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Advances in Power Boilers
JSME Series in Thermal and Nuclear
Power Generation

Advances in Power
Boilers
Edited by

Mamoru Ozawa
Faculty of Societal Safety Sciences,
Kansai University, Osaka, Japan

Hitoshi Asano
Kobe University, Kobe, Japan

Series Editor
Yasuo Koizumi
The University of Electro-Communications,
Chofu, Tokyo, Japan
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Contents

List of contributors ix
About the editors xi
Preface of JSME Series in Thermal and Nuclear Power Generation xiii
Preface to Volume 2: Advances in Power Boilers xvii

1 Fossil fuels combustion and environmental issues 1

Jun Inumaru, Takeharu Hasegawa, Hiromi Shirai, Hiroyuki Nishida,
Naoki Noda and Seiichi Ohyama
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Overview and properties of coal, oil, and gas 4
1.3 Combustion of fuels 16
1.4 Emission-induced environmental issues and protection 36
1.5 Remarks 49
Nomenclature 50
References 51

2 Introduction to boilers 57
Mamoru Ozawa
2.1 Start of steam application to pumping water 57
2.2 Dawn of steam power 59
2.3 Classification of boilers 61
2.4 History of boiler development 61
2.5 Historical development of power generation boilers in Japan 99
2.6 Similarity law in boiler furnace and other various important issues 99
References 103

3 General planning of thermal power plant 107

Atsuhiro Hanatani and Mamoru Ozawa
3.1 Overview of steam power plant 107
3.2 Concept of general planning and factors to be considered 109
3.3 Principal concept for high-performance plant 110
3.4 Reheat cycle and regenerative cycle 113
3.5 Enthalpy pressure diagram along steam generating tube 116
3.6 Legal regulations in Japan 117
References 118
vi Contents

4 Power boiler design 119

Masashi Hishida, Kenjiro Yamamoto, Kenichiro Kosaka,
Wakako Shimohira, Kazuaki Miyake, Senichi Tsubakizaki,
Sachiko Shigemasa and Hitoshi Asano
4.1 Heat transfer in boiler 120
4.2 Boiler gas side performance for furnace design 125
4.3 Water circulation design 194
4.4 Deposition, erosion and corrosion, and water treatment 240
References 252

5 Construction, operation, and control of power boiler 257

Michio Sasaki, Shingo Naito and Akira Yamada
5.1 Construction of coal-fired boiler 257
5.2 Operation and control of power boiler 262
Nomenclature 302
References 302

6 Gas turbine combined cycle 305

Shigehiro Shiozaki, Takashi Fujii, Kazuhiro Takenaga,
Mamoru Ozawa and Akira Yamada
6.1 Gas turbine combined cycle power generation 305
6.2 Pressurized fluidized-bed combustion boiler 325
6.3 Integrated coal-gasification combined cycle 326
References 343

7 Ultrasupercritical and advanced ultrasupercritical power plants 345

Kenjiro Yamamoto, Masafumi Fukuda and Atsuhiro Hanatani
7.1 Introduction 345
7.2 Efficiency improvement 346
7.3 History of elevating steam condition in the world 352
7.4 Development programs for ultrasupercritical and advanced
ultrasupercritical power plants in the world 356
7.5 Aspects of metallurgy and stress analysis 370
7.6 Concluding remarks 384
References 386

8 Examples of thermal power station 391

Takatoshi Yamashita, Shigehiro Shiozaki, Shingo Naito, Takashi Fujii,
Mamoru Ozawa and Akira Yamada
8.1 Tachibana-Wan Thermal Power Station Unit No. 2
(ultrasupercritical, sliding pressure, once-through boiler) 391
8.2 Himeji No. 2 Power Plant (gas turbine combined-cycle plant) 400
8.3 Karita PFBC plant 406
8.4 Nakoso and Osaki Integrated Coal Gasification Combined Cycle
(IGCC) Plants 410
Contents vii

8.5 Incineration firing by circulating fluidized bed 422

References 424

9 Boiler explosion and inspection 427

Mamoru Ozawa, Mikiyasu Urata and Masaki Honda
9.1 Historical trend of boiler explosions 427
9.2 Legislative framework 433
9.3 Development in boiler code and inspection organization in the
United States and Germany 439
9.4 Historical development of boiler regulation in Japan 441
9.5 Outline of current inspection of power boiler 443
References 458

10 Future perspective and remarks 461

Jun Inumaru, Saburo Hara and Takeharu Hasegawa
10.1 Introduction 461
10.2 Situation of thermal power generation 462
10.3 Next-generation thermal power generation technology for a
decarbonized society (B2030) 464
10.4 Future outlook for thermal power generation (2030B) 472
10.5 Conclusion 477
References 478

Index 479
List of contributors

Hitoshi Asano Kobe University, Kobe, Japan

Takashi Fujii Mitsubishi Hitachi Power Systems, Ltd., Yokohama, Japan

Masafumi Fukuda Research Institute for Advanced Thermal Power Systems,

Tokyo, Japan

Atsuhiro Hanatani IHI Corporation, Tokyo, Japan

Saburo Hara Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry, Tokyo, Japan

Takeharu Hasegawa Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry,

Tokyo, Japan

Masashi Hishida Mitsubishi Hitachi Power Systems, Ltd., Yokohama, Japan

Masaki Honda Mitsubishi Hitachi Power Systems, Ltd., Yokohama, Japan

Jun Inumaru Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry, Tokyo, Japan

Kenichiro Kosaka Mitsubishi Hitachi Power Systems, Ltd., Yokohama, Japan

Kazuaki Miyake Mitsubishi Hitachi Power Systems Environmental Solutions,

Ltd., Yokohama, Japan

Shingo Naito Mitsubishi Hitachi Power Systems, Ltd., Yokohama, Japan

Hiroyuki Nishida Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry, Tokyo,

Japan

Naoki Noda Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry, Tokyo, Japan

Seiichi Ohyama Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry, Tokyo,

Japan

Mamoru Ozawa Kansai University, Osaka, Japan

x List of contributors

Michio Sasaki Mitsubishi Hitachi Power Systems, Ltd., Yokohama, Japan

Sachiko Shigemasa Hitachi Zosen Corporation, Osaka, Japan

Wakako Shimohira Mitsubishi Hitachi Power Systems, Ltd., Yokohama, Japan

Shigehiro Shiozaki Mitsubishi Hitachi Power Systems, Ltd., Yokohama, Japan

Hiromi Shirai Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry, Tokyo, Japan

Kazuhiro Takenaga Mitsubishi Hitachi Power Systems, Ltd., Yokohama, Japan

Senichi Tsubakizaki Mitsubishi Hitachi Power Systems, Ltd., Yokohama, Japan

Mikiyasu Urata Mitsubishi Hitachi Power Systems, Ltd., Yokohama, Japan

Akira Yamada Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd., Nagasaki, Japan

Kenjiro Yamamoto Mitsubishi Hitachi Power Systems, Ltd., Yokohama, Japan

Takatoshi Yamashita Mitsubishi Hitachi Power Systems, Ltd., Yokohama, Japan

About the editors

Mamoru Ozawa is a professor emeritus and a senior researcher of Research Center

for Societal Safety Sciences, Kansai University, Japan. He received his doctoral
degree from Osaka University in 1977. His research interests include boiling heat
transfer, two-phase flow dynamics, combustion system, boiler, and safety in indus-
trial systems. He has authored and coauthored more than 150 refereed journals,
more than 150 conference papers, several handbooks, and many books related to
thermal hydraulics in steam power. Among his edited books the most recently pub-
lished Science of Societal Safety has been chapter-downloaded more than 70,000
times. He served the Board of Directors and the President of Heat Transfer Society
of Japan and the Chairman of the Power and Energy Systems Division of the Japan
Society of Mechanical Engineers (JSME). He was awarded several times from the
Visualization Society of Japan, the Heat Transfer Society of Japan, and the JSME.

