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A01_THERMAL ENGINEERING_SE_XXXX_A01.indd 1 6/20/2018 9:29:10 AM

Thispageisintentionallyleftblank
thermal
Engineering
Sadhu Singh
Former Professor and Head
Mechanical Engineering Department
and
Dean, Faculty of Engineering and Technology
Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Uttarakhand
and
Former Director (Colleges), Punjab Technical University, Jalandhar, Punjab
Sukumar Pati
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
National Institute of Technology Silchar, Assam

Copyright © 2018 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd
Published by Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd, CIN: U72200TN2005PTC057128.
No part of this eBook may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without the
publisher’s prior written consent.
This eBook may or may not include all assets that were part of the print version.
The publisher reserves the right to remove any material in this eBook at any time.
ISBN 978-93-528-6668-7
eISBN 9789353063320
Head Office: 15th Floor, Tower-B, World Trade Tower, Plot No. 1, Block-C, Sector 16,
Noida 201 301, Uttar Pradesh, India.
Registered Office: 4th Floor, Software Block, Elnet Software City, TS 140, Block 2 & 9,
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Fax: 080-30461003, Phone: 080-30461060
Website: in.pearson.com, Email: companysecretary.india@pearson.com
Dedicated to my Parents
—Sadhu Singh
Dedicated to my beloved Parents

Late Sakti Pada Pati and Usha Rani Pati
—Sukumar Pati

Thispageisintentionallyleftblank
Brief Contents
Preface xxvii
About the Authors xxix
Chapter 1 Fuels and Combustion 1
Chapter 2 Properties of Steam 51
Chapter 3 Steam Generators 87
Chapter 4 Steam Power Cycles 161
Chapter 5 Steam Engines 214
Chapter 6 Flow Through Steam Nozzles 253
Chapter 7 Steam Turbines 316
Chapter 8 Steam Condensers 386
Chapter 9 Gas Power Cycles 423
Chapter 10 Internal Combustion Engine Systems 485
Chapter 11 Performance of Internal Combustion Engines 622
Chapter 12 Reciprocating Air Compressors 690
Chapter 13 Rotary Air Compressors 735
Chapter 14 Centrifugal Air Compressors 744
Chapter 15 Axial Flow Air Compressors 789
Chapter 16 Gas Turbines 840
A01_THERMAL ENGINEERING_SE_XXXX_A01.indd 7 6/20/2018 2:44:41 PM

viii Brief Contents
Chapter 17 Jet Propulsion 922
Chapter 18 Introduction to Refrigeration961
Chapter 19 Vapour Compression and Vapour Absorption Systems 999
Chapter 20 Air-Conditioning and Psychrometrics 1034
Appendix A 1091
Index1121

Contents
Preface xxvii
About the Authors xxix
Chapter 1 Fuels and Combustion 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Classification of Fuels 1
1.3 Solid Fuels 2
1.3.1 Primary Fuels 2
1.3.2 Secondary Fuels 3
1.3.3 Desirable Properties of Coal 3
1.3.4 Ranking of Coal 4
1.3.5 Grading of Coal 4
1.4 Liquid Fuels 4
1.4.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Liquid Fuels Over
Solid Fuels 5
1.4.2 Calorific Value of Liquid Fuels 5
1.4.3 Desirable Properties of Liquid Fuels 5
1.5 Gaseous Fuels 6
1.5.1 Calorific Value of Gaseous Fuels 6
1.5.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Gaseous Fuels 7
1.5.3 Important Properties of Gaseous Fuels 7
1.6 Liquefied Gases 7
1.6.1 Liquefied Petroleum Gas 8
1.6.2 Liquefied or Compressed Natural Gas 8
1.7 Biofuels 8
1.8 Analysis of Fuels 9
1.8.1 Proximate Analysis 9
1.8.2 Ultimate Analysis 9
1.9 Calorific Value of Fuels 9

x Contents
1.10 Combustion of Fuels 10

1.11 Combustion of Hydrocarbon Fuel 11
1.12 Minimum Air Required for Complete Combustion
of Solid/Liquid Fuels 11
1.13 Conversion of Volumetric Analysis to Mass (or Gravimetric)
Analysis and Vice-Versa 12
1.14 Determination of Air Supplied 13
1.14.1 Percentage of Carbon by Mass in Fuel and Volumetric
Analysis is Known 13
1.14.2 Excess Air Supplied 14
1.15 Determination of Percentage of Carbon in Fuel Burning
to CO and CO2 14
1.16 Determination of Minimum Quantity of Air Required
for Complete Combustion of Gaseous Fuel 15
1.17 Determination of Excess Air Supplied for Gaseous Fuel 15
1.18 Flue Gas Analysis 16
1.18.1 Orsat Apparatus Construction 16
1.19 Bomb Calorimeter 17
1.19.1 Construction 17
1.19.2 Working 17
1.19.3 Cooling Correction 19
1.20 Boys Gas Calorimeter 19
1.20.1 Construction 19
1.20.1 Working 20
Summary for Quick Revision · Multiple-choice Questions · Review
Questions · Exercises · Answers to Multiple-choice Questions
Chapter 2 Properties of Steam 51

2.1 Pure Substance 51
2.2 Constant Pressure Formation of Steam 51
2.3 Properties of Steam 52
2.4 Steam Tables 55
2.5 Temperature−Entropy Diagram for Water and Steam 55
2.6 Enthalpy−Entropy or Mollier Diagram of Steam 56
2.7 Various Processes for Steam 57
2.7.1 Constant Volume Process 57
2.7.2 Constant Pressure Process 58
2.7.3 Isothermal Process 59
2.7.4 Hyperbolic Process 59
2.7.5 Reversible Adiabatic or Isentropic Process 60
2.7.6 Polytropic Process 61
2.7.7 Throttling Process 62
2.8 Determination of Dryness Fraction of Steam 62

xi
Contents
2.8.1 Barrel Calorimeter 63

2.8.2 Separating Calorimeter 64
2.8.3 Throttling Calorimeter 65
2.8.4 Combined Separating and Throttling Calorimeter 66
Chapter 3 Steam Generators 87

