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Advances in Power Boilers
JSME Series in Thermal and Nuclear
Power Generation

Advances in Power
Boilers
Edited by

Mamoru Ozawa
Faculty of Societal Safety Sciences,
Kansai University, Osaka, Japan

Hitoshi Asano
Kobe University, Kobe, Japan

Series Editor
Yasuo Koizumi
The University of Electro-Communications,
Chofu, Tokyo, Japan
Elsevier
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Contents

List of contributors ix
About the editors xi
Preface of JSME Series in Thermal and Nuclear Power Generation xiii
Preface to Volume 2: Advances in Power Boilers xvii

1 Fossil fuels combustion and environmental issues 1

Jun Inumaru, Takeharu Hasegawa, Hiromi Shirai, Hiroyuki Nishida,
Naoki Noda and Seiichi Ohyama
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Overview and properties of coal, oil, and gas 4
1.3 Combustion of fuels 16
1.4 Emission-induced environmental issues and protection 36
1.5 Remarks 49
Nomenclature 50
References 51

2 Introduction to boilers 57
Mamoru Ozawa
2.1 Start of steam application to pumping water 57
2.2 Dawn of steam power 59
2.3 Classification of boilers 61
2.4 History of boiler development 61
2.5 Historical development of power generation boilers in Japan 99
2.6 Similarity law in boiler furnace and other various important issues 99
References 103

3 General planning of thermal power plant 107

Atsuhiro Hanatani and Mamoru Ozawa
3.1 Overview of steam power plant 107
3.2 Concept of general planning and factors to be considered 109
3.3 Principal concept for high-performance plant 110
3.4 Reheat cycle and regenerative cycle 113
3.5 Enthalpy pressure diagram along steam generating tube 116
3.6 Legal regulations in Japan 117
References 118
vi Contents

4 Power boiler design 119

Masashi Hishida, Kenjiro Yamamoto, Kenichiro Kosaka,
Wakako Shimohira, Kazuaki Miyake, Senichi Tsubakizaki,
Sachiko Shigemasa and Hitoshi Asano
4.1 Heat transfer in boiler 120
4.2 Boiler gas side performance for furnace design 125
4.3 Water circulation design 194
4.4 Deposition, erosion and corrosion, and water treatment 240
References 252

5 Construction, operation, and control of power boiler 257

Michio Sasaki, Shingo Naito and Akira Yamada
5.1 Construction of coal-fired boiler 257
5.2 Operation and control of power boiler 262
Nomenclature 302
References 302

6 Gas turbine combined cycle 305

Shigehiro Shiozaki, Takashi Fujii, Kazuhiro Takenaga,
Mamoru Ozawa and Akira Yamada
6.1 Gas turbine combined cycle power generation 305
6.2 Pressurized fluidized-bed combustion boiler 325
6.3 Integrated coal-gasification combined cycle 326
References 343

7 Ultrasupercritical and advanced ultrasupercritical power plants 345

Kenjiro Yamamoto, Masafumi Fukuda and Atsuhiro Hanatani
7.1 Introduction 345
7.2 Efficiency improvement 346
7.3 History of elevating steam condition in the world 352
7.4 Development programs for ultrasupercritical and advanced
ultrasupercritical power plants in the world 356
7.5 Aspects of metallurgy and stress analysis 370
7.6 Concluding remarks 384
References 386

8 Examples of thermal power station 391

Takatoshi Yamashita, Shigehiro Shiozaki, Shingo Naito, Takashi Fujii,
Mamoru Ozawa and Akira Yamada
8.1 Tachibana-Wan Thermal Power Station Unit No. 2
(ultrasupercritical, sliding pressure, once-through boiler) 391
8.2 Himeji No. 2 Power Plant (gas turbine combined-cycle plant) 400
8.3 Karita PFBC plant 406
8.4 Nakoso and Osaki Integrated Coal Gasification Combined Cycle
(IGCC) Plants 410
Contents vii

8.5 Incineration firing by circulating fluidized bed 422

References 424

9 Boiler explosion and inspection 427

Mamoru Ozawa, Mikiyasu Urata and Masaki Honda
9.1 Historical trend of boiler explosions 427
9.2 Legislative framework 433
9.3 Development in boiler code and inspection organization in the
United States and Germany 439
9.4 Historical development of boiler regulation in Japan 441
9.5 Outline of current inspection of power boiler 443
References 458

10 Future perspective and remarks 461

Jun Inumaru, Saburo Hara and Takeharu Hasegawa
10.1 Introduction 461
10.2 Situation of thermal power generation 462
10.3 Next-generation thermal power generation technology for a
decarbonized society (B2030) 464
10.4 Future outlook for thermal power generation (2030B) 472
10.5 Conclusion 477
References 478

Index 479
List of contributors

Hitoshi Asano Kobe University, Kobe, Japan

Takashi Fujii Mitsubishi Hitachi Power Systems, Ltd., Yokohama, Japan

Masafumi Fukuda Research Institute for Advanced Thermal Power Systems,

Tokyo, Japan

Atsuhiro Hanatani IHI Corporation, Tokyo, Japan

Saburo Hara Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry, Tokyo, Japan

Takeharu Hasegawa Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry,

Tokyo, Japan

Masashi Hishida Mitsubishi Hitachi Power Systems, Ltd., Yokohama, Japan

Masaki Honda Mitsubishi Hitachi Power Systems, Ltd., Yokohama, Japan

Jun Inumaru Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry, Tokyo, Japan

Kenichiro Kosaka Mitsubishi Hitachi Power Systems, Ltd., Yokohama, Japan

Kazuaki Miyake Mitsubishi Hitachi Power Systems Environmental Solutions,

Ltd., Yokohama, Japan

Shingo Naito Mitsubishi Hitachi Power Systems, Ltd., Yokohama, Japan

Hiroyuki Nishida Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry, Tokyo,

Japan

Naoki Noda Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry, Tokyo, Japan

Seiichi Ohyama Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry, Tokyo,

Japan

Mamoru Ozawa Kansai University, Osaka, Japan

x List of contributors

Michio Sasaki Mitsubishi Hitachi Power Systems, Ltd., Yokohama, Japan

Sachiko Shigemasa Hitachi Zosen Corporation, Osaka, Japan

Wakako Shimohira Mitsubishi Hitachi Power Systems, Ltd., Yokohama, Japan

Shigehiro Shiozaki Mitsubishi Hitachi Power Systems, Ltd., Yokohama, Japan

Hiromi Shirai Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry, Tokyo, Japan

Kazuhiro Takenaga Mitsubishi Hitachi Power Systems, Ltd., Yokohama, Japan

Senichi Tsubakizaki Mitsubishi Hitachi Power Systems, Ltd., Yokohama, Japan

Mikiyasu Urata Mitsubishi Hitachi Power Systems, Ltd., Yokohama, Japan

Akira Yamada Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd., Nagasaki, Japan

Kenjiro Yamamoto Mitsubishi Hitachi Power Systems, Ltd., Yokohama, Japan

Takatoshi Yamashita Mitsubishi Hitachi Power Systems, Ltd., Yokohama, Japan

About the editors

Mamoru Ozawa is a professor emeritus and a senior researcher of Research Center

for Societal Safety Sciences, Kansai University, Japan. He received his doctoral
degree from Osaka University in 1977. His research interests include boiling heat
transfer, two-phase flow dynamics, combustion system, boiler, and safety in indus-
trial systems. He has authored and coauthored more than 150 refereed journals,
more than 150 conference papers, several handbooks, and many books related to
thermal hydraulics in steam power. Among his edited books the most recently pub-
lished Science of Societal Safety has been chapter-downloaded more than 70,000
times. He served the Board of Directors and the President of Heat Transfer Society
of Japan and the Chairman of the Power and Energy Systems Division of the Japan
Society of Mechanical Engineers (JSME). He was awarded several times from the
Visualization Society of Japan, the Heat Transfer Society of Japan, and the JSME.

Hitoshi Asano is a professor of the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kobe

University, Japan. He received his doctoral degree from the Kobe University
in 2000. His research interests include boiling and condensation heat transfer,
two-phase flow dynamics in energy conversion systems, compact heat exchangers
for HVAC systems, and two-phase flow cooling systems for electric and power
equipment. He has authored and coauthored more than 100 refereed journals and
more than 130 conference papers. He is a member of the Scientific Council of
International Center for Heat and Mass Transfer and is a fellow of the JSME.
He received the Asian Academic Award from the Japan Society of Refrigeration
and Air-Conditioning Engineers, the Society of Air-Conditioning and Refrigerating
Engineers of Korea, and the Chinese Association of Refrigeration in 2018.
Preface of JSME Series in Thermal
and Nuclear Power Generation

Electric power supply is a fundamental and principal infrastructure for modern soci-
ety. Modern society uses power generation through heat. This series of books consists
of eight volumes describing thermal and nuclear power generation, taking Japan as
the example, and referring the other countries. The Volume 1 discusses how power
supply is attained historically, focusing on the thermal and the nuclear power genera-
tion along with minimum-required scientific and technological fundamentals to
understand this series of books. Then, the present status of the thermal and the
nuclear power generation technique is displayed in detail in Volumes 2 through 8.
The rehabilitation and reconstruction of Japan after World War II was initiated
through the utilization of a large amount of coal for boilers of the thermal power
plants. Meanwhile, environmental pollution caused by coal combustion became
serious, and then oil was introduced to the boilers. Due to two worldwide oil crises
and because of carbon dioxide issues, natural gas has also begun to be used for boi-
lers. Current thermal power generation in Japan is based on coal and gas utilization.
As a result of enough power supply, Japan has become one of the leading countries
economically and technologically in the world. The thermal power technology that
started from introducing technology from abroad has been transfigured Japan into
one of the most advanced in the world through the research and development of
Japanese industry, government, and academia during this process.
Global warming related to excess carbon dioxide emissions has become a
worldwide issue in recent years. Reducing carbon dioxide emission in thermal
power generation is important to help cope with this issue. One direction is to
change the fuel of a boiler from coal to gas that exhausts less carbon dioxide.
Another important direction is to endeavor to enhance the thermal efficiency of
coal thermal power plants as well as oil and gas. Many developing countries in
the world need more thermal power plants in future. Although oil and/or gas ther-
mal power plants may be introduced into these countries, it is supposed that coal
thermal power plants will still be used due to economical reasons. Considering
these situations, the publication of this series of books that displays and explains
the developing history and the present status of the most advanced thermal power
plants in Japan and other advanced countries is a timely planning for engineers
and researchers in the advanced countries to pursue the further advancement and
for engineers and researchers in developing countries to learn and acquire this
knowledge.
xiv Preface of JSME Series in Thermal and Nuclear Power Generation