Hitoshi Asano is a professor of the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kobe

University, Japan. He received his doctoral degree from the Kobe University
in 2000. His research interests include boiling and condensation heat transfer,
two-phase flow dynamics in energy conversion systems, compact heat exchangers
for HVAC systems, and two-phase flow cooling systems for electric and power
equipment. He has authored and coauthored more than 100 refereed journals and
more than 130 conference papers. He is a member of the Scientific Council of
International Center for Heat and Mass Transfer and is a fellow of the JSME.
He received the Asian Academic Award from the Japan Society of Refrigeration
and Air-Conditioning Engineers, the Society of Air-Conditioning and Refrigerating
Engineers of Korea, and the Chinese Association of Refrigeration in 2018.
Preface of JSME Series in Thermal
and Nuclear Power Generation

Electric power supply is a fundamental and principal infrastructure for modern soci-
ety. Modern society uses power generation through heat. This series of books consists
of eight volumes describing thermal and nuclear power generation, taking Japan as
the example, and referring the other countries. The Volume 1 discusses how power
supply is attained historically, focusing on the thermal and the nuclear power genera-
tion along with minimum-required scientific and technological fundamentals to
understand this series of books. Then, the present status of the thermal and the
nuclear power generation technique is displayed in detail in Volumes 2 through 8.
The rehabilitation and reconstruction of Japan after World War II was initiated
through the utilization of a large amount of coal for boilers of the thermal power
plants. Meanwhile, environmental pollution caused by coal combustion became
serious, and then oil was introduced to the boilers. Due to two worldwide oil crises
and because of carbon dioxide issues, natural gas has also begun to be used for boi-
lers. Current thermal power generation in Japan is based on coal and gas utilization.
As a result of enough power supply, Japan has become one of the leading countries
economically and technologically in the world. The thermal power technology that
started from introducing technology from abroad has been transfigured Japan into
one of the most advanced in the world through the research and development of
Japanese industry, government, and academia during this process.
Global warming related to excess carbon dioxide emissions has become a
worldwide issue in recent years. Reducing carbon dioxide emission in thermal
power generation is important to help cope with this issue. One direction is to
change the fuel of a boiler from coal to gas that exhausts less carbon dioxide.
Another important direction is to endeavor to enhance the thermal efficiency of
coal thermal power plants as well as oil and gas. Many developing countries in
the world need more thermal power plants in future. Although oil and/or gas ther-
mal power plants may be introduced into these countries, it is supposed that coal
thermal power plants will still be used due to economical reasons. Considering
these situations, the publication of this series of books that displays and explains
the developing history and the present status of the most advanced thermal power
plants in Japan and other advanced countries is a timely planning for engineers
and researchers in the advanced countries to pursue the further advancement and
for engineers and researchers in developing countries to learn and acquire this
knowledge.
xiv Preface of JSME Series in Thermal and Nuclear Power Generation

Nuclear power generation technology in Japan started after being introduced

from abroad approximately 60 years ago. Then, it reached the matured nuclear
power technology through untiring endeavors for research and development.
However, nuclear power plants at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power station
were heavily damaged by huge tsunamis caused by the Great East Japan
Earthquake in 2011 to result in contamination in the large area around the power
station. Taking measures to improve nuclear power reactors to be more robustly is
currently underway by analyzing the factors that caused this serious situation.
Technical vulnerability can be solved by technology. Nuclear power generation
technology is one of the definite promising technologies that should be used in the
future. The nuclear power generation is still expected as one of the main ways to
supply electricity in the framework of the basic energy plan of Japan as well as
thermal power generation. It implies that the construction of new power reactors
will be required to replace the nuclear reactors that will reach their useful lifetime.
Looking overseas, many developing countries are introducing nuclear power gen-
eration technology as a safe and economically excellent way to obtain electricity.
Transfer of the nuclear power generation technology developed and matured in
Japan to those countries is naturally the obligation of Japan. In these situations,
the necessity of human resource development in the field of nuclear power genera-
tion technology in the developing countries, as well as in Japan, is beyond dispute.
Thus, it is an urgent task to summarize the nuclear power generation technology
acquired by Japan to provide it.
The Power and Energy Systems Division (PESD) of the Japan Society of
Mechanical Engineers is celebrating its 30th anniversary from establishment in
1990. This department is entrusted with handling power supply technology in
mechanical engineering. Responding to the earlier-mentioned is truly requested.
This task cannot be done by others but the PESD that is composed of leading engi-
neers and researchers in this field in Japan. In view of these circumstances, summa-
rizing Japan’s and other countries’ power generation technology and disseminating
it not only in Japan but also overseas seems significantly important. So, it has been
decided to execute this book series, publishing as one of the 30th anniversary events
of the PESD.
Authors of this book series are those who have engaged in the most advanced
research and development for the thermal power and nuclear power generation in
Japan and Canada. Their experience and knowledge is reflected in their writing.
It is not an introduction of what others did, but living knowledge based on their
own experiences and thoughts are described. We hope that this series of books
becomes learning material that is not yet in existence in this field. We hope that
readers acquire a way of thinking as well as whole and detailed knowledge by hav-
ing this book series in hand.
This series is the joint effort of many individuals, generously sharing and writing
from their expertise. Their efforts are deeply appreciated. We are very thankful for
Preface of JSME Series in Thermal and Nuclear Power Generation xv

the unbiased and heartful comments given from many reviewers to make this series
superb. Special thanks should be given to Maria Convey and Sara Valentino of the
editorial staff at Elsevier.

Editors in Chief

Yasuo Koizumi
The University of Electro-Communications, Chofu, Tokyo, Japan

Mamoru Ozawa
Kansai University, Takatsuki, Osaka, Japan
March 16, 2020
Preface to Volume 2: Advances in
Power Boilers

Steam power has been constantly at the leading position of industrial technologies
since the beginning of the 18th century. At the first stage, steam power appeared as
the prime mover for the pumping system of coal mines. The advancement in steam
power engineering made it possible to lead the factory systems for the mass produc-
tion of textile products. The availability of steam engines extended their application
to steamboats and locomotives for the mass transportation of people and industrial
products. Such advancement is supported by the development of iron and steel tech-
nology, machine tool, control engineering, and, of course, by society and its econ-
omy. Following the development in electrical technology, steam power stations
were constructed, and since then the electrical network thus has been the fundamen-
tal and principal infrastructure of the society.
The development in steam power since the 18th century has been, in fact, depen-
dent on the development in boiler technology during this 300-year period. A drastic
increase in efficiency and unit output has been supported by the development in
thermo-hydraulic engineering, materials engineering, control engineering, and of
course chemical engineering while the development process was not straightfor-
ward. An increase in the unit power brought about many explosions together with a
tremendous number of fatalities. To reduce and mitigate losses from explosions, a
social system, that is, third-party inspection and regulations, has been introduced. In
reality, the boiler development was a battle with explosions.
A boiler is a system to generate steam by firing coal, oil, gas, and recently inciner-
ation. At the beginning, coal was a prime fuel, which continued to the 1950s for
about 250 years. During this period, various coal-treatment technologies have been
developed to raise efficiency and reduce the emission of smoke. Ash treatment was
also a very important task. Oil was introduced to boilers, so efficiency issue and ash
problems were in part resolved, while the mass consumption of oil for power genera-
tion brought about unstable oil prices due to economic and political situations.
Especially Japan got involved in the oil-crisis in 1973 and 1979. This oil-crisis intro-
duced natural gas firing and enhanced the construction of nuclear power plants.
Nuclear power stations constructed in Japan counted 54 units, while they drastically
reduced in number after the core meltdown in the Fukushima Daiichi power station.
Since then, the economy and social welfare in Japan have been supported by the
fossil-fuel firing power stations, that is, steam boilers. Such a situation is not just a
xviii Preface to Volume 2: Advances in Power Boilers