3.1 Introduction 87
3.2 Classification of Steam Generators 87
3.3 Comparison of Fire Tube and Water Tube Boilers 88
3.4 Requirements of a Good Boiler 89
3.5 Factors Affecting Boiler Selection 89
3.6 Description of Boilers 89
3.6.1 Fire Tube Boilers 89
3.6.2 Water Tube Boilers 93
3.7 High Pressure Boilers 94
3.7.1 Boiler Circulation 95
3.7.2 Advantages of Forced Circulation Boilers 95
3.7.3 LaMont Boiler 96
3.7.4 Benson Boiler 97
3.7.5 Loeffler Boiler 97
3.7.6 Schmidt-Hartmann Boiler 98
3.7.7 Velox Boiler 98
3.7.8 Once-through Boiler 99
3.8 Circulation 99
3.9 Steam Drum 100
3.9.1 Mechanism of Separation of Moisture in Drum 100
3.10 Fluidised Bed Boiler 102
3.10.1 Bubbling Fluidised Bed Boiler (BFBB) 102
3.10.2 Advantages of BFBB 103
3.11 Boiler Mountings 103
3.11.1 Water Level Indicator 104
3.11.2 Pressure Gauge 104
3.11.3 Steam Stop Valve 105
3.11.4 Feed Check Valve 105
3.11.5 Blow-Down Cock 106
3.11.6 Fusible Plug 106
3.11.7 Safety Valves 107
3.11.8 High Steam and Low Water Safety Valve 108
3.12 Boiler Accessories 109
3.12.1 Air Preheater 110
3.12.2 Economiser 111
3.12.3 Superheater 112

xii Contents
3.13 Steam Accumulators 113

3.13.1 Variable Pressure Accumulator 113
3.13.2 Constant Pressure Accumulator 114
3.14 Performance of Steam Generator 115
3.14.1 Evaporation Rate 115
3.14.2 Performance 115
3.14.3 Boiler Thermal Efficiency 116
3.14.4 Heat Losses in a Boiler Plant 116
3.14.5 Boiler Trial and Heat Balance Sheet 117
3.15 Steam Generator Control 130
3.16 Electrostatic Precipitator 131
3.17 Draught 136
3.17.1 Classification of Draught 136
3.17.2 Natural Draught 136
3.17.3 Height and Diameter of Chimney 137
3.17.4 Condition for Maximum Discharge
Through Chimney 138
3.17.5 Efficiency of Chimney 139
3.17.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Natural Draught 140
3.17.7 Draught Losses 140
3.17.8 Artificial Draught 140
3.17.9 Comparison of Forced and Induced Draughts 142
3.17.10 Comparison of Mechanical and Natural Draughts 142
3.17.11 Balanced Draught 142
3.17.12 Steam Jet Draught 143
Summary for Quick Revision · Multiple-choice Questions · Explanatory
Notes · Review Questions · Exercises · Answers to Multiple-choice
Questions
Chapter 4 Steam Power Cycles 161

4.1 Introduction 161
4.2 Carnot Vapour Cycle 161
4.2.1 Drawbacks of Carnot Cycle 163
4.3 Rankine Cycle 165
4.3.1 Analysis of Rankine Cycle 166
4.3.2 Effect of Boiler and Condenser Pressure 168
4.4 Methods of Improving Efficiency 170
4.4.1 Reheat Cycle 170
4.4.2 Effect of Pressure Drop in the Reheater 171
4.5 Regeneration 174
4.5.1 Regenerative Cycle with Open Heaters 176
4.5.2 Regenerative Cycle with Closed Heaters 177
4.6 Reheat-Regenerative Cycle 182
4.7 Properties of an Ideal Working Fluid 183

xiii
Contents
4.8 Binary Vapour Cycles 184

4.9 Combined Power and Heating Cycle-Cogeneration 187
Chapter 5 Steam Engines 214

5.2 Classification of Steam Engines 214
5.3 Constructional Features of a Steam Engine 215
5.3.1 Steam Engine Parts 216
5.4 Terminology Used in Steam Engine 217
5.5 Working of a Steam Engine 218
5.6 Rankine Cycle 219
5.7 Modified Rankine Cycle 221
5.8 Hypothetical or Theoretical Indicator Diagram 222
5.9 Actual Indicator Diagram 223
5.10 Mean Effective Pressure 224
5.10.1 Without Clearance 224
5.10.2 With Clearance 225
5.10.3 With Clearance and Compression 227
5.10.4 With Clearance and Polytropic Expansion
and Compression 228
5.11 Power Developed and Efficiencies 230
5.11.1 Indicated Power 230
5.11.2 Brake Power 231
5.11.3 Efficiencies of Steam Engine 232
5.12 Governing of Steam Engines 232
5.13 Saturation Curve and Missing Quantity 243
5.14 Heat Balance Sheet 244
5.15 Performance Curves 246
Chapter 6 Flow Through Steam Nozzles 253

6.2 Continuity Equation 254
6.3 Velocity of Flow of Steam Through Nozzles 254
6.3.1 Flow of Steam Through the Nozzle 255
6.4 Mass Flow Rate of Steam 255
6.5 Critical Pressure Ratio 256
6.6 Maximum Discharge 257
6.7 Effect of Friction on Expansion of Steam 258

xiv Contents
6.8 Nozzle Efficiency 259

6.9 Supersaturated or Metastable Flow Through a Nozzle 260
6.10 Isentropic, One-Dimensional Steady Flow Through a Nozzle 269
6.10.1 Relationship between Actual and Stagnation
Properties 270
6.11 Mass Rate of Flow Through an Isentropic Nozzle 273
6.11.1 Effect of Varying the Back Pressure on Mass Flow Rate 274
6.12 Normal Shock in an Ideal Gas Flowing Through a Nozzle 277
Questions
Chapter 7 Steam Turbines 316

7.1 Principle of Operation of Steam Turbines 316
7.2 Classification of Steam Turbines 316
7.3 Comparison of Impulse and Reaction Turbines 318
7.4 Compounding of Impulse Turbines 319
7.5 Velocity Diagrams for Impulse Steam Turbine 321
7.5.1 Condition for Maximum Blade Efficiency 324
7.5.2 Maximum Work Done 325
7.5.3 Velocity Diagrams for Velocity Compounded
Impulse Turbine 325
7.5.4 Effect of Blade Friction on Velocity Diagrams 327
7.5.5 Impulse Turbine with Several Blade Rings 328
7.6 Advantages and Limitations of Velocity Compounding 329
7.6.1 Advantages 329
7.6.2 Limitations 329
7.7 Velocity Diagrams for Impulse-Reaction Turbine 330
7.8 Reheat Factor 333
7.9 Losses in Steam Turbines 335
7.10 Turbine Efficiencies 335
7.11 Governing of Steam Turbines 336
7.12 Labyrinth Packing 338
7.13 Back Pressure Turbine 339
7.14 Pass Out or Extraction Turbine 340
7.15 Co-Generation 341
7.16 Erosion of Steam Turbine Blades 355
Questions
Chapter 8 Steam Condensers 386