Nuclear power generation technology in Japan started after being introduced

from abroad approximately 60 years ago. Then, it reached the matured nuclear
power technology through untiring endeavors for research and development.
However, nuclear power plants at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power station
were heavily damaged by huge tsunamis caused by the Great East Japan
Earthquake in 2011 to result in contamination in the large area around the power
station. Taking measures to improve nuclear power reactors to be more robustly is
currently underway by analyzing the factors that caused this serious situation.
Technical vulnerability can be solved by technology. Nuclear power generation
technology is one of the definite promising technologies that should be used in the
future. The nuclear power generation is still expected as one of the main ways to
supply electricity in the framework of the basic energy plan of Japan as well as
thermal power generation. It implies that the construction of new power reactors
will be required to replace the nuclear reactors that will reach their useful lifetime.
Looking overseas, many developing countries are introducing nuclear power gen-
eration technology as a safe and economically excellent way to obtain electricity.
Transfer of the nuclear power generation technology developed and matured in
Japan to those countries is naturally the obligation of Japan. In these situations,
the necessity of human resource development in the field of nuclear power genera-
tion technology in the developing countries, as well as in Japan, is beyond dispute.
Thus, it is an urgent task to summarize the nuclear power generation technology
acquired by Japan to provide it.
The Power and Energy Systems Division (PESD) of the Japan Society of
Mechanical Engineers is celebrating its 30th anniversary from establishment in
1990. This department is entrusted with handling power supply technology in
mechanical engineering. Responding to the earlier-mentioned is truly requested.
This task cannot be done by others but the PESD that is composed of leading engi-
neers and researchers in this field in Japan. In view of these circumstances, summa-
rizing Japan’s and other countries’ power generation technology and disseminating
it not only in Japan but also overseas seems significantly important. So, it has been
decided to execute this book series, publishing as one of the 30th anniversary events
of the PESD.
Authors of this book series are those who have engaged in the most advanced
research and development for the thermal power and nuclear power generation in
Japan and Canada. Their experience and knowledge is reflected in their writing.
It is not an introduction of what others did, but living knowledge based on their
own experiences and thoughts are described. We hope that this series of books
becomes learning material that is not yet in existence in this field. We hope that
readers acquire a way of thinking as well as whole and detailed knowledge by hav-
ing this book series in hand.
This series is the joint effort of many individuals, generously sharing and writing
from their expertise. Their efforts are deeply appreciated. We are very thankful for
Preface of JSME Series in Thermal and Nuclear Power Generation xv

the unbiased and heartful comments given from many reviewers to make this series
superb. Special thanks should be given to Maria Convey and Sara Valentino of the
editorial staff at Elsevier.

Editors in Chief

Yasuo Koizumi
The University of Electro-Communications, Chofu, Tokyo, Japan

Mamoru Ozawa
Kansai University, Takatsuki, Osaka, Japan
March 16, 2020
Preface to Volume 2: Advances in
Power Boilers

Steam power has been constantly at the leading position of industrial technologies
since the beginning of the 18th century. At the first stage, steam power appeared as
the prime mover for the pumping system of coal mines. The advancement in steam
power engineering made it possible to lead the factory systems for the mass produc-
tion of textile products. The availability of steam engines extended their application
to steamboats and locomotives for the mass transportation of people and industrial
products. Such advancement is supported by the development of iron and steel tech-
nology, machine tool, control engineering, and, of course, by society and its econ-
omy. Following the development in electrical technology, steam power stations
were constructed, and since then the electrical network thus has been the fundamen-
tal and principal infrastructure of the society.
The development in steam power since the 18th century has been, in fact, depen-
dent on the development in boiler technology during this 300-year period. A drastic
increase in efficiency and unit output has been supported by the development in
thermo-hydraulic engineering, materials engineering, control engineering, and of
course chemical engineering while the development process was not straightfor-
ward. An increase in the unit power brought about many explosions together with a
tremendous number of fatalities. To reduce and mitigate losses from explosions, a
social system, that is, third-party inspection and regulations, has been introduced. In
reality, the boiler development was a battle with explosions.
A boiler is a system to generate steam by firing coal, oil, gas, and recently inciner-
ation. At the beginning, coal was a prime fuel, which continued to the 1950s for
about 250 years. During this period, various coal-treatment technologies have been
developed to raise efficiency and reduce the emission of smoke. Ash treatment was
also a very important task. Oil was introduced to boilers, so efficiency issue and ash
problems were in part resolved, while the mass consumption of oil for power genera-
tion brought about unstable oil prices due to economic and political situations.
Especially Japan got involved in the oil-crisis in 1973 and 1979. This oil-crisis intro-
duced natural gas firing and enhanced the construction of nuclear power plants.
Nuclear power stations constructed in Japan counted 54 units, while they drastically
reduced in number after the core meltdown in the Fukushima Daiichi power station.
Since then, the economy and social welfare in Japan have been supported by the
fossil-fuel firing power stations, that is, steam boilers. Such a situation is not just a
xviii Preface to Volume 2: Advances in Power Boilers

problem in Japan but rather universal in many developing countries. The importance
of steam boiler technologies is still a prime issue.
This volume is intended to present a state-of-the-art review of power boiler tech-
nology to help practical engineers and graduate student to build basic frameworks
of ideas with which they can understand and treat practical problems of power boi-
lers. Basic principles together with the practical state-of-the-art are described by the
specialists of boiler companies in Japan. As the way of approach to boiler technol-
ogy is not the same among university researchers, research institute members, and
engineers in industries, the editorial board members and authors held many discus-
sions in the course of writing manuscripts, so that the philosophy or common prin-
cipal view on the power boilers and related technologies would remain consistent
throughout this book while respecting the autonomy of each author. We would be
grateful if the essence of our experience in boiler technologies is shared by the care-
ful readers.
The editors are deeply indebted to editorial board members, Akira Yamada,
Atsuhiro Hanatani, Jun Inumaru and Toshihiko Yasuda for their valuable sugges-
tions in planning and editing processes of this book, and thanks are extended to all
the authors of the Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry, Mitsubishi
Heavy Industries, Ltd., Mitsubishi Hitachi Power Systems, Ltd., IHI Corporation,
Research Institute for Advanced Thermal Power Systems, and Hitachi Zosen
Corporation. The editors are also grateful to Elsevier Inc. for allowing publication
and to Editorial Project Manager, Sara Valentino and Project Manager, Prasanna
Kalyanaraman for their editorial works of this volume. Without their contribution,
this volume could not have survived from the bustle of the ongoing pandemic of
coronavirus disease 2019.

April 2020
Mamoru Ozawa
Hitoshi Asano
Fossil fuels combustion and
environmental issues 1
Jun Inumaru, Takeharu Hasegawa, Hiromi Shirai, Hiroyuki Nishida,
Naoki Noda and Seiichi Ohyama
Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry, Tokyo, Japan

Chapter outline

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Overview and properties of coal, oil, and gas 4
1.2.1 Coal 4
1.2.2 Oil 5
1.2.3 Gas 12
1.3 Combustion of fuels 16
1.3.1 Coal 16
1.3.2 Oil 23
1.3.3 Gas 27
1.4 Emission-induced environmental issues and protection 36
1.4.1 Flue gas treatment technology 36
1.4.2 Wastewater treatment 45
1.5 Remarks 49
Nomenclature 50
Notations 50
Greek letters 51
Subscripts 51
References 51

1.1 Introduction
Coal, oil, and gas are mainly used as fossil fuels for power generation. Fig. 1.1 [1]
shows shifts in global primary energy consumption by energy source. The global
primary energy consumption has been increasing in line with economic growth, and
oil is the highest in terms of consumption, followed by coal and then gas. The
increase in oil is mainly due to its use as transport fuel. For the purpose of power
generation, attempts are being made to substitute other energy sources for oil. Coal
is widely distributed around the world, and about 60% of coal consumption goes
toward power generation as a relatively cheap fuel. The consumption of coal had
been increasing year on year, but after peaking in 2013, it is more or less on the
decrease these days. This is due to the recent consumption decrease in China, which
had long been driving the increase in consumption. Gas fuel trends are detailed in
Section 1.2.3.
Advances in Power Boilers. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-820360-6.00001-1
© 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
2 Advances in Power Boilers

Figure 1.1 Transition of primary energy consumption in the world (by energy source) [1].
Note: Figures may not add up to the totals due to rounding. Mtoe: Million tons of oil
equivalent

Figure 1.2 Power generation cost of each power source in Japan (in 2014) [2].

The matters to be considered in using these resources for power generation are
the stable procurement of fuel, power generation costs, including fuel cost, and
environmental characteristics such as emissions of carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides,
sulfur oxides, and particulate matter. As a reference, Fig. 1.2 [2] shows the power
generation cost by fuel in Japan. The cheapest fuel is coal, followed by natural gas
and oil. Fig. 1.3 [3] shows the life cycle CO2 emissions in Japan by power source.
This takes into account not only the carbon dioxide from fuel combustion but also
that produced in the operation of fuel development drilling, transportation, and
power generation facilities. As for life cycle CO2 emissions, coal is the highest, fol-
lowed by oil and natural gas.
When using fossils fuel in power generation boilers, it is important to select
appropriate methods for fuel supply, operation, and maintenance with an under-
standing of the specific characteristics of these fuels. In this section, we describe
Fossil fuels combustion and environmental issues 3

Figure 1.3 CO2 emissions intensity over the entire life cycle by source [3].

the environmental characteristics of coal, oil, and gas from the viewpoint of
power generation fuel, including the characteristics of fuels, combustion charac-
teristics, and emission gas and wastewater, as well as technological development
issues.
4 Advances in Power Boilers

1.2 Overview and properties of coal, oil, and gas

1.2.1 Coal
The estimated amount of coal deposits is much higher than those of other fossil
fuels. Furthermore, coal is produced worldwide, and its price per calorific value is
the cheapest among the fossil fuels. Therefore coal is the most commonly used fuel
for thermal power generation in the world. However, its CO2 emission per calorific
value is the largest among the fossil fuels. In recent years, there has been sustained
worldwide effort to reduce CO2 emission from coal. In this chapter, we deal with
the characteristics of coal.

1.2.1.1 Formation
Coal is a combustible rock that is formed from decayed plants in the earth. The
underground heat and pressure cause the coalification of decayed plants, which
involves the loss of water, methane, and carbon dioxide from plants and an increase
in the proportion of carbon. As the coalification progresses, lignite (brown coal),
followed by subbituminous coal, bituminous coal, and finally anthracite, is formed.
Lignite and subbituminous coal, which have high water contents, are used to gener-
ate steam and electric power. Bituminous coal is used to not only generate steam
and electric power but also produce coke. Anthracite has a high carbon content and
burns with a smokeless flame, but it ignites with difficulty. Therefore it is used as
an ingredient of charcoal briquettes and filter media.

1.2.1.2 Classification
Coal consists of organic matter, minerals, and moisture. Organic matter contains
mostly carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and a small amount of sulfur and nitrogen. Coal has
a wide range of properties, because the types of plant, the degree of coalification, and
the conditions of coalification vary in different locations around the world. Therefore
it is important to logically classify into different types for its optimal utilization.
In Japan, coal is classified on the basis of the calorific value, fuel ratio (the weight
ratio of fixed carbon to volatile matter), and agglomerating character, as shown in
Table 1.1 [4,5]. In the United States, it is classified on the basis of the content of
fixed carbon, that of volatile matter, and the agglomerating character, as shown in
Table 1.2 [5,6]. The calorific value and fuel ratio are important values in selecting
the type of coal appropriate for use in a boiler, and the agglomerating character is an
important value in selecting the type of coal for producing a coke, which is used for
iron manufacture. The coal used in a boiler is called thermal coal or steam coal, and
that for iron manufacture is called coking coal or metallurgical coal.

