring their Character.” To us, some of its
entertainments seem insipid and the manners and morals of its
frequenters occasionally questionable, but the charm of the place for
our forefathers must have been real, or Vauxhall would hardly have
found a place in our literature and social history. The old accounts
speak of Spring Gardens not only with naïve astonishment, but with
positive affection. “The whole place” (to borrow the remark, and the
spelling, of a last century writer) “is a realisation of Elizium.” One of
the paintings in the gardens represented “Two Mahometans gazing
in wonder at the beauties of the place.” Farmer Colin, after his
week’s trip in town (1741) returned to his wife full of the wonderful
Spring Gardens:—
Oh, Mary! soft in feature,
I’ve been at dear Vauxhall;
No paradise is sweeter,
Not that they Eden call.
Methought, when first I entered,

Such splendours round me shone,
Into a world I ventured,
Where rose another sun:
While music, never cloying,

As skylarks sweet, I hear:
The sounds I’m still enjoying,
They’ll always soothe my ear.
The account of England’s Gazetteer of 1751 is naturally more

prosaic, but takes the exalted tone that characterises the old
descriptions of the gardens:—“This (Foxhall) is the place where are
those called Spring Gardens, laid out in so grand a taste that they
are frequented in the three summer months by most of the nobility
and gentry then in and near London; and are often honoured with
some of the royal family, who are here entertained, with the sweet
song of numbers of nightingales, in concert with the best band of
musick in England. Here are fine pavilions, shady groves, and most
delightful walks, illuminated by above one thousand lamps, so
disposed that they all take fire together, almost as quick as lightning,
and dart such a sudden blaze as is perfectly surprising. Here are
among others, two curious statues of Apollo the god, and Mr. Handel
the master of musick; and in the centre of the area, where the walks
terminate, is erected the temple for the musicians, which is
encompassed all round with handsome seats, decorated with
pleasant paintings, on subjects most happily adapted to the season,
place and company.”
The usual approach to the gardens until about 1750, when it
became possible to go by coach, was by water. At Westminster and
Whitehall Stairs barges and boats were always in waiting during the
evening. Sir John, from Fenchurch Street, with his lady and large
family, came on board attended by a footman bearing provisions for
the voyage. The girls chatter about the last city-ball, and Miss Kitty,
by her mamma’s command, sings the new song her master has
taught her. Presently, “my lady grows sick” and has recourse to the
citron wine and the drops. At the Temple Stairs a number of young
fellows, Templars and others, hurry into the boats, and Mr. William,
the prentice, takes the water with Miss Suckey, his master’s
daughter. The deepness of their design is an inexhaustible fount of
merriment, for she is supposed to be gone next door to drink tea,
and he to meet an uncle coming from the country.[326]
VAUXHALL TICKET BY
HOGARTH
(“SUMMER”).
More refined would be the party of Mr. Horatio Walpole, in a

