Medical Terminology For Health Professions 8Th Edition Ann Ehrlich Full Chapter

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Ann Ehrlich
Carol L. Schroeder
Laura Ehrlich
Katrina A. Schroeder
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Medical Terminology for Health Professions, © 2017, 2013 Cengage Learning
Eigth Edition
WCN: 02-200-203
Ann Ehrlich, Carol L. Schroeder,
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Printed in the United States of America

Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2015
CONTENTS
Preface xii
To the Learner / xii

Changes to the Eighth Edition / xiv
Acknowledgments / xv
How to Use This Book / xvi
Chapter 1: Introduction to Medical

Terminology 1
Primary Medical Terms / 3

Word Parts Are the Key / 3
Word Roots / 4
Suffixes / 5
Prefixes / 8
Determining Meanings on the Basis of Word Parts / 9
Medical Dictionary Use / 10
Pronunciation / 11
Spelling Is Always Important / 12
Singular and Plural Endings / 12
Basic Medical Terms to Describe Diseases / 12
Look-Alike, Sound-Alike Terms and Word Parts / 12
Using Abbreviations / 16
Learning Exercises / 18
The Human Touch: Critical Thinking Exercise / 27
Chapter 2: The Human Body in Health

and Disease 28
Anatomic Reference Systems / 30

Structures of the Body / 35
Cells / 35
Genetics / 36
Tissues / 38
Glands / 39
Body Systems and Related Organs / 40
Pathology / 40
v
vi CONTENTS
Aging and Death / 43

Health Care Professionals / 43
Abbreviations Related to the Human Body in Health and Disease / 45
Word Part Review WPR1
Word Part Practice Session / WPR1

Word Part Post-Test / WPR5
Chapter 3: The Skeletal System 56
Structures and Functions of the Skeletal System / 58

The Structure of Bones / 58
Joints / 59
The Skeleton / 61
Medical Specialties Related to the Skeletal System / 70
Pathology of the Skeletal System / 70
Diagnostic Procedures of the Skeletal System / 77
Treatment Procedures of the Skeletal System / 77
Abbreviations Related to the Skeletal System / 81
Chapter 4: The Muscular System 92
Functions of the Muscular System / 94

Structures of the Muscular System / 94
Types of Muscle Tissue / 95
Muscle Contraction and Relaxation / 96
Contrasting Muscle Motion / 96
How Muscles Are Named / 98
Select Muscles and Their Functions / 101
Medical Specialties Related to the Muscular System / 102
Pathology of the Muscular System / 102
Diagnostic Procedures of the Muscular System / 108
Treatment Procedures of the Muscular System / 109
Abbreviations Related to the Muscular System / 110
CONTENTS vii
Chapter 5: The Cardiovascular System 122
Functions of the Cardiovascular System / 124

Structures of the Cardiovascular System / 124
The Blood Vessels / 130
Blood / 132
Medical Specialties Related to the Cardiovascular System / 135
Pathology of the Cardiovascular System / 135
Diagnostic Procedures of the Cardiovascular System / 145
Treatment Procedures of the Cardiovascular System / 147
Abbreviations Related to the Cardiovascular System / 151
Chapter 6: The Lymphatic and Immune

Systems 163
Functions of the Lymphatic System / 165

Structures of the Lymphatic System / 165
Additional Structures of the Lymphatic System / 168
Functions and Structures of the Immune System / 170
Medical Specialties Related to the Lymphatic and Immune Systems / 172
Pathology and Diagnostic Procedures of the Lymphatic System / 172
Pathology and Diagnostic Procedures of the Immune System / 173
Treatment of the Immune System / 177
Pathogenic Organisms / 177
Oncology / 181
Cancer Treatments / 186
Abbreviations Related to the Lymphatic and Immune
Systems / 187
Chapter 7: The Respiratory System 198
Functions of the Respiratory System / 200

Structures of the Respiratory System / 200
Respiration / 205
Medical Specialties Related to the Respiratory System / 206
Pathology of the Respiratory System / 206
Upper Respiratory Diseases / 208
Diagnostic Procedures of the Respiratory System / 215
Treatment Procedures of the Respiratory System / 216
viii CONTENTS
Abbreviations Related to the Respiratory System / 219

Chapter 8: The Digestive System 231
Structures of the Digestive System / 233

Digestion / 241
Medical Specialties Related to the Digestive System / 242
Pathology of the Digestive System / 242
Diagnostic Procedures of the Digestive System / 251
Treatment Procedures of the Digestive System / 253
Abbreviations Related to the Digestive System / 256
Chapter 9: The Urinary System 268
Functions of the Urinary System / 270

Structures of the Urinary System / 270
The Excretion of Urine / 273
Medical Specialties Related to the Urinary System / 273
Pathology of the Urinary System / 274
Diagnostic Procedures of the Urinary System / 279
Treatment Procedures of the Urinary System / 281
Abbreviations Related to the Urinary System / 287
Chapter 10: The Nervous System

and Mental Health 298
Functions of the Nervous System / 300

Structures of the Nervous System / 300
The Central Nervous System / 303
The Peripheral Nervous System / 308
The Autonomic Nervous System / 309
Medical Specialties Related to the Nervous System and Mental Health / 310
Pathology of the Nervous System / 310
Diagnostic Procedures of the Nervous System / 317
Treatment Procedures of the Nervous System / 318
Mental Health / 319
CONTENTS ix
Abbreviations Related to the Nervous System / 324

Chapter 11: Special Senses: The Eyes

and Ears 336
Functions of the Eyes / 338

Structures of the Eyes / 338
Medical Specialties Related to the Eyes and Vision / 342
Pathology of the Eyes and Vision / 343
Diagnostic Procedures for Vision and the Eyes / 347
Treatment Procedures of the Eyes and Vision / 348
Functions of the Ears / 349
Structures of the Ears / 350
Medical Specialties Related to the Ears and Hearing / 352
Pathology of the Ears and Hearing / 352
Diagnostic Procedures of the Ears and Hearing / 354
Treatment Procedures of the Ears and Hearing / 355
Abbreviations Related to the Special Senses / 356
Chapter 12: Skin: The Integumentary System 368
Functions of the Integumentary System / 370

The Structures of the Skin and Its Related Structures / 370
Medical Specialties Related to the Integumentary System / 373
Pathology of the Integumentary System / 374
Diagnostic Procedures of the Integumentary System / 384
Treatment Procedures of the Integumentary System / 385
Abbreviations Related to the Integumentary System / 388
Chapter 13: The Endocrine System 399
Functions of the Endocrine System / 401

Structures of the Endocrine System / 401
The Pituitary Gland / 401
The Pineal Gland / 403
The Thyroid Gland / 403
x CONTENTS
The Parathyroid Glands / 404

The Thymus / 404
The Pancreas (Pancreatic Islets) / 404
The Adrenal Glands / 405
The Gonads / 406
Medical Specialties Related to the Endocrine System / 407
Pathology of the Endocrine System / 407
Diagnostic Procedures Related to the Endocrine System / 413
Treatment Procedures Related to the Endocrine System / 414
Abbreviations Related to the Endocrine System / 415
Chapter 14: The Reproductive Systems 426
Terms Related to the Reproductive Systems of Both Sexes / 428

Functions of the Male Reproductive System / 428
Structures of the Male Reproductive System / 428
Medical Specialties Related to the Male Reproductive System / 430
Pathology of the Male Reproductive System / 430
Diagnostic Procedures of the Male Reproductive System / 432
Treatment Procedures of the Male Reproductive System / 432
Sexually Transmitted Diseases / 433
Functions of the Female Reproductive System / 434
Structures of the Female Reproductive System / 434
Terms Related to Pregnancy and Childbirth / 437
Medical Specialties Related to the Female Reproductive System
and Childbirth / 442
Pathology of the Female Reproductive System / 442
Pathology of Pregnancy and Childbirth / 445
Diagnostic Procedures of the Female Reproductive System / 446
Treatment Procedures of the Female Reproductive System / 447
Abbreviations Related to the Reproductive Systems / 450
Chapter 15: Diagnostic Procedures,

Nuclear Medicine, and Pharmacology 462
Diagnostic Procedures / 464

Recumbent Examination Positions / 468
Laboratory Tests / 468
Endoscopy / 471
CONTENTS xi
Centesis / 472
Imaging Techniques / 473
Barium / 473
Nuclear Medicine / 477
Pharmacology / 480
Complementary and Alternative Medicine / 483
Abbreviations Related to Diagnostic Procedures, Nuclear Medicine, and
Pharmacology / 485
Comprehensive Medical Terminology

Review 499
Study Tips / 500

Review Session Answer Sheet / 501
Simulated Medical Terminology Final Test Answer Sheet / 502
Review Session / 503
Review Session Answer Key / 512
Simulated Final Test / 513
Simulated Medical Terminology Final Test Answer Key / 522
Appendix A: Prefixes, Combining Forms, and Suffixes / 523

Appendix B: Abbreviations and Their Meanings / 535
Appendix C: Glossary of Pathology and Procedures / 555
Index / 597
Flash Cards / 646
PREFACE
TO THE LEARNER
Welcome to the world of medical terminology! Learning this special language is an important
step in preparing for your career as a health care professional. Here’s good news: learning med-
ical terms is much easier than learning a foreign language because you are already familiar with
quite a few of the words, such as appendicitis and tonsillectomy. Understanding new words
becomes easier with the discovery that many of these terms are made up of interchangeable
word parts that are used in different combinations. Once you understand this, you’ll be well on
your way to translating even the most difficult medical terms, including words you have never
seen before. You’ll be amazed to see how quickly your vocabulary will grow!
This book and the accompanying learning materials are designed to make the process as
simple as possible. Review the “How to Use This Book” section so you can find your way around
easily. Once you become comfortable with the format, you’ll discover you are learning faster
than you ever imagined possible.
CHAPTER ORGANIZATION
The text is designed to help you master medical terminology. It is organized into 15 chapters,
the Word Part Review, the Comprehensive Medical Terminology Review, three appendices, an
index, and removable flashcards. To gain the most benefit from your use of this text, take
advantage of the many features, including the “Learning Exercises” plus the “Human Touch”
stories and discussion questions that are included at the end of each chapter.
Primary terms are the most important terms in a chapter. When first introduced, the term
appears in boldface and, if appropriate, is followed by the “sounds-like” pronunciation. Only
primary terms are used as correct answers in the exercises and tests.
Secondary terms appear in cyan italics. These terms, which are included to clarify the
meaning of a primary term, are sometimes used as distracters, but not as correct answers, in
exercises or tests.
Each chapter begins with a vocabulary list consisting of 15 word parts and 60 medical
terms selected from among the primary terms in the chapter. Note: If your instructor is using the
Simplified Syllabus version of this course, these are the terms that you will be expected to learn
for all quizzes, tests, and exams.
xii
PREFACE xiii
Introductory Chapters and Word Part

Review
Chapters 1 and 2 create the foundation that enables you to
master the rest of the book. Chapter 1 introduces key word
parts—the building blocks of most medical terms.
Chapter 2 introduces more word parts and provides an
overview of basic terms used throughout the medical field, as well
as some of the many career options open to you in health care.
After studying these chapters, complete the Word Part
Review that follows Chapter 2. These practice activities and
the accompanying test will help you determine whether
you’ve mastered the concept of these all-important building Laura Ehrlich
blocks. If you are having trouble here, it is important to put Katrina A. Schroeder
more effort into learning these basics. 2

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Body System Chapters lated

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Chapters 3 through 14 are organized by body system. and th
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ga stritis
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chapters in any sequence. Each chapter begins with an over- □
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dys-
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view of the structures and functions of that system so you can □
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relate these to the medical specialists, pathology, diagnostics, □
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and treatment procedures that follow. □
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rgical
, surg
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repair incision □
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myelo (my-KO
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S-kyou
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Chapter 15 introduces basic diagnostic procedures, □
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rgical
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examination positions, imaging techniques, laboratory tests, □
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hard
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minoc palp e) (oh-toh- oh
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nuclear medicine, and pharmacology. It also includes a □
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section on alternative and complementary medicines. This □
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arteri ecrosis (a ee) □ trayt

□ os r-tee- SIGH-tis) s (pye )
arthra clerosis (a ree-oh pyod -eh-LY
chapter can be studied at any point in the course. □

□
diagno
lg
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□ sis (d AHS- ) -sis) su n (soo S-tal)
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Comprehensive Medical Terminology Review

epon DOS- □ rome tum) ta l)
□ ym (E koh- al) tonsill (SIN
P-oh pee) □ ec -drohm
(FISH -nim) tonsill tomy (ton )
-ur) □ iti -s
traum s (ton-sih ih-LECK
□ a -L -toh-
triage (TRAW-m YE-tis) mee)
□ (tree ah
viral -AHZH )
□ (VYE )
This section, which follows Chapter 15, is designed to help virile
(VIR
-ral)
-ill)
you prepare for your final examination. It includes study tips, CHAPTER 1
practice exercises, and a simulated final test; however, be aware LEARNING EXERCISES
that none of these questions are from the actual final test.
MATCHING WORD PARTS 1
Appendices
Write the correct answer in the middle column.
Correct Answer Possible Answers
________________________________________ -algia
Appendix A: Prefixes, Combining Forms, and Suffixes is a 1.2.
1.3.
excessive, increased
liver
________________________________________
________________________________________
dys-
-ectomy
convenient alphabetic reference for the medical word parts. ________________________________________ hepat/o
1.5. surgical removal ________________________________________ hyper-
When you don’t recognize a word part, you can look it up here.
Appendix B: Abbreviations and Their Meanings is an Write the correct answer in the middle column.
Correct Answer Possible Answers

extensive list of commonly used abbreviations and their 1.6. abnormal condition ________________________________________ hypo-
meanings. Abbreviations are important in medicine, and 1.7. abnormal softening ________________________________________ -itis
________________________________________ -malacia
using them accurately is essential! ________________________________________ -necrosis
1.10. tissue death ________________________________________ -osis