1.2.1.3 Properties
In the field of coal combustion the important combustion properties of coal are
determined by proximate and ultimate analyses [7,8], namely, calorific value [9],
Fossil fuels combustion and environmental issues 5

Table 1.1 Classification of coal in Japan [4,5].

Classification Calorific value (dry Fuel Agglomerating

ash-free basis) ratio character
Class Group (MJ/kg)
Anthracite (A) A1
4.0 , Nonagglomerating
A2
Bituminous (B, C) B1 35.16 # 1.5 # Highly
B2 ,1.5 agglomerating
C 33.910 # ,35.160
Agglomerating
Subbituminous (D, E) D 32.650 # ,33.910
Weakly
agglomerating
E 30.560 # ,32.650
Nonagglomerating
Lignite (F) F1 29.470 # ,30.560
Nonagglomerating
F2 24.280 # ,29.470

coal ash composition [10], ash fusibility [11], and grindability [11]. The composi-
tion of maceral (Fig. 1.4 [12]), which is a component from coalified plants that
remains preserved in coal, is also fundamental to the combustion properties, since
different maceral types (inertinite, vitrinite, and liptinite) combust at different tem-
peratures and rates.
In the proximate analysis the contents of moisture, ash, and volatile matter of
coal dried in air are measured, and the content of the remaining part is calculated as
the content of fixed carbon. In the ultimate analysis the contents of carbon, hydro-
gen, oxygen, total sulfur, combustible sulfur, and nitrogen are measured. The results
of proximate and ultimate analyses in various coals are shown in Table 1.3 [5]. As
coalification progresses, moisture and volatile matter decrease, and the calorific
value and carbon content increase. The contents of sulfur and nitrogen are indepen-
dent of coalification because they depend on the type of decayed plants present and
the sediment that covered and buried the plants.

1.2.2 Oil
In power plants in Japan, light oils, such as kerosene and diesel, are used for gas
turbines. Heavy oils, the prices of which are relatively cheap compared to kerosene
and diesel, are used for boilers. The quality requirements by the Japanese Industrial
Standards (JIS) for kerosene, diesel, and fuel oil (heavier oils such as banker oil,
marine fuel oil, and marine residual oil) are shown in Table 1.4 [13], Table 1.5
[14], and Table 1.6 [15], respectively. These standards are established mostly based
on flash point, viscosity, and sulfur content.
In addition to the physical properties for proper combustion, important aspects
of fuel use in power plants include the presence of corrosive materials that can
damage the local structure and contaminated matter that yields pollutants in the
fumes. Regarding corrosive materials, trace amounts of alkali metals, such as
sodium and potassium, produce detrimental impacts on the gas turbine. And
Table 1.2 Classification of coal in the United States [5,6].

Class Group Fixed Volatile Calorific value limits Agglomerating character

carbon matter limits MJ/kg (moist free
limits % % (dry ash- basis)
(dry ash-free free basis)
basis)
I. Anthracitic 1. Metaanthracite 98 # ,2

Nonagglomerating
2. Anthracite 92 # ,98 2# ,8


3. Semianthracite 86 # ,92 8# ,14


II. Bituminous 1. Low-volatile bituminous coal 78 # ,86 14 # ,22

Commonly agglomerating
2. Medium-volatile bituminous coal 69 # ,78 22 # ,31


3. High-volatile A bituminous coal , 69 31 , 32.557 #
4. High-volatile B bituminous coal



30.232 # ,32.557
5. High-volatile C bituminous coal



26.743 # ,30.232
6. High-volatile C bituminous coal



24.418 # ,26.743 Agglomerating
III. Subbituminous 1. Subbituminous A coal



24.418 # ,26.743 Nonagglomerating
2. Subbituminous B coal



22.090 # ,24.418
3. Subbituminous C coal



19.300 # ,22.09
IV. Lignite 1. Lignite A



14.650 # ,19.3 Nonagglomerating
2. Lignite B



, 14.65
Fossil fuels combustion and environmental issues 7

Figure 1.4 Maceral types consisting of liptinite and vitrinite Reproduced by permission from
R. M. Flores, Coal and Coalbed Gas, Elsevier (2014),[12].

vanadium can also cause “vanadium attack” [16]. The sulfur content, which causes
sulfidation corrosion, also negatively impacts the boiler (fuels with sulfur are never
applicable to gas turbines).
The causative agents of pollutants in the fumes are nitrogen, which produces
nitrogen oxides (NOx), and sulfur, which produces PM2.5 (fine particulate matter)
and sulfur dioxide (SOx).
Due to the exceptional circumstances brought by SOx on the Yokkaichi asthma
[17] during one of the “Four Big Pollution Diseases of Japan” in 1960s
1970s, the
desulfurizer or use of low-sulfur crude oil, which is expensive but avoids petroleum
refinery costs, became indispensable in Japan. Although the nitrogen content in the
fuel causes NOx emissions, which is as harmful as SOx because NOx causes photo-
chemical smog, there are no regulations of quality requirements for nitrogen emis-
sions. This is partly because not all nitrogen content is converted into NOx, which
is different for SOx, since all sulfur contents are converted into SOx.
The constructions of new oil-fired thermal power plants are prohibited in Japan,
based on the communique adopted by the International Energy Agency (IEA) gov-
erning board meeting at ministerial level in May 1979, the “Principles for IEA
Action on Coal” [18]. Therefore both installed capacity of electric power and
amount of electricity power generation for oil-fired power plants started decreasing
with each passing year after the 1980s, as seen in Fig. 1.5 [19] and Fig. 1.6 [20].
However, some new oil-fired gas turbines were exceptionally introduced after the
Great East Japan Earthquake of 2011. This is also one of the causes of oil being
expensive compared with other fuels, such as coal and natural gas, as shown in
Fig. 1.7 [21].
Refineries in Japan also pursued scrap-and-build designs of refinery capacity and
“a shift toward white oil” (cleaner oils such as gasoline and naphtha) by improving
the performance of reformers of heavy distillates and residues and following the
Table 1.3 Coal properties[5
Country Coal Item

Calorific Total Proximate analysis (%) Fuel Ultimate analysis (%)

value moisture ratio
(MJ/kg) (%)
Moisture Ash Volatile Fixed Carbon Hydrogen Nitrogen Oxygen Sulfur Total
carbon sulfur

Australia Drayton 28.4 9.9 3.4 13.3 34.5 48.8 1.4 71.1 4.9 1.4 8.1 0.8 0.9
Newlands 28.0 8.4 3.0 15.0 26.6 55.4 2.1 69.1 4.1 1.4 7.0 0.4 0.4
Hunter Valley 29.6 8.0 3.5 11.2 34.0 51.3 1.5 72.7 4.5 1.6 9.3 0.3 0.6
Lemington 28.4 9.9 3.7 13.0 32.3 51.0 1.6 71.9 4.5 1.5 8.2 0.4 0.4
Warkworth 28.9 9.6 3.6 11.8 32.8 51.8 1.6 69.1 4.6 1.5 8.9 0.4 0.4
China Datong 29.6 10.1 5.1 7.0 28.1 59.8 2.1 78.2 4.5 0.8 8.8 0.6 0.7
Nantong 28.4 8.0 4.0 16.0 36.2 43.8 1.2 83.0 5.2 1.6 9.8 0.5 0.8
Canada Obedarsh 25.3 8.0 5.0 14.0 37.0 44.0 1.2 64.3 4.6 1.5 14.3 0.3 0.6
Coal Valley 26.1 11.3 6.4 10.7 33.5 49.3 1.5 69.7 4.7 0.9 13.1 0.1 0.3
Indonesia Satui 28.8 9.5 5.1 7.9 41.9 45.1 1.1 72.4 5.5 1.2 11.9 0.7 0.8
South Africa Ermelo 27.8 7.6 3.5 12.9 31.4 52.2 1.7 72.0 4.4 1.7 7.9 0.6 0.8
Optimum 28.5 8.2 3.8 10.7 32.4 53.1 1.6 72.9 4.9 1.6 9.1 0.5 0.6
The United Pinacle 27.2 8.3 4.6 13.4 40.9 41.1 1.0 68.2 5.6 1.4 0.3 0.6 0.7
States
Plato 25.1 9.8 6.0 9.3 41.8 42.9 1.0 72.8 5.5 1.5 11.2 0.7 0.9
Fossil fuels combustion and environmental issues 9

Table 1.4 Quality requirements of kerosene [13].

Test item Classification Test

method
No. 1 No. 2
Distillation characteristics 95% distillation 270 max. 300 max. 6.1
temperature ( C)
Flash point ( C) 40 min. 6.2

Corrosiveness to copper (50 C, 3 h) 1 max.
6.3
Smoke point (mm) 23 min.a
6.4
Sulfur content mass fraction (%) 0.0080 max.b
6.5

0.50 max.
Color (saybolt color) 125 min.
6.6
a
For kerosene for cold climate, the smoke point shall be 21 mm or more.
b
For kerosene for fuel cells, the sulfur content shall be 0.0010 mass fraction % or less.

Table 1.5 Quality requirements for diesel fuel [14].

Test item Class

Special No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 Special

No. 1 No. 3

Flash point ( C) 50 min. 45 min.

Distillation characteristics 360 max. 350 max. 330 330 max.

90% distillation max.a
temperature ( C)
Pour point ( C) 15 max. 22.5 27.5 220 230 max.
max. max. max.

Cold filter plugging point
21 max. 25 max. 212 219 max.

( C) max.

Carbon residue in 10% 0.1 max.

residual oil mass (%)
Cetane indexb 50 min. 45 min.

Sulfur content mass (%) 0.0010 max.

 3
Density (15 C) (g/cm ) 0.86 max.
a
In the case of kinematic viscosity (30 C) of 4.7 mm2/s or less, it shall be 350 C or lower.
b
Instead of cetane index, cetane number may be used.

notices 1
3 based on the “Act on Sophisticated Methods of Energy Supply

Structures” [22]. The supply for oils heavier than diesel used for power plants is
decreasing, and the supply for light oil products such as gasoline and naphtha frac-
tions is increasing, as shown in Fig. 1.8 [20].
Table 1.6 Quality of fuel oils [15].

Kinds Reaction Flash Kinematic Pour Residual Water Ash Sulfur

point viscosity (50 C) point carbon content content content content
(mm2/s) (cSt)b ( C) mass (%) volume (%) mass (%) mass (%)
Class 1 No. 1 Neutral 60 min. 20 max. 5 max.a 4 max. 0.3 max. 0.05 max. 0.5 max.
No. 2 2.0 max.
Class 2 50 max. 10 max.a 8 max. 0.4 max. 3.0 max.
Class 3 No. 1 70 min. 250 max.

0.5 max. 0.1 max. 3.5 max.
No. 2 400 max.

0.6 max.