8.1 Definition 386
8.2 Functions of a Condenser 386

xv
Contents
8.3 Elements of Steam Condensing Plant 387

8.4 Types of Steam Condensers 388
8.4.1 Jet Condensers 388
8.4.2 Surface Condensers 390
8.5 Requirements of Modern Surface Condensers 393
8.6 Comparison of Jet and Surface Condensers 393
8.6.1 Jet Condensers 393
8.6.2 Surface Condensers 394
8.7 Vacuum Measurement 394
8.8 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures 395
8.9 Mass of Cooling Water Required in a Condenser 396
8.10 Air Removal from the Condenser 397
8.10.1 Sources of Air Infiltration in Condenser 397
8.10.2 Effects of Air Infiltration in Condensers 397
8.11 Air Pump 398
8.11.1 Edward’s Air Pump 398
8.12 Vacuum Efficiency 399
8.13 Condenser Efficiency 399
8.14 Cooling Tower 399
Chapter 9 Gas Power Cycles

423
9.2 Piston-cylinder Arrangement 423
9.3 Carnot Cycle 425
9.4 Stirling Cycle 426
9.5 Ericsson Cycle 427
9.6 Atkinson Cycle 428
9.7 Otto Cycle (Constant Volume Cycle) 429
9.8 Diesel Cycle 431
9.9 Dual Cycle 434
9.10 Brayton Cycle 436
9.11 Comparison Between Otto, Diesel, and Dual Cycles 438
Fill in the Blanks · Answers · True or False · Answers · Multiple-
choice Questions · Review Questions · Exercises · Answers to
Multiple-choice Questions
Chapter 10 Internal Combustion Engine Systems 485

10.2 Classification of Internal Combustion Engines 485
10.3 Construction Features 487

xvi Contents
10.4 Working of IC Engines 489

10.4.1 Four-stroke Spark-ignition Engine 489
10.4.2 Four-stroke Compression-ignition Engine 490
10.4.3 Two-stroke Spark-ignition Engine 491
10.4.4 Two-stroke Compression-ignition Engine 491
10.5 Comparison of Four-stroke and Two-stroke Engines 492
10.6 Comparison of SI and CI Engines 493
10.7 Merits and Demerits of Two-stroke Engines Over Four-stroke
Engines 494
10.7.1 Merits 494
10.7.2 Demerits 494
10.8 Valve Timing Diagrams 495
10.8.1 Four-stroke SI Engine 495
10.8.2 Four-stroke CI Engine 495
10.8.3 Two-stroke SI Engine 495
10.8.4 Two-stroke CI Engine 497
10.9 Scavenging Process 498
10.10 Applications of IC Engines 499
10.11 Theoretical and Actual p-v Diagrams 500
10.11.1 Four-stroke Petrol Engine 500
10.11.2 Four-stroke Diesel Engine 501
10.11.3 Two-stroke Petrol Engine 503
10.11.4 Two-stroke Diesel Engine 504
10.12 Carburetion 505
10.12.1 Simple Carburettor 506
10.12.2 Compensating Jet 506
10.12.3 Theory of Simple Carburettor 507
10.12.4 Limitations of Single Jet Carburettor 510
10.12.5 Different Devices Used to Meet the Requirements
of an Ideal Carburettor 511
10.12.6 Complete Carburettor 511
10.13 Fuel Injection Systems in SI Engines 527
10.13.1 Continuous Port Injection System (Lucas Mechanical
Petrol Injection System) 527
10.13.2 Electronic Fuel Injection System 528
10.13.3 Rotary Gate Meter Fuel Injection System 530
10.14 Fuel Injection in CI Engines 531
10.14.1 Types of Injection Systems 531
10.14.2 Design of Fuel Nozzle 535
10.15 Fuel Ignition 540
10.15.1 Requirement of Ignition System 540
10.15.2 Ignition Systems 541
10.16 Combustion in IC Engines 552
10.16.1 Stages of Combustion in SI Engines 553

Contents
xvii
10.16.2 Ignition Lag (or Delay) in SI Engines 556

10.16.3 Factors Affecting the Flame Propagation 557
10.16.4 Phenomena of Knocking/Detonation in SI Engines 561
10.16.5 Factors Influencing Detonation/Knocking 562
10.16.6 Methods for Suppressing Knocking 564
10.16.7 Effects of Knocking/Detonation 564
10.17 Combustion Chambers for SI Engines 565
10.17.1 Basic Requirements of a Good Combustion
Chamber 565
10.17.2 Combustion Chamber Design Principles 565
10.17.3 Combustion Chamber Designs 566
10.18 Combustion in CI Engines 567
10.18.1 Stages of Combustion 567
10.18.2 Delay Period or Ignition Delay 568
10.18.3 Variables Affecting Delay Period 569
10.19 Knocking in CI Engines 570
10.19.1 Factors Affecting Knocking in CI Engines 571
10.19.2 Controlling the Knocking 571
10.19.3 Comparison of Knocking in SI and CI Engines 572
10.20 Combustion Chambers for CI Engines 574
10.21 Lubrication Systems 577
10.21.1 Functions of a Lubricating System 577
10.21.2 Desirable Properties of a Lubricating Oil 577
10.21.3 Lubricating Systems Types 577
10.21.4 Lubricating System for IC Engines 579
10.21.5 Lubrication of Different Engine Parts 581
10.22 Necessity of IC Engine Cooling 584
10.22.1 Types of Cooling Systems 584
10.22.2 Precision Cooling 591
10.22.3 Dual Circuit Cooling 591
10.22.4 Disadvantages of Overcooling 591
10.23 Engine Radiators 592
10.23.1 Radiator Matrix 592
10.23.2 Water Requirements of Radiator 593
10.23.3 Fans 594
10.24 Cooling of Exhaust Valve 595
10.25 Governing of IC Engines 596
10.26 Rating of SI Engine Fuels-Octane Number 597
10.26.1 Anti-knock Agents 598
10.26.2 Performance Number 599
10.27 Highest Useful Compression Ratio 599
10.28 Rating of CI Engine Fuels 601
10.29 IC Engine Fuels 601
10.29.1 Fuels for SI Engines 602
10.29.2 Fuels for CI Engines 603

xviii Contents
10.30 Alternative Fuels for IC Engines 603

10.30.1 Alcohols 604
10.30.2 Use of Hydrogen in CI Engines 604
10.30.3 Biogas 605
10.30.4 Producer (or Water) Gas 605
10.30.5 Biomass-generated Gas 605
10.30.6 LPG as SI Engine Fuel 605
10.30.7 Compressed Natural Gas 606
10.30.8 Coal Gasification and Coal Liquefaction 606
10.30.9 Non-edible Vegetable Oils 607
10.30.10 Non-edible Wild Oils 607
10.30.11 Ammonia 607
Chapter 11 Performance of Internal Combustion Engines 622