problem in Japan but rather universal in many developing countries. The importance
of steam boiler technologies is still a prime issue.
This volume is intended to present a state-of-the-art review of power boiler tech-
nology to help practical engineers and graduate student to build basic frameworks
of ideas with which they can understand and treat practical problems of power boi-
lers. Basic principles together with the practical state-of-the-art are described by the
specialists of boiler companies in Japan. As the way of approach to boiler technol-
ogy is not the same among university researchers, research institute members, and
engineers in industries, the editorial board members and authors held many discus-
sions in the course of writing manuscripts, so that the philosophy or common prin-
cipal view on the power boilers and related technologies would remain consistent
throughout this book while respecting the autonomy of each author. We would be
grateful if the essence of our experience in boiler technologies is shared by the care-
ful readers.
The editors are deeply indebted to editorial board members, Akira Yamada,
Atsuhiro Hanatani, Jun Inumaru and Toshihiko Yasuda for their valuable sugges-
tions in planning and editing processes of this book, and thanks are extended to all
the authors of the Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry, Mitsubishi
Heavy Industries, Ltd., Mitsubishi Hitachi Power Systems, Ltd., IHI Corporation,
Research Institute for Advanced Thermal Power Systems, and Hitachi Zosen
Corporation. The editors are also grateful to Elsevier Inc. for allowing publication
and to Editorial Project Manager, Sara Valentino and Project Manager, Prasanna
Kalyanaraman for their editorial works of this volume. Without their contribution,
this volume could not have survived from the bustle of the ongoing pandemic of
coronavirus disease 2019.

April 2020
Mamoru Ozawa
Hitoshi Asano
Fossil fuels combustion and
environmental issues 1
Jun Inumaru, Takeharu Hasegawa, Hiromi Shirai, Hiroyuki Nishida,
Naoki Noda and Seiichi Ohyama
Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry, Tokyo, Japan

Chapter outline

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Overview and properties of coal, oil, and gas 4
1.2.1 Coal 4
1.2.2 Oil 5
1.2.3 Gas 12
1.3 Combustion of fuels 16
1.3.1 Coal 16
1.3.2 Oil 23
1.3.3 Gas 27
1.4 Emission-induced environmental issues and protection 36
1.4.1 Flue gas treatment technology 36
1.4.2 Wastewater treatment 45
1.5 Remarks 49
Nomenclature 50
Notations 50
Greek letters 51
Subscripts 51
References 51

1.1 Introduction
Coal, oil, and gas are mainly used as fossil fuels for power generation. Fig. 1.1 [1]
shows shifts in global primary energy consumption by energy source. The global
primary energy consumption has been increasing in line with economic growth, and
oil is the highest in terms of consumption, followed by coal and then gas. The
increase in oil is mainly due to its use as transport fuel. For the purpose of power
generation, attempts are being made to substitute other energy sources for oil. Coal
is widely distributed around the world, and about 60% of coal consumption goes
toward power generation as a relatively cheap fuel. The consumption of coal had
been increasing year on year, but after peaking in 2013, it is more or less on the
decrease these days. This is due to the recent consumption decrease in China, which
had long been driving the increase in consumption. Gas fuel trends are detailed in
Section 1.2.3.
Advances in Power Boilers. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-820360-6.00001-1
© 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
2 Advances in Power Boilers

Figure 1.1 Transition of primary energy consumption in the world (by energy source) [1].
Note: Figures may not add up to the totals due to rounding. Mtoe: Million tons of oil
equivalent

Figure 1.2 Power generation cost of each power source in Japan (in 2014) [2].

The matters to be considered in using these resources for power generation are
the stable procurement of fuel, power generation costs, including fuel cost, and
environmental characteristics such as emissions of carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides,
sulfur oxides, and particulate matter. As a reference, Fig. 1.2 [2] shows the power
generation cost by fuel in Japan. The cheapest fuel is coal, followed by natural gas
and oil. Fig. 1.3 [3] shows the life cycle CO2 emissions in Japan by power source.
This takes into account not only the carbon dioxide from fuel combustion but also
that produced in the operation of fuel development drilling, transportation, and
power generation facilities. As for life cycle CO2 emissions, coal is the highest, fol-
lowed by oil and natural gas.
When using fossils fuel in power generation boilers, it is important to select
appropriate methods for fuel supply, operation, and maintenance with an under-
standing of the specific characteristics of these fuels. In this section, we describe
Fossil fuels combustion and environmental issues 3

Figure 1.3 CO2 emissions intensity over the entire life cycle by source [3].

the environmental characteristics of coal, oil, and gas from the viewpoint of
power generation fuel, including the characteristics of fuels, combustion charac-
teristics, and emission gas and wastewater, as well as technological development
issues.
4 Advances in Power Boilers

1.2 Overview and properties of coal, oil, and gas

1.2.1 Coal
The estimated amount of coal deposits is much higher than those of other fossil
fuels. Furthermore, coal is produced worldwide, and its price per calorific value is
the cheapest among the fossil fuels. Therefore coal is the most commonly used fuel
for thermal power generation in the world. However, its CO2 emission per calorific
value is the largest among the fossil fuels. In recent years, there has been sustained
worldwide effort to reduce CO2 emission from coal. In this chapter, we deal with
the characteristics of coal.

1.2.1.1 Formation
Coal is a combustible rock that is formed from decayed plants in the earth. The
underground heat and pressure cause the coalification of decayed plants, which
involves the loss of water, methane, and carbon dioxide from plants and an increase
in the proportion of carbon. As the coalification progresses, lignite (brown coal),
followed by subbituminous coal, bituminous coal, and finally anthracite, is formed.
Lignite and subbituminous coal, which have high water contents, are used to gener-
ate steam and electric power. Bituminous coal is used to not only generate steam
and electric power but also produce coke. Anthracite has a high carbon content and
burns with a smokeless flame, but it ignites with difficulty. Therefore it is used as
an ingredient of charcoal briquettes and filter media.

1.2.1.2 Classification
Coal consists of organic matter, minerals, and moisture. Organic matter contains
mostly carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and a small amount of sulfur and nitrogen. Coal has
a wide range of properties, because the types of plant, the degree of coalification, and
the conditions of coalification vary in different locations around the world. Therefore
it is important to logically classify into different types for its optimal utilization.
In Japan, coal is classified on the basis of the calorific value, fuel ratio (the weight
ratio of fixed carbon to volatile matter), and agglomerating character, as shown in
Table 1.1 [4,5]. In the United States, it is classified on the basis of the content of
fixed carbon, that of volatile matter, and the agglomerating character, as shown in
Table 1.2 [5,6]. The calorific value and fuel ratio are important values in selecting
the type of coal appropriate for use in a boiler, and the agglomerating character is an
important value in selecting the type of coal for producing a coke, which is used for
iron manufacture. The coal used in a boiler is called thermal coal or steam coal, and
that for iron manufacture is called coking coal or metallurgical coal.

1.2.1.3 Properties
In the field of coal combustion the important combustion properties of coal are
determined by proximate and ultimate analyses [7,8], namely, calorific value [9],
Fossil fuels combustion and environmental issues 5

Table 1.1 Classification of coal in Japan [4,5].

Classification Calorific value (dry Fuel Agglomerating

ash-free basis) ratio character
Class Group (MJ/kg)
Anthracite (A) A1
4.0 , Nonagglomerating
A2
Bituminous (B, C) B1 35.16 # 1.5 # Highly
B2 ,1.5 agglomerating
C 33.910 # ,35.160
Agglomerating
Subbituminous (D, E) D 32.650 # ,33.910
Weakly
agglomerating
E 30.560 # ,32.650
Nonagglomerating
Lignite (F) F1 29.470 # ,30.560
Nonagglomerating
F2 24.280 # ,29.470

coal ash composition [10], ash fusibility [11], and grindability [11]. The composi-
tion of maceral (Fig. 1.4 [12]), which is a component from coalified plants that
remains preserved in coal, is also fundamental to the combustion properties, since
different maceral types (inertinite, vitrinite, and liptinite) combust at different tem-
peratures and rates.
In the proximate analysis the contents of moisture, ash, and volatile matter of
coal dried in air are measured, and the content of the remaining part is calculated as
the content of fixed carbon. In the ultimate analysis the contents of carbon, hydro-
gen, oxygen, total sulfur, combustible sulfur, and nitrogen are measured. The results
of proximate and ultimate analyses in various coals are shown in Table 1.3 [5]. As
coalification progresses, moisture and volatile matter decrease, and the calorific
value and carbon content increase. The contents of sulfur and nitrogen are indepen-
dent of coalification because they depend on the type of decayed plants present and
the sediment that covered and buried the plants.