No. 3 Over 400
1000

2.0 max.


incl.
a
Pour points of Class 1 and Class 2 for cold climate shall be 0 C and under, and pour points of Class 1 for warm climate shall be 10 C and under.
b
1 mm2/s 5 1 cSt.
Fossil fuels combustion and environmental issues 11

Figure 1.5 Electricity generation capacity in Japan [19].

Figure 1.6 Electricity generation composition by resource in Japan [20].

12 Advances in Power Boilers

Figure 1.7 Changes in energy resource prices [21].

Figure 1.8 Sales of petroleum products in Japan [20].

1.2.3 Gas
Examples of gaseous fuels for use in boilers that are being studied include natural
gas, blast furnace gas (BFG), biogas, and, with an eye toward a future hydrogen-
Fossil fuels combustion and environmental issues 13

using society, alternative fuels such as hydrogen and ammonia. However, BFG and
biogas tend to be for personal or local consumption in the areas where they are pro-
duced and are almost never sold internationally. In addition, unlike fossil fuels such
as natural gas, there is anticipation around the use of the secondary fuels, such as
hydrogen and ammonia, in the transportation sector and distributed power produc-
tion with environmental conservation in mind, and in the power generation sector
in more efficient power generation facilities. We discuss natural gas, which is
strongly influenced by external factors, as a fuel for gas-fired boilers, giving an
overview of supply and demand trends.

1.2.3.1 World natural gas supply and demand outlook

Based on the IEA World Energy Outlook 2017, Fig. 1.9 [23] shows the outlook
regarding global supply and demand for natural gas. By 2040 the demand for natu-
ral gas is expected to increase by about 1.5 times compared to the 3635 Bcm (bil-
lion cubic meters)/year demand in 2016, and increased demand from the Middle
East and China in particular is anticipated to make up about 40% of total increased
demand. Meanwhile, although the amount of natural gas produced in Europe is

Figure 1.9 Trends and prospects of world natural gas: (A) demand outlook and (B) supply
outlook [23].
14 Advances in Power Boilers

Figure 1.10 Supply of natural gas to China (2017) [23].

Figure 1.11 Trends and prospects of primary energy demand by fuel in China [23].

expected to decrease, the entire global supply of natural gas is anticipated to rise
due to the production of shale gas in North America and China. Therefore the pro-
portion of unconventional natural gas (shale gas, coalbed methane, and so on) will
account for about 30% of the total in 2040. Although there are concerns about
delays in establishing more new facilities for LNG, increased production of shale
gas is expected to relax global supply and demand for natural gas.
Fig. 1.10 [23] and Fig. 1.11 [23] show the supply for natural gas to China (2017)
and China’s energy demand according to the IEA, respectively. In China, about
60% of natural gas demand is fulfilled by domestic production, and 22% is com-
posed of imported LNG. As China suffers from serious air pollution, the State
Council announced, “10 Measures to Prevent Air Pollution” in 2013 and is planning
a rapid transition from coal to natural gas. According to the IEA forecast, the
demand of natural gas in 2040 will be about three times higher than in 2016, and
the proportion of natural gas demand to primary energy demand will rise to about
14%. On the other hand, the proportion of coal demand to primary energy demand
Fossil fuels combustion and environmental issues 15

Figure 1.12 Changes in the number of global LNG transactions [23].

Figure 1.13 Countries importing LNG worldwide (2017) [23].

is expected to fall from 60% to 40%. Demand for energy and natural gas in China
is expected to continue being affected by policy, domestic gas production volume,
and import volume in the future, and there are concerns that these fluctuations
could affect the global supply of and demand for LNG.

1.2.3.2 Changes in global LNG transactions

Fig. 1.12 [23] shows changes in the number of global LNG transactions. The num-
ber of global LNG transactions (2017) increased around 10% from the previous
year due to increased demand from countries such as China. In particular, the pro-
portion of spot or short-term transactions has risen (27% in 2017), and the liquidity
of the LNG market is improving. However, as demonstrated by the primary nations
importing LNG and the amounts imported (2017) shown in Fig. 1.13 [23], the
16 Advances in Power Boilers

Figure 1.14 World crude oil, natural gas, and LNG price trends [24].

amount of LNG imported to Asia makes up 73% of all LNG imports, and, more-
over, 55% is imported by three countries: Japan, China, and Korea.

1.2.3.3 Changes in global natural gas sale prices

Fig. 1.14 [24] shows changes in global natural gas sale prices in comparison to
crude oil prices. Spot prices have been increasing since September of 2017 due to
factors such as rising oil prices, China’s rapid shift to natural gas to improve its
atmospheric environment, falling temperatures in northeastern Asia, and issues with
European pipelines. The global supply and demand for LNG are tight particularly
because China transitioned to natural gas without first securing a sufficient supply,
and, even with the end of winter demand, prices still have not fallen due to issues
such as delays in new LNG projects. There are concerns that the sale price of natu-
ral gas will continue to be affected by a variety of factors such as the state of supply
and demand, geopolitical risks, and risk of developing fossil resources, all of which
will require close attention.

1.3 Combustion of fuels

1.3.1 Coal
1.3.1.1 Fundamentals of combustion
The combustion process for coal and the calculation methods for the amounts of
combustion air and flue gas are explained next.
1.3.1.1.1 Combustion process
The process of coal combustion is shown in Fig. 1.15 [25]. First, pulverized coal
particles that are ejected from a burner are preheated and dried by convection and
Fossil fuels combustion and environmental issues 17

Figure 1.15 Coal combustion process.

radiation from the combustion flame. When the particle temperature reaches the
thermal decomposition temperature, volatiles are released from coal particles and
ignite at approximately 250 C
500 C [25]. The particle temperature increases dur-
ing the homogeneous combustion of volatiles. Before and after the combustion of
volatiles is completed, the heterogeneous combustion of char, which is the solid
material that remains after volatiles have been released from coal, starts. After char
combustion, ash particles and a small amount of unburnt carbon particles remain.

1.3.1.1.2 Combustion air and flue gas

Carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), and sulfur (S) are the elements in coal con-
sidered in the theoretical calculation. It is assumed that C, H, and S burn are con-
verted into carbon dioxide (CO2), steam (H2O), and sulfur dioxide (SO2),
respectively. The theoretical amount of air A0 (m3N/kg-coal), which is the minimum
amount of air to burn coal completely, is calculated by the following equation:


Wh 2 Wo
A0 5 8:89Wc 1 26:47 1 3:33Ws (1.1)
7:94

Wc, Wh, Wo, Ws (kg/kg-coal) are the contents of C, H, O, and S in coal,

respectively.
The theoretical amount of flue gas G0 (m3N/kg-coal) is also calculated by the fol-
lowing equation:

G0 5 0:790A0 1 1:866Wc 1 11:12Wh 1 0:699Ws 1 0:800Wn 1 1:244Ww (1.2)

Ww and Wn are the contents of water and nitrogen in coal. It is assumed that nitro-
gen in coal is converted into N2.
In actual combustion the actual amount of air used to burn is larger than the the-
oretical amount of air. The ratio of actual amount of the combustion air to the theo-
retical amount is defined as the excess air ratio λ (
). The actual amount of
18 Advances in Power Boilers

combustion air A (m3N/kg-coal) and the amount of flue gas G (m3N/kg-coal) are,
respectively, calculated by Eqs. (1.3) and (1.4) with λ . 1.0.

A 5 λA0 (1.3)

G 5 ðλ 2 1ÞA0 1 G0 (1.4)

In pulverized coal-fired power plants, coal is burned off at an excess air ratio of
about 1.2.

1.3.1.2 Combustion systems

Coal combustion systems include fixed-, fluidized-, and entrained-bed systems, as
shown in Fig. 1.16 [25]. Typical examples of these combustion systems are
explained as follows. A stoker furnace is a small furnace of a fixed-bed combustion
system. In this system, lumps of coal are placed on a conveyor-type combustor and
burned while moving. It is advantageous to be able to burn large lumps of coal
without finely pulverizing them. In a fluidized-bed combustion system, grains of
coal are injected into the bed medium (e.g., particles of limestone, silica, and ash)
fluidized with an airflow and combusted. This system provides better heat transfer
in the bed. Furthermore, it can be applied to in-furnace desulfurization by injecting
limestone into the bed. However, it has problems in maintaining a
stable fluidization when it is scaled up. A pulverized coal boiler system is an exam-
ple of an entrained-bed combustion system in which pulverized coal and air are

Figure 1.16 Coal combustion system [26].

Fossil fuels combustion and environmental issues 19

Figure 1.17 Pulverized coal combustion method.

ejected from the center of the burner and burned. As this system uses coal particles
pulverized to 30
40 µm, it provides high combustion efficiency and less excess air.
Furthermore, as it allows the easy scaling up of a boiler, this system is now mainly
used in coal-fired power plants.

1.3.1.3 Combustion characteristics

An outline of the pulverized coal combustion system, which is mainly used in coal-
fired power plants, is shown in Fig. 1.17. To reduce NOx a two-stage combustion
method is used in this system. Pulverized fine coal is ejected from the center of the
burner with primary air. The ejected coal is burned with secondary air, which is
ejected from the outer side of the coal flow. Unburned char is reburned with air in
the second-stage combustion in which air is ejected from below downstream of the
burner zone. The characteristics of combustion in this system are explained next.

1.3.1.3.1 Combustion efficiency

The ratio of the amount of burned combustible matter to that of combustible matter
in coal is defined as the combustion efficiency E (
), which is calculated by the
following equations [27]:
20 Advances in Power Boilers

 
U 5 A 3 Uc = ð1 2 AÞ 3 ð1 2 Uc Þ (1.5)

E512U (1.6)

The ratio of the amount of unburned carbon to that of the combustible matter
in coal U (
) is defined as the unburned fraction and calculated using Eq. (1.5).
Uc (kg-carbon/kg-ash) is the unburned carbon content in ash. A (kg-ash/kg-coal)
is the ash content, which is defined in terms of the weight of oxides in JIS 8812.
It should be noted that the ash content is different from the mineral content in
coal. The unburned fraction correlates with the fuel ratio as shown in Fig. 1.18
[28]; that is, the unburned fraction increases with the fuel ratio [27,28]. In other
studies, the unburned fraction correlates with the content of vitrinite in coal,
which is a maceral; this is, the unburned fraction increases as the content
decreases [29,30].