Appendix C: Glossary of Pathology and Procedures gives the
definitions of all the primary terms in the text relating to Write the correct answer in the middle column.
diagnosis, pathology, and medical procedures. 1.11. bleeding, bursting forth

Correct Answer
________________________________________
Possible Answers
-ostomy
1.12. surgical creation of an opening ________________________________________ -otomy

8
xiv PREFACE
Student Resources
The following resources are included with your textbook to provide even more
help as you study.
n Flashcards. Improve your knowledge and test your mastery by using the
flashcards provided in the last section of the book. Remove these perfo-
rated pages carefully and then separate the cards. Flashcards are an effec-
tive study aid for use even when you have only a small amount of time.
n Online Resources. A student companion website is available to
accompany a new textbook that includes slide presentations created
®
in PowerPoint and animations.
To access the online resources:
1. Go To: http://www.CengageBrain.com.
2. Register as a new user or log in as an existing user if you already have
an account with Cengage Learning or CengageBrain.com
CHANGES TO THE EIGHTH EDITION

A detailed conversion guide that helps you make the change from the
seventh to the eighth edition is included in the Instructor Resource Center at
http://www.cengage.com. A brief summary of some of the changes follows:
n Added eleven new, full-color photos

n Chapter 1: Further clarified combining forms
n Chapter 1: Updated use of medical dictionary to include
online resources
n Chapter 1: Updated “Do Not Use” abbreviations
n Chapter 2: Expanded section on health care professions
n Chapter 5: Added nutritional changes under treatments
n Chapter 6: Updated definitions of lymphomas
n Chapter 6: Expanded material on breast cancer
n Chapter 8: Expanded dental section and virtual colonoscopy
n Chapter 9: Added nutrition to treatment procedures
n Chapter 10: Expanded coverage of mental health
n Chapter 15: Updated section on nuclear medicine
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is a pleasure to introduce Katrina A. Schroeder, RD, and Laura Ehrlich, RN, as our new co-
authors of Medical Terminology for Health Professions. They bring a fresh and professional per-
spective to this textbook as it enters its third decade. As always, we are very grateful for the input
of the many reviewers, and instructors who volunteer feedback, who are an invaluable resource
in guiding this book as it evolves. Their insights, comments, suggestions, and attention to detail
are very important in making the text, and its many resources, up-to-date and accurate.
Thanks also to the editorial and production staff of Cengage Learning for their very profes-
sional and extremely helpful assistance in making this revision possible, especially our editors,
Deb Myette-Flis and Laura Stewart. Deb Myette-Flis deserves special recognition for her stead-
fast support for this project throughout the past five editions.
Please note that a portion of the royalties for this textbook provide scholarships for lymph-
edema therapists, helping to address a nation-wide shortage in this field.
Ann Ehrlich and
Carol L. Schroeder
REVIEWERS
Diane R. Benson, CMA (AAMA), BSHCA, MSA, David Pintado, MD, CCMA,
CDE, ASE, CFP, MRS, CPC, CBCS, AHA BCLS/ Health Care Program Practicum Coordinator
First Aid-Instructor Karan A. Serowik, M.Ed, RMA, CCMA,
Professor Nationally Certified Phlebotomist,
Carol J. Kirkner Ed.D., MT, ASCP, Program Director, Healthcare
Dean—Division of Health Sciences David Stump-Foughty, M.Ed., CPC, MIBC
Program Director
xv
HOW TO USE THIS BOOK
Medical Terminology for Health Professions, Eighth Edition, is

designed to help you learn and remember medical terms with sur-
prising ease. The key lies in the following features.
BODY SYSTEM OVERVIEW

The first page of each body system chapter is a chart giving
an overview of the structures, related combining forms, and
functions most important to that system.
VOCABULARY LIST
The second page of each chapter is a 75-item vocabulary
list. This list includes 15 key word parts with their meanings
and 60 important terms for the chapter with their pronun-
ciations. This immediately alerts you to the key terms in the
chapter and acts as a review guide. Next to each term is a
box so you can check off each term when you’ve learned it.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
The beginning of each chapter lists learning objectives to
help you understand what is expected of you as you read
the text and complete the exercises. These objectives are set
off with a colored bar for easy identification.
ART PROGRAM
Our art program includes hundreds of photos and full-color illus-
trations that help clarify the text and contain important additional
information. Review each illustration and read its caption carefully
for easy and effective learning.
xvi
HOW TO USE THIS BOOK xvii
“SOUNDS-LIKE” PRONUNCIATION
SYSTEM
The sounds-like pronunciation system makes pronunciation easy by
respelling the word with syllables you can understand—and say—at a
glance. Simply pronounce the term just as it appears in parentheses,
accenting the syllables as follows:
n Primary (strongest) accent: capital letters and bold type

n Secondary accent: lowercase letters and bold type
WORD PARTS
Because word parts are so important to learning medical terminology,
whenever a term made up of word parts is introduced, the definition is
followed (in parentheses) by the word parts highlighted in magenta
and defined.
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY

TERMS
n Primary terms are the most important medical words in a
chapter. When first introduced, the term appears in boldface
and, if appropriate, is followed by the sounds-like pronunciation.
These are the words students need to concentrate on learning.
Only primary terms are used as correct answers in the exercises
and tests.
n Secondary terms appear in cyan italics. These terms are included
to clarify the meaning of a primary term. Although used as
distracters in exercises, the secondary terms are not used as
correct answers in exercises or tests.
LEARNING EXERCISES
Each chapter includes 100 Learning Exercises in a variety of formats
that require a one- or two-word written answer. Writing terms,
rather than just circling a multiple-choice option, reinforces learning
and provides practice in writing and spelling the terms.
xviii HOW TO USE THIS BOOK
THE HUMAN TOUCH:

CRITICAL THINKING EXERCISE
A real-life short story that involves patients and pathology,
along with related critical thinking questions, at the end of each
chapter helps you apply what you are learning to the real
world. There are no right or wrong answers, just questions to
get you started thinking about and using the new terms you
have learned.
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
TO MEDICAL
TERMINOLOGY
Overview of
INTRODUCTION TO MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY
Primary Medical Terms Primary terms enable you to give priority to the most important
words in your study of medical terminology. These terms are
shown in black boldface.
Word Parts Are the Key An introduction to word parts and how they are used to create
complex medical terms.
Word Roots The word parts that usually, but not always, indicate the part of
the body involved.
Combining Form A word root that has a vowel, usually the letter “o,” put on the
end before the addition of another word root or a suffix.
Suffixes The word part attached at the end of a word that usually, but not
always, indicates the procedure, condition, disorder, or disease.
Prefixes The word part attached at the beginning of a word that usually,
but not always, indicates location, time, number, or status.
Determining Meanings on Knowledge of word parts helps decipher medical terms.
the Basis of Word Parts
Medical Dictionary Use Guidelines to make looking up a term easier.
Pronunciation Learn how to pronounce words correctly using the “sounds-like”
pronunciation system and audio files.
Spelling Is Always Important A single spelling error can change the entire meaning of a term.
Singular and Plural Endings Unusual singular and plural endings used in medical terms.
Basic Medical Terms Terms used to describe disease conditions.
Look-Alike, Sound-Alike Clarification of confusing terms and word parts that look or
Terms and Word Parts sound similar.
Using Abbreviations Caution is always important when using abbreviations.
1
2 CHAPTER 1
Vocabulary Related to THE INTRODUCTION TO MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY
This list contains essential word parts and medical & erythrocyte (eh-RITH-roh-sight)
terms for this chapter. These and the other & fissure (FISH-ur)
important primary terms are shown in boldface & fistula (FIS-chuh-lah)
& gastralgia (gas-TRAL-jee-ah)
throughout the chapter. Secondary terms, which
& gastritis (gas-TRY-tis)
appear in cyan italics, clarify the meaning of primary
& gastroenteritis (gas-troh-en-ter-EYE-tis)
terms.
& gastrosis (gas-TROH-sis)
& hemorrhage (HEM-or-idj)
Word Parts & hepatomegaly (hep-ah-toh-MEG-ah-lee)
& hypertension (high-per-TEN-shun)
& -algia pain, suffering
& hypotension (high-poh-TEN-shun)
& dys- bad, difficult, or painful
& infection (in-FECK-shun)
& -ectomy surgical removal, cutting out
& inflammation (in-flah-MAY-shun)
& hyper- excessive, increased
& interstitial (in-ter-STISH-al)
& hypo- deficient, decreased
& intramuscular (in-trah-MUS-kyou-lar)
& -itis inflammation
& laceration (lass-er-AY-shun)
& -osis abnormal condition, disease
& lesion (LEE-zhun)
& -ostomy the surgical creation of an artificial
& malaise (mah-LAYZ)
opening to the body surface & mycosis (my-KOH-sis)
& -otomy cutting, surgical incision & myelopathy (my-eh-LOP-ah-thee)
& -plasty surgical repair & myopathy (my-OP-ah-thee)
& -rrhage bleeding, abnormal excessive fluid & myorrhexis (my-oh-RECK-sis)
discharge & natal (NAY-tal)
& -rrhaphy surgical suturing & neonatology (nee-oh-nay-TOL-oh-jee)
& -rrhea flow or discharge & neurorrhaphy (new-ROR-ah-fee)
& -rrhexis rupture & otorhinolaryngology (oh-toh-rye-noh-lar-in-
& -sclerosis abnormal hardening
GOL-oh-jee)
& palpation (pal-PAY-shun)
& palpitation (pal-pih-TAY-shun)
Medical Terms & pathology (pah-THOL-oh-jee)
& abdominocentesis (ab-dom-ih-noh- & phalanges (fah-LAN-jeez)
sen-TEE-sis) & poliomyelitis (poh-lee-oh-my-eh-LYE-tis)
& acronym (ACK-roh-nim) & prognosis (prog-NOH-sis)
& acute & pyoderma (pye-oh-DER-mah)
& angiography (an-jee-OG-rah-fee) & pyrosis (pye-ROH-sis)
& appendectomy (ap-en-DECK-toh-mee) & remission
& arteriosclerosis (ar-tee-ree-oh-skleh-ROH-sis) & sign
& arthralgia (ar-THRAL-jee-ah) & supination (soo-pih-NAY-shun)
& colostomy (koh-LAHS-toh-mee) & suppuration (sup-you-RAY-shun)
& cyanosis (sigh-ah-NOH-sis) & supracostal (sue-prah-KOS-tal)
& dermatologist (der-mah-TOL-oh-jist) & symptom (SIMP-tum)
& diagnosis (dye-ag-NOH-sis) & syndrome (SIN-drohm)
& diarrhea (dye-ah-REE-ah) & tonsillitis (ton-sih-LYE-tis)
& edema (eh-DEE-mah) & trauma (TRAW-mah)
& endarterial (end-ar-TEE-ree-al) & triage (tree-AHZH)
& eponym (EP-oh-nim) & viral (VYE-ral)
INTRODUCTION TO MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY 3
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
On completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Identify the roles of the four types of 5. Use the “sounds-like” pronunciation system
word parts used in forming medical terms. and audio files to correctly pronounce the
2. Use your knowledge of word parts to primary terms introduced in this chapter.
analyze unfamiliar medical terms. 6. Recognize the importance of spelling medi-
3. Describe the steps in locating a cal terms correctly.
term in a medical dictionary or online 7. State why caution is important when using
resource. abbreviations.
4. Define the commonly used word roots, 8. Recognize, define, spell, and correctly pro-
combining forms, suffixes, and prefixes nounce the primary terms introduced in this
introduced in this chapter. chapter.
PRIMARY MEDICAL TERMS n Secondary terms appear in cyan italics. Some of

these terms are the “also known as” names for
In this book, you will be introduced to many medical terms; conditions or procedures. Other secondary terms
however, mastering them will be easier than you anticipate clarify words used in the definitions of primary terms.
because this book has many features to help you learn.
n Primary terms appear in boldface. Learning these
terms should be your highest priority as only primary
WORD PARTS ARE THE KEY
terms are used as correct answers in the Learning
Exercises and tests. Learning medical terminology is much easier once you
n A vocabulary list with 15 essential word parts and 60 understand how word parts work together to form medi-
key primary terms (and their pronunciations) is at the cal terms (Figure 1.1). This book includes many aids to
beginning of each chapter. help you reinforce your word-building skills.
-ology
ia
-os
-alg ab-
is
-itis
leu
rhin
k/o
-
pre-
/o-
neu
r/o-
gastr
/o - b-
su
hypo-
FIGURE 1.1 Word parts (word roots, combining forms, suffixes, and prefixes) make up most medical terms.
4 CHAPTER 1
n The types of word parts and the rules for their use are 3. A suffix usually, but not always, indicates the proce-
explained in this chapter. Learn these rules and follow dure, condition, disorder, or disease.
them. n A suffix always comes at the end of the word.
n When a term is made up of recognizable word parts, these n You’ll know a word part is a suffix when it is shown
word parts and their meanings are included with the def- with a hyphen (-) preceding it. For example, the
inition of that term. These word parts appear in magenta. suffix -itis means inflammation.
n The majority of the word parts used in medical 4. A prefix usually, but not always, indicates location,
terminology are of Latin origin, some are derived time, number, or status.
from Greek, and a few are from other languages.
n A prefix always comes at the beginning of a word.
n The Learning Exercises for each chapter include a
n You’ll know a word part is a prefix when it is shown
“Challenge Word Building” section to help develop
followed by a hyphen (-). For example, hyper-
your skills in working with word parts.
means excessive or increased.
n A Word Part Review follows Chapter 2. This section
provides additional word part practice and enables
you to evaluate your progress toward mastering the
meaning of these word parts. WORD ROOTS
Word roots act as the foundation for most medical terms.
The Four Types of Word Parts They usually, but not always, describe the part of the body
The four types of word parts used to create many medical that is involved (Figure 1.2). As shown in Table 1.2, some
terms are word roots, combining forms, suffixes, and pre- word roots indicate color.
fixes. Guidelines for their use are shown in Table 1.1.
1. A word root contains the basic meaning of the term.