1.2.2 Oil
In power plants in Japan, light oils, such as kerosene and diesel, are used for gas
turbines. Heavy oils, the prices of which are relatively cheap compared to kerosene
and diesel, are used for boilers. The quality requirements by the Japanese Industrial
Standards (JIS) for kerosene, diesel, and fuel oil (heavier oils such as banker oil,
marine fuel oil, and marine residual oil) are shown in Table 1.4 [13], Table 1.5
[14], and Table 1.6 [15], respectively. These standards are established mostly based
on flash point, viscosity, and sulfur content.
In addition to the physical properties for proper combustion, important aspects
of fuel use in power plants include the presence of corrosive materials that can
damage the local structure and contaminated matter that yields pollutants in the
fumes. Regarding corrosive materials, trace amounts of alkali metals, such as
sodium and potassium, produce detrimental impacts on the gas turbine. And
Table 1.2 Classification of coal in the United States [5,6].

Class Group Fixed Volatile Calorific value limits Agglomerating character

carbon matter limits MJ/kg (moist free
limits % % (dry ash- basis)
(dry ash-free free basis)
basis)
I. Anthracitic 1. Metaanthracite 98 # ,2

Nonagglomerating
2. Anthracite 92 # ,98 2# ,8


3. Semianthracite 86 # ,92 8# ,14


II. Bituminous 1. Low-volatile bituminous coal 78 # ,86 14 # ,22

Commonly agglomerating
2. Medium-volatile bituminous coal 69 # ,78 22 # ,31


3. High-volatile A bituminous coal , 69 31 , 32.557 #
4. High-volatile B bituminous coal



30.232 # ,32.557
5. High-volatile C bituminous coal



26.743 # ,30.232
6. High-volatile C bituminous coal



24.418 # ,26.743 Agglomerating
III. Subbituminous 1. Subbituminous A coal



24.418 # ,26.743 Nonagglomerating
2. Subbituminous B coal



22.090 # ,24.418
3. Subbituminous C coal



19.300 # ,22.09
IV. Lignite 1. Lignite A



14.650 # ,19.3 Nonagglomerating
2. Lignite B



, 14.65
Fossil fuels combustion and environmental issues 7

Figure 1.4 Maceral types consisting of liptinite and vitrinite Reproduced by permission from
R. M. Flores, Coal and Coalbed Gas, Elsevier (2014),[12].

vanadium can also cause “vanadium attack” [16]. The sulfur content, which causes
sulfidation corrosion, also negatively impacts the boiler (fuels with sulfur are never
applicable to gas turbines).
The causative agents of pollutants in the fumes are nitrogen, which produces
nitrogen oxides (NOx), and sulfur, which produces PM2.5 (fine particulate matter)
and sulfur dioxide (SOx).
Due to the exceptional circumstances brought by SOx on the Yokkaichi asthma
[17] during one of the “Four Big Pollution Diseases of Japan” in 1960s
1970s, the
desulfurizer or use of low-sulfur crude oil, which is expensive but avoids petroleum
refinery costs, became indispensable in Japan. Although the nitrogen content in the
fuel causes NOx emissions, which is as harmful as SOx because NOx causes photo-
chemical smog, there are no regulations of quality requirements for nitrogen emis-
sions. This is partly because not all nitrogen content is converted into NOx, which
is different for SOx, since all sulfur contents are converted into SOx.
The constructions of new oil-fired thermal power plants are prohibited in Japan,
based on the communique adopted by the International Energy Agency (IEA) gov-
erning board meeting at ministerial level in May 1979, the “Principles for IEA
Action on Coal” [18]. Therefore both installed capacity of electric power and
amount of electricity power generation for oil-fired power plants started decreasing
with each passing year after the 1980s, as seen in Fig. 1.5 [19] and Fig. 1.6 [20].
However, some new oil-fired gas turbines were exceptionally introduced after the
Great East Japan Earthquake of 2011. This is also one of the causes of oil being
expensive compared with other fuels, such as coal and natural gas, as shown in
Fig. 1.7 [21].
Refineries in Japan also pursued scrap-and-build designs of refinery capacity and
“a shift toward white oil” (cleaner oils such as gasoline and naphtha) by improving
the performance of reformers of heavy distillates and residues and following the
Table 1.3 Coal properties[5
Country Coal Item

Calorific Total Proximate analysis (%) Fuel Ultimate analysis (%)

value moisture ratio
(MJ/kg) (%)
Moisture Ash Volatile Fixed Carbon Hydrogen Nitrogen Oxygen Sulfur Total
carbon sulfur

Australia Drayton 28.4 9.9 3.4 13.3 34.5 48.8 1.4 71.1 4.9 1.4 8.1 0.8 0.9
Newlands 28.0 8.4 3.0 15.0 26.6 55.4 2.1 69.1 4.1 1.4 7.0 0.4 0.4
Hunter Valley 29.6 8.0 3.5 11.2 34.0 51.3 1.5 72.7 4.5 1.6 9.3 0.3 0.6
Lemington 28.4 9.9 3.7 13.0 32.3 51.0 1.6 71.9 4.5 1.5 8.2 0.4 0.4
Warkworth 28.9 9.6 3.6 11.8 32.8 51.8 1.6 69.1 4.6 1.5 8.9 0.4 0.4
China Datong 29.6 10.1 5.1 7.0 28.1 59.8 2.1 78.2 4.5 0.8 8.8 0.6 0.7
Nantong 28.4 8.0 4.0 16.0 36.2 43.8 1.2 83.0 5.2 1.6 9.8 0.5 0.8
Canada Obedarsh 25.3 8.0 5.0 14.0 37.0 44.0 1.2 64.3 4.6 1.5 14.3 0.3 0.6
Coal Valley 26.1 11.3 6.4 10.7 33.5 49.3 1.5 69.7 4.7 0.9 13.1 0.1 0.3
Indonesia Satui 28.8 9.5 5.1 7.9 41.9 45.1 1.1 72.4 5.5 1.2 11.9 0.7 0.8
South Africa Ermelo 27.8 7.6 3.5 12.9 31.4 52.2 1.7 72.0 4.4 1.7 7.9 0.6 0.8
Optimum 28.5 8.2 3.8 10.7 32.4 53.1 1.6 72.9 4.9 1.6 9.1 0.5 0.6
The United Pinacle 27.2 8.3 4.6 13.4 40.9 41.1 1.0 68.2 5.6 1.4 0.3 0.6 0.7
States
Plato 25.1 9.8 6.0 9.3 41.8 42.9 1.0 72.8 5.5 1.5 11.2 0.7 0.9
Fossil fuels combustion and environmental issues 9

Table 1.4 Quality requirements of kerosene [13].

Test item Classification Test

method
No. 1 No. 2
Distillation characteristics 95% distillation 270 max. 300 max. 6.1
temperature ( C)
Flash point ( C) 40 min. 6.2

Corrosiveness to copper (50 C, 3 h) 1 max.
6.3
Smoke point (mm) 23 min.a
6.4
Sulfur content mass fraction (%) 0.0080 max.b
6.5

0.50 max.
Color (saybolt color) 125 min.
6.6
a
For kerosene for cold climate, the smoke point shall be 21 mm or more.
b
For kerosene for fuel cells, the sulfur content shall be 0.0010 mass fraction % or less.

Table 1.5 Quality requirements for diesel fuel [14].

Test item Class

Special No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 Special

No. 1 No. 3

Flash point ( C) 50 min. 45 min.

Distillation characteristics 360 max. 350 max. 330 330 max.

90% distillation max.a
temperature ( C)
Pour point ( C) 15 max. 22.5 27.5 220 230 max.
max. max. max.