1.3.1.3.2 NOx formation

NOx is the general term for the nitrogen oxides that are most relevant for air pollu-
tion, namely, NO and NO2. In a large boiler the NO2 content in NOx is less than
10%. NOx is produced from N2 contained in air and nitrogen in coal. NOx from N2
is called thermal NOx, and NOx from nitrogen in coal is called fuel NOx.
Furthermore, the formation of fuel NOx has two pathways, the formation from
nitrogen in volatiles and in char. In pulverized coal combustion, most of the NOx is

Figure 1.18 Correlation between unburned fraction and fuel ratio [28].
Fossil fuels combustion and environmental issues 21

Figure 1.19 Relationship between NOx concentration and nitrogen content in coal [28].

fuel NOx. Therefore the nitrogen content in coal FN (%) and the conversion ratio of
nitrogen CR (%) to NOx affect the NOx concentration. The NOx concentration cor-
relates with FN as shown in Fig. 1.19. However, the variation of the NOx concen-
tration is large. This variation is caused by the variation of CR. CR increases with
fuel ratio FR, and CR decreases as FN increase. Therefore FR/FN (1/%) and CR
have a strong correlation, as shown in Fig. 1.20 [27].
The two-stage combustion method is mainly used to reduce NOx. In this
method, part of the combustion air is injected from the two-stage combustion air
port, which is located downstream of the burner zone. In the burner zone, pulver-
ized coal burns with λ , 1.0. Part of generated NOx is reduced in the reducing
atmosphere downstream of the combustion flame, and the amount of unburned
carbon increases in the burner zone and is burned by two-stage combustion in air.
The effect of the two-stage combustion ratio on Uc and the NOx concentration are
shown in Fig. 1.21 [31]. The NOx concentration decreases as the two-stage com-
bustion ratio increases, but Uc increases. This result indicates that it is important
to select a suitable two-stage combustion ratio in accordance with the coal prop-
erties and the combustion characteristics of a boiler. Furthermore, various low-
NOx burners used in the two-stage combustion method are being developed
[32
36].
22 Advances in Power Boilers

Figure 1.20 Correlation between conversion of N in coal to NOx and FN/FR [27].

Figure 1.21 Effects of two-stage combustion ratio on the NOx and unburned carbon
concentrations [31].
Fossil fuels combustion and environmental issues 23

1.3.2 Oil
The combustion of liquid fuels consists of four reactions, that is, atomization,
vaporization, mixing, and (combustion) reaction. For power plants the atomization
is achieved by the energy (i.e., pressure or velocity) which is (1) involved in the
fuel itself or (2) supplied by an external fluid. Fig. 1.22 shows the main examples
of (1): a plain-jet and a pressure-swirl atomizer. Fig. 1.23 shows the main examples
of (2), namely, an airblast atomizer [37] and a two-phase nozzle [38].
In both cases the droplets are formed by tearing large droplet, liquid column, or
liquid film by a shear stress, as shown in Fig. 1.24 [39]. Because the produced dro-
plets are uniform, the characteristics are evaluated using statistic values regarding
distribution of droplet size, average droplet size, its variance, and so on. The
Nukiyama
Tanasawa distribution [37] and the Rosin
Rammler distribution [40]
are commonly used to represent these characteristics. The Rosin
Rammler distri-
bution function is shown in Eq. (1.7), which describes the cumulative distribution
RM (d) of the mass or volume as a function of total mass or volume contained in
droplets of diameter d smaller than d. The differential fM (d) is also shown in
Eq. (1.8) that indicates the mass or volume content of droplets with diameter d.
"
 #
d λ
RM ðdÞ 5 1 2 exp 2 ; (1.7)
d0

 "
 #
λ d λ21 d λ
f M ðd Þ 5 exp 2 ; (1.8)
d0 d0 d0

Figure 1.22 Plain-jet and pressure-swirl atomizer.

Figure 1.23 Airblast nozzle and two-phase atomizer: (A) Nukiyama
Tanasawa airblast
nozzle [37] and (B) two-phase mixing nozzle [38].
24 Advances in Power Boilers

Figure 1.24 Three mechanisms of breakup atomization [39]: (A) droplet, (B) fibrous, and
(C) film.

where λ and d0 are the distribution parameters. Fig. 1.25 shows the representative
Rosin
Rammler distribution. The viscosity of the fuel oil is very important for the
formation of the droplets. For high viscosity oils, such as fuel oil specified in JIS,
the viscosity of the fuel is controlled by heating so that the fuel temperature
becomes suitable for atomization, as shown in Fig. 1.26 [41], which was drawn
based on the ASTM D341.
The evaporation of a fuel strongly depends on the heat flux to the droplets and
the diffusion rate of the fuel vapor around the droplets. The heat flux significantly
depends on the conformations of the flame fronts and the droplets. These conforma-
tions are discussed by Chiu et al. [42], who modeled them into four conformations
of combustion, as shown in Fig. 1.27. The group combustion number G is defined
Fossil fuels combustion and environmental issues 25

Figure 1.25 Rosin
Rammler distribution of droplets.

Figure 1.26 Correlation between viscosity and temperature of fossil fuels [41].
26 Advances in Power Boilers

Figure 1.27 Four group combustion modes of a droplet cloud [42]: (A) single droplet
combustion, (B) internal group combustion, (C) external group combustion, and (D) external
sheath combustion.

by the Lewis number Le and the Schmidt number Sc, as shown in the following
equation:
 

2=3 d
G 5 1:5Le 1 1 0:27Sc Re
1=3 1=2
nT (1.9)
l

Chiu et al. established that the group combustion can be expressed by the prod-
uct between the total number of droplets to the two-thirds power and the reciprocal
of the nondimensional separation S, as illustrated in Fig. 1.28 (where, to simplify,
Le 5 1) [42]. The nondimensional droplet separation S is defined by the following
equation:
Fossil fuels combustion and environmental issues 27

Figure 1.28 Group combustion region diagram (Le 5 1) [42].


0:1 l=d
S5 (1.10)
1 1 0:27Sc1=3 Re1=2

As mentioned earlier, because the liquid combustion depends on many factors

such as evaporation, mixing, and spatial dispersion of droplets, the control in liquid
fuel combustion is significantly more difficult than that in gaseous fuel combustion.
Therefore the reduction of NOx in liquid fuel combustion is difficult compared to
gaseous fuel combustion. In gaseous combustion, lean premixed combustion is
common, because the fuel can be diluted sufficiently to avoid high-temperature
combustion and reduce the generation of thermal NOx by the Zeldovich mechanism
(Zeldovich NOx). The NOx emission levels for various fuels upon gas turbine com-
bustion are compared in Fig. 1.29 [43].

1.3.3 Gas
Unlike liquid fuels and solid fuels such as coal, gaseous fuels do not contain ash,
fixed nitrogen, or sulfur content and do not produce air pollutants other than
28 Advances in Power Boilers

Figure 1.29 Predicted NOx emission levels of various fuels in gas turbine combustors [43].

thermal NOx, which is formed by the oxidization of nitrogen in the air. A variety of
low-NOx combustion techniques have been developed because of relatively simple
combustion process in which a combustion reaction progresses through only a gas-
phase reaction with an oxidizing agent such as air. In addition, the demand for natu-
ral gas fuels has been steadily rising in recent years because of the low carbon con-
tent in fuel (when comparing the CO2 emissions per unit calorific value, coal: fuel
oil: natural gas 5 1:0.75:0.55, with natural gas being the lowest), i.e. low contribu-
tion to greenhouse effect. An outline of basic burner combustion technology in gas-
fired boilers for industrial or power generation purposes is provided in the follow-
ing sections.

1.3.3.1 Natural gas
fired combustion

Table 1.7 [44
46] shows examples of the composition of natural and city gases.
The basic components of natural gas include methane, ethane, propane, butane, and
hydrocarbons with a heavier molecular weight than pentane, as well as the inert
gases, nitrogen and carbon dioxide. The proportion of these components varies
depending on where the natural gas is produced. In addition, natural gas fuel con-
tains almost no sulfur or fuel N that oxidizes easily in the combustion process, that
is why natural gas is used as an environment-friendly fuel with low SOx and NOx
emissions. The oil crisis in the 1970s and requirement to prevent environmental
pollution have led to expanding demand for natural gas. In the case of the Japanese
Fossil fuels combustion and environmental issues 29

Table 1.7 Typical properties of natural gas and city gas [44
46].

Gas type Natural gas [44] City gas (type 13A)

[45]
Higher heating value (MJ/m3N) 44.30 45 (range 43
46)
Component CH4 85.48 89.60
(vol.%) C2H6 8.26 5.62
C3H8 3.06 3.43
C4H10 1.42 1.35
C5H12, 0.71

etc.
N2, CO2 1.17

Specific weight (air 5 1) 0.67 (calculated) 0.638
Wobbe index (MJ/m3N) 54 (calculated) 56 (calculated)
(range 5 44
55 [46])

city gas shown in the table, components such as propane gas are added to raw natu-
ral gas or LNG to adjust the fuel’s calorific value to 43
46 MJ/m3N and make the
gas usable in standard household gas equipment. The adjusted gas is supplied
through the city’s pipeline network.
Fig. 1.30 [47] shows major gas-fired burner technology. A variety of burner
technologies are being developed to fit the fuel type, calorific value, and supply
pressure of gas fuels including high-calorie gases such as natural gas, LNG (includ-
ing city gas), LPG, refined petroleum gas, and COG (coke-oven gas), and mid- to
low-calorie gases such as BFG, LDG (Linz
Donawitz converter gas), H2, and bio-
gas. All the burner technologies allow for cofiring of multiple gas fuel types and
cofiring with oil. In particular, various manufacturers have recently developed a
variety of low-NOx burners as an environment-friendly strategy for large-scale ther-
mal power generation. Specific examples will be discussed later in Section 1.3.3.4.
Fig. 1.31 [47] provides examples of oil/gas cofiring burner technology. In all the
burner technologies an oil-spray burner is placed in the center of the burner tile
with a gas burner positioned on the perimeter. A variety of combinations are possi-
ble depending on the fuel type, calorific value, and fuel supply pressure.

1.3.3.2 Blast furnace gas
fired combustion

Table 1.8 [48,49] provides examples of the composition of BFG, COG, and LDG
produced as a by-product of the production process in steelworks. BGF, a by-
product of producing pig iron by restoring iron ore with coking coal in a blast fur-
nace (BF), contains the combustible components, carbon monoxide (CO) and
hydrogen (H2), which make up about 1/4 of the whole composition. Other compo-
nents include the inert gases nitrogen (N2) and carbon dioxide (CO2), which have a
calorific value (of BFG) as low as about 3 MJ/m3N, and less than 1/10 of natural
gas, and are referred to as low-calorie gases. COG has a high ratio of combustible
30 Advances in Power Boilers

Figure 1.30 Typical properties of gas-fired burners [47].

Figure 1.31 Example of dual-fuel burners [47]: (A) oil burner/low-NOx gas burner, (B) oil
burner/scroll-type burner, and (C) oil burner/multiple lance 1 ring-type gas burner.

components at about 90%, a calorific value of about 20 MJ/m3N, and makes up 1/2
of natural gas. LDG is around 70% CO, a combustible component, and is also com-
posed of the inert gases nitrogen (N2) and carbon dioxide (CO2). Its calorific value
Fossil fuels combustion and environmental issues 31

Table 1.8 Typical properties of blast furnace gas (BFG), coke-oven gas (COG), and
Linz
Donawitz converter gas (LDG) [48,49].