In medical terminology, this word part usually,
but not always, indicates the involved body part. For Spinal cord
(myel/o)
example, the word root meaning stomach is gastr-.
Bone
2. A combining form is a word root with a combining (oste/o)
vowel added at the end, used when two word roots Muscle
(my/o)
are combined or when a suffix beginning with a con-
sonant is added. When a combining form appears
alone, it is shown with a back slash (/) between the
word root and the combining vowel. For example, the
combining form of the word rood gastr is gastr/o.
Note: a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes y are vowels. All the
other letters in the alphabet are consonants.
Nerve (neur/o)
TABLE 1.1
Word Part Guidelines Joint (arthr/o)
1. A word root cannot stand alone. A suffix must
always be added at the end of the word to com-
plete the term.
2. The rules for creating a combining form by adding

a vowel apply when a suffix beginning with a
consonant is added to a word root.
3. If a prefix is added, it is always placed at the

beginning of the word. FIGURE 1.2 Word roots, shown here as combining forms,
usually indicate the involved body part.
TABLE 1.2
Word Roots and Combining Forms Indicating Color
cyan/o means blue Cyanosis (sigh-ah-NOH-sis) is blue discoloration of the skin caused by a lack of ade-
quate oxygen in the blood (cyan means blue, and -osis means abnormal condition or
disease).
erythr/o means red An erythrocyte (eh-RITH-roh-sight) is a mature red blood cell (erythr/o means red,
and -cyte means cell).
leuk/o means white A leukocyte (LOO-koh-sight) is a white blood cell (leuk/o means white, and -cyte
means cell).
melan/o means black Melanosis (mel-ah-NOH-sis) is any condition of unusual deposits of black pigment in
body tissues or organs (melan means black, and -osis means abnormal condition or
disease).
poli/o means gray Poliomyelitis (poh-lee-oh-my-eh-LYE-tis) is a viral infection of the gray nerve tissue of
the spinal cord (poli/o means gray, myel means spinal cord, and -itis means
inflammation).
Combining Forms Vowels A combining vowel is used when the suffix begins with
a consonant. For example, when neur/o (nerve) is joined
A combining form includes a vowel, usually the letter
with the suffix -plasty (surgical repair) or -rrhaphy (surgi-
o, added to the end of a word root. It is usually added
cal suturing), the combining vowel o is used because
to make the resulting medical term easier to pro-
-plasty and -rrhaphy both begin with a consonant.
nounce. The rules for the use of a combining vowel
are as follows: n Neuroplasty (NEW-roh-plas-tee) is the surgical repair
of a nerve.
n When two word roots are joined, a combining vowel is
always added to the first word root. A combining vowel n Neurorrhaphy (new-ROR-ah-fee) is suturing together
is used at the end of the second word root only if the the ends of a severed nerve.
suffix begins with a consonant. A combining vowel is not used when the suffix begins
n For example, the term gastroenteritis combines with a vowel. For example, the word root tonsill means
two word roots with a suffix: when gastr (stomach) tonsils. No combining vowel is needed when adding either
is joined with the word root enter (small intestine), -itis (inflammation) or -ectomy (surgical removal) to ton-
a vowel is used to make the combining form sill, because they both start with a vowel (Figure 1.3).
gastr/o. These suffixes complete the term and tell us what is hap-
n The word root enter is joined to -itis without a com- pening to the tonsils.
bining vowel because this suffix begins with a vowel. n Tonsillitis (ton-sih-LYE-tis) is an inflammation of the
Gastroenteritis (gas-troh-en-ter-EYE-tis) is an inflam- tonsils.
mation of the stomach and small intestine. n A tonsillectomy (ton-sih-LECK-toh-mee) is the surgi-
cal removal of the tonsils.
SUFFIXES Suffixes as Noun Endings

A suffix is always added at the end of a word to complete A noun is a word that is the name of a person, place, or
that term. In medical terminology, suffixes usually, but thing. In medical terminology, some suffixes change the
not always, indicate a procedure, condition, disorder, or word root into a noun. For example, the cranium (KRAY-
disease. nee-um) is the portion of the skull that encloses the brain
6 CHAPTER 1
TONSILL + -ITIS = TONSILLITIS

(tonsil, tonsils) (inflammation) (inflammation of the tonsils)
FIGURE 1.3 The term tonsillitis is created by adding the suffix -itis to the word root tonsill.
(crani means skull, and -um is a noun ending). Suffixes Suffixes Meaning “Abnormal
that are commonly used as noun endings are shown in
Condition or Disease”
Table 1.3.
In medical terminology, many suffixes, such as -osis,
mean “abnormal condition or disease.” For example,
Suffixes Meaning “Pertaining To” gastrosis (gas-TROH-sis) means any disease of the stom-
An adjective is a word that defines or describes. In medi- ach (gastr means stomach, and -osis means abnormal
cal terminology, many suffixes meaning “pertaining to” condition or disease). Commonly used suffixes meaning
are used to change the meaning of a word root into an abnormal condition or disease are shown in Table 1.5.
adjective. For example, the word root cardi means heart,
and the suffix -ac means pertaining to. Once combined,
Suffixes Related to Pathology
they form the term cardiac (KAR-dee-ack), an adjective
that means pertaining to the heart. Commonly used suf- Pathology (pah-THOL-oh-jee) is the study of all aspects
fixes meaning pertaining to are shown in Table 1.4. of diseases (path means disease, and -ology means study
of). Suffixes related to pathology describe specific disease
conditions.
n -algia means pain and suffering. Gastralgia (gas-TRAL
-jee-ah), also known as a stomachache, means pain in
TABLE 1.3 the stomach (gastr means stomach, and -algia means
Suffixes as Noun Endings pain).
-a -um -y n -dynia is another suffix meaning pain. Gastrodynia

(gas-troh-DIN-ee-ah) also means pain in the stomach
-e -us (gastr/o means stomach, and -dynia means pain).
Although -dynia has the same meaning as -algia, it is
not used as commonly (Figure 1.4).
n -itis means inflammation. Gastritis (gas-TRY-tis) is an
inflammation of the stomach (gastr means stomach,
TABLE 1.4 and -itis means inflammation).
Suffixes Meaning “Pertaining to”
-ac -eal -ior
TABLE 1.5
-al -ical -ory Suffixes Meaning “Abnormal Condition”
-an -ial -ous -ago -iasis -osis
-ar -ic -tic -esis -ion
-ary -ine -ia -ism
Suffixes Related to Procedures

Some suffixes identify the procedure that is performed on
the body part indicated by the word root.
n -centesis is a surgical puncture to remove fluid for
diagnostic purposes or to remove excess fluid.
Abdominocentesis (ab-dom-ih-noh-sen-TEE-sis)
is the surgical puncture of the abdominal cavity to
remove fluid (abdomin/o means abdomen, and
-centesis means a surgical puncture to remove fluid).
n -graphy means the process of producing a picture or
record. Angiography (an-jee-OG-rah-fee) is the pro-
cess of producing a radiographic (x-ray) study of blood
vessels after the injection of a contrast medium to
make these blood vessels visible (angi/o means blood
vessel, and -graphy means the process of recording).
n -gram means a picture or record. An angiogram (AN-
iStockphoto/Catalin Petolea jee-oh-gram) is the resulting film that is produced by
angiography (angi/o means blood vessel, and -gram
means a picture or record).
n -plasty means surgical repair. Myoplasty (MY-oh-plas
-tee) is the surgical repair of a muscle (my/o means
muscle, and -plasty means surgical repair).
FIGURE 1.4 Gastralgia and gastrodynia are both terms n -scopy means visual examination. Arthroscopy
meaning stomach pain.
(ar-THROS-koh-pee) is the visual examination of the
internal structure of a joint (arthr/o means joint,
and -scopy means visual examination).
n -megaly means enlargement. Hepatomegaly (hep-
ah-toh-MEG-ah-lee) is abnormal enlargement of the
liver (hepat/o means liver, and -megaly means The “Double R” Suffixes
enlargement). Medical terminology suffixes beginning with two of the
n -malacia means abnormal softening. Arteriomalacia letter r, often referred to as the double Rs, can be particu-
(ar-tee-ree-oh-mah-LAY-shee-ah) is the abnormal larly confusing. These word parts are of Greek origin.
softening of the walls of an artery or arteries (arteri/o They are grouped together here to help you understand
means artery, and -malacia means abnormal soften- them and to remember the differences.
ing). Notice that -malacia is the opposite of -sclerosis. n -rrhage and -rrhagia mean bleeding; however, they are
n -necrosis means tissue death. Arterionecrosis (ar-tee- most often used to describe sudden, severe bleeding.
ree-oh-neh-KROH-sis) is the tissue death of an artery A hemorrhage (HEM-or-idj) is the loss of a large
or arteries (arteri/o means artery, and -necrosis amount of blood in a short time (hem/o means blood,
means tissue death). and -rrhage means abnormal excessive fluid discharge).
n -sclerosis means abnormal hardening. Arteriosclerosis n -rrhaphy means surgical suturing to close a wound
(ar-tee-ree-oh-skleh-ROH-sis) is the abnormal harden- and includes the use of sutures, staples, or surgical
ing of the walls of an artery or arteries (arteri/o means glue. Myorrhaphy (my-OR-ah-fee) is the surgical
artery, and -sclerosis means abnormal hardening). suturing of a muscle wound (my/o means muscle,
Notice that -sclerosis is the opposite of -malacia. and -rrhaphy means surgical suturing).
n -stenosis means abnormal narrowing. Arteriostenosis n -rrhea means flow or discharge and refers to the flow
(ar-tee-ree-oh-steh-NOH-sis) is the abnormal narrow- of most body fluids. Diarrhea (dye-ah-REE-ah) is the
ing of an artery or arteries (arteri/o means artery, and frequent flow of loose or watery stools (dia- means
-stenosis means abnormal narrowing). through, and -rrhea means flow or discharge).
8 CHAPTER 1
PRE NAT AL PRENATAL

+ (birth) (pertaining =
(before) (the time and events before birth)
to)
FIGURE 1.5 The term prenatal is created by joining the suffix -al to the word root nat and then adding the prefix pre-.
n -rrhexis means rupture. Myorrhexis (my-oh-RECK-

sis) is the rupture of a muscle (my/o means muscle,
and -rrhexis means rupture).
PREFIXES
A prefix is sometimes added to the beginning of a word to
iStockphoto/Chris Downie
influence the meaning of that term. Prefixes usually, but not
always, indicate location, time, or number. See Table 1.6 for
a list of prefixes describing direction, quantity, size, and
amount. The term natal (NAY-tal) means pertaining to
birth (nat means birth, and -al means pertaining to). The
following examples show how prefixes change the meaning FIGURE 1.6 The prenatal development of a fetus (baby).
of this term (Figures 1.5–1.8).
n Prenatal (pre-NAY-tal) means the time and events
before birth (pre- means before, nat means birth, and
-al means pertaining to).
Jozsef Szasz-Fabian/www.Shutterstock.com
n Perinatal (pehr-ih-NAY-tal) refers to the time and
events surrounding birth (peri- means surrounding,
TABLE 1.6
Prefixes Describing Direction, Quantity, Size,
and Amount FIGURE 1.7 A perinatal event of the umbilical cord being
cut immediately after the baby is born.
ab- away from, negative, ad- toward, to, in the
absent direction of
dextr/o right side sinistr/o left side
ex- out of, outside, away in- in, into, not, without
from
macro- large, abnormal micr/o, micro- small

size, or long
mega-, megal/o large, olig/o scanty, few

great
pre- before post- after, behind FIGURE 1.8 A happy postnatal moment as the parents
bond with their new baby.
nat means birth, and -al means pertaining to). This n As you separate the word parts, identify the meaning
is the time just before, during, and just after birth. of each. Identifying the meaning of each part should
n Postnatal (pohst-NAY-tal) refers to the time and give you a definition of the term.
events after birth (post- means after, nat means birth, n Because some word parts have more than one meaning,
and -al means pertaining to). it also is necessary to determine the context in which the
term is being used. As used here, context means to
Contrasting and Confusing Prefixes determine which body system this term is referring to.
Some prefixes are confusing because they are similar in n If you have any doubt, use your medical dictionary or a
spelling but opposite in meaning. The more common trusted online source to double-check your definition.
prefixes of this type are summarized in Table 1.7. n Be aware that not all medical terms are made up of
word parts.
Media Link
Watch an animation on How Word Parts Work
An Example to Take Apart
Together on the Online Resources.
Look at the term otorhinolaryngology (oh-toh-rye-noh-
lar-in-GOL-oh-jee) as shown in Figure 1.9. It is made up
of two combining forms, a word root, and a suffix. This is
DETERMINING MEANINGS ON how it looks when the word parts have been separated by
working from the end to the beginning.
THE BASIS OF WORD PARTS n The suffix -ology means the study of.
Knowing the meaning of the word parts often makes it n The word root laryng means larynx or throat.
possible to figure out the definition of an unfamiliar med- The combining vowel is not used here because the
ical term. word root is joining a suffix that begins with a vowel.
n The combining form rhin/o means nose. The combin-
Taking Terms Apart ing vowel is used here because the word root rhin is
To determine a word’s meaning by looking at the compo- joining another word root beginning with a consonant.
nent pieces, you must first separate it into word parts. n The combining form ot/o means ear. The combining
n Always start at the end of the word, with the suffix, and vowel is used here because the word root ot is joining
work toward the beginning. another word root beginning with a consonant.
TABLE 1.7
Contrasting Prefixes: Opposites
ab- means away from. ad- means toward or in the direction of.
Abnormal means not normal or away from normal. Addiction means being drawn toward or having a
strong dependence on a drug or substance.
dys- means bad, difficult, or painful. eu- means good, normal, well, or easy.
Dysfunctional means an organ or body part that is not Eupnea means easy or normal breathing.
working properly.
hyper- means excessive or increased. hypo- means deficient or decreased.