Cold filter plugging point
21 max. 25 max. 212 219 max.

( C) max.

Carbon residue in 10% 0.1 max.

residual oil mass (%)
Cetane indexb 50 min. 45 min.

Sulfur content mass (%) 0.0010 max.

 3
Density (15 C) (g/cm ) 0.86 max.
a
In the case of kinematic viscosity (30 C) of 4.7 mm2/s or less, it shall be 350 C or lower.
b
Instead of cetane index, cetane number may be used.

notices 1
3 based on the “Act on Sophisticated Methods of Energy Supply

Structures” [22]. The supply for oils heavier than diesel used for power plants is
decreasing, and the supply for light oil products such as gasoline and naphtha frac-
tions is increasing, as shown in Fig. 1.8 [20].
Table 1.6 Quality of fuel oils [15].

Kinds Reaction Flash Kinematic Pour Residual Water Ash Sulfur

point viscosity (50 C) point carbon content content content content
(mm2/s) (cSt)b ( C) mass (%) volume (%) mass (%) mass (%)
Class 1 No. 1 Neutral 60 min. 20 max. 5 max.a 4 max. 0.3 max. 0.05 max. 0.5 max.
No. 2 2.0 max.
Class 2 50 max. 10 max.a 8 max. 0.4 max. 3.0 max.
Class 3 No. 1 70 min. 250 max.

0.5 max. 0.1 max. 3.5 max.
No. 2 400 max.

0.6 max.

No. 3 Over 400
1000

2.0 max.


incl.
a
Pour points of Class 1 and Class 2 for cold climate shall be 0 C and under, and pour points of Class 1 for warm climate shall be 10 C and under.
b
1 mm2/s 5 1 cSt.
Fossil fuels combustion and environmental issues 11

Figure 1.5 Electricity generation capacity in Japan [19].

Figure 1.6 Electricity generation composition by resource in Japan [20].

12 Advances in Power Boilers

Figure 1.7 Changes in energy resource prices [21].

Figure 1.8 Sales of petroleum products in Japan [20].

1.2.3 Gas
Examples of gaseous fuels for use in boilers that are being studied include natural
gas, blast furnace gas (BFG), biogas, and, with an eye toward a future hydrogen-
Fossil fuels combustion and environmental issues 13

using society, alternative fuels such as hydrogen and ammonia. However, BFG and
biogas tend to be for personal or local consumption in the areas where they are pro-
duced and are almost never sold internationally. In addition, unlike fossil fuels such
as natural gas, there is anticipation around the use of the secondary fuels, such as
hydrogen and ammonia, in the transportation sector and distributed power produc-
tion with environmental conservation in mind, and in the power generation sector
in more efficient power generation facilities. We discuss natural gas, which is
strongly influenced by external factors, as a fuel for gas-fired boilers, giving an
overview of supply and demand trends.

1.2.3.1 World natural gas supply and demand outlook

Based on the IEA World Energy Outlook 2017, Fig. 1.9 [23] shows the outlook
regarding global supply and demand for natural gas. By 2040 the demand for natu-
ral gas is expected to increase by about 1.5 times compared to the 3635 Bcm (bil-
lion cubic meters)/year demand in 2016, and increased demand from the Middle
East and China in particular is anticipated to make up about 40% of total increased
demand. Meanwhile, although the amount of natural gas produced in Europe is

Figure 1.9 Trends and prospects of world natural gas: (A) demand outlook and (B) supply
outlook [23].
14 Advances in Power Boilers

Figure 1.10 Supply of natural gas to China (2017) [23].

Figure 1.11 Trends and prospects of primary energy demand by fuel in China [23].

expected to decrease, the entire global supply of natural gas is anticipated to rise
due to the production of shale gas in North America and China. Therefore the pro-
portion of unconventional natural gas (shale gas, coalbed methane, and so on) will
account for about 30% of the total in 2040. Although there are concerns about
delays in establishing more new facilities for LNG, increased production of shale
gas is expected to relax global supply and demand for natural gas.
Fig. 1.10 [23] and Fig. 1.11 [23] show the supply for natural gas to China (2017)
and China’s energy demand according to the IEA, respectively. In China, about
60% of natural gas demand is fulfilled by domestic production, and 22% is com-
posed of imported LNG. As China suffers from serious air pollution, the State
Council announced, “10 Measures to Prevent Air Pollution” in 2013 and is planning
a rapid transition from coal to natural gas. According to the IEA forecast, the
demand of natural gas in 2040 will be about three times higher than in 2016, and
the proportion of natural gas demand to primary energy demand will rise to about
14%. On the other hand, the proportion of coal demand to primary energy demand
Fossil fuels combustion and environmental issues 15

Figure 1.12 Changes in the number of global LNG transactions [23].

Figure 1.13 Countries importing LNG worldwide (2017) [23].

is expected to fall from 60% to 40%. Demand for energy and natural gas in China
is expected to continue being affected by policy, domestic gas production volume,
and import volume in the future, and there are concerns that these fluctuations
could affect the global supply of and demand for LNG.

1.2.3.2 Changes in global LNG transactions

Fig. 1.12 [23] shows changes in the number of global LNG transactions. The num-
ber of global LNG transactions (2017) increased around 10% from the previous
year due to increased demand from countries such as China. In particular, the pro-
portion of spot or short-term transactions has risen (27% in 2017), and the liquidity
of the LNG market is improving. However, as demonstrated by the primary nations
importing LNG and the amounts imported (2017) shown in Fig. 1.13 [23], the
Another random document with
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 Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Bulgaria, China, Denmark, France,
Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg,
Mexico, Montenegro, the Netherlands, Persia, Portugal,
Roumania, Russia, Servia, Siam, Spain, Sweden and Norway,
Switzerland, Turkey, and the United States of America,
appointed representatives who met at The Hague, on the 18th of
May, 1899, and organized the Conference by electing M. de
Staal, Russian Ambassador, to preside. The United States was
represented by the Honorable Andrew D. White, Ambassador to
Berlin, the Honorable Seth Low, President of Columbia
University, the Honorable Stanford Newel, Envoy Extraordinary,
&c., to The Hague, Captain Alfred T. Mahan, U. S. N., Captain.
William Crozier, U. S. A., and the Honorable Frederick W.
Holls, of New York. The representatives of Great Britain were
Sir Julian Pauncefote, Ambassador to the United States, Sir
Henry Howard, Envoy Extraordinary, &c., to The Hague,
Vice-Admiral Sir John A. Fisher, Major-General Sir J. C.
Ardagh, and Lieutenant-Colonel C. à Court.

{354}

"The Conference at The Hague was a Parliament of Man

representing, however imperfectly, the whole human race. The
only independent ones not represented at the Huis ten Bosch
were the South American republics, the Emperor of Morocco, the
King of Abyssinia, and the Grand Lama of Tibet. That the South
American republics were not represented is not the fault of
the Russian Emperor. Mexico received and accepted an
invitation. Brazil received, but rejected, the invitation to
be present, and so did one other South American republic. The
original Russian idea was to assemble representatives from
every independent government in the world; nor did they even
confine themselves to the secular governments. They were very
anxious that the Pope should also be directly represented in
this supreme assembly. Even with the Pope and South America
left out, the Congress represented more of the world and its
inhabitants than any similar assembly that has ever been
gathered together for the work of international legislation.
That circumstance in itself is sufficient to give distinction
to the Conference at The Hague, which, it is expected, will be
the forerunner of a series of conferences, each of which will
aim at being more and more universally representative. On the
eve of the twentieth century the human race has begun to
federate itself. That is the supreme significance of the
assembly which has just spent two months in the capital of
Holland."