11.1 Performance Parameters 622
11.2 Basic Engine Measurements 624
11.3 Heat Balance Sheet 626
11.4 Willan’s Line Method 626
11.5 Morse Test 627
11.6 Performance of SI Engines 627
11.6.1 Performance of SI Engine at Constant Speed
and Variable Load 629
11.7 Performance of CI Engines 630
11.8 Performance Maps 631
11.9 Measurement of Air Consumption by Air-box Method 636
11.10 Measurement of Brake Power 638
11.11 Supercharging of IC Engines 658
11.11.1 Thermodynamic Cycle 658
11.11.2 Supercharging of SI Engines 659
11.11.3 Supercharging of CI Engines 660
11.11.4 Effects of Supercharging 660
11.11.5 Objectives of Supercharging 661
11.11.6 Configurations of a Supercharger 661
11.11.7 Supercharging of Single Cylinder Engines 662
11.12 SI Engine Emissions 663
11.12.1 Exhaust Emissions 665
11.12.2 Evaporative Emission 666
11.12.3 Crankcase Emission 666
11.12.4 Lead Emission 666
11.13 Control of Emissions in SI Engine 666
11.14 Crank Case Emission Control 669
11.15 CI Engine Emissions 669

Contents
xix
11.15.1 Effect of Engine Type on Diesel Emission 670

11.15.2 Control of Emission from Diesel Engine 673
11.15.3 NOx−Emission Control 674
11.16 Three-Way Catalytic Converter 676
11.16.1 Function of a Catalyst in a Catalytic Converter 676
11.17 Environmental Problems Created by Exhaust Emission
from IC Engines 677
11.18 Use of Unleaded Petrol 678
11.18.1 Use of Additives 678
Questions
Chapter 12 Reciprocating Air Compressors 690

12.2 Uses of Compressed Air in Industry 691
12.3 Working Principle of Single-stage Reciprocating
Compressor 691
12.4 Terminology 691
12.5 Types of Compression 692
12.5.1 Methods for Approximating Compression Process
to Isothermal 692
12.6 Single-Stage Compression 693
12.6.1 Required Work 693
12.6.2 Volumetric Efficiency 696
12.6.3 Isothermal Efficiency 697
12.6.4 Adiabatic Efficiency 699
12.6.5 Calculation of Main Dimensions 699
12.7 Multi-Stage Compression 699
12.7.1 Two-stage Compressor 700
12.7.2 Heat Rejected to the Intercooler 702
12.7.3 Cylinder Dimensions 703
12.7.4 Intercooler and Aftercooler 703
12.8 Indicated Power of a Compressor 705
12.9 Air Motors 705
12.10 Indicator Diagram 706
12.11 Heat Rejected 707
12.12 Control of Compressor 707
Questions
Chapter 13 Rotary Air Compressors 735

13.2 Working Principle of Different Rotary Compressors 735

xx Contents
13.2.1 Roots Blower or Lobe Compressor 735

13.2.2 Vanes Type Blower 737
13.2.3 Lysholm Compressor 737
13.2.4 Screw Compressor 738
13.3 Comparison of Rotary and Reciprocating Compressors 740
Chapter 14 Centrifugal Air Compressors 744

14.2 Constructional Features 744
14.3 Working Principle 745
14.4 Variation of Velocity and Pressure 745
14.5 Types of Impellers 745
14.6 Comparison of Centrifugal and Reciprocating Compressors 746
14.7 Comparison of Centrifugal and Rotary Compressors 746
14.8 Static and Stagnation Properties 747
14.9 Adiabatic and Isentropic Processes 748
14.9.1 Isentropic Efficiency 749
14.10 Velocity Diagrams 749
14.10.1 Theory of Operation 750
14.10.2 Width of Blades of Impeller and Diffuser 753
14.11 Slip Factor and Pressure Coefficient 754
14.12 Losses 755
14.13 Effect of Impeller Blade Shape on Performance 755
14.14 Diffuser 756
14.15 Pre-Whirl 757
14.16 Performance Characteristics 757
14.17 Surging and Choking 760
Questions
Chapter 15 Axial Flow Air Compressors 789

15.2 Constructional Features 789
15.3 Working Principle 790
15.4 Simple Theory of Aerofoil Blading 790
15.5 Velocity Diagrams 792
15.6 Degree of Reaction 794
15.7 Pressure Rise in Isentropic Flow Through a Cascade 794

Contents
xxi
15.8 Polytropic Efficiency 795

15.9 Flow Coefficient, Head or Work Coefficient, Deflection Coefficient,
and Pressure Coefficient 797
15.10 Pressure Rise in a Stage and Number of Stages 798
15.11 Surging, Choking, and Stalling 799
15.12 Performance Characteristics 800
15.13 Comparison of Axial Flow and Centrifugal Compressors 802
15.14 Applications of Axial Flow Compressors 802
15.15 Losses in Axial Flow Compressors 802
Questions
Chapter 16 Gas Turbines 840

16.2 Fields of Application of Gas Turbine 840
16.3 Limitations of Gas Turbines 840
16.4 Comparison of Gas Turbines with IC Engines 841
16.4.1 Advantages 841
16.4.2 Disadvantages 841
16.5 Advantages of Gas Turbines Over Steam Turbines 841
16.6 Classification of Gas Turbines 842
16.6.1 Constant Pressure Combustion Gas Turbine 842
16.6.2 Constant Volume Combustion Gas Turbine 843
16.7 Comparison of Open and Closed Cycle Gas Turbines 844
16.8 Position of Gas Turbine in the Power Industry 845
16.9 Thermodynamics of Constant Pressure Gas Turbine: Brayton
Cycle 845
16.9.1 Efficiency 845
16.9.2 Specific Output 847
16.9.3 Maximum Work Output 848
16.9.4 Work Ratio 849
16.9.5 Optimum Pressure Ratio for Maximum Specific
Work Output 849
16.10 Cycle Operation with Machine Efficiency 850
16.10.1 Maximum Pressure Ratio for Maximum Specific
Work 850
16.10.2 Optimum Pressure Ratio for Maximum Cycle
Thermal Efficiency 851
16.11 Open Cycle Constant Pressure Gas Turbine 853
16.12 Methods for Improvement of Thermal Efficiency
of Open Cycle Constant Pressure Gas Turbine 854
16.12.1 Regeneration 854

xxii Contents
16.12.2 Intercooling 857

16.12.3 Reheating 861
16.12.4 Reheat and Regenerative Cycle 863
16.12.5 Cycle with Intercooling and Regeneration 865
16.12.6 Cycle with Intercooling and Reheating 867
16.12.7 Cycle with Intercooling, Regeneration
and Reheating 869
16.13 Effects of Operating Variables 890
16.13.1 Effect of Pressure Ratio 891
16.13.2 Effect of Efficiencies of Compressor and Turbine
on Thermal Efficiency 892
16.14 Multi-Shaft Systems 894
16.15 Multi-Shaft System Turbines in Series 895
16.16 Gas Turbine Fuels 895
16.17 Blade Materials 895
16.17.1 Selection 895
16.17.2 Requirements of Blade Material 896
16.18 Cooling of Blades 896
16.18.1 Advantages of Cooling 896
16.18.2 Different Methods of Blade Cooling 896
Questions
Chapter 17 Jet Propulsion 922