BFG [48] COG [48] LDG [49]

Higher heating value (MJ/m3N) 2.98 19.26 8.4
Component (vol.%) H2 2.8 57.4

CH4
24.6

C2H2
2.4

CO 20.8 7.1 66
CO2 21.3 2.4 16
N2 55.2 6.1 18
Specific weight (air 5 1) 1.06 (calculated) 0.36 (calculated) 1.06 (calculated)
Wobble index (MJ/m3N) 2.9 (calculated) 32.0 (calculated) 8.2 (calculated)

Figure 1.32 Example of manufacturing process scheme and energy flow of the steelworks
[50].

is about 8 MJ/m3N, and it makes up 1/5 of natural gas. COG and LDG are called
mid-calorie gases.
Fig. 1.32 [50] shows an example of the manufacturing process and energy flow
at a steelwork. The steelworks by-product gases BFG, COG, and LDG are supplied
to nonutility generation facilities for use as boiler fuel. Specifically, high-calorie
fuels such as coal, fuel oil, and LPG are supplied to and cofired in the nonutility
generation facilities for the auxiliary fuel firing of by-product gas. In recent years,
BFG single-fuel firing technology has also been put to practical use. In addition to
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 CHAPTER XI

PARENTS IN COUNCIL

Part II
“We have listened to you, gentlemen, with great deference. We have
profited much, and perceive a great field of work before us. I hope
we may get a little outside help. I heard the other day of a young lady
learned in mosses who is in the habit of taking the children she
knows on ‘mossing’ expeditions. But what I wish to say is, education,
like charity, begins at home, and you have chosen to lead us far
afield at the very outset!”
“Truly, we did go off at a canter! But don’t you think ’tis a matter
for curtain discipline? If your son Tom had not ‘wondered what you
are’ we might have begun quite at the beginning, if there is one; or,
most likely, should have been till this moment wondering where to
begin. We are grateful to you, Henderson, for starting us anywhere;
and more so to Mrs. Henderson for her axiom, Education begins at
home.”
“I daresay experienced people get to know all about it,” said Mrs.
Clough; “but the mother of even two or three little ones has a sense
of being at sea without rudder or compass. We know so little about
children, or, indeed, about human beings at all! Parents before our
time had something to go upon; and the young mother could ask
counsel of her elders on all matters from ‘cinder tea’ to the choice of
a school. But now science is abroad; many of the old wise saws turn
out, not only mischievous, but ridiculous. We can’t keep hold of the
old, we can’t get hold of the new, and there we are, like Mahomet’s
coffin.”
 “You have described our quandary exactly, Mrs. Clough! And what
you say accounts for many things. The older people complain that
the children of these days are growing up lax, self-pleasing,
disobedient, irreverent. Now, I think myself there is a great deal
that’s fine in our children. They are much more of persons than we
were at their age; but that they do pretty much what is right in their
own eyes, are neither obedient nor reverent, nor even respectful, is, I
am afraid, a true bill. But don’t you see how it is? We are afraid of
them. We feel as a navvy might, turned in to dust the drawing-room
ornaments! The mere touch of his clumsy great fingers may be the
ruin of some precious thing. We parents, no doubt, get tenderness
and insight from above to enable us for our delicate work; so I
suppose it is our own fault that the children are beyond us.”
“How do you mean, Mrs. Meredith? And if you, mothers, don’t
know what to do with the children, who does? The enlightened father
lays himself out for a snub if he sets up for an authority at home.”
“Oh, yes! you men make ludicrous blunders about children. But
that’s no help. A young mother gets a tender human creature into
her keeping, full of possibilities. Her first concern is, not only to keep
it in health, but, so to speak, to fill it with reserves of health to last a
lifetime. At once her perplexities begin. I shall not even ask to be
excused for venturing upon details; the affairs of a young human
being are important enough to engage the attention of Queen, Lords,
and Commons, did they but know it. Well, a mother I know wished
her child to be clothed delicately, as befits a first-born. She sent to
Ireland for a delicious baby trousseau of lace and cambric. You
gentlemen don’t understand. Hardly had the dear little garments
gone through their first wash, when somebody tells her that ’oo’ a’
’oo’ is the only wear for babies and grown ups. I doubt if to this day
she knows why, but there was a soupçon of science in the
suggestion, so the sweet cambrics were discarded and fine woollens
took their place. By-and-by, when the child came to feed like other
mortals, there was a hail of pseudo-science about her ears. ‘Grape-
sugar,’ ‘farinaceous foods,’ ‘saliva,’ and what not; but this was less
simple than the wool question. She could make nothing of it, so
asked her doctor how to feed the child. Further complications arose:
‘the child sees everything;’ ‘the child knows everything;’ ‘what you
make him now he will be through life;’ ‘the period of infancy is the
most important in his life.’ My poor friend grew bewildered, with the
result that, in her ignorant anxiety to do right, she is for ever
changing the child’s diet, nurse, sleeping hours, airing hours,
according to the last lights of the most scientific of her acquaintance;
and ’tis my belief the little one would be a deal better off brought up
like its mother before it.”
“Then, Mrs. Meredith, you would walk in the old paths?”
“Not a bit of it! Only I want to see where I’m going. I think we live
in an age of great opportunities. But my contention is, that you
cannot bring up children on hearsay in these days; there is some
principle involved in the most everyday matter, and we must go to
school to learn the common laws of healthy living and well-being.”
“Mrs. Meredith is right: here is serious work sketched out for us,
and of a kind as useful for ourselves as for our children. We must
learn the first principles of human physiology.”
“Would not it do to learn what is called Hygiene? I have a notion
that is physiology made easy; that is, you are just taught what to do,
without going fully into the cause why.”
“No, we must stick to physiology: I don’t believe a bit in learning
what to do, unless founded upon a methodical, not scrappy,
knowledge of why we do it. You see, all parts of the animal economy
are so inter-dependent, that you cannot touch this without affecting
that. What we want to get at is, the laws for the well-being of every
part, the due performance of every function.”
“Why, man, you would have every one of us qualify to write M.D.
to his name.”
“Not so; we shall not interfere with the doctors; we leave sickness
to them; but the preservation of health, the increase in bodily vigour,
must be our care. In this way, we acquaint ourselves fully with the
structure of the skin, for example, with its functions, and the inter-
dependence between these and the functions of certain internal
organs. Now, secure vigorous action of the skin, and you gain
exhilaration of spirits, absolute joy for the time, followed by a rise in
the sense of general well-being, i.e., happiness. You remember how
a popular American poet sits on a gate in the sun after his bath,
using his flesh-brushes for hours, until he is the colour of a boiled
lobster, and ‘more so.’ He might be more seemly employed, but his
joy is greater than if daily telegrams brought him word of new
editions of his poems. Well, if due action of the skin is a means to a
joyous life, to health and a genial temper, what mother is there who
would not secure these for her child? But the thing is not so simple
as it looks. It is not merely a case of bath and flesh-brush: diet,
clothes, sleep, bedroom, sunshine, happy surroundings, exercise,
bright talk, a thousand things must work together to bring about this
‘happy-making’ condition. What is true of the skin is true all round,
and we cannot go to work with a view to any single organ or function;
all work together: and we must aim at a thorough grip of the subject.
Is it, then, decided ‘without one if or but,’ that we get ourselves
instructed in the science of living?”
“The ‘science of living’—yes, but that covers much beyond the
range of physiology. Think of the child’s mind, his moral nature, his
spiritual being. It seems to me that we already make too much of the
body. Our young people are encouraged to sacrifice everything to
physical training; and there is a sensuousness well hit-off in George
Eliot’s ‘Gwendoline,’ in the importance given to every detail of the
bath and the toilet. One is weary of the endless magnification of the
body and its belongings. And, what is more, I believe we are
defeating our own ends. ‘Groom’ the skin, develop the muscles, by
all means; but there is more to be thought of, and I doubt if to live to
the flesh, even in these ways, is permissible.”
“Right, Mrs. Meredith! But don’t think for a moment that
physiology lends itself to the cult of muscle. Here is a youth whose
biceps are his better part: like most of us, he gets what he aims at—
some local renown as an athlete. But what does he pay for the
whistle? His violent ‘sports’ do not materially increase the measure
of blood which sustains him: if the muscles get more than their
share, their gain implies loss elsewhere, to the brain, commonly,
and, indeed, to all the vital organs. By-and-by, the sports of youth
over, your brawny, broad-chested young fellow collapses; is the
victim of ennui, and liver, lungs, or stomach send in their requisition
for arrears of nourishment fraudulently made away with.”
“But, surely, Mr. Meredith, you do not think lightly of physical
development? Why, I thought it one of the first duties of parents to
send their offspring into the world as ‘fine animals.’”
“So it is; but here, as elsewhere, there is a ‘science of the
proportion of things,’ and the young people who go in violently and
without moderation for muscular feats are a delusion and a snare: in
the end they do not prove ‘fine animals;’ they have little ‘staying’
power.”
“But a child is more than an animal; we want to know how mind
and moral feelings are to be developed?”
“Even then, Mrs. Tremlow, we should find much help in the study
of physiology—mental physiology, if you like to call it so. The border-
line where flesh and spirit meet seems to me the new field, an
Eldorado, I do believe, opened to parents and to all of us concerned
with the culture of character. I mean, the habits a child grows up with
appear to leave some sort of register in his material brain, and thus
to become part of himself in even a physical sense. Thus it rests with
parents to ease the way of their child by giving him the habits of the
good life in thought, feeling, and action, and even in spiritual things.
We cannot make a child ‘good,’ but, in this way; we can lay paths for
the good life and the moral life in the very substance of his brain. We
cannot make him hear the voice of God; but, again, we can make
paths where the Lord God may walk in the cool of the evening. We
cannot make the child clever; but we can see that his brain is
nourished with pure blood, his mind with fruitful ideas.”
“I suppose all this would be encouraging if one were up to it. But I
feel as if a great map of an unknown country were spread before me,
where the few points one wants to make for are unmarked. How, for
instance, to make a child obedient, kind, and true?”
“Your question, Mrs. Tremlow, suggests further ground we must
cover: a few set rules will be of little service; we must know how
much there is in ‘human nature,’ and how to play upon it as a
musician on the keys of his instrument. We must add to our
physiology, psychology, and, to psychology, moral science. Complex,
yet most simple, manifold, yet one, human nature is not to be ticked
off in a lecture or two as a subject we have exhausted; but there is
no conceivable study which yields such splendid increase for our
pains.”
“And the spiritual life of the child? Does either of these ‘ologies’
embrace the higher life, or is it not susceptible of culture?”
“Ah, there we have new conditions—the impact of the Divine upon
the human, which generates life, ‘without which there is no living.’
The life is there, imparted and sustained from above; but we have
something to do here also. Spirit, like body, thrives upon daily bread
and daily labour, and it is our part to set before the child those ‘new
thoughts of God, new hopes of Heaven,’ which should be his
spiritual diet; and to practise him in the spiritual labours of prayer,
praise, and endeavour. How?—is another question for our Society to
work out.”
 CHAPTER XII