W. T. Stead,
The Conference at The Hague
(Forum, September, 1899).

To systematize and facilitate the discussions of the

Conference, three Commissions or Committees were appointed,
between which the several subjects suggested in the Russian
circular of January 11 (as given above), and agreed to by the
several governments, were distributed. The 1st, 2d, 3d and 4th
propositions of the programme were referred to the First
Commission, the 5th, 6th and 7th to the Second, the 8th
(concerning mediation and arbitration) to the Third. This was
done on the 23d of May, after which the general Conference was
held only at intervals, to receive and consider reports from
the several Commissions, of agreements reached or
disagreements ascertained. This went on until the 29th of
July, when the several Conventions, Declarations, and
Recommendations agreed upon for submission to the governments
represented were summarized in the following "Final Act,"
signed by all:

"In a series of meetings, between the 18th May and the 29th
July, 1899, in which the constant desire of the Delegates
above mentioned has been to realize, in the fullest manner
possible, the generous views of the august Initiator of the
Conference and the intentions of their Governments, the
Conference has agreed, for submission for signature by the
Plenipotentiaries, on the text of the Conventions and
Declarations enumerated below and annexed to the present Act:

"I. Convention for the pacific settlement of international

conflicts.

"II. Convention regarding the laws and customs of war by land.

"III. Convention for the adaptation to maritime warfare of the

principles of the Geneva Convention of the 22nd August, 1864.

"IV. Three Declarations:

1. To prohibit the launching of projectiles and explosives

from balloons or by other similar new methods,

2. To prohibit the use of projectiles, the only object of

which is the diffusion of asphyxiating or deleterious
gases.

3. To prohibit the use of bullets which expand or flatten

easily in the human body, such as bullets with a hard
envelope, of which the envelope does not entirely cover the
core, or is pierced with incisions.

"These Conventions and Declarations shall form so many

separate Acts. These Acts shall be dated this day, and may be
signed up to the 31st December, 1899, by the Plenipotentiaries
of the Powers represented at the International Peace
Conference at The Hague.

"Guided by the same sentiments, the Conference has adopted

unanimously the following Resolution:—'The Conference is of
opinion that the restriction of military budgets, which are at
present a heavy burden on the world, is extremely desirable
for the increase of the material and moral welfare of
mankind.'
"It has, besides, formulated the following wishes:

"1. The Conference, taking into consideration the preliminary

steps taken by the Swiss Federal Government for the revision
of the Geneva Convention, expresses the wish that steps may be
shortly taken for the assembly of a Special Conference having
for its object the revision of that Convention. This wish was
voted unanimously.

"2. The Conference expresses the wish that the questions of

the rights and duties of neutrals may be inserted in the
programme of a Conference in the near future.

"3. The Conference expresses the wish that the questions with
regard to rifles and naval guns, as considered by it, may be
studied by the Governments with the object of coming to an
agreement respecting the employment of new types and calibres.

"4. The Conference expresses the wish that the Governments,

taking into consideration the proposals made at the
Conference, may examine the possibility of an agreement as to
the limitation of armed forces by land and sea, and of war
budgets.

"5. The Conference expresses the wish that the proposal, which
contemplates the declaration of the inviolability of private
property in naval warfare, may be referred to a subsequent
Conference for consideration.

"6. The Conference expresses the wish that the proposal to

settle the question of the bombardment of ports, towns, and
villages by a naval force may be referred to a subsequent
Conference for consideration.

"The last five wishes were voted unanimously, saving some

abstentions.
 "In faith of which, the Plenipotentiaries have signed the
present Act, and have affixed their seals thereto. Done at The
Hague, 29th July, 1899, in one copy only, which shall be
deposited in the Ministry for Foreign Affairs, and of which
copies, duly certified, shall be delivered to all the Powers
represented at the Conference."

Great Britain, Parliamentary Publications

(Papers by Command: Miscellaneous,
Number 1, 1899, pages 3-4, 8 and 288-9).

{355}

The accompanying Conventions and Declarations were in no case

unanimously signed, several delegations, in each case,
claiming time for the governments they represented to consider
certain questions involved. The most important of the proposed
Conventions, namely, that "For the Pacific Settlement of
International Disputes," was signed at The Hague by the
delegates from Belgium, Denmark, Spain, the United States of
America, Mexico, France, Greece, Montenegro, the Netherlands,
Persia, Portugal, Roumania, Russia, Siam, Sweden and Norway,
and Bulgaria; but not by Austria-Hungary, Germany, Italy,
Japan, Great Britain, Luxembourg, Switzerland, Servia, Turkey,
or China. Ultimately, however, the great Treaty of Arbitration
was signed by everyone of the Powers represented. The
signature of the delegates of the United States was given
under reserve of a declaration which will be found in the
following excerpt from the general report of the American
Commission. The full text of each of the Conventions is given
below.

"The entire plan for the tribunal and its use is voluntary, so
far as sovereign States are concerned. The only seeming
exceptions to this rule are contained in Article 1, which
provides that the Signatory Powers agree to employ their
efforts for securing the pacific regulation of international
differences; and Article 27, which says that the Signatory
Powers consider it to be a duty, in the case where an acute
conflict threatens to break out between two or more of them,
to remind those latter that the permanent court is open to
them. The obligation thus imposed is not legal or diplomatic
in its nature. These articles merely express a general moral
duty for the performance of which each State is accountable
only to itself. In order, however, to make assurance doubly
sure and to leave no doubt whatever of the meaning of the
Convention, as affecting the United States of America, the
Commission made the following declaration in the full session
of the Conference, held July 25:—

The Delegation of the United States of America, in signing the

Convention regulating the peaceful adjustment of international
differences, as proposed by the International Peace
Conference, make the following declaration:—Nothing contained
in this Convention shall be so construed as to require the
United States of America to depart from its traditional policy
of not intruding upon, interfering with, or entangling itself
in the political questions or policy or internal
administration of any foreign State; nor shall anything
contained in the said Convention be construed to imply a
relinquishment by the United States of America of its
traditional attitude toward purely American questions.' Under
the reserve of this declaration the United States delegates
signed the Arbitration Convention itself. Article 8 of the
Convention, providing for a special form of Mediation, was
proposed individually by Mr. Holls of the United States
Commission. … It is hoped that in particular crises, when the
other means provided by the Convention for keeping or
restoring peace have failed, it may prove to have real and
practical value. It is certain that, by the Continental States
of Europe, it has been exceedingly well received."

General Report of the American Commission.

"Objection has been made to [the International Court of
Arbitration] on the ground that submission to it is purely
voluntary and that no executive authority has been provided to
carry out its decrees. The answer to all such objections is
simply that the power of enlightened public opinion is relied
upon to be amply sufficient for the purpose of insuring
obedience to every just mandate of this Court. In the case of
the United States of America the judgments of the Court,
according to the decisions now in force, will have a
peculiarly binding force. An agreement to submit a case to the
Court cannot be made by the United States, except by way of a
treaty, which, when ratified by the Senate, becomes the
supreme law of the land. In the case of La Ninfa, Whitelaw v.
The United States (75 Fed. Rep., 513), it was decided by the
United States Circuit Court of Appeals in California that by
virtue of the treaty the judgment of the Court of Arbitration
provided for by the terms of the treaty has all the force of a
federal statute, and it is itself the supreme law of the land,
binding upon every individual citizen of the United States,
including all federal and State authorities. For us, at least,
the International Court of Arbitration at The Hague will, if
this view prevails, in reality be the highest possible
tribunal, with an authority binding even on our own United
States Supreme Court.