17.1 Principle of Jet Propulsion 922
17.2 Jet Propulsion Systems 922
17.2.1 Screw Propeller 922
17.2.2 Ramjet Engine 923
17.2.3 Pulse Jet Engine 924
17.2.4 Turbo-jet Engine 925
17.2.5 Turbo-Prop Engine 926
17.2.6 Rocket Propulsion 927
17.3 Jet Propulsion v’s Rocket Propulsion 927
17.4 Basic Cycle for Turbo-jet Engine 928
17.4.1 Thrust 930
17.4.2 Thrust Power 930
17.4.3 Propulsive Power 931
17.4.4 Propulsive Efficiency 931
17.4.5 Thermal Efficiency 931
17.4.6 Overall Efficiency 931
17.4.7 Jet Efficiency 932
17.4.8 Ram Air Efficiency 932

Contents
xxiii
17.5 Thrust Work, Propulsive Work, and Propulsive Efficiency

for Rocket Engine 932
Questions
Chapter 18 Introduction to Refrigeration 961

18.2 Refrigeration Systems 961
18.3 Methods of Refrigeration 962
18.3.1 Vapour Compression Refrigeration System 962
18.3.2 Vapour Absorption System 963
18.3.3 Ejector-Compression System 963
18.3.4 Electro-Lux Refrigeration 964
18.3.5 Solar Refrigeration 964
18.3.6 Thermo-electric Refrigeration 964
18.3.7 Vortex Tube Refrigeration 965
18.4 Unit of Refrigeration 965
18.5 Refrigeration Effect 965
18.6 Carnot Refrigeration Cycle 966
18.7 Difference Between a Heat Engine, Refrigerator
and Heat Pump 967
18.8 Power Consumption of a Refrigerating Machine 969
18.9 Air Refrigeration Cycles 970
18.9.1 Open Air Refrigeration Cycle 971
18.9.2 Closed (or dense) Air Refrigeration Cycle 971
18.10 Reversed Carnot Cycle 971
18.10.1 Temperature Limitations for Reversed
Carnot Cycle 972
18.10.2 Vapour as a Refrigerant in Reversed Carnot Cycle 973
18.10.3 Gas as a Refrigerant in Reversed Carnot Cycle 975
18.10.4 Limitations of Reversed Carnot Cycle 977
18.11 Bell-Coleman Cycle (or Reversed Brayton or Joule Cycle) 977
18.11.1 Bell-Coleman Cycle with Polytropic Processes 979
18.12 Refrigerants 988
18.13 Classification of Refrigerants 988
18.14 Designation of Refrigerants 989
18.15 Desirable Properties of Refrigerants 989
18.16 Applications of Refrigerants 990
18.17 Eco-friendly Refrigerants 993
18.18 Refrigerant Selection 995
Multiple-choice Questions · Review Questions · Exercises · Answers
to Multiple-choice Questions

xxiv Contents
Chapter 19 apour Compression and Vapour Absorption

V
Systems 999
19.2 Comparison of Vapour Compression System
with Air Refrigeration System 999
19.3 Simple Vapour Compression Refrigeration System 1000
19.4 Vapour Compression Refrigeration System 1001
19.5 Use of T-s and p-h Charts 1004
19.6 Effect of Suction Pressure 1014
19.7 Effect of Discharge Pressure 1015
19.8 Effect of Superheating of Refrigerant Vapour 1016
19.8.1 Superheat Horn 1017
19.9 Effect of Subcooling (or Undercooling) of
Refrigerant Vapour 1017
19.10 Vapour Absorption System 1020
19.11 Working Principle of Vapour Absorption Refrigeration
System 1021
19.11.1 Working 1022
19.12 Advantages of Vapour Absorption System Over Vapour
Compression System 1022
19.13 Coefficient of Performance of an Ideal Vapour Absorption
System 1023
19.14 Ammonia-Water (or Practical) Vapour Absorption System
(NH3 – H2O) 1025
19.15 Lithium Bromide-Water Vapour Absorption System
(LiBr-H2O) 1026
19.15.1 Working Principle 1027
19.15.2 Lithium Bromide-Water System Equipment 1028
19.16 Comparison of Ammonia-Water and Lithium Bromide-Water
Absorption Systems 1029
Exercises
Chapter 20 Air-Conditioning and Psychrometrics 1034

20.2 Principles of Psychrometry 1034
20.3 Psychrometric Relations 1036
20.4 Enthalpy of Moist Air 1038
20.5 Humid Specific Heat 1039
20.6 Thermodynamic Wet Bulb Temperature or Adiabatic
Saturation Temperature (Ast) 1043

Contents
xxv
20.7 Psychrometric Chart 1046

20.8 Psychrometric Processes 1048
20.8.1 Sensible Heating or Cooling Process 1048
20.8.2 Humidification or Dehumidification Process 1049
20.8.3 Heating and Humidification 1050
20.8.4 Sensible Heat Factor-SHF 1051
20.8.5 Cooling and Dehumidification 1051
20.8.6 Air Washer 1052
20.8.7 Cooling with Adiabatic Humidification 1054
20.8.8 Cooling and Humidification by Water Injection
(Evaporative Cooling) 1056
20.8.9 Heating and Humidification by Steam Injection 1057
20.8.10 Heating and Adiabatic Chemical Dehumidification 1057
20.9 Adiabatic Mixing of Two Air Streams 1058
20.10 Thermal Analysis of Human Body 1065
20.10.1 Factors Affecting Human Comfort 1066
20.10.2 Physiological Hazards Resulting from Heat 1066
20.11 Effective Temperature 1067
20.11.1 Comfort Chart 1067
20.11.2 Factors Affecting Optimum Effective
Temperature 1070
20.12 Selection of Inside and Outside Design Conditions 1070
20.12.1 Selection of Inside Design Conditions 1070
20.12.2 Selection of Outside Design Conditions 1071
20.13 Cooling Load Estimation 1072
20.13.1 Heat Transfer Through Walls and Roofs 1072
20.13.2 Heat Gain from Solar Radiation 1073
20.13.3 Sol Air Temperature 1073
20.13.4 Solar Heat Gain Through Glass Areas 1074
20.13.5 Heat Gain due to Infiltration 1074
20.13.6 Heat Gain from Products 1074
20.13.7 Heat Gain from Lights 1075
20.13.8 Heat Gain from Power Equipments 1075
20.13.9 Heat Gain Through Ducts 1075
20.13.10 Empirical Methods to Evaluate Heat Transfer
Through Walls and Roofs 1075
20.14 Heating Load Estimation 1077
20.15 Room Sensible Heat Factor (Rshf) 1077
20.15.1 Estimation of Supply Air Conditions 1078
20.16 Grand Sensible Heat Factor 1078
20.17 Effective Room Sensible Heat Factor 1079