Hypertension is higher-than-normal blood pressure. Hypotension is lower-than-normal blood pressure.
inter- means between or among. intra- means within or inside.

Interstitial means between, but not within, the parts of Intramuscular means within the muscle.
a tissue.
sub- means under, less, or below. super-, supra- mean above or excessive.
Subcostal means below a rib or ribs. Supracostal means above or outside the ribs.
10 CHAPTER 1
OTORHINOLARYNGOLOGY
OT/O RHIN/O LARYNG -OLOGY
(study of the ears, = + + +
(ear) (nose) (throat) (study of)
nose, and throat)
FIGURE 1.9 To determine the meaning of a medical term, the word parts are separated working from the end of the word
toward the beginning.
n Together they form otorhinolaryngology, which is the

study of the ears, nose, and throat (ot/o means ear,
MEDICAL DICTIONARY USE
rhin/o means nose, laryng means throat, and -ology Learning to use a medical dictionary and other resources
means study of). Note: Laryng/o also means larynx to find the definition of a term is an important part of
and is discussed in Chapter 7. mastering the correct use of medical terms. The following
n Because this is such a long term, this specialty tips for dictionary use apply whether you are working
is frequently referred to as ENT (ears, nose, and with a traditional book-form dictionary or with electronic
throat). dictionary software, websites, or applications on your
n A shortened version of this term is otolaryngology computer or handheld device.
(oh-toh-lar-in-GOL-oh-jee), which is the study of the
ears and larynx or throat (ot/o means ears, laryng If You Know How to Spell the Word
means larynx, and -ology means study of).
When starting to work with a printed dictionary, spend a
few minutes reviewing its user guide, table of contents,
Media Link and appendices. The time you spend reviewing now will
Watch the Combining Word Roots animation
on the Online Resources. be saved later when you are looking up unfamiliar terms.
n On the basis of the first letter of the word, start in the
appropriate section of the dictionary. Look at the top of
the page for clues. The top left word is the first term on
Guessing at Meanings
the page. The top right word is the last term on that page.
When you are able to guess at the meaning of a term on
n Next, look alphabetically for words that start with the
the basis of its word parts, you must always double-check
first and second letters of the word you are research-
for accuracy because some terms have more than one
ing. Continue looking through each letter until you
meaning. For example, look at the term lithotomy (lih-
find the term you are looking for.
THOT-oh-mee):
n When you think you have found it, check the spelling very
n On the basis of word parts, a lithotomy is a surgical
carefully, letter by letter, working from left to right. Terms
incision for the removal of a stone (lith means stone,
with similar spellings have very different meanings.
and -otomy means a surgical incision). This meaning
is discussed further in Chapter 9. n When you find the term, carefully check all of the
definitions.
n However, lithotomy is also the name of an examina-
tion position in which the patient is lying on her back
with her feet and legs raised and supported in stirrups. If You Do Not Know How to Spell
The term is used to describe this position because in the Word
the early days, this was the preferred position for
Listen carefully to the term, and write it down. If you can-
lithotomy surgery. This term is discussed further in
not find the word on the basis of your spelling, start look-
Chapter 15.
ing for alternative spellings based on the beginning sound
n This type of possible confusion is one of the many as shown in Table 1.8. Note: All of these examples are in
reasons why a medical dictionary is an important this textbook. However, you could practice looking them
medical terminology tool. up in the dictionary!
TABLE 1.8
Guidelines to Looking Up the Spelling of Unfamiliar Terms
If it sounds like It may begin with Example
F F flatus (FLAY-tus), see Chapter 8

PH phlegm (FLEM), see Chapter 7
J G gingivitis (jin-jih-VYE-tis), see Chapter 8

J jaundice (JAWN-dis), see Chapter 8
K C crepitus (KREP-ih-tus), see Chapter 3

CH cholera (KOL-er-ah), see Chapter 8
K kyphosis (kye-FOH-sis), see Chapter 3
QU quadriplegia (kwad-rih-PLEE-jee-ah), see Chapter 4
S C cytology (sigh-TOL-oh-jee), see Chapter 2

PS psychologist (sigh-KOL-oh-jist), see Chapter 10
S serum (SEER-um), see Chapter 5
Z X xeroderma (zee-roh-DER-mah), see Chapter 12

Z zygote (ZYE-goht), see Chapter 14
Look Under Categories terms; however, it is important that you rely on a site,
such as the National Institutes of Health (NIH) website
Most printed dictionaries use categories such as Diseases
(http://www.nih.gov), which is known to be a reputable
and Syndromes to group disorders with these terms in
information source.
their titles. For example:
n For better results, an Internet search should include
n Sexually transmitted disease would be found under
visits to at least two reputable sites. If there is a major
Disease, sexually transmitted.
difference in the definitions, go on to a third site.
n Fetal alcohol syndrome would be found under Syn- Sometimes search engine results will include a site
drome, fetal alcohol. that is not necessarily trustworthy but has paid for
n When you come across such a term and cannot find it good placement.
listed by the first word, the next step is to look under n Beware of suggested search terms. If you do not spell a
the appropriate category. term correctly, a website may guess what you were
searching for. Make sure to double-check that the term
Multiple-Word Terms you are defining is the intended term.
When you are looking for a term that includes more than The same caution applies to medical dictionary
one word, begin your search with the last term. If you do applications on handheld devices. Make sure that the
not find it there, move forward to the next word. application comes from a reputable source, and always
double-check that this definition is for the term that you
n For example, congestive heart failure is sometimes
intended to look up.
listed under Heart failure, congestive.
Searching for Definitions on the PRONUNCIATION

Internet A medical term is easier to understand and remember
Internet search engines are valuable resources in finding when you know how to pronounce it properly. To help
definitions and details about medical conditions and you master the pronunciation of new terms, a commonly
12 CHAPTER 1
accepted pronunciation of that word appears in parenthe- spellings used in other English-speaking countries
ses next to the term. such as England, Australia, and Canada.
The sounds-like pronunciation system is used in
this textbook. Here the word is respelled using normal
English letters to create sounds that are familiar. To pro- SINGULAR AND PLURAL
nounce a new word, just say it as it is spelled in the ENDINGS
parentheses.
n The part of the word that receives the primary Many medical terms have Greek or Latin origins. As a
(most) emphasis when you say it is shown in result of these different origins, there are unusual rules
uppercase boldface letters. For example, edema for changing a singular word into a plural form. In addi-
(eh-DEE-mah) is swelling caused by an abnormal tion, English endings have been adopted for some com-
accumulation of fluid in cells, tissues, or cavities of monly used terms.
the body. n Table 1.9 provides guidelines to help you better
n A part of the word that receives secondary (less) understand how these plurals are formed.
emphasis when you say it is shown in boldface n Also, throughout the text, when a term with an
lowercase letters. For example, appendicitis (ah- unusual singular or plural form is introduced, both
pen-dih-SIGH-tis) means an inflammation of the forms are included. For example, the phalanges
appendix (appendic means appendix, and -itis means (fah-LAN-jeez) are the bones of the fingers and toes
inflammation). (singular, phalanx) (Figure 1.10).
A Word of Caution BASIC MEDICAL TERMS TO

Frequently, there is more than one correct way to pro- DESCRIBE DISEASES
nounce a medical term.
Some of the medical terms that are used to describe diseases
n The pronunciation of many medical terms is based on
and disease conditions can be confusing. Some of the most
their Greek, Latin, or other foreign origin. However,
commonly confused terms are described in Table 1.10.
there is a trend toward pronouncing terms as they
You will find that studying the groups of three as they are
would sound in English.
shown in the table makes it easier to master these terms.
n The result is more than one “correct” pronunciation
for a term. The text shows the most commonly
accepted pronunciation. LOOK-ALIKE, SOUND-ALIKE
n If your instructor prefers an alternative pronunciation, TERMS AND WORD PARTS
follow the instructions you are given.
This section highlights some frequently used terms and
word parts that are confusing because they look and
SPELLING IS ALWAYS sound alike. However, their meanings are very different.
IMPORTANT It is important that you pay close attention to these terms
and word parts as you encounter them in the text.
Accuracy in spelling medical terms is extremely important!
n Changing just one or two letters can completely change arteri/o, ather/o, and arthr/o
the meaning of a word—and this difference literally
n arteri/o means artery. Endarterial (end-ar-TEE-
could be a matter of life or death for the patient.
ree-al) means pertaining to the interior or lining of an
n The section “Look-Alike, Sound-Alike Terms and Word artery (end- means within, arteri means artery, and
Parts” later in this chapter will help you become aware -al means pertaining to).
of some terms and word parts that are frequently
n ather/o means plaque or fatty substance. An ather-
confused.
oma (ath-er-OH-mah) is a fatty deposit within the wall
n The spelling shown in this text is commonly accepted of an artery (ather means fatty substance, and -oma
in the United States. You may encounter alternative means tumor).
TABLE 1.9
Guidelines to Unusual Plural Forms
Guideline Singular Plural
If the singular term ends in the suffix -a, the plural is usually bursa bursae
formed by changing the ending to -ae. vertebra vertebrae
If the singular term ends in the suffix -ex or -ix, the plural is appendix appendices
usually formed by changing these endings to -ices. index indices
If the singular term ends in the suffix -is, the plural is usually diagnosis diagnoses
formed by changing the ending to -es. metastasis metastases
If the singular term ends in the suffix -itis, the plural is usually arthritis arthritides
formed by changing the -is ending to -ides. meningitis meningitides
If the singular term ends in the suffix -nx, the plural is usually phalanx phalanges
formed by changing the -x ending to -ges. meninx meninges
If the singular term ends in the suffix -on, the plural is usually criterion criteria
formed by changing the ending to -a. ganglion ganglia
If the singular term ends in the suffix -um, the plural usually is diverticulum diverticula
formed by changing the ending to -a. ovum ova
If the singular term ends in the suffix -us, the plural is usually alveolus alveoli
formed by changing the ending to -i. malleolus malleoli
n arthr/o means joint. Arthralgia (ar-THRAL-jee-ah)

Phalanges
means pain in a joint or joints (arthr means joint,
(plural) and -algia means pain).
Phalanx
(singular) -ectomy, -ostomy, and -otomy
n -ectomy means surgical removal. An appendectomy
(ap-en-DECK-toh-mee) is the surgical removal of the
appendix (append means appendix, and -ectomy
means surgical removal).
n -ostomy means the surgical creation of an
artificial opening to the body surface. A colostomy
(koh-LAHS-toh-mee) is the surgical creation of
an artificial excretory opening between the colon
and the body surface (col means colon, and
-ostomy means the surgical creation of an artificial
opening).
n -otomy means cutting or a surgical incision. A colot-
omy (koh-LOT-oh-mee) is a surgical incision into the
FIGURE 1.10 Singular and plural endings. A phalanx is
one finger or toe bone. Phalanges are more than one colon (col means colon, and -otomy means a surgical
finger or toe bones. incision).
14 CHAPTER 1
TABLE 1.10
Basic Medical Terms to Describe Disease Conditions
A sign is objective evidence of dis- A symptom (SIMP-tum) is subjec- A syndrome (SIN-drohm) is a set of
ease, such as a fever. Objective tive evidence of a disease, such as signs and symptoms that occur
means the sign can be evaluated pain or a headache. Subjective together as part of a specific dis-
or measured by the patient or means that it can be evaluated or ease process.
others. measured only by the patient.
A diagnosis (dye-ag-NOH-sis) (DX) A differential diagnosis (D/DX), A prognosis (prog-NOH-sis) is a

is the identification of a disease also known as a rule out (R/O), is prediction of the probable course
(plural, diagnoses). To diagnose an attempt to determine which one and outcome of a disease (plural,
is the process of reaching a of several possible diseases is prognoses).
diagnosis. causing the signs and symptoms
that are present.
An acute condition has a rapid A chronic condition is of long A remission is the temporary,
onset, a severe course, and a duration. Although such diseases partial, or complete disappear-
relatively short duration. can be controlled, they are rarely ance of the symptoms of a disease
cured. without having achieved a cure.
A disease is a condition in which An eponym (EP-oh-nim) is a dis- An acronym (ACK-roh-nim) is a

one or more body parts are not ease, structure, operation, or word formed from the initial letter
functioning normally. Some dis- procedure named for the person of the major parts of a compound
eases are named for their signs who discovered or described it term. For example, the acronym
and symptoms. For example, first. For example, Alzheimer’s laser stands for light amplification
chronic fatigue syndrome disease is named for German by stimulated emission of radia-
is a persistent, overwhelming neurologist Alois Alzheimer (see tion (see Chapter 12).
fatigue of unknown origin (see Chapter 10).
Chapter 4).
Fissure and Fistula Infection and Inflammation