"Article 27 aims, in a measure, to supply the deficiency of

the provision for obligatory arbitration, in that it declares
it to be the duty of all Signatory Powers to remind anyone or
more of themselves, in case of a threatened dispute, that the
permanent Court of Arbitration is open to them. What
particular effect this particular article will have must be
left to the future. Without modification or reservation the
article, when ratified by the United States, would have
constituted a complete abandonment of the time-honored Monroe
Doctrine. Accordingly the representatives of the United States
declined to sign the treaty, except under a reservation or
 declaration, which was solemnly accepted by the Peace
Conference, thus materially modifying the jurisdiction of the
Court [see above]. … By this declaration the Monroe Doctrine
was not only self-guarded, but it was stated and vindicated
more emphatically than ever before in our history, and the
people of this country are, therefore, in a position to
cordially support the International Court of Arbitration,
without the fear that the Court itself, or the fact of its
establishment, may ever be used against this country, or to
the embarrassment of its diplomacy and traditional policy. …

"The effect of the establishment of the Court upon European

diplomacy is necessarily surrounded by great uncertainty. In
a recent review of the work of the Peace Conference I ventured
to use this language: 'It is most encouraging and of the
highest importance that upon the whole Continent the
governments are apparently in advance of public opinion upon
the entire subject of the Peace Conference. The reason is not
far to seek. No man who is fit for the position can to-day
hold a place involving the direction of his country's
international policy without feeling an almost intolerable
pressure of responsibility. To him every remote chance of a
lightening of his burden comes as a promise of blessed relief.
It is a historical fact that none of the obstacles to success
which the Peace Conference had to overcome originated in the
mind of any sovereign or of any high minister of State. In
every case they were raised by underlings without
responsibility and anxious to show superior wisdom by finding
fault. So long as this favorable governmental attitude
continues there is every reason for encouragement.'

{356}

'Continental public opinion, especially in questions of

foreign policy, seems more pliable than ever before, and is as
clay in the hands of a potter, so far as alliances and
sympathies are concerned, when following a popular monarch or
 foreign minister.' I have since been assured by the highest
officials of at least two great European Powers, that this
statement meets with their unqualified approval. The sneers of
irresponsible journals and politicians cannot and will not
affect the deliberate purposes of a high-minded and serious
minister of State."

F. W. Holls,
The International Court of Arbitration at The Hague;
a paper read before the New York State Bar Association,
January 15, 1901.

PEACE CONFERENCE:
Convention for the Pacific Settlement of
International Disputes.

TITLE I.
On the Maintenance of the General Peace.

ARTICLE I.
With a view to obviating as far as possible, recourse to
force in the relations between States, the Signatory Powers
agree to use their best efforts to insure the pacific
settlement of international differences.

TITLE II.
On Good Offices and Mediation.

ARTICLE II.
In case of serious disagreement or conflict, before an
appeal to arms, the Signatory Powers agree to have
recourse, as far as circumstances allow, to the good
offices or mediation of one or more friendly Powers.

ARTICLE III.
Independently of this recourse, the Signatory Powers
recommend that one or more Powers, strangers to the
dispute, should, on their own initiative, and as far as
circumstances may allow, offer their good offices or
mediation to the States at variance. Powers, strangers to
the dispute, have the right to offer good offices or
mediation, even during the course of hostilities. The
exercise of this right can never be regarded by one or the
other of the parties in conflict as an unfriendly act.

ARTICLE IV.
The part of the mediator consists in reconciling the
opposing claims and appeasing the feelings of resentment
which may have arisen between the States at variance.

ARTICLE V.
The functions of the mediator are at an end when once it is
declared, either by one of the parties to the dispute, or
by the mediator himself, that the means of reconciliation
proposed by him are not accepted.

ARTICLE VI.
Good offices and mediation, either at the request of the
parties at variance, or on the initiative of Powers
strangers to the dispute, have exclusively the character of
advice and never have binding force.

ARTICLE VII.
The acceptance of mediation can not, unless there be an
agreement to the contrary, have the effect of interrupting,
delaying, or hindering mobilization or other measures of
preparation for war. If mediation occurs after the
commencement of hostilities it causes no interruption to
the military operations in progress, unless there be an
agreement to the contrary.

ARTICLE VIII.
The Signatory Powers are agreed in recommending the
application, when circumstances allow, for special
 mediation in the following form:—In case of a serious
difference endangering the peace, the States at variance
choose respectively a Power, to whom they intrust the
mission of entering into direct communication with the
Power chosen on the other side, with the object of
preventing the rupture of pacific relations. For the period
of this mandate, the term of which, unless otherwise
stipulated, cannot exceed thirty days, the States in
conflict cease from all direct communication on the subject
of the dispute, which is regarded as referred exclusively
to the mediating Powers, who must use their best efforts to
settle it. In case of a definite rupture of pacific
relations, these Powers are charged with the joint task of
taking advantage of any opportunity to restore peace.

TITLE III.
On International Commissions of Inquiry.

ARTICLE IX.
In differences of an international nature involving neither
honour nor vital interests, and arising from a difference
of opinion on points of fact, the Signatory Powers
recommend that the parties, who have not been able to come
to an agreement by means of diplomacy, should as far as
circumstances allow, institute an International Commission
of Inquiry, to facilitate a solution of these differences
by elucidating the facts by means of an impartial and
conscientious investigation.

ARTICLE X.
The International Commissions of Inquiry are constituted by
special agreement between the parties in conflict. The
Convention for an inquiry defines the facts to be examined and
the extent of the Commissioners' powers. It settles the
procedure. On the inquiry both sides must be heard. The form
and the periods to be observed, if not stated in the inquiry
Convention, are decided by the Commission itself.
 ARTICLE XI.
The International Commissions of Inquiry are formed, unless
otherwise stipulated, in the manner fixed by Article XXXII
of the present Convention.

ARTICLE XII.
The powers in dispute engage to supply the International
Commission of Inquiry, as fully as they may think possible,
with all means and facilities necessary to enable it to be
completely acquainted with and to accurately understand the
facts in question.

ARTICLE XIII.
The International Commission of Inquiry communicates its
Report to the conflicting Powers, signed by all the members
of the Commission.

ARTICLE XIV.
The Report of the International Commission of Inquiry is
limited to a statement of facts, and has in no way the
character of an Arbitral Award. It leaves the conflicting
Powers entire freedom as to the effect to be given to this
statement.

TITLE IV.
On International Arbitration.

CHAPTER I.
On the System of Arbitration.

ARTICLE XV.
International arbitration has for its object the settlement
of differences between States by judges of their own
choice, and on the basis of respect for law.

ARTICLE XVI.
 In questions of a legal nature, and especially in the
interpretation or application of International Conventions,
arbitration is recognized by the Signatory Powers as the
most effective, and at the same time the most equitable,
means of settling disputes which diplomacy has failed to
settle.

ARTICLE XVII.
The Arbitration Convention is concluded for questions
already existing or for questions which may arise
eventually. It may embrace any dispute or only disputes of
a certain category.

{357}

ARTICLE XVIII.
The Arbitration Convention implies the engagement to submit
loyally to the Award.

ARTICLE XIX.
Independently of general or private Treaties expressly
stipulating recourse to arbitration as obligatory on the
Signatory Powers, these Powers reserve to themselves the
right of concluding, either before the ratification of the
present Act or later, new Agreements, general or private,
with a view to extending obligatory arbitration to all
cases which they may consider it possible to submit to it.

CHAPTER II.
On the Permanent Court of Arbitration.

ARTICLE XX.
With the object of facilitating an immediate recourse to
arbitration for international differences, which it has not
been possible to settle by diplomacy, the Signatory Powers
undertake to organize a permanent Court of Arbitration,
accessible at all times and operating, unless otherwise
stipulated by the parties, in accordance with the Rules of
Procedure inserted in the present Convention.

ARTICLE XXI.
The Permanent Court shall be competent for all arbitration
cases, unless the parties agree to institute a special
Tribunal.

ARTICLE XXII.
An International Bureau, established at The Hague, serves
as record office for the Court. This Bureau is the channel
for communications relative to the meetings of the Court.
It has the custody of the archives and conducts all the
administrative business. The Signatory Powers undertake to
communicate to the International Bureau at The Hague a duly
certified copy of any conditions of arbitration arrived at
between them, and of any award concerning them delivered by
special Tribunals. They undertake also to communicate to
the Bureau the Laws, Regulations, and documents eventually
showing the execution of the awards given by the Court.

ARTICLE XXIII.
Within the three months following its ratification of the
present Act, each Signatory Power shall select four persons
at the most, of known competency in questions of
international law, of the highest moral reputation, and
disposed to accept the duties of Arbitrators. The persons
thus selected shall be inscribed, as members of the Court,
in a list which shall be notified by the Bureau to all the
Signatory Powers. Any alteration in the list of Arbitrators
is brought by the Bureau to the knowledge of the Signatory
Powers. Two or more Powers may agree on the selection in
common of one or more Members. The same person can be
selected by different Powers. The Members of the Court are
appointed for a term of six years. Their appointments can
be renewed. In case of the death or retirement of a member
of the Court, his place shall be filled in accordance with
the method of his appointment.