xxvi Contents
20.18 Air Conditioning Systems 1080

20.18.1 Summer Air-conditioning System with Ventilation
Air and Zero By-pass Factor 1080
20.18.2 Summer Air-conditioning System with Ventilation
Air and By-pass Factor 1082
20.18.3 Winter Air-conditioning System 1082
20.18.4 Comfort Air-conditioning System 1084
20.18.5 Industrial Air-conditioning System 1084
Review Questions · Exercises
Appendix A 1091
Index1121

Preface
It gives us immense pleasure to present the book on Thermal Engineering. This book is intended for
undergraduate students of mechanical, chemical or process, power, aerospace and automobile engi-
neering. The content covers the syllabi of all the subjects pertaining to thermal engineering such as
applied thermodynamics, power plant engineering, energy conversion and management, internal com-
bustion engines, turbomachinery, gas turbines and jet propulsion, and refrigeration and air-conditioning
taught at different levels of engineering curriculum.
From the vast experience of teaching, we feel that the students are lacking in fundamental concepts
of different aspects of thermal engineering. The basic objective of an introductory course of thermal
engineering should be to build fundamental understanding together with analytical and problem solv-
ing abilities. It is, therefore, imperative to accentuate the basic issues to develop a solid foundation
during the different time-frame starting from the first year to the final year of undergraduate studies.
The present text is an endeavour towards the goal by offering the students a text book on thermal engi-
neering in a most comprehensive manner.
Salient features of the present text are given below:
· Detailed description of intricate physics behind every physical phenomenon
· Stresses on physical understanding to develop mathematical modelling skills for solving real-life
problems related to thermal engineering
· After completion of illustrations, summaries are highlighted for quick revision of the topics and
findings and conclusion are made therein
· A large number of Solved Examples, Multiple-choice Questions, Review Questions and Exercises
in each chapter for easy assimilation of the subject matter
· Solved examples based on questions from reputed institutes/universities as well as from Previous
Question Papers of GATE/IES/IAS
· Multi-choice Questions from GATE/IES/IAS with explanatory notes to help the students to
prepare for different competitive examinations
This book provides a single core level text on ‘Thermal Engineering’. An effort has been made for a
well-balanced coverage of physical concepts, mathematical operations and practical demonstrations
within the scope of the course. Throughout the text, SI units have been used. This book is divided into
twenty chapters.

xxviii Preface
Chapter 1 starts with the description of fuels and the detailed analysis of combustion. The analysis
of flue gas and procedure for determination of calorific value of fuel using different types of calorim-
eter are discussed. Chapter 2 deals with properties of steam. The property changes during transfor-
mation of steam into different phase and for different processes are shown through different plots like
p–v, T–s and h–s. Dryness fraction of steam and its measurement using different calorimeter are dis-
cussed. Chapter 3 discusses different types of steam generators used for power generation. Chapter 4
deals with steam power cycle where basic and improved cycles are discussed. Chapter 5 is devoted to
describe the working of steam engine together with the mathematical analysis. An elaborate in-depth
discussion on flow through steam nozzle is presented in Chapter 6.
The next two chapters (Chapters 7 and 8) deal with the principle of operation of different types
of steam turbines and steam condensers. Chapter 9 discusses the gas power cycles utilised in vari-
ous cycles. The working principle and the function of different components of internal combustion
engines are discussed at length in Chapter 10. Two stroke and four stroke engines as well as spark
ignition and compression ignition engines are considered. Chapter 11 deals with the analysis of per-
formance characteristics of internal combustion engines at different working conditions.
The next four chapters (Chapters 12, 13, 14 and 15) deal with the working principle of four dif-
ferent types of compressors, namely, reciprocating, rotary, centrifugal and axial flow compressors.
Chapter 16 is concerned with the details of different components of gas turbine and their functions.
Chapter 17 is devoted to present different jet propulsion systems together with the associated cycles.
Different refrigeration systems and their components are discussed at length in Chapters 18 and 19.
Chapter 20 deals with psychrometrics where the properties of atmospheric air together with different
processes are presented by psychrometric chart. Fundamentals of different air-conditioning systems
are discussed.
Apart from undergraduate students, this book will provide fundamental information as required by
the practising engineers in the field actual operation in different industries. Students pursuing diploma
can also be benefited out of this text. The text would be extremely helpful for various competitive
examinations such as GATE, IES, IAS, etc.
The complete solutions manual is also available for the faculty members at www.pearsoned.co.in/
sadhusingh
Prof. Singh places on record with gratitude the moral support received from his family members,
children and grandchildren. Dr Pati is indebted to his colleagues and students at NIT Silchar for many
fruitful interactions. Dr Pati expresses his gratitude to his mother, father-in-law, mother-in-law, wife
Munmun, son Soumik and relatives for their persistent encouragement and support and the tolerance
they have meted out during long absence from family life while perusing the present endeavour. The
cooperation received from the publishers and in particular from Ms. Harsha Singh and Mr. M. Balakr-
ishnan is highly appreciated.
Despite all our efforts, it is possible that some unintentional errors are still remaining in the text.
We would gracefully acknowledge if any such errors are pointed out for necessary corrections and
would be extremely thankful to the readers for their constructive suggestions and healthy criticism for
further improvement of the text. If you have comments, suggestions or corrections, please email us at
sukumarpati@gmail.com.
Sadhu Singh
Sukumar Pati