n A fissure (FISH-ur) is a groove or crack-like sore of the n Although the suffix -itis means inflammation, it
skin (see Chapter 12). This term also describes normal also is commonly used to indicate infection. An
folds in the contours of the brain. example is meningitis (mening means the menin-
n A fistula (FIS-chuh-lah) is an abnormal passage, usu- ges and -itis means inflammation), in which the
ally between two internal organs or leading from an cause of the inflammation is an infection. Another
organ to the surface of the body. A fistula may be due example is tendinitis (tendin means tendon and
to surgery, injury, or the draining of an abscess. -itis means inflammation). The inflammation of
tendinitis is usually caused by overuse rather than
infection.
Ileum and Ilium n An infection (in-FECK-shun) is the invasion of the
n The ileum (ILL-ee-um) is the last and longest portion body by a pathogenic (disease-producing) organism.
of the small intestine. Memory aid: ileum is spelled The infection can remain localized (near the point of
with an e as in intestine. entry) or can be systemic (affecting the entire body).
n The ilium (ILL-ee-um) is part of the hip bone. Signs and symptoms of infection include malaise,
Memory aid: ilium is spelled with an i as in hip chills and fever, redness, heat and swelling, or exu-
(Figure 1.11). date from a wound.
Ilium
a part of the
hip bone
Ileum
a portion of the
small intestine
FIGURE 1.11 There is only one letter difference between ileum and ilium, but they are very different parts of the body.
n Malaise (mah-LAYZ) is a word of French origin refer- myc/o, myel/o, and my/o
ring to a feeling of general discomfort or uneasiness
n myc/o means fungus. Mycosis (my-KOH-sis)
that is often the first indication of an infection or other
describes any abnormal condition or disease caused
disease.
by a fungus (myc means fungus, and -osis means
n An exudate (ECKS-you-dayt) is a fluid, such as pus, abnormal condition or disease).
that leaks out of an infected wound.
n myel/o means bone marrow or spinal cord. The term
n Inflammation (in-flah-MAY-shun) is a localized myelopathy (my-eh-LOP-ah-thee) describes any
response to an injury or to the destruction of tissues. pathologic change or disease in the spinal cord (myel/o
The key indicators of inflammation are (1) erythema means spinal cord or bone marrow, and -pathy
(redness), (2) hyperthermia (heat), (3) edema means disease).
(swelling), and (4) pain. These are caused by extra
n my/o means muscle. The term myopathy (my-OP-
blood flowing into the area as part of the healing
ah-thee) describes any pathologic change or disease of
process.
muscle tissue (my/o means muscle, and -pathy means
disease).
Laceration and Lesion
n A laceration (lass-er-AY-shun) is a torn or jagged
wound or an accidental cut. -ologist and -ology
n A lesion (LEE-zhun) is a pathologic change of the tis- n -ologist means specialist. A dermatologist (der-
sues due to disease or injury. mah-TOL-oh-jist) is a physician who specializes
in diagnosing and treating disorders of the skin
(dermat means skin, and -ologist means
Mucous and Mucus specialist).
n The adjective mucous (MYOU-kus) describes the spe- n -ology means the study of. Neonatology (nee-oh-nay-
cialized membranes that line the body cavities. TOL-oh-jee) is the study of disorders of the newborn
n The noun mucus (MYOU-kus) is the name of the fluid (neo- means new, nat means birth, and -ology means
secreted by these mucous membranes. study of).
16 CHAPTER 1
Palpation and Palpitation

n Palpation (pal-PAY-shun) is an examination tech-
nique in which the examiner’s hands are used to feel
© Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock.com.

the texture, size, consistency, and location of certain
body parts.
n Palpitation (pal-pih-TAY-shun) is a pounding or rac-
ing heart.
pyel/o, py/o, and pyr/o

n pyel/o means renal pelvis, which is part of the kidney. FIGURE 1.12 Triage describes the process through which
Pyelitis (pye-eh-LYE-tis) is an inflammation of the emergency personnel arriving on an accident scene iden-
renal pelvis (pyel means renal pelvis, and -itis means tify which of the injured require care first and where they
inflammation). can be treated most effectively.
n py/o means pus. Pyoderma (pye-oh-DER-mah) is any

acute, inflammatory, pus-forming bacterial skin infec-
tion such as impetigo (py/o means pus, and -derma
means skin).
n pyr/o means fever or fire. Pyrosis (pye-ROH-sis), also USING ABBREVIATIONS
known as heartburn, is discomfort due to the regur-
Abbreviations are frequently used as a shorthand way to
gitation of stomach acid upward into the esophagus
record long and complex medical terms; Appendix B con-
(pyr means fever or fire, and -osis means abnormal
tains an alphabetized list of many of the more commonly
condition or disease).
used medical abbreviations.
n Abbreviations can also lead to confusion and errors!
Supination and Suppuration Therefore, it is important that you use caution when
n Supination (soo-pih-NAY-shun) is the act of rotating using or interpreting an abbreviation.
the arm so that the palm of the hand is forward or n For example, the abbreviation BE means both
upward. “below elbow” (when describing an amputation)
n Suppuration (sup-you-RAY-shun) is the formation or and “barium enema.” Just imagine what a
discharge of pus. difference a mix-up here would make for the
patient!
n Most clinical agencies have policies for accepted
Triage and Trauma abbreviations. It is important to follow this list for
n Triage (tree-AHZH) is the medical screening of the facility where you are working.
patients to determine their relative priority of need and n If there is any question in your mind about which
the proper place of treatment (Figure 1.12). abbreviation to use, always follow this rule: When
n Trauma (TRAW-mah) means wound or injury. These in doubt, spell it out.
are the types of injuries that might occur in an acci-
dent, shooting, natural disaster, or fire. The Joint Commission (JC), an organization founded
in 1910 to standardize medical practices, has published
a list of commonly confused “Do Not Use” abbreviations
Viral and Virile
to prevent potentially fatal medical errors. The full list
n Viral (VYE-ral) means pertaining to a virus (vir means is available at http://www.jointcommission.org/facts_
virus or poison, and -al means pertaining to). about_the_official_/ (see Table 1.11 for examples). Many
n Virile (VIR-ill) means having the nature, properties, or medical facilities have their own suggested “Do Not Use”
qualities of an adult male. abbreviation list.
TABLE 1.11 Workbook Practice

Examples of “Do Not Use” Abbreviations
Go to your workbook and
Abbreviation Potential Problem complete the exercises
for this chapter.
MS can mean either morphine sulfate
or magnesium sulfate
QD and QOD mean daily and every other day,

respectively; sometimes mistaken
for each other
U means unit, sometimes mistaken

for 0 or 4
R1
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
LEARNING EXERCISES
Definition Correct Answer Possible Answers
1.1. bad, difficult, painful -algia
1.2. excessive, increased dys-
1.3. enlargement -ectomy
1.4. pain, suffering -megaly
1.5. surgical removal hyper-
1.6. abnormal condition or hypo-

disease
1.7. abnormal softening -itis
1.8. deficient, decreased -malacia
1.9. inflammation -necrosis
1.10. tissue death -osis
1.11. bleeding, abnormal ex- -ostomy

cessive fluid discharge
18
1.12. surgical creation of an -otomy

artificial opening to the
body surface
1.13. surgical incision -plasty
1.14. surgical repair -rrhage
1.15. surgical suturing -rrhaphy
1.16. visual examination -rrhea
1.17. rupture -rrhexis
1.18. abnormal narrowing -sclerosis
1.19. abnormal hardening -scopy
1.20. flow or discharge -stenosis
DEFINITIONS
Select the correct answer, and write it on the line provided.
1.21. The term describes any pathologic change or disease in the spinal cord.
myelopathy myopathy pyelitis pyrosis
1.22. The medical term for higher-than-normal blood pressure is .
hepatomegaly hypertension hypotension supination
1.23. The term means pertaining to birth.
natal perinatal postnatal prenatal
1.24. Pain is classified as a .
diagnosis sign symptom syndrome
1.25. In the term myopathy, the suffix -pathy means .
abnormal condition disease inflammation swelling
20 CHAPTER 1 LEARNING EXERCISES
MATCHING TERMS AND DEFINITIONS 1
1.26. white blood cell acute
1.27. prediction of the probable course edema

and outcome of a disorder
1.28. swelling caused by an abnormal leukocyte

accumulation of fluid in cells,
tissues, or cavities of the body
1.29. rapid onset prognosis
1.30. turning the palm of the hand supination

upward
MATCHING TERMS AND DEFINITIONS 2
1.31. examination procedure laceration
1.32. fluid, such as pus, that leaks out lesion

of an infected wound
1.33. pathologic tissue change palpitation
1.34. pounding heart palpation
1.35. torn or jagged wound, or an exudate

accidental cut wound
WHICH WORD?
1.36. The medical term describes an inflammation of the stomach.
gastritis gastrosis
1.37. The formation of pus is called .
supination suppuration
1.38. The term meaning wound or injury is .
trauma triage
1.39. The term means pertaining to a virus.
viral virile
1.40. An is the surgical removal of the appendix.
appendectomy appendicitis
SPELLING COUNTS
Find the misspelled word in each sentence. Then write that word, spelled correctly, on the line
provided.
1.41. A disease named for the person who discovered it is known as an enaponym
1.42. A localized response to injury or tissue destruction is called inflimmation.
1.43. A fisure of the skin is a groove or crack-like sore of the skin .
1.44. The medical term meaning suturing together the ends of a severed nerve is neurorraphy
1.45. The medical term meaning inflammation of the tonsils is tonsilitis .
MATCHING TERMS
1.46. inflammation of a tendon syndrome
1.47. a set of signs and symptoms gastralgia
1.48. rupture of a muscle tendinitis
1.49. stomach pain pyoderma
1.50. any acute, inflammatory, myorrhexis