A HUNDRED YEARS AFTER

(AT THE CLOUGHS’ DINNER-TABLE, SEPT. 10,

1990.)
“It’s a capital idea! the thing ought to be commemorated. At any
rate, we can give a little dinner in honour of it. Whom shall we have?”
“Dr. and Mrs. Oldcastle, and Harry’s form-master, young Mr.
Hilyard, and his wife, will represent school-work; we shall stand for
parents in general; and with Dr. and Mrs. Brenton for our medical
advisers, and the Dean and Mrs. Priestly to witness for things
spiritual, we shall be quite a ‘representative gathering.’ Will my list
do?”
“Famously! Couldn’t be better. We all know the subject and each
other. I shouldn’t wonder if we have some good things said.”
Mr. Clough was a City merchant, as had been his fathers before
him for four or five generations; he was reputed wealthy, and was a
rich man, but one who held his wealth as a public trust, reserving for
personal uses only what should keep his family in refined and
comfortable living. Not that there was much virtue in this, for he, and
others like him, held in aversion luxurious living, and whatever
savoured of the “barbarous opulence” of earlier days. Dr. Oldcastle
was the head-master of an old-established foundation school; for the
remaining guests they have been sufficiently introduced by Mrs.
Clough.
During the dinner there was the usual gay talk, and some light
handling of graver subjects until the ladies retired. Then—
 “I wonder, gentlemen, has it occurred to you why my wife and I
have been so pertinacious in trying to get you here to-night?”
Every one’s countenance showed that he was struck by an
interesting recollection.
“A little circumstance connected with this room, and a certain date
that I fear I may have mentioned more than once or twice?”
“Oh, to be sure,” said the Dean; “haven’t I said a dozen times to
my wife, ‘There’s but one thing that Clough plumes himself on—that
the Fathers’ and Mothers’ Club was born in his dining-room!’”
“But why to-night more than any other night?”
“Why, to-night is the hundredth anniversary of that great event!” A
good-humoured smile passed round. “Yes, gentlemen, I know I’m
house-proud, and give you leave to laugh. But would not you cherish
an old-fashioned house in a by-street, when it’s the one thing that
links you to history?”
“But, my dear fellow, why in the world should this Club with the
stuttering initials (how I hate initials!) be glorified? It does not get in
my way, as a head-master, it’s true; but, mind you, a man can’t play
up to his Busby in the face of it! There was a man for his calling!
How he’d walk over your ‘F. M. C.’s.’ Fumble! aye, that’s the word.
Knew ‘F. M. C.’ reminded me of something.”
“I’m slow to see how our Club links us with history, certainly,”
murmured Dr. Brenton reflectively.
“Why, in this way: if the Club did not initiate, it certainly marked a
stage in the progress of the great educational revolution in which we
have been moving for the last hundred years. Wait for two or three
centuries, and you will find this revolution of ours written down as the
‘New Education’ just as some one gave the happy name of the ‘New
Learning’ to the revival of letters in the Dark Ages.”
“Sorry to disoblige you, but I’m afraid none of us sees his way to
more than a century of waiting, though it be to verify the statements
of his best friend. But go on, old fellow, I’m with you! Make the
‘revolution’ plain sailing for us.”
 “Thanks, Hilyard; your sanction emboldens me. But which am I to
‘go on’ with, the word or the thing?”
“A distinction with a difference. If I say ‘the thing,’ off we go to the
Dark Ages themselves; and shall come out to find the ladies cloaked
and hooded in the hall!”
“A thing endurable to us elder Benedicts.”
“Now, Doctor! As if you weren’t tied to Mrs. Oldcastle’s apron-
string every minute you’re not in school. Fanny and I follow you for
encouragement when we feel our bond growing slack.”
“To order, gentlemen, to order! or we shall get neither word nor
thing. We shall all want to put in an oar anent ‘my wife and I.’”
“Brenton’s right. Seer, take up thy parable, and go ahead!”
“Who would contemn a behest of the Church?” (with a bow which
threatened a candle-shade, deftly saved by Hilyard.) “I go ahead; I’m
not to talk about the thing, but the name. Why I call this, which has
been working itself out in the last hundred years or more, an
educational revolution. In the first place, what was called ‘Education’
a century since and what we call Education are essentially different
things.”
“Come, come! Isn’t that rather strong? We go in for the classics
and mathematics; and so did the schools of a hundred, or, for the
matter of that, five hundred years ago. ’Tis true we have to work
much more with modern languages, natural science, and other
subjects of which we can give but a smattering, to the confusion
alike of boys and masters. Give me a classical education, or, in
default, a mathematical; ’tis training! And, for my part, I vote for the
pre-Revolutionists, if that’s what you choose to call them,”—with a
subdued snort, which epitomised much that was not civil to the
reform party.
“How much clearing of the decks must take place for even a
friendly discussion! Tell us, gentlemen both, what you mean by
education?”
 “Mean by education, Doctor? I should not have thought our united
wisdoms need be called on to answer that! A boy is educated when
he knows what every gentleman should know, and when he is
trained to take his place in the world.”
“Dr. Oldcastle’s definition suits me as well as another. Putting
aside the polite acquirements, the question turns on the training—
how much it includes, and how it is to be given.”
“There you have it, Clough,” put in Dr. Brenton; “and my
contention is, that you owe the incalculable advance in character
which has taken place in the period we are considering entirely to us
doctors. Wasn’t it we who found out for you that you were all
blundering in the dark; that you hadn’t even set your feet on the
scientific basis of education; that all your doings were tentative?
About a hundred years ago, men spent a third of a lifetime on
mathematics. Cambridge made men Senior Wranglers in those
days, and perhaps the distinction was worth the work. But the world
said, in that weighty way in which the world likes to talk:
‘Mathematics afford a mental discipline, a fortifying of character,
which no other study gives.’ Now I’m not denying the worth of
mathematics as a factor in education; but look at your
mathematician; do you find him more to the fore, more his own
master, than other men? Often enough he is irritable, obstinate, all
the more wrongheaded the more he’s in the right. But now we
(observe the we—royalty itself couldn’t make more of it) find you
fumbling about blindly, snatching up now this tool, now that, natural
science, languages, or what not, in order to work upon material you
knew nothing about, was it mind, or morals, or what? To effect issues
you had not determined on—intellectual power? Force of character?
In the slough we found you—parent, schoolmaster, parson—all
whose business is, more or less, the bringing up of the young; and
what have we done for you? Why, we’ve discovered to you the
nature of the material you have to work upon, the laws according to
which it must be wrought. We have even put it into your hands as
clay in the hands of a potter, and we’ve shown you what is the one
possible achievement before you; that is, the elevation of character.
Education which fails to effect this, effects nothing. There, that’s what
we’ve done. Every man to his trade, say I; and there’s nothing like
leather!”
“Well, but, but,—all this is very fine talk; but what demonstration
can you give? And where in the world have I been while all this was
going on? Pshaw! You delude yourselves, my dear friends. This airy
talk makes flighty brains; but do you suppose I’ve been a
schoolmaster these forty years while all this has been going on, and
yet know nothing of it?”
“That comes of fumbling over our F. M. C., instead of holding us
up with both hands. But, honour bright, Dr. Oldcastle, do you see in
these days any change in the manner of boy that comes to your
hands fresh from his home?”
“Yes, yes! a thousand times, yes!”
“If Mr. Hilyard’s courtesy had permitted me to answer for myself, I,
also, should have said ‘yes.’ I see a most remarkable change, upon
which society is to be congratulated. But what would you have?
Civilisation and education must of necessity produce results,
appreciable even within a single lifetime.”
“Don’t you think, Doctor, you might have made a trilogy of it, and
promoted Christianity?” interposed the ever suave and gentle tones
of the Dean. “I myself feel with Dr. Brenton, ‘every man for his
master,’ and would fain lay every advance at the feet of mine.”
“I must beg the Dean to look over a little assumed pugnacity. That
we all agree with him, he may rest assured. And for this reason.
Every other avenue towards perfection leads you, after weeks or
months or years of delightful going, to a blank wall. You see nothing
beyond; all that remains is to retrace your steps, and retrogression is
always bitter. You try through Christ, and find yourself in the way of
endless progress cheered by perennial hope. But the talk is growing
serious. We of the ‘New Education’ party take to ourselves the credit
of the advances Dr. Oldcastle perceives, and as testimony from an
alien is very valuable, perhaps he would not mind telling us in detail
what differences he perceives between the young boys of to-day and
their kind of forty years ago?”
 “Let me consider a moment; your question is not easy to answer
in a breath.... Well, in the first place, they are more apt to learn: I
conceive that there has been an extraordinary advance in
intelligence during the last half-century. The work we would grind
over for hours in my day, these youngsters have at their finger-ends
in half-an-hour, and are on the alert for more. I do believe they have
a real appetite for knowledge—a weakness of which not more than
one or two in a hundred was guilty when I was a boy.”
“Will you let me, as a parent, give you our explanation of these
facts? For, with deference to Dr. Brenton, who justly claims so much
for his craft, I think we parents deserve a pat, too. You may bring a
horse to the well, but you can’t make him drink. The advance, I think,
is not in intelligence, but in power of attention. This, the Fathers’ and
Mothers’ Club and its agencies recognise as the practical power of
man; that which makes all the difference between the able and
successful man and the poor lag-last. And yet it is not a faculty, but is
the power and habit of concentrating every faculty on the thing in
hand. Now this habit of attention parents, mothers especially, are
taught to encourage and cultivate in their children from early infancy.
What you regard with full attention, if only for a minute, you know,
and remember always. Think of the few scenes and conversations
we all have so vividly fixed that we cannot possibly forget them.
Why? Because at the moment our attention was powerfully excited.
You reap some benefit from this early training directly the boy goes
to school. The psychologists—not your craft, this time, Doctor—tell
us that enormous curiosity, a ravenous appetite for knowledge, is as
natural to children as bread-and-milk hunger. Put the two together;
the boy has an eager desire to know—has the power of fixing his
whole mind on the new thoughts set before him, and it’s as easy as
A B C; of course he learns with magical quickness. The field has
been ploughed by the parents, and you have only to sow your seed.”
“H’m! it sounds rational; I must think it over. Anyway, the results
are pleasant enough. Four hours a day instead of six or seven—and
much more work done, mind you—is good for both masters and
boys. Then, most of them have resources and are on nobody’s
hands. You’d be astonished to hear how much these fellows know,
and each has his speciality. One little chap has butterflies, for
instance. Ah, that reminds me! Don’t tell, or I might be invited to
resign; but I don’t to this day know the difference between a moth
and a butterfly. It’s the sort of thing one ought to know, so I set up a
classification of my own, no doubt correct, because it was mine!
Well, this befell me. ‘What have you there?’ I asked a little chap, who
had evidently netted a prize. ‘A moth, sir, the ——,’ scientific name,
pat. ‘A moth, boy! That beautiful creature is no moth. Moths live in
houses.’ You should have seen the fellow suppress his grin! I
couldn’t ask, so don’t know now; but make a point of not meeting
that little chap’s eye. A friend of mine, a Fellow of his College, was
worse. ‘I say, Oldcastle, the poets make a mighty pother about the
song of the lark. Now, do tell me—do you know it when you hear it?’
But as for the boys that enter now, there’s not the natural object that
they don’t both recognise and know all about. Their collections are of
scientific worth—at least, so that fellow Hilyard thinks, so we are
going in for a museum of local natural history!”
“Why, Dr. Oldcastle, you’re like the man in the play, who talked
prose all his life, and at last found it out! You’re our warmest friend,
though you decline the connection. This, again, is the work of
mothers following the lines of the ‘New Education.’ We make a great
point of developing intelligent curiosity in the children about all that
lives and grows within their ken. For instance, I should think most of
‘our’ mothers would feel disgraced if her child of six were not able to
recognise any ordinary British tree from a twig with leaf-buds only.
It’s Nature’s lore, and the children take to it like ducks to the water.
The first seven or eight years of their lives are spent out of doors—in
possible weather—learning this sort of thing, instead of pottering
over picture-books and A B C. But do fill the witness-box a minute
longer. All this is delicious. An outsider who speaks with authority is
worth a score of partisans.”
“I bow my thanks, Clough, for the handsome things you are good
enough to say. Of course my impartial witness would be quite as
valuable if it told on the other side. Why, Hilyard, you’re nowhere! ’Tis
I am the man of the day. But no; he’s the go-ahead fellow, and I’m
the drag; yet a drag has its uses.”
 “Granted, if you go down hill. But out of thine own mouth art thou
convicted, most learned Master! What hast thou talked all this night
but progress? But one thing more: tell us, do you find these
Admirable Crichtons of yours the least in the world priggish? Or are
they namby-pamby youths, who do as they’re bid, and haven’t much
taste for unlawful adventure?”
“Taste for adventure! Why, little fellows of nine come, able to
swim, row, ride, do everything man or boy needs do, and how are
fellows of that sort to be kept out of adventures? But they do as
they’re bid, I grant you, and the way they do it shows fifty times the
spirit of the fellows who shirked. Mind, I’m speaking of the boys who
have been brought up at home, not of those who have ‘growed.’ But
don’t run away with the notion that the best of them are perfect. We
must be at it all the time, or the ground gained is gone from under
our feet.”
“Look, look! do look at Brenton: something will happen if he
doesn’t get an innings.”
“Gentlemen, you must, you really must, hear me on this matter!
You must let me show Dr. Oldcastle the ‘reason why’ of what he
observes.”
“Hear, hear! Let’s have it, Doctor. Don’t spare a word.”
“Well, to begin at the beginning (no! not with Adam, nor even with
the Dark Ages); some five-and-twenty or so, years before Clough’s
event, men of science began to grope for a clue to the
understanding of this queer riddle of human nature. That action
(including speech) depends on thought, and that action—repeated
action—forms character, had long ago been got at by inductive
processes. Now, these meddling scientific fellows were not content
with, It is, because it is! they must needs come poking round with
their everlasting—‘Why?’ This particular ‘Why’ proved a most hard
nut to crack; indeed, it is only within living memory that their guesses
at truth have become entirely demonstrable; but, as early as I said,
they had thus much ground under their feet—analogy and probability
were altogether on their side, and it was impossible to prove, or even
to show a fair case for, the contrary view. These scientists perceived
that they were undermining the methods, the aims, the very idea of
education as popularly held. They indicated new lines, suggested
new principles. But their discoveries were to be like that corn of
wheat—first they must fall into the ground and die. Years passed
before educationalists woke up to what had been done. At last it
dawned upon them that it was now possible to formulate a science of
education; to propose laws which should work out definite ends with
mathematical certainty. The days of casual bringing-up were
numbered. A basis, and that a physical basis, was found. The
principle which underlies the possibility of all education was
discovered to them as it is to us to-day. They were taught that the
human frame, brain as well as muscle, grows to the uses it is earliest
put to. In a hundred years, we have advanced no further in principle,
but we have applied the principle in many directions. It is, indeed,
hardly possible to get beyond the ground covered by this so simple
sounding axiom: that is, it is hardly within our power to overstate the
possibilities of education. Anything may be made of a child by those
who first get him into their hands. No doubt, propagandism becomes
the immediate duty of any who have perceived a saving principle for
the race. And efforts were made in many directions to bring before
parents of all classes the notion that the formation of habits is among
the chief aims of education. Our host’s event is one of these efforts,
and the Parents’ Club spread like wildfire; every one was ready for it,
because people were beginning to feel the wretched uncertainty of
the casual method. How is it, they asked, that, bring up two boys in
the same way, and one turns out a villain, the other, a credit to his
family? Now, the ‘New Education’ deals entirely with individuals; not
with children, but with the child; the faulty habit is supplanted,
observe the word, the desirable habit produced, within a definite
period, say a month or so, and then the parents’ easy work is to
keep the child upon the lines of habit thus produced.”
“Now, stop a minute, Doctor, stop a minute! I’m afraid I’m about to
lose my easily won laurels. You, who are a classical scholar, must
know how familiar to the mind both of Roman and Greek was this
doctrine of habit. Again, a poet of our own, an eighteenth-century
man—wasn’t he Dryden?—expresses capitally the time-out-of-mind
English feeling on this subject—
 “‘Children, like tender osiers, take the bow,
And, as they first are fashion’d, always grow;
For what we learn in youth, to that alone
In age we are by second nature prone.’”