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PLATE II.
[Photo by W. Cottrell
Hightown, Manchester.]
EXTERNAL CHIMNEY SCAFFOLD.
Erected for the Willesden Electric Lighting Works, under the supervision of E.
Willis, Esq., a.m.i.c.e., etc.
When the chimney is to be erected by external scaffolding the
ordinary mason’s or bricklayer’s scaffold is used. Owing to the small
area of the erection the outside frames of the scaffold have a quick
return. This makes it practically impossible for the scaffold to fail by
breaking away from the building under the influence of the loads it
may carry. Shoring or tying is therefore not so important. Wind
pressures have, however, a greater effect, especially when the
direction is not at right angles to one of the faces of the scaffold. If in
that direction, the tied putlogs would offer resistance. Braces are
therefore imperative, and they should be fixed at right angles to each
other, each pair thus bracing a portion of the height of the scaffold
equal to its width. (See plate 2.)
For the repair of chimney shafts without scaffolding from the
ground level, means have to be taken to bring, first the mechanic,
and afterwards his material, within reach of the work.
Fig. 27
The preliminary process of kite-flying is now rarely seen, except
for square-topped chimneys, and even in these cases the delay that
may arise while waiting for a suitable steady wind is a drawback to
its practice. The kites used are about 10 feet long and 8 feet wide.
They are held at four points by cords which continue for a distance of
about 16 feet, and then unite into one. Near this point on the single
rope another cord is attached, which serves to manipulate the kite
into position.
Stronger ropes or chains are then pulled over the shaft, after
which a workman ascends, and the necessary pulley wheels and
timbers to form a regular means of ascent are sent up after him.
A light line carried up in the interior of the shaft by a hot-air balloon
is another means of communication.
The most certain and safest method of ascent is to raise on the
exterior of the shaft a series of light ladders, which are lashed to
each other and firmly fixed to the chimney as they ascend.
The ladders have parallel sides, and are used up to 22 feet in
length.
One method of fixing is as follows:—
A ladder is placed against the shaft on its soundest side. It rests at
its top end against a block of wood slightly longer than the width of
the ladder, and which keeps it from 7 to 9 inches away from the wall.
This space allows room for the workmen’s feet when climbing. The
ladder is then fixed by two hooks of round steel driven into the wall,
one on each side immediately under the blocks, the hooks turning in
and clipping the sides of the ladder (fig. 28). The hooks, which have
straight shanks of 7⁄8-inch diameter with wedge-shaped points, are
driven well home, as the stability of the erection depends upon their
holding firmly.
Above the top end of the ladder a steel hook is driven into the wall
on which a pulley block can be hung, or instead, a pin with a ring in
its head can be so fixed. A rope from the ground level is passed
through this block or ring, and reaches downward again for
connection to the ladder next required. The connection is made by
lashing the rope to the top rung and tying the end to the seventh or
eighth rung from the bottom; this causes the ladder to rise
perpendicularly. The steeplejack who is standing on the already fixed
ladder cuts the top lashing as the hoisted ladder reaches him, and
guides it into its place as it rises. When the rung to which the rope is
tied reaches the pulley block, the ladders should overlap about 5
feet. They are at once lashed together at the sides, not round the
rungs.
Fig. 28
The workmen can now climb higher, driving in hooks round the
sides, and under the rungs of the ladder alternately, lashings being
made at each point. A wooden block is placed under the top end of
the last ladder and fixed as before. The hoisting rope, which has
been kept taut meanwhile, is now loosened and the process
repeated.
The ladders rise in this manner until the coping of the shaft is
reached. Here, owing to the projection of the cap which throws the
ladders out of line, it is impossible to lash the top ladder to the lower.
To overcome the difficulty, the wall is drilled in two places
immediately over the topmost fixed ladder, and expansion bolts are
fitted therein. To these bolts the lower end of the top ladder is tied.
The hoisting rope is then tightened sufficiently to hold the ladder, and
by this means the workmen are enabled to reach the top of the shaft.
A variation of this method of climbing is to replace the wooden
blocks by iron dogs with 9-inch spikes, which should be driven well
into the wall. Short ladders of about 10 feet in length are then used,
these being lashed to the dogs as they rise.
Another method of fixing the ladders is shown in fig. 29.
Fig. 29
In this case eye-bolts are driven horizontally into the wall in pairs,
rather wider apart than the width of the ladders.
Iron rods hook into these and are fastened to the ladder sides by
thumb screws.
The ladders rise above each other and are connected by 3-inch
sockets.
When fixed, they stand about 18 inches from the wall. This is an
advantage, as it enables the workmen to climb on the inside of the
ladders, thus lessening the strain on the eye-bolts, and the ladder
can more easily pass a projecting chimney cap.
On the other hand, the whole weight of the ladders rests upon the
bottom length, so that if through any cause it gave way, for instance
under accidental concussion, the entire length would most certainly
collapse.
This danger could be avoided if the ladders were supported on
brackets as fig. 30. No reliance should be placed upon the thumb
screws, as they may work loose under vibration. Danger from this
source would be avoided if the slot in which the ladder peg moved
was made as shown in fig. 30.
Fig. 30
The necessary repairs can be carried out by means of boats,
cradles, or scaffolding.
Cradles and boats are swung from balk timbers laid across the top
of the shaft, or from hooks where the design of the chimney permits,
as shown in fig. 31.
The common method of fixing light scaffolds round a chimney or
steeple is shown in fig. 32. They are most easily fixed to square or
other flat-sided erections. The scaffolder having by means of ladders
or boats reached the desired height, fixes a putlog by means of
holdfasts to one of the walls. Another putlog is then fixed on the
opposite side of the building at the same level. The two are next
bolted together by 1-inch iron bolts of the required length. The bolts
are kept as near to the wall as possible. The process is repeated
again about 6 feet higher on the building. The boards for the
platforms are next laid. The first are placed at right angles to the
putlogs and project sufficiently to carry the boards which are laid
parallel to the putlogs. To prevent the boards rising when weight is
applied at one side of the scaffold, iron plates bolted together (fig.
33) are fixed at the corners, and clips (fig. 34) connect them to the
putlogs.
Fig. 31
Fig. 32
Fig. 33
The stability of these scaffolds depends upon fixing at least two
sets of putlogs, connected by means of stays as shown in fig. 32.
Bracing is unnecessary if the putlogs and bolts tightly grip the
building. When these scaffolds are used on circular chimneys,
chucks have to be fitted on the inside of the putlogs to prevent them
being drawn by the bolts to a curve. The chucks (fig. 35) can be
fastened to the putlogs before they are fixed, if the curve of the
building is accurately known. When this is not the case, the putlogs
are fixed by a holdfast at their centre. The chucks are then placed in
position, and clamped to the putlogs as shown in fig. 36.
Additional holdfasts are then driven into the wall immediately
under the chucks, so that the putlogs are kept level.
Fig. 34
Fig. 35
The putlogs are fixed on edge, and when not exceeding 16 feet in
length are 7 in. by 3 in. Above that length they are 9 in. by 3 in. The
stays should be 4 in. by 2 in., and connected to the putlogs by 5⁄8-
inch iron bolts. The platform is usually of three boards 11 in. by 2 in.
Fig. 36
Fig. 37
Hollow towers are erected or repaired in the same manner as
chimney shafts, except that climbing ladders are not often required.
External or internal scaffolds may be erected. Towers being usually
of larger area than chimney shafts, the putlogs for internal
scaffolding are often of short poles from 6 to 8 inches diameter. Even
these may require extra support. This is gained by carrying
standards from the ground level or other solid foundation and tying to
the putlogs. If of great height the standards may be unable to carry
their own weight. For the cases where danger might be apprehended
from this cause, fig. 37 shows a system of framing, which, being
supported by the set-back in the thickness of the wall, will carry the
upper standards.
Steeples are generally built by the aid of external scaffolds, which,
as in the case of chimney shafts, should be well braced. The lower
portion may also be repaired in this way, the standards rising from
the ground level, or, if so designed, from the top of the tower. A
series of needles could be arranged for the higher portions.
Fig. 38
Domes and arches.—The scaffolding for domes and arches