pus-forming bacterial skin
infection
TERM SELECTION
1.51. The abnormal hardening of the walls of an artery or arteries is called .
arteriosclerosis arteriostenosis arthrostenosis atherosclerosis
1.52. A fever is considered to be a .
prognosis sign symptom syndrome
1.53. An inflammation of the stomach and small intestine is known as .
gastralgia gastroenteritis gastritis gastrosis
1.54. The term meaning pain in a joint or joints is .
arthralgia arthritis arthrocentesis atherosclerosis
1.55. A is a physician who specializes in diagnosing and treating dis-
eases and disorders of the skin.
dermatologist dermatology neurologist neurology
SENTENCE COMPLETION
Write the correct term on the line provided.
1.56. Lower-than-normal blood pressure is called .
1.57. The process of recording a radiographic study of the blood vessels after the injection of a contrast
medium is known as .
1.58. The term meaning above or outside the ribs is .
1.59. A/An diagnosis is also known as a rule out.
1.60. A/An is an abnormal passage, usually between two internal organs
or leading from an organ to the surface of the body.
TRUE/FALSE
If the statement is true, write True on the line. If the statement is false, write False on the line.
1.61. An erythrocyte is commonly known as a red blood cell.
1.62. Arteriomalacia is abnormal hardening of the walls of an artery or arteries.
1.63. A colostomy is the surgical creation of an artificial opening between the colon and the body
surface.
1.64. Malaise is often the first symptom of inflammation.
1.65. An infection is the invasion of the body by a disease-producing organism .
WORD SURGERY
Divide each term into its component word parts. Write these word parts, in sequence, on the lines provided.
When necessary, use a slash (/) to indicate a combining vowel. (You may not need all of the lines provided.)
1.66. Otorhinolaryngology is the study of the ears, nose, and throat.
1.67. The term mycosis means any abnormal condition or disease caused by a fungus.
1.68. Poliomyelitis is a viral infection of the gray matter of the spinal cord.
1.69. Neonatology is the study of disorders of the newborn.
1.70. The term endarterial means pertaining to the interior or lining of an artery.
CLINICAL CONDITIONS
Write the correct answer on the line provided.
1.71. Miguel required a/an injection. This term means that the medica-
tion was placed directly within the muscle.
1.72. Mrs. Tillson underwent to remove excess fluid from her abdomen.
1.73. The term laser is a/an . This means that it is a word formed from
the initial letters of the major parts of a compound term.
1.74. In an accident, Felipe Valladares broke several bones in his fingers. The medical term for these injuries is
fractured .
1.75. In case of a major disaster Cheng Lee, who is a trained paramedic, helps perform
. This is the screening of patients to determine their relative prior-
ity of need and the proper place of treatment.
1.76. Gina’s physician ordered laboratory tests that would enable him to establish a differential
to identify the cause of her signs and symptoms.
1.77. Jennifer plans to go to graduate school so she can specialize in .
This specialty is concerned with the study of all aspects of diseases.
1.78. John Randolph’s cancer went into . Although this is not a cure, his
symptoms disappeared and he felt much better.
1.79. Mr. Jankowski describes that uncomfortable feeling as heartburn. The medical term for this condition is
1.80. Phyllis was having great fun traveling until she ate some contaminated food and developed
. She felt miserable and needed to stay in her hotel because of the
frequent flow of loose or watery stools.
WHICH IS THE CORRECT MEDICAL TERM?
1.81. The term describes the surgical repair of a nerve.
neuralgia neurorrhaphy neurology neuroplasty
1.82. The term means loss of a large amount of blood in a short time.
diarrhea hemorrhage hepatorrhagia otorrhagia
1.83. The term means the tissue death of an artery or arteries.
arteriomalacia arterionecrosis arteriosclerosis arteriostenosis
1.84. The term means between, but not within, the parts of a tissue.
interstitial intrastitial intermuscular intramuscular
1.85. The term means enlargement of the liver.
hepatitis hepatomegaly nephromegaly nephritis
CHALLENGE WORD BUILDING
These terms are not primary terms in the chapter; however, they are made up of the following familiar word
parts. If you need help in creating the term, refer to your medical dictionary.
neo- ¼ new arteri/o ¼ artery -algia ¼ pain and suffering
arthr/o ¼ joint -itis ¼ inflammation
cardi/o ¼ heart -ologist ¼ specialist
nat/o ¼ birth -otomy ¼ a surgical incision
neur/o ¼ nerve -rrhea ¼ flow or discharge
rhin/o ¼ nose -scopy ¼ visual examination
1.86. A medical specialist concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of heart disease is
a/an .
1.87. The term meaning a runny nose is .
1.88. The term meaning the inflammation of a joint or joints is .
1.89. A medical specialist in disorders of the newborn is a/an .
1.90. The term meaning a surgical incision into a nerve is a/an .
1.91. The term meaning inflammation of the heart is .
1.92. The term meaning pain in the nose is .
1.93. The term meaning pain in a nerve or nerves is .
1.94. The term meaning a surgical incision into the heart is a/an .
1.95. The term meaning an inflammation of the nose is .
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questionable as it was in every respect, was sure to meet with general
approbation.
Before Captain Green and the others had been many days in
custody, strange hints were heard amongst them of a piratical attack
they had committed in the preceding year upon a vessel off the coast
of Malabar. The African Company had three years ago sent out a
vessel, called the Speedy Return, to India, with one Drummond as its
master, and it had never since been heard of. It was concluded that
the people of the Worcester had captured the Speedy Return, and
murdered its crew, and that Providence had arranged for their
punishment, by sending them for shelter from a storm to the
neighbourhood of Edinburgh. Vainly might it have been pointed out
that there was no right evidence for even the fact of the piracy, still
less for the Speedy Return being the subject of the offence. Truth and
justice were wholly lost sight of in the universal thirst for vengeance
against England and its selfish mercantile companies.
Green, the captain of the Worcester, Mather, the chief-mate,
Reynolds, the second-mate, and fifteen others, were tried at this date
before the Court of Admiralty, for the alleged crime of attacking a
ship, having English or Scotch aboard, off 1705.
the coast of Malabar, and subsequently
murdering the crew—no specific vessel or person being mentioned as
the subjects of the crime, and no nearer date being cited than the
months of February, March, April, or May 1703. The jury had no
difficulty in bringing them in guilty, and they were all condemned to
be hanged on the sands of Leith, the usual place for the execution of
pirates.
The English government was thrown into great anxiety by this
violent proceeding, but they could make no effectual resistance to the
current of public feeling in Scotland. There the general belief in the
guilt of Green and his associates was corroborated after the trial by
three several confessions, admitting the piratical seizing of
Drummond’s vessel, and the subsequent murder of himself and his
crew—confessions which can now only be accounted for, like those of
witches, on the theory of a desire to conciliate favour, and perhaps
win pardon, by conceding so far to the popular prejudices. The queen
sent down affidavits shewing that Drummond’s ship had in reality
been taken by pirates at Madagascar, while himself was on shore—a
view of the fact which there is now ample reason to believe to have
been true. She also sent to the Privy Council the expression of her
desire that the men should be respited for a time. But, beyond
postponement for a week, all was in vain. The royal will was treated
respectfully, but set aside on some technical irregularity. When the
day approached for the execution of the first batch of the
condemned, it became evident that there was no power in Scotland
which could have saved these innocent men. The Council, we may
well believe, would have gladly conceded to the royal will, but, placed
as it was amidst an infuriated people, it had no freedom to act. On
the fatal morning (11th April), its movements were jealously watched
by a vast multitude, composed of something more than the ordinary
citizens of Edinburgh, for on the previous day all the more ardent
and determined persons living within many miles round had poured
into the city to see that justice was done. No doubt can now be
entertained that, if the authorities had attempted to save the
condemned from punishment, the mob would have torn them from
the Tolbooth, and hung every one of them up in the street. What
actually took place is described in a letter from Mr Alexander
Wodrow to his father, the minister of Eastwood: ‘I wrote last night,’
he says, ‘of the uncertainty anent the condemned persons, and this
morning things were yet at a greater uncertainty, for the current
report was that ane express was come for a reprieve. How this was, I
have not yet learned; but the councillors 1705.
went down to the Abbey [Palace of
Holyrood] about eight, and came up to the Council-house about
nine, against which time there was a strange gathering in the streets.
The town continued in great confusion for two hours, while the
Council was sitting, and a great rabble at the Netherbow port. All the
guards in the Canongate were in readiness if any mob had arisen.
About eleven, word came out of the Council [sitting in the Parliament
Square] that three were to be hanged—namely, Captain Green,
Mather, and Simson. This appeased the mob, and made many post
away to Leith, where many thousands had been [assembled], and
were on the point of coming up in a great rage. When the chancellor
came out, he got many huzzas at first; but at the Tron Kirk, some
surmised to the mob that all this was but a sham; upon which they
assaulted his coach, and broke the glasses, and forced him to come
out and go into Mylne’s Square, and stay for a considerable time.
‘The three prisoners were brought with the Town-guards,
accompanied with a vast mob. They went through all the Canongate,
and out at the Water-port to Leith. There was a battalion of foot-
guards, and also some of the horse-guards, drawn up at some
distance from the place of execution. There was the greatest
confluence of people there that ever I saw in my life, for they cared
not how far they were off, so be it they saw. Green was first execute,
then Simson, and last of all Mather. They every one of them, when
the rope was about their necks, denied they were guilty of that for
which they were to die. This indeed put all people to a strange
demur. There’s only this to alleviate it, that they confessed no other
particular sins more than that, even though they were posed anent
their swearing and drunkenness, which was weel known.’[375]
The Scottish parliament was not much Sep. 11.

given to the patronising of literature. We
have, indeed, seen it giving encouragement to Adair’s maps of the
coasts, and Slezer’s views of the king’s and other mansions; but it
was in a languid and ineffective way, by reason of the lack of funds.
At this time, the assembled wisdom of the nation was pleased to pass
an act enabling the town-council of Glasgow to impose two pennies
(⅕th of a penny sterling) upon the pint of ale brewn and vended in
that town; and out of this ‘gift in favours of 1705.
the town of Glasgow,’ as it was quite
sincerely called, there was granted three thousand six hundred
pounds (£300 sterling) to Mr James Anderson, writer to her
majesty’s signet, ‘for enabling him to carry on an account of the
ancient and original charters and seals of our kings in copper-plates.’
Why the ale-drinkers of Glasgow should have been called upon to
furnish the country with engraved copies of its ancient charters, was
a question which probably no one dreamed of asking.
In February 1707, the parliament, then about to close its existence,
ordered to Mr Anderson the further sum of £590 sterling, to repay
him for his outlay on the work, with a further sum of £1050 to enable
him to go on and complete it. This was done after due examination
by a committee, which reported favourably of the curious and
valuable character of his collections. Soon after, the parliament, in
consideration of the great sufferings of the town of Dundee in the
time of the troubles and at the Revolution, and of ‘the universal
decay of trade, especially in that burgh,’ granted it an imposition of
two pennies Scots on every pint of ale or beer made or sold in the
town for twenty-four years; but this gift was burdened with a
hundred pounds sterling per annum for six years to Mr James
Anderson, as part of the sum the parliament had agreed to confer
upon him for the encouragement of his labours.[376]
Died Alexander third Earl of Kincardine, Nov.

unmarried, a nobleman of eccentric
character. His father, the second earl, is spoken of by Burnet in the
highest terms; his mother was a Dutch lady, Veronica, daughter of
Corneille, Lord of Sommelsdyk and Spycke. [Readers of Boswell will
remember his infant daughter Veronica, with whom Johnson was
pleased, so named from the biographer’s great-grandmother,
Veronica, Countess of Kincardine.] The earl now deceased, probably
through his parental connection with the Low Countries, had
contracted the religious principles of the Flemish saint or seeress,
Antonia Bourignon, which, like every other departure from pure
Presbyterianism and the Westminster Confession, were detested in
Scotland. Wodrow tells us: ‘I have it from very good hands,
Lieutenant-colonel Erskine[377] and Mr Allan Logan, who were
frequently with him, that the late Earl of 1705.
Kincardine did fast forty days and nights
after he turned Burrignianist, [and] lived several years after. He was
very loose before he turned to these errors; and after a while being in
them, he turned loose again, and died in a very odd manner. Many
thought him possessed. He would have uttered the most dreadful
blasphemies that can be conceived, and he told some things done at a
distance, and repeated Mr Allan Logan’s words, which he had in
secret, and told things it was impossible for anybody to know.’[378]
The more active minds of the country continued constantly

seething with schemes for the promotion of industry, and the remedy
of the standing evil of poverty. In this year there was published an
Essay on the New Project of a Land Mint, which might be
considered a type of the more visionary plans. It rested on what
would now be called one of the commonplaces of false political
economy. The proposed Land Mint was a kind of bank for the issue
of notes, to be given only on landed security. Any one intending to
borrow, say a thousand pounds of these notes, pledged unentailed
land-property to that amount, plus interest and possible expenses,
undertaking to pay back a fifth part each year, with interest on the
outstanding amount, till all was discharged. It was thought that, by
these means, money would be, as it were, created; the country would
be spirited up to hopeful industrial undertakings; and—everything
requiring a religious aspect in those days—the people would be
enabled to resist the designs of a well-known sovereign, ‘aiming now
at a Catholic monarchy;’ for, while Louis XIV. might become sole
master of the plate (that is, silver) of the world, what would it matter
‘if we and other nations should substitute another money, equal in all
cases to plate?’ The only fear the author could bring himself to
entertain, was as to possible counterfeiting of the notes. This being
provided against by an ingenious expedient suggested by himself,
there remained no difficulty and no fear whatever.[379]
Although the incessant violences which 1706. Mar.

we have seen mark an early period
embraced by our Annals were no more, it cannot be said that the
crimes of violent passion had become 1705.
infrequent. On the contrary, it appeared as
if the increasing licence of manners since the Revolution, and
particularly the increasing drunkenness of the upper classes, were
now giving occasion for a considerable number of homicides and
murders. We have seen a notable example of reckless violence in the
case of the Master of Rollo in 1695. There was about the same time a
Laird of Kininmont, who—partly under the influence of a diseased
brain—was allowed to commit a considerable number of
manslaughters before it was thought necessary to arrest him in his
course.
Archibald Houston, writer to the signet in Edinburgh, acted as
factor for the estate of Braid, the property of his nephew, and in this
capacity he had incurred the diligence of the law on account of some
portion of Bishops’ rents which he had failed to pay. Robert Kennedy
of Auchtyfardel, in Lanarkshire, receiving a commission to uplift
these arrears, found it to be his duty to give Houston a charge of
horning for his debt.
One day, Kennedy and his two sons left Mar. 20.
their house in the Castle Hill of Edinburgh,
to go to the usual place of rendezvous at the Cross, when, passing
along the Luckenbooths, he was accosted by Mr Houston with violent
language, referring to the late legal proceedings. Kennedy, if his own
account is to be trusted, gave no hard language in return, but made
an effort to disengage himself from the unseemly scene, and moved
on towards the Cross. Houston, however, followed and renewed the
brawl, when it would appear that Gilbert Kennedy, Auchtyfardel’s
eldest son, was provoked to strike his father’s assailant on the face.
The people now began to flock about the party—Kennedy again
moved on; but before he had got many paces away, he heard the
sounds of a violent collision, and turned back with his cane uplifted
to defend his son. It is alleged that Kennedy fell upon Houston with
his cane—he had no weapon on his person—and while he did so,
young Gilbert Kennedy drew his sword, and, rushing forward,
wounded Houston mortally in the belly. The unfortunate man died a
few days afterwards.[380]
Auchtyfardel’s share in this transaction was held to infer his
liability to an arbitrary punishment. Gilbert fled, and was outlawed,
but afterwards was permitted to return home, and in time he
succeeded to his father’s estate. We hear of him in 1730, as having
been brought by that sad act of his youth 1705.
into a very serious and religious frame of
life. He was an elder of the church, and took great care of the morals
of his servants. A maid, whom he on one occasion reproved severely,
was led, by a diabolic spite, to mix some arsenic with the bread and
milk which she prepared for the family breakfast, and the death of
Houston had very nearly been avenged at the distance of twenty-four
years from its occurrence. Happily, through the aid of a physician,
the laird and his family escaped destruction.[381]
A case more characteristic of the age than that of young
Auchtyfardel occurred in the ensuing year. David Ogilvie of Cluny,
having first thrust himself upon a funeral-party at the village of
Meigle, and there done his best to promote hard drinking, insisted
on accompanying two or three of the gentlemen on their way home,
though his own lay another way. While proceeding along, he gave
extreme annoyance to Andrew Cowpar, younger of Lochblair, by
practical jokes of a gross kind, founded on the variance of sex in their
respective horses. At length, Cowpar giving the other’s horse a switch
across the face, to make it keep off, Ogilvie took violent offence at the
act, demanded Cowpar’s whip under a threat of being otherwise
pistolled, and, on a refusal, actually took out a pistol and shot his
companion dead. The wretched murderer escaped abroad.
In January 1708, Robert Baird, son of Sir James Baird of
Sauchtonhall, had a drinking-match in a tavern at Leith, where he
particularly insisted on his friend, Mr Robert Oswald, being filled
drunk. On Oswald resisting repeated bumpers, Baird demanded an
apology from him, as if he had committed some breach of good-
manners. He refused, and thus a drunken sense of resentment was
engendered in the mind of Baird. At a late hour, they came up to
Edinburgh in a coach, and leaving the vehicle at the Nether Bow,
were no sooner on the street, than Baird drew his sword, and began
to push at Oswald, upon whom he speedily inflicted two mortal
wounds. He fled from the scene, leaving a bloody and broken sword
beside his expiring victim.
On the ground of its not being ‘forethought felony,’ Baird was
some years afterwards allowed by the Court of Justiciary to have the
benefit of Queen Anne’s act of indemnity.
Early in this month, Scotland was 1706. Oct.