barge, “with a boat of French horns attending,” or (at a later date) of
Miss Lydia Melford, who describes how “at nine o’clock in a
charming moonlight evening we embarked at Ranelagh for Vauxhall,
in a wherry so light and slender that we looked like so many fairies
sailing in a nutshell.” The pleasure of the voyage was marred by the
scene on landing, for, although the worthy beadles of the gardens
were present at the waterside to preserve order, there was at all
periods on landing at Vauxhall Stairs “a terrible confusion of
wherries,” “a crowd of people bawling, and swearing, and
quarrelling,” and a parcel of ugly fellows running out into the water to
pull you violently ashore. But you paid your shilling at the gate, or
showed your silver ticket, and then passed down a dark passage into
the full blaze of the gardens, lit with their thousand lamps.[327] This
was the great moment, as every Vauxhall visitor from first to last, has
testified. An impressionable young lady[328] found herself dazzled
and confounded by the variety of the scene:—“Image to yourself ... a
spacious garden, part laid out in delightful walks, bounded with high
hedges and trees, and paved with gravel; part exhibiting a wonderful
assemblage of the most picturesque and striking objects, pavilions,
lodges, groves, grottos, lawns, temples, and cascades; porticos,
colonnades, and rotundas; adorned with pillars, statues, and
paintings; the whole illuminated with an infinite number of lamps,
disposed in different figures of suns, stars and constellations; the
place crowded with the gayest company, ranging through those
blissful shades, or supping in different lodges on cold collations,
enlivened with mirth, freedom and good humour, and animated by an
excellent band of music.” Among the vocal performers you might
perhaps have the happiness to hear the celebrated Mrs.—— whose
voice was so loud and shrill that it would make your head ache
“through excess of pleasure.”
Goldsmith’s Chinese Philosopher[329]—for foreigners always
visited Vauxhall and even imitated it in Paris and at the Hague—
received a similar impression on entering the gardens with Mr. Tibbs,
the second-rate beau, and the pawnbroker’s widow. “The lights
everywhere glimmering through the scarcely moving trees; the full-
bodied concert bursting on the stillness of the night; the natural
concert of the birds in the more retired part of the grove vying with
that which was formed by art; the company gaily dressed, looking
satisfaction, and the tables spread with various delicacies.”
For an hour or two the promenade and the concert were
sufficiently amusing, and the crowd gathered before the orchestra,
when Lowe or Miss Stevenson came forward with a new song. Music
is the food of love, and the Vauxhall songs were (as Mr. Dobson has
remarked) “abjectly sentimental.” Incidents like the following
described by an amorous advertiser in the London Chronicle for 5
August, 1758, must have been not uncommon at the gardens:—“A
young lady who was at Vauxhall on Thursday night last in company
with two gentlemen, could not but observe a young gentleman in
blue and a gold laced hat, who being near her by the orchestra
during the performance, especially the last song, gazed upon her
with the utmost attention. He earnestly hopes (if unmarried) she will
favour him with a line directed to A. D. at the bar of the Temple
Exchange Coffee-house, Temple Bar, to inform him whether fortune,
family and character may not entitle him upon a further knowledge,
to hope an interest in her heart.”
At nine o’clock a bell rang, and the company hurried to the north
side of the gardens to get a view of the Cascade. A curtain being
drawn aside disclosed a landscape scene illuminated by concealed
lights. In the foreground was a miller’s house and a waterfall. “The
exact appearance of water” was seen flowing down a declivity and
turning the wheel of a mill: the water rose up in foam at the bottom,
and then glided away. This simple exhibition was a favourite at
Vauxhall, though it lasted but a few minutes and was spoken of
contemptuously in The Connoisseur and other journals as the “tin
cascade.”[330]

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Printed in the United States of America

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It is wrong always, everywhere, and for anyone,

Nothing can be more important than the art of

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Part I Informal Logic

Part II Formal Logic

Part III Inductive Logic

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1.2 Recognizing Arguments 12

1.3 Deduction and Induction 29

1.4 Validity, Truth, Soundness, Strength, and Cogency 39

1.5 Argument Forms: Proving Invalidity 52

1.6 Extended Arguments 58

2 Language: Meaning and Definition 70

2.2 The Intension and Extension of Terms 80

2.3 Definitions and Their Purposes 84

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2.5 Criteria for Lexical Definitions 101

3 Informal Fallacies 107

3.2 Fallacies of Relevance 110

3.3 Fallacies of Weak Induction 125

3.4 Fallacies of Presumption, Ambiguity,

3.5 Fallacies in Ordinary Language 159

4 Categorical Propositions 175

4.2 Quality, Quantity, and Distribution 179

4.3 Venn Diagrams and the Modern Square of

4.4 Conversion, Obversion, and Contraposition 194

4.5 The Traditional Square of Opposition 203

4.6 Venn Diagrams and the Traditional

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5 Categorical Syllogisms 231

5.2 Venn Diagrams 238

5.3 Rules and Fallacies 248

5.4 Reducing the Number of Terms 255

5.5 Ordinary Language Arguments 258

5.6 Enthymemes 261

5.7 Sorites 266

6 Propositional Logic 275

6.2 Truth Functions 287

6.3 Truth Tables for Propositions 296

6.4 Truth Tables for Arguments 304

6.5 Indirect Truth Tables 310

6.6 Argument Forms and Fallacies 318

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7.2 Rules of Implication II 347

7.3 Rules of Replacement I 355

7.4 Rules of Replacement II 366

7.5 Conditional Proof 377

7.6 Indirect Proof 382

7.7 Proving Logical Truths 387

8 Predicate Logic 390

8.2 Using the Rules of Inference 398

8.3 Quantifier Negation Rule 408

8.4 Conditional and Indirect Proof 413

8.5 Proving Invalidity 418

8.6 Relational Predicates and Overlapping Quantifiers 423