consists of a series of standards standing upon the area covered by
the building, and connected by ledgers and braces in directions at
right angles to each other. The platform is laid on the top ledgers.
When the building is of large span square timbers are often used,
balks for standards and runners, and half timbers for struts and
braces.
Fig. 38 shows a design for repairing roofs and arches where a
roadway has to be kept below.
Swinging scaffolds. Painters’ boats or cradles.—Painters’

boats are useful scaffolds for the repair of buildings, more especially
where the work is light. Fig. 39 shows the general construction. They
are suspended from jibs, fixed usually on the roof for outside work,
and by means of blocks and falls they can be moved in a vertical
direction by the workmen when in the boat.
Fig. 39
The boats are fitted with guard boards and rails, and their safety,
providing the jibs are well fixed by balancing weights, is in their
favour. They are not self-supporting, and there is a distinct danger of
their running down if the sustaining ropes are not securely fastened
off. The wind causes them to sway considerably, and their use is
confined chiefly to façade work. An improved cradle is now in
general use, which is slung by head blocks from a wire cable running
between two jibs (see fig. 40). By the aid of guy lines movement in
this case can be also obtained horizontally, which removes the
necessity of shifting the jibs or employing a greater number of boats
as in the older method.
Fig. 40
Fig. 41
Another cradle as shown in fig. 41 has advantages which cannot
be ignored. It has steel cables with a breaking weight of 15 cwt.
instead of fibre ropes, and the cradle is raised and lowered by
means of gearing and a drum fixed in the gear case A. It is self-
supporting, and therefore safer than the cradle mentioned above.
The lower ends of the cable are fastened to the drum, and the
gearing gives sufficient mechanical advantage for one man to raise
the scaffold by turning the handle B. The uprights and rails are of
angle steel or barrel and will take apart and fold.
Fig. 42
The boatswain’s boat (see fig. 42) is useful under some
circumstances, especially for making examinations of buildings for
possible damage. It is dangerous and awkward to work from, and is
also acted upon considerably by the wind.
The boat is slung from a single needle. The workman has no
control over its movement, as he has to be raised or lowered as
required by men having charge of the other end of the fall.

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A01_THERMAL ENGINEERING_SE_XXXX_A01.indd 1 6/20/2018 9:29:10 AM

A01_THERMAL ENGINEERING_SE_XXXX_A01.indd 3 6/20/2018 9:29:14 AM

Published by Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd, CIN: U72200TN2005PTC057128.

Dedicated to my beloved Parents

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Chapter 1 Fuels and Combustion 1

Chapter 2 Properties of Steam 51

Chapter 3 Steam Generators 87

Chapter 4 Steam Power Cycles 161

Chapter 5 Steam Engines 214

Chapter 6 Flow Through Steam Nozzles 253

Chapter 7 Steam Turbines 316

Chapter 8 Steam Condensers 386

Chapter 9 Gas Power Cycles 423

Chapter 10 Internal Combustion Engine Systems 485

Chapter 11 Performance of Internal Combustion Engines 622

Chapter 12 Reciprocating Air Compressors 690

Chapter 13 Rotary Air Compressors 735

Chapter 14 Centrifugal Air Compressors 744

Chapter 15 Axial Flow Air Compressors 789

Chapter 16 Gas Turbines 840

A01_THERMAL ENGINEERING_SE_XXXX_A01.indd 7 6/20/2018 2:44:41 PM

Chapter 17 Jet Propulsion 922

Chapter 18 Introduction to Refrigeration961

Chapter 19 Vapour Compression and Vapour Absorption Systems 999

Chapter 20 Air-Conditioning and Psychrometrics 1034

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Chapter 1 Fuels and Combustion 1

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1.10 Combustion of Fuels 10

Chapter 2 Properties of Steam 51

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2.8.1 Barrel Calorimeter 63

Chapter 3 Steam Generators 87

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3.13 Steam Accumulators 113

Chapter 4 Steam Power Cycles 161

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4.8 Binary Vapour Cycles 184

Chapter 5 Steam Engines 214

Chapter 6 Flow Through Steam Nozzles 253

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6.8 Nozzle Efficiency 259

Chapter 7 Steam Turbines 316

Chapter 8 Steam Condensers 386

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8.3 Elements of Steam Condensing Plant 387

Chapter 9 Gas Power Cycles 

Chapter 10 Internal Combustion Engine Systems 485

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10.4 Working of IC Engines 489

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10.16.2 Ignition Lag (or Delay) in SI Engines 556

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10.30 Alternative Fuels for IC Engines 603

Chapter 11 Performance of Internal Combustion Engines 622

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11.15.1 Effect of Engine Type on Diesel Emission 670

Chapter 12 Reciprocating Air Compressors 690

Chapter 13 Rotary Air Compressors 735

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Chapter 17 Jet Propulsion 922

Chapter 18 Introduction to Refrigeration961

Chapter 19 Vapour Compression and Vapour Absorption Systems 999

Chapter 20 Air-Conditioning and Psychrometrics 1034

Chapter 8 Steam Condensers 386

Chapter 9 Gas Power Cycles

Chapter 13 Rotary Air Compressors 735

17.5 Thrust Work, Propulsive Work, and Propulsive Efficiency

Chapter 19 apour Compression and Vapour Absorption