honoured with a visit from the celebrated
Daniel Defoe. His noted power and probity 1705.
as a Whig pamphleteer suggested to the
English ministry the propriety of sending him down for a time to
Edinburgh, to help on the cause of the Union. He came with
sympathies for the people of Scotland, founded on what they had
suffered under the last Stuart reigns. Instead of believing all to be
barren and hopeless north of the Tweed, he viewed the country as
one of great capabilities, requiring only peace and industry to
become a scene of prosperity equal to what prevailed in England. To
this end he deemed an incorporating union of the two countries
necessary, and it was therefore with no small amount of good-will
that he undertook the mission assigned to him.
Even, however, from one regarding it so fraternally as Defoe,
Scotland was little disposed to accept a recommendation of that
measure. It was in vain that he published a complaisant poem about
the people, under the name of Caledonia, in which he commended
their bravery, their learning, and abilities. Vainly did he declare
himself their friend, anxious to promote their prosperity by pointing
to improved agriculture, to fisheries, to commerce, and to
manufactures. The Edinburgh people saw him daily closeted with the
leaders of the party for the hated union, and that was enough. His
pen displayed its wonted activity in answers to the objectors, and his
natural good-humour seems never to have failed him, even when he
was assailed with the most virulent abuse. But his enemies did not
confine themselves to words: threats of assassination reached him.
His lodgings were marked, and his footsteps were tracked; yet he
held serenely on in his course. He even entered upon some little
enterprises in the manufacture of linen, for the purpose of shewing
the people what they might do for themselves, if they would adopt
right methods. It appears that, during the tumults which took place
in Edinburgh while the measure was passing through parliament, he
was in real danger. One evening, when the mob was raging in the
street, he looked out of his window to behold their proceedings, and
was nearly hit by a large stone which some one threw at him, the
populace making a point that no one should look over windows at
them, lest he might recognise faces, and become a witness against
individual culprits.
Defoe spent sixteen months in Scotland on this occasion,
rendering much modest good service to the country, and receiving
for it little remuneration besides abuse. Amongst other fruits of his
industry during the period is his laborious work, The History of the
Union of Great Britain. One could have 1706.
wished a record tracing the daily life of this
remarkable man in Scotland. “We only get an obscure idea of some of
his public transactions. One of the few private particulars we have
learned, is that he paid a visit to the Duke of Queensberry at
Drumlanrig, and by his Grace’s desire, took a view of his estates, with
a view to the suggestion of improvements.
Defoe revisited Scotland in the summer of 1708, on a mission the
purpose of which has not been ascertained; and again in the summer
of 1709. His stay on the last occasion extended to nearly two years,
during part of which time, in addition to constant supplies of articles
for his Review in London, he acted as editor of the Edinburgh
Courant newspaper.[382] (See the next article).
In a folio published this day by Captain 1707. Mar. 6.

James Donaldson, under the title of the
Edinburgh Courant Reviewed, we learn that the Edinburgh Gazette,
which, as we have seen, was commenced in 1699, had now
succumbed to fate: damaged by the persevering policy of Adam Boig
of the Courant, the Gazette ‘of late has been laid aside, as a thing that
cannot be profitably carried on.’
Donaldson here reviews the charges made against his paper, as to
partiality and staleness of news, defends it to some extent, but
practically admits the latter fault, by stating that he was about to
remedy it. He was going to recommence the Edinburgh Gazette in a
new series, in which he would ‘take a little more liberty, and give
stories as they come,’ without waiting, as before, for their
authentication, though taking care where they were doubtful to
intimate as much. The Gazette did, accordingly, resume its existence
on the 25th of the same month, as a twice-a-week paper. The first
number contains three advertisements, one of a sale of house-
property, another of the wares of the Leith glass-work, and a third as
follows: ‘There is a gentleman in town, who has an secret which was
imparted to him by his father, an eminent physician in this kingdom,
which by the blessing of God cures the Phrensie and Convulsion Fits.
He takes no reward for his pains till the cure be perfyted. He will be
found at the Caledonian Coffee-house.’
In a series of the Gazette extending from the commencement to
the 140th number, published on the 2d September 1708, there is a
remarkable sterility of home-news, and anything that is told is told,
in a dry and sententious way. The following 1707.
alone seem worthy of transcription:
‘Leith, May 19 [1707].—Last Saturday, about 50 merchant-ships,
bound for Holland, sailed from our Road, under convoy of two Dutch
men-of-war.’
‘Edinburgh, August 5.—This day the Equivalent Money came in
here from South Britain, in thirteen waggons drawn by six horses.’
Sep. 30.—‘Dyer’s Letter says: Daniel de Foe is believed by this time
in the hands of justice at the complaint of the Swedish minister, and
now a certain man of law may have an opportunity to reckon with
him for a crime which made him trip to Scotland, and make him
oblige the world with another Hymn to the Pillory.’
Strange to say, less than three years after this date, namely, in
February 1710, the ‘unabashed Defoe’ was conducting the rival
newspaper in Edinburgh—the Courant—succeeding in this office
Adam Boig, who had died in the preceding month. The authority of
Defoe for his editorship appears in the following decree of the Town
Council:
‘Att Edinburgh the first day of February

jm. vijc. and ten years:
‘The same day The Councill authorized Mr Daniel Defoe to print

the Edinburgh Currant in place of the deceast Adam Bog
Discharging hereby any other person to print News under the name
of the Edinburgh Currant.’
The advertisements are also very scanty, seldom above three or
four, and most of these repeated frequently, as if they were reprinted
gratuitously, in order to make an appearance of business in this line.
The following are selected as curious:
May 13, 1707.—‘This is to give notice to all who have occasion for a
black hersse, murning-coach, and other coaches, just new, and in
good order, with good horses well accoutred, that James Mouat,
coachmaster in Lawrence Ord’s Land at the foot of the Canongate,
will serve them thankfully at reasonable rates.’
‘Ralph Agutter of London, lately come to Edinburgh, Musical
Instrument-maker, is to be found at Widow Pool’s, perfumer of
gloves, at her house in Stonelaw’s Close, a little below the Steps;
makes the Violin, Bass Violin, Tenor Violin, the Viol de Gambo, the
Lute Quiver, the Trumpet Marine, the Harp; and mendeth and
putteth in order and stringeth all those instruments as fine as any
man whatsoever in the three kingdoms, or elsewhere, and mendeth
1707.
the Virginal, Spinnat, and Harpsichord, all at reasonable rates.’
Oct. 16.—‘There is just now come to town the Excellent Scarburray
Water, good for all diseases whatsomever except consumption; and
this being the time of year for drinking the same, especially at the fall
of the leaf and the bud, the price of each chopin bottle is fivepence,
the bottle never required, or three shilling without the bottle. Any
person who has a mind for the same may come to the Fountain Close
within the Netherbow of Edinburgh, at William Mudie’s, where the
Scarsburray woman sells the same.’
August 12, 1708.—‘George Williamson, translator [alias cobbler]
in Edinburgh, commonly known by the name of Bowed Geordie, who
swims on face, back, or any posture, forwards or backwards; plums,
dowks, and performs all the antics that any swimmer can do, is
willing to attend any gentleman, and to teach them to swim, or
perform his antics for their divertisement: is to be found in Luckie
Reid’s at the foot of Gray’s Close, on the south side of the street,
Edinburgh.’
In September 1707, it is advertised that at the Meal Girnel of
Primrose, oatmeal, the produce of the place, was sold at four pounds
Scots the boll for the crop of 1706, while the crop of the preceding
year was £3, 13s. 4d.; in the one case, 6s. 8d.; in the other, 6s. 4d.
sterling.
The Master of Burleigh—eldest son of Apr. 9.

Lord Balfour of Burleigh, a peer possessed
of considerable estates in Fife—had fallen in love with a girl of
humble rank, and was sent abroad by his friends, in the hope that
time and change of scene would save him from making a low
marriage. He was heard to declare before going, that if she married
in his absence, he would take the life of her husband. The girl was,
nevertheless, married to Henry Stenhouse, schoolmaster of
Inverkeithing. The Master was one of those hot-headed persons
whom it is scarcely safe to leave at large, and who yet do not in
general manifest the symptoms that justify restraint. Learning that
his mistress was married, and to whom, he came at this date with
two or three mounted servants to the door of the poor schoolmaster,
who, at his request, came forth from amongst his pupils to speak to
the young gentleman.
‘Do you know me?’ said Balfour.
‘No.’
‘I am the Master of Burleigh. You have 1707.
spoken to my disadvantage, and I am come
to fight you,’
‘I never saw you before,’ said the schoolmaster, ‘and I am sure I
never said anything against you.’
‘I must nevertheless fight with you, and if you won’t, I will at once
shoot you.’
‘It would be hard,’ said the schoolmaster, ‘to force a man who
never injured you into a fight. I have neither horse nor arms, and it is
against my principles to fight duels.’
‘You must nevertheless fight,’ said the Master, ‘or be shot
instantly;’ and so saying, he held a pistol to Stenhouse’s breast.
The young man continuing to excuse himself, Balfour at length
fired, and gave the schoolmaster a mortal wound in the shoulder,
saying with savage cruelty: ‘Take that to be doing with.’ Then, seeing
that an alarm had arisen among the neighbours, he rode off,
brandishing a drawn sword, and calling out: ‘Hold the deserter!’ in
order to divert the attention of the populace. The unfortunate
schoolmaster died in a few days of his wound.
The Master for a time escaped pursuit, but at length he was
brought to trial, July 28, 1709, and adjudged to be beheaded at the
Cross of Edinburgh, on the ensuing 6th of January. During this
unusually long interval, he escaped from the Tolbooth by changing
clothes with his sister. He was not again heard of till May 1714, when
he appeared amongst a number of Jacobite gentlemen at the Cross of
Lochmaben, to drink the health of James VIII. The family title had
by this time devolved on him by the death of his father; but his
property had all been escheat by sentence of the Court of Justiciary.
His appearance in the rebellion of 1715, completed by attainder the
ruin of his family, and he died unmarried and in obscurity in 1757.
[383]
A great flock of the Delphinus Deductor, Apr. 25.
or Ca’ing Whale—a cete about twenty-five
feet long—came into the Firth of Forth, ‘roaring, plunging, and
threshing upon one another, to the great terror of all who heard the
same.’ It is not uncommon for this denizen of the arctic seas to
appear in considerable numbers on the coasts of Zetland; and
occasionally they present themselves on the shores of Caithness and
Sutherlandshire; but to come so far south as the Firth of Forth is very
rare: hence the astonishment which the incident seems to have
created. The contemporary chronicler goes 1707.
on to state: ‘Thirty-five of them were run
ashore upon the sands of Kirkcaldy, where they made yet a more
dreadful roaring and tossing when they found themselves aground,
insomuch that the earth trembled.’ ‘What the unusual appearance of
so great a number of them at this juncture [the union of the
kingdoms] may portend shall not be our business to inquire.’[384]
The fifteenth article of the treaty of Union Aug.

provided that England should pay to
Scotland the sum of £398,085, 10s., because of the arrangement for
the equality of trade between the two countries having necessitated
that Scotland should henceforth pay equal taxes with England—a
rule which would otherwise have been inequitable towards Scotland,
considering that a part of the English revenue was required for
payment of the interest on her seventeen millions of national debt. It
was likewise provided by the act of Union, that out of this Equivalent
Money, as it was called, the commissioners to be appointed for
managing it should, in the first place, pay for any loss to be incurred
by the renovation of the coin; in the second, should discharge the
losses of the African Company, which thereupon was to cease; the
overplus to be applied for payment of the comparatively trifling
state-debts of Scotland, and to furnish premiums to the extent of
£2000 a year for the improvement of the growth of wool for seven
years—afterwards for the improvement of fisheries and other
branches of the national industry.
Defoe, who was now living in Scotland, tells how those who hated
the Union spoke and acted about the Equivalent. The money not
being paid in Scotland on the very day of the incorporation of the two
countries, the first talk was—the English have cheated us, and will
never pay; they intended it all along. Then an idea got abroad, that
by the non-payment the Union was dissolved; ‘and there was a
discourse of some gentlemen who came up to the Cross of
Edinburgh, and protested, in the name of the whole Scots nation,
That, the conditions of the treaty not being complied with, and the
terms performed, the whole was void.’ At length, in August, the
money came in twelve wagons, guarded by a party of Scots dragoons,
and was carried directly to the Castle. Then those who had formerly
been loudest in denouncing the English for not forwarding the
money, became furious because it was 1707.
come. They hooted at the train as it moved
along the street, cursing the soldiers who guarded it, and even the
horses which drew it. One person of high station called out that those
who brought that money deserved to be cut to pieces. The excitement
increased so much before the money was secured in the Castle, that
the mob pelted the carters and horses on their return into the streets,
and several of the former were much hurt.
It was soon discovered that, after all, only £100,000 of the money
was in specie, the rest being in Exchequer bills, which the Bank of
England had ignorantly supposed to be welcome in all parts of her
majesty’s dominions. This gave rise to new clamours. It was said the
English had tricked them by sending paper instead of money. Bills,
only payable four hundred miles off, and which, if lost or burned,
would be irrecoverable, were a pretty price for the obligation
Scotland had come under to pay English taxes. The impossibility of
satisfying or pleasing a defeated party was never better exemplified.
The commissioners of the Equivalent soon settled themselves in
one of Mr Robert Mylne’s houses in Mylne’s Court, and proceeded to
apply the money in terms of the act. One of their first proceedings
was to send to London for £50,000 in gold, in substitution for so
much of paper-money, that they might, as far as possible, do away
with the last clamour. ‘Nor had this been able to carry them through
the payment, had they not very prudently taken all the Exchequer
bills that any one brought them, and given bills of exchange for them
payable in London.’[385] Defoe adverts to a noble individual—
doubtless the Duke of Hamilton—who came for payment of his share
of the African Company’s stock (£3000), with the interest, and who
refused to take any of the Exchequer bills, probably thinking thus to
create some embarrassment; but the commissioners instantly
ordered the claim to be liquidated in gold.
Notwithstanding all the ravings and revilings about the
Equivalent, Defoe assures us that, amongst the most malcontent
persons he never found any who, having African stock, refused to
take their share of the unhallowed money in exchange for it. Even the
despised Exchequer bills were all despatched so quickly, that, in six
months, not one was to be seen in the country.
Out of the Equivalent, the larger portion—namely, £229,611, 4s.
8d.—went to replace the lost capital of the African Company, and so
could not be considered as rendered to the 1707.
nation at large. For ‘recoining the Scots and
foreign money, and reducing it to the standard of the coin of
England,’ £49,888, 14s. 11 ⅙ d. was expended. There was likewise
spent out of this fund, for the expenses of the commissioners and
secretaries who had been engaged in carrying through the Union,
£30,498, 12s. 2d. After making sundry other payments for public
objects, there remained in 1713 but £16,575, 14s. 0½d. unexpended.
[386]
We shall afterwards see further proceedings in the matter of the

Equivalent.
Walter Scott of Raeburn, grandson of the Oct. 3.