“Most happy; but don’t you see, Dr. Oldcastle, I began by

admitting that people have always had a notion that they must bring
up their children in good habits, and suppress faulty ones. But now,
they have something more than a notion; they have scientific
certainty. And, instead of dawdling through the whole period of
childhood with spasmodic efforts to get a boy to tie his shoe-strings
fast, they take it in hand once and for all, keep incessant watch for
the week or two it will take to form the habit, and then the thing is
done with for a lifetime. The new habit once formed, the parent’s part
is no more than to watch against chance returns to the old ways until
the habit is ingrained in the stuff of the child’s character. Now, don’t
you see that this is a very different thing from the desultory way in
which a child was allowed to try off and on for a habit all his days,
and never got it?”
“I admit there’s a difference; it tallies, too, with what I notice in the
young boys who enter with us. You mean that their mothers have
definitely set themselves for a month or two, say, to form a habit—
now obedience, now truthfulness, now attention, and so on—and
that is why the boys come to me with character, not mere
disposition?”
“Yes, that’s what I mean; and it’s on these lines we have been
advancing for a whole century. In another direction, too, education
has been going forward; but, here, we have only analogy to guide
us, not yet certainty. It cannot be predicated as yet, whether we are
simple or complex beings, whether in each of us is bound up one life
or several. It is not impossible, for instance, that, just as our physical
life is sustained because multitudinous organisms come to life, feed,
grow, multiply, and die, perpetually in our substance, so, perhaps
what we may call our immaterial life is sustained by multitudinous
lives such as our philosophy has never dreamed of. An idea, for
instance, what is it? We don’t know yet; but this we know, that every
idea we get is quick within us as a living being, that it feeds, grows,
multiplies, and then, behold it is no more! There are bodies natural
and there are bodies spiritual. Perhaps this sort of thing is too
immature to be pressed into service. But of other parts of us, to
which names and ideas of something like personality are attached—
conscience, will, our spiritual being—this it is quite safe to assert:
they thrive upon their appropriate meat and work, they perish of
inanition and idleness. This, too, we take into our scheme of
education, and with great results.”
The Dean got up:—
“I, for one, must heartily thank Dr. Brenton for his most suggestive
lecture. No, don’t look ‘castigated’ Doctor; ’tis a lecture for weight
and worth, but of commendable brevity. Speaking for the ‘cloth’ I
should like to say how much we owe to this educational revolution. A
century ago, our Church was supposed to show some signs of
decadence; to-day she is quick to her remotest extremities. And
why? simply because she has gone with the times in following up the
advances of the ‘New Education.’ She, with the rest of you,
perceives that the world has ever one great thing to do—to bring up
the young in advance of the generation before them; that the sole
valuable inheritance the present has to leave behind is—exalted
national character. Wherefore, she has laboured assiduously on the
two lines Dr. Brenton emphasises to-night—‘that Habit is ten
natures’; and, that the spiritual life must flourish or decay as it is duly
fed and exercised, or allowed to lie idle and unfed. Therefore, is
every clergyman instructed, above all, to minister to the young of his
parish—of all classes. The growing soul cannot thrive upon husks—
therefore must the truth be divested of the husks of the past, and
clothed upon with the living thought of the present. The young soul
must be taught its work, the spiritual exercises of prayer and praise,
the bodily exercise of service; and as no man can teach what he
does not know, the minister to the young must be qualified and ever
active in these. Seeing these and kindred truths, our clergy are
raising up about them a body of ardent young spirits to whom self-
sacrifice is a law; labour in spiritual uplands a necessity. And for
much of this progress, I say, we are indebted to the labours of the
‘New Educationists,’ whom we therefore gladly hold up with both
hands.”
“This is very gratifying hearing; we have all along been very
sensible of the cordiality and helpfulness of the clergy, who so
commonly throw in their lot with us. But that we should be doing
them some service all the time—this is news indeed. May I imitate
the Dean, and say a word professionally. We doctors have reaped
where we sowed—and abundantly. In the old days, families had
each ‘their doctor,’ who was called in now and then to do battle with
disease which had already made headway. But now, people are
beginning to see that low vitality, poor physique, and even organic
disease—hereditary or other—are very commonly the results of
faulty education, or bringing up, if that is the better way of putting it.
What is the consequence? Why, the doctor is retained, like husband
or wife, for sickness and health; he is the medical adviser by the
year, or usually by the lifetime. He thrives not on sickness, but upon
health. Drops in on his clients unawares, finds one girl doubled up
over a book, another standing on one foot, notes the hectic flush and
bright eye of this child, the tendency to drowsiness in that—the
flabby arms and quick intelligence of the little town-bred family, the
stolid dulness of the farmer’s boy—for rich and poor come in course
to him. He does not wait for disease to be set up, but averts the
tendency; and though he has found no elixir of life, nor means of
averting death—this, he may almost venture to promise his clients,
that so long as they live, they shall live with eye not waxed dim, nor
natural force abated. And all this because he knows that the body,
too, must have its education, its careful regulation, and that bone
and muscle and vital organs alike grow to the habits you set up in
them.”
Mr. Hilyard had been using his pencil for the last few minutes, and
was evidently preparing to show on what lines the schools, too, had
been advancing during this age of many revolutions, when—“’Tis
eleven o’clock, and the ladies!” brought the discussion to an end.
 NOTE

(To Page 111, Translation.)

Hobbes followed, to the letter, the philosophy which derives ideas

from sense impressions; he did not fear the consequences, and said
boldly that the soul was as subservient to necessity as is society to
despotism. The cultivation of noble and pure aspirations is so firmly
established in England, by political and religious institutions, that
speculation moves round these mighty pillars without ever shaking
them. Hobbes had few supporters in his country, but Locke’s
influence was everywhere felt. He was moral and religious in
character, and he never admitted any of the dangerous arguments
which naturally follow in the train of his theories; the majority of his
fellow-countrymen, in accepting his theories, were inconsistent
enough to separate cause from effect, whilst Hume and the French
philosophers, admiring his system, have applied it in a much more
logical way.
Locke’s system of metaphysics had but one effect on the minds of
Englishmen; it dulled their intuitive originality. Even when it parched
the sources of philosophical thought, it could not destroy the deeply
rooted religious sentiment of the nation. But this system of
metaphysics, which was received by all Europe, Germany excepted,
has been one of the chief causes of the spread of immorality; in the
philosophy of the materialist men found the precepts which give
sanction to every immoral practice.
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