Quaker Raeburn who suffered so long an
imprisonment for his opinions in the reign of Charles II.,[387] fought a
duel with Mark Pringle, youngest son of Andrew Pringle of Clifton. It
arose from a quarrel the two gentlemen had the day before at the
head-court of Selkirk. They were both of them young men, Scott
being only twenty-four years of age, although already four years
married, and a father. The contest was fought with swords in a field
near the town, and Raeburn was killed. The scene of this melancholy
tragedy has ever since been known as Raeburn’s Meadow-spot.
Pringle escaped abroad; became a merchant in Spain; and falling,
on one occasion, into the hands of the Moors, underwent such a
series of hardships, as, with the Scottish religious views of that age,
he might well regard as a Heaven-directed retribution for his rash
act. Eventually, however, realising a fortune, he returned with
honour and credit to his native country, and purchased the estate of
Crichton in Edinburghshire. He died in 1751, having survived the
unhappy affair of Raeburn’s Meadow-spot for forty-four years; and
his grandson, succeeding to the principal estate of the family,
became Pringle of Clifton.
The sixteenth article of the act of Union, while decreeing that a

separate mint should be kept up in Scotland ‘under the same rules as
the mint in England’—an arrangement afterwards broken through—
concluded that the money thereafter used should be of the same
standard and fineness throughout the United Kingdom. It thus
became necessary to call in all the existing coin of Scotland, and
substitute for it money uniform with that of England. It was at the
same time provided by the act of Union, that any loss incurred by the
renewal of the coin of Scotland should be 1707.
compensated out of the fund called the
Equivalent.[388]
The business of the change of coinage being taken into
consideration by the Privy Council of Scotland, several plans for
effecting it were laid before that august body; but none seemed so
suitable or expedient as one proposed by the Bank of Scotland, which
was to this effect: ‘The Directors undertook to receive in all the
species that were to be recoined, at such times as should be
determined by the Privy Council, and to issue bank-notes or current
money for the same, in the option of the ingiver of the old species,
and the Privy Council allowing a half per cent. to the Bank for
defraying charges;’[389] the old money to be taken to the mint and
coined into new money, which should afterwards replace the notes.
Mr David Drummond, treasurer of the Bank, ‘a gentleman of
primitive virtue and singular probity,’ according to Thomas
Ruddiman—a hearty Jacobite, too, if his enemies did not belie him—
had a chief hand in the business of the renovation of the coin, about
which he communicated to Ruddiman some memoranda he had
taken at the time.
‘There was brought into the Bank of Scotland in the year 1707:
Value in Sterling
Money.
Of foreign silver money, £132,080 : 17 : 00
Milled Scottish coins [improved coinage subsequent
to 1673], 96,856 : 13 : 00
Coins struck by hammer [the older Scottish coin], 142,180 : 00 : 00
English milled coin, 40,000 : 00 : 00
Total, £411,117 : 10 : 00
‘This sum, no doubt, made up by far the greatest part of the silver
coined money current in Scotland at that time; but it was not to be
expected that the whole money of that kind could be brought into the
bank; for the folly of a few misers, or the fear that people might have
of losing their money, or various other dangers and accidents,
prevented very many of the old Scots coins from being brought in. A
great part of these the goldsmiths, in aftertimes, consumed by
melting them down; some of them have been exported to foreign
countries; a few are yet [1738] in private hands.’[390]
Ruddiman, finding that, during the time 1707.
between December 1602 and April 1613,
there was rather more estimated value of gold than of silver coined in
the Scottish mint, arrived at the conclusion (though not without
great hesitation), that there was more value of gold coin in Scotland
in 1707 than of silver, and that the sum-total of gold and silver
money together, at the time of the Union, was consequently ‘not less
than nine hundred thousand pounds sterling.’ We are told, however,
in the History of the Bank of Scotland, under 1699, that ‘nothing
answers among the common people but silver-money, even gold
being little known amongst them;’ and Defoe more explicitly says,
‘there was at this time no Scots gold coin current, or to be seen,
except a few preserved for antiquity.’[391] It therefore seems quite
inadmissible that the Scottish gold coin in 1707 amounted to nearly
so much as Ruddiman conjectures. More probably, it was not
£30,000.
It would appear that the Scottish copper-money was not called in
at the Union, and Ruddiman speaks of it in 1738 as nearly worn out
of existence, ‘so that the scarcity of copper-money does now occasion
frequent complaints.’
If the outstanding silver-money be reckoned at £60,000, the gold
at £30,000, and the copper at £60,000, the entire metallic money in
use in Scotland in 1707 would be under six hundred thousand
pounds sterling in value. It is not unworthy of observation, as an
illustration of the advance of wealth in the country since that time,
that a private gentlewoman died in 1841, with a nearly equal sum at
her account in the banks, besides other property to at least an equal
amount.
In March 1708, while the renovation of the coinage was going on,
the French fleet, with the Chevalier de St George on board, appeared
at the mouth of the Firth of Forth, designing to invade the country.
The Bank got a great alarm, for it ‘had a very large sum lying in the
mint in ingots,’ and a considerable sum of the old coin in its own
coffers, ‘besides a large sum in current species; all of which could not
have easily been carried off and concealed.’[392] The danger, however,
soon blew over. ‘Those in power at the time, fearing lest, all our
silver-money having been brought into our treasury, or into the
Bank, a little before, there should be a want of money for the
expenses of the war, ordered the forty- 1707.
shilling pieces to be again issued out of the
banks; of which sort of coin there was great plenty at that time in
Scotland, and commanded these to be distributed for pay to the
soldiers and other exigencies of the public; but when that
disturbance was settled, they ordered that kind of money also to be
brought into the bank; and on a computation being made, it was
found that the quantity of that kind, brought in the second time,
exceeded that which was brought in the first time [by] at least four
thousand pounds sterling.’[393]
We are told by the historian of the Bank, that ‘the whole nation
was most sensible of the great benefit that did redound from the
Bank’s undertaking and effectuating the recoinage, and in the
meantime keeping up an uninterrupted circulation of money.’ Its
good service was represented to the queen, considered by the Lords
of the Treasury and Barons of Exchequer, and reported on
favourably. ‘But her majesty’s death intervening, and a variety of
public affairs on that occasion and since occurring, the directors have
not found a convenient opportunity for prosecuting their just claim
on the government’s favour and reward for that seasonable and very
useful service.’
Mr John Strahan, Writer to the Signet in Nov. 3.

Edinburgh, was at this time owner of
Craigcrook, a romantically situated old manor-house under the lee of
Corstorphine Hill—afterwards for many years the residence of Lord
Jeffrey. Strahan had also a house in the High Street of Edinburgh. He
was the owner of considerable wealth, the bulk of which he
ultimately ‘mortified’ for the support of poor old men, women, and
orphans; a charity which still flourishes.
Strahan had a servant named Helen Bell to keep his town
mansion, and probably she was left a good deal by herself. As other
young women in her situation will do, she admitted young men to
see her in her master’s house. On Hallowe’en night this year, she
received a visit from two young artisans, William Thomson and John
Robertson, whom she happened to inform that on Monday morning
—that is, the second morning thereafter—she was to go out to
Craigcrook, leaving the town-house of course empty.
About five o’clock on Monday morning, accordingly, this innocent
young woman locked up her master’s house, and set forth on her
brief journey, little recking that it was the 1707.
last she would ever undertake in this world.
As she was proceeding through the silent streets, her two male
friends joined her, telling her they were going part of her way; and
she gave them a couple of bottles and the key of the house to carry, in
order to lighten her burden. On coming to a difficult part of the way,
called the Three Steps, at the foot of the Castle Rock, the two men
threw her down and killed her with a hammer. They then returned to
town, with the design of searching Mr Strahan’s house for money.
According to the subsequent confession of Thomson, as they
returned through the Grassmarket, they swore to each other to give
their souls and bodies to the devil, if ever either of them should
inform against the other, even in the event of their being captured. In
the empty streets, in the dull gray of the morning, agitated by the
horrid reflections arising from their barbarous act and its probable
consequences, it is not very wonderful that almost any sort of
hallucination should have taken possession of these miserable men.
It was stated by them that, on Robertson proposing that their
engagement should be engrossed in a bond, a man started up
between them in the middle of the West Bow, and offered to write
the bond, which they had agreed to subscribe with their blood; but,
on Thomson’s demurring, this stranger immediately disappeared. No
contemporary of course could be at any loss to surmise who this
stranger was.[394]
The two murderers having made their way into Mr Strahan’s
house, broke open his study, and the chest where his cash was kept.
They found there a thousand pounds sterling, in bags of fifty pounds
each, ‘all milled money,’ except one hundred pounds, which was in
gold; all of which they carried off. Robertson proposed to set the
house on fire before their departure; but Thomson said he had done
wickedness enough already, and was resolved not to commit more,
even though Robertson should attempt to murder him for his refusal.
Mr Strahan advertised a reward of five hundred merks for the
detection of the perpetrator or perpetrators of these atrocities;[395]
but for some weeks no trace of the guilty men was discovered. At
length, some suspicion lighting upon Thomson, he was taken up,
and, having made a voluntary confession of 1707.
the murder and robbery, he expiated his
offence in the Grassmarket.[396]
A poor man named Hunter, a shoemaker Dec. 9.

in the Potterrow, Edinburgh, had become
possessed of a ‘factory’ for the uplifting of ten or eleven pounds of
wages due to one Guine, a seaman, for services in a ship of the
African Company. The money was now payable out of the
Equivalent, but certain signatures were required which it was not
possible to obtain. With the aid of a couple of low notaries and two
other persons, these signatures were forged, and the money was then
drawn.
Detection having followed, the case came before the Court of
Session, who viewed it in a light more grave than seems now
reasonable, and remitted it to the Lords of Justiciary. The result

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Medical Terminology for Health

Professions 8th Edition Ann Ehrlich

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Printed in the United States of America

To the Learner / xii

Chapter 1: Introduction to Medical

Primary Medical Terms / 3

Chapter 2: The Human Body in Health

Anatomic Reference Systems / 30

Aging and Death / 43

Word Part Review WPR1

Word Part Practice Session / WPR1

Chapter 3: The Skeletal System 56

Structures and Functions of the Skeletal System / 58

Chapter 4: The Muscular System 92

Functions of the Muscular System / 94

Chapter 5: The Cardiovascular System 122

Functions of the Cardiovascular System / 124

Chapter 6: The Lymphatic and Immune

Functions of the Lymphatic System / 165

Chapter 7: The Respiratory System 198

Functions of the Respiratory System / 200

Abbreviations Related to the Respiratory System / 219

Chapter 8: The Digestive System 231

Structures of the Digestive System / 233

Chapter 9: The Urinary System 268

Functions of the Urinary System / 270

Chapter 10: The Nervous System

Functions of the Nervous System / 300

Abbreviations Related to the Nervous System / 324

Chapter 11: Special Senses: The Eyes

Functions of the Eyes / 338

Chapter 12: Skin: The Integumentary System 368

Functions of the Integumentary System / 370

Chapter 13: The Endocrine System 399

Functions of the Endocrine System / 401

The Parathyroid Glands / 404

Chapter 14: The Reproductive Systems 426

Terms Related to the Reproductive Systems of Both Sexes / 428

Chapter 15: Diagnostic Procedures,

Diagnostic Procedures / 464

Comprehensive Medical Terminology

Study Tips / 500

Appendix A: Prefixes, Combining Forms, and Suffixes / 523

Introductory Chapters and Word Part

more effort into learning these basics. 2

Body System Chapters lated

□ □ ion (in um)

-scler pture neur ew-R nay-TO

abdo □ oh-je ology -GOL-

arteri ecrosis (a ee) □ trayt

chapter can be studied at any point in the course. □

Comprehensive Medical Terminology Review

Correct Answer Possible Answers

Appendix A: Prefixes, Combining Forms, and Suffixes is a 1.2.

1.5. surgical removal ________________________________________ hyper-

Correct Answer Possible Answers

using them accurately is essential! ________________________________________ -necrosis

1.10. tissue death ________________________________________ -osis

diagnosis, pathology, and medical procedures. 1.11. bleeding, bursting forth