ARTICLE XXIV.
When the Signatory Powers desire to have recourse to the
Permanent Court for the settlement of a difference that has
arisen between them, the Arbitrators called upon to form the
competent Tribunal to decide this difference, must be
chosen from the general list of members of the Court.
Failing the direct agreement of the parties on the
composition of the Arbitration Tribunal, the following
course shall be pursued:—Each party appoints two
Arbitrators, and these together choose an Umpire. If the
votes are equal, the choice of the Umpire is intrusted to a
third Power, selected by the parties by common accord. If
an agreement is not arrived at on this subject, each party
selects a different Power, and the choice of the Umpire is
made in concert by the Powers thus selected. The Tribunal
being thus composed, the parties notify to the Bureau their
determination to have recourse to the Court and the names
of the Arbitrators. The Tribunal of Arbitration assembles
on the date fixed by the parties. The Members of the Court,
in the discharge of their duties and out of their own
country, enjoy diplomatic privileges and immunities.

ARTICLE XXV.
The Tribunal of Arbitration has its ordinary seat at The
Hague. Except in cases of necessity, the place of session
can only be altered by the Tribunal with the assent of the
parties.

ARTICLE XXVI.
The International Bureau at The Hague is authorized to
place its premises and its staff at the disposal of the
Signatory Powers for the operations of any special Board of
Arbitration. The jurisdiction of the Permanent Court, may,
within the conditions laid down in the Regulations, be
extended to disputes between non-Signatory Powers, or
between Signatory Powers and non-Signatory Powers, if the
parties are agreed on recourse to this Tribunal.

ARTICLE XXVII.
The Signatory Powers consider it their duty, if a serious
dispute threatens to break out between two or more of them,
to remind these latter that the Permanent Court is open to
them. Consequently, they declare that the fact of reminding
the conflicting parties of the provisions of the present
Convention, and the advice given to them, in the highest
interests of peace, to have recourse to the Permanent
Court, can only be regarded as friendly actions.

ARTICLE XXVIII.
A Permanent Administrative Council, composed of the
Diplomatic Representatives of the Signatory Powers
accredited to The Hague and of the Netherland Minister for
Foreign Affairs, who will act as President, shall be
instituted in this town as soon as possible after the
ratification of the present Act by at least nine Powers.
This Council will be charged with the establishment and
organization of the International Bureau, which will be
under its direction and control. It will notify to the
Powers the constitution of the Court and will provide for
its installation. It will settle its Rules of Procedure and
all other necessary Regulations. It will decide all
questions of administration which may arise with regard to
the operations of the Court. It will have entire control
over the appointment, suspension or dismissal of the
officials and employés of the Bureau. It will fix the
payments and salaries, and control the general expenditure.
At meetings duly summoned the presence of five members is
sufficient to render valid the discussions of the Council.
The decisions are taken by a majority of votes. The Council
communicates to the Signatory Powers without delay the
Regulations adopted by it. It furnishes them with an annual
Report on the labours of the Court, the working of the
 administration, and the expenses.

ARTICLE XXIX.
The expenses of the Bureau shall be borne by the Signatory
Powers in the proportion fixed for the International Bureau
of the Universal Postal Union.

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CHAPTER III.
On Arbitral Procedure.

ARTICLE XXX.
With a view to encourage the development of arbitration,
the Signatory Powers have agreed on the following Rules
which shall be applicable to arbitral procedure, unless
other Rules have been agreed on by the parties.

ARTICLE XXXI.
The Powers who have recourse to arbitration sign a special
Act ("Compromis"), in which the subject of the difference
is clearly defined, as well as the extent of the
Arbitrators' powers. This Act implies the undertaking of
the parties to submit loyally to the award.

ARTICLE XXXII.
The duties of Arbitrator may be conferred on one Arbitrator
alone or on several Arbitrators selected by the parties as
they please, or chosen by them from the members of the
Permanent Court of Arbitration established by the present
Act. Failing the constitution of the Tribunal by direct
agreement between the parties, the following course shall
be pursued: Each party appoints two Arbitrators, and these
latter together choose an Umpire. In case of equal voting,
the choice of the Umpire is intrusted to a third Power,
selected by the parties by common accord. If no agreement
is arrived at on this subject, each party selects a
different Power, and the choice of the Umpire is made in
concert by the Powers thus selected.

ARTICLE XXXIII.
When a Sovereign or the Chief of a State is chosen as
Arbitrator, the arbitral procedure is settled by him.

ARTICLE XXXIV.
The Umpire is by right President of the Tribunal. When the
Tribunal does not include an Umpire, it appoints its own
President.

ARTICLE XXXV.
In case of the death, retirement, or disability from any
cause of one of the Arbitrators, his place shall be filled
in accordance with the method of his appointment.

ARTICLE XXXVI.
The Tribunal's place of session is selected by the parties.
Failing this selection the Tribunal sits at The Hague. The
place thus fixed cannot, except in case of necessity, be
changed by the Tribunal without the assent of the parties.

ARTICLE XXXVII.
The parties have the right to appoint delegates or special
agents to attend the Tribunal, for the purpose of serving
as intermediaries between them and the Tribunal. They are
further authorized to retain, for the defense of their
rights and interests before the Tribunal, counselor
advocates appointed by them for this purpose.

ARTICLE XXXVIII.
The Tribunal decides on the choice of languages to be used
by itself, and to be authorized for use before it.

ARTICLE XXXIX.
As a general rule the arbitral procedure comprises two
distinct phases; preliminary examination and discussion.
Preliminary examination consists in the communication by
the respective agents to the members of the Tribunal and to
the opposite party of all printed or written Acts and of
all documents containing the arguments invoked in the case.
This communication shall be made in the form and within the
periods fixed by the Tribunal in accordance with Article
XLIX. Discussion consists in the oral development before
the Tribunal of the arguments of the parties.

ARTICLE XL.
Every document produced by one party must be communicated
to the other party.

ARTICLE XLI.
The discussions are under the direction of the President.
They are only public if it be so decided by the Tribunal,
with the assent of the parties. They are recorded in the
"procès-verbaux" drawn up by the Secretaries appointed by
the President. These "procès-verbaux" lone have an
authentic character.

ARTICLE XLII.
When the preliminary examination is concluded, the Tribunal
has the light to refuse discussion of all fresh Acts or
documents which one party may desire to submit to it
without the consent of the other party.

ARTICLE XLIII.
The Tribunal is free to take into consideration fresh Acts
or documents to which its attention may be drawn by the
agents or counsel of the parties. In this case, the
Tribunal has the right to require the production of these
Acts or documents, but is obliged to make them known to the
opposite party.

ARTICLE XLIV.
The Tribunal can, besides, require from the agents of the
parties the production of all Acts, and can demand all
necessary explanations. In case of refusal, the Tribunal
takes note of it.

ARTICLE XLV.
The agents and counsel of the parties are authorized to
present orally to the Tribunal all the arguments they may
think expedient in defence of their case.

ARTICLE XLVI.
They have the right to raise objections and points. The
decisions of the Tribunal on those points are final, and
cannot form the subject of any subsequent discussion.

ARTICLE XLVII.
The members of the Tribunal have the right to put questions
to the agents and counsel of the parties, and to demand
explanations from them on doubtful points. Neither the
questions put nor the remarks made by members of the
Tribunal during the discussions can be regarded as an
expression of opinion by the Tribunal in general, or by its
members in particular.

ARTICLE XLVIII.
The Tribunal is authorized to declare its competence in
interpreting the "Compromis" as well as the other Treaties
which may be invoked in the case, and in applying the
principles of international law.

ARTICLE XLIX.
The Tribunal has the right to issue Rules of Procedure for
the conduct of the case, to decide the forms and periods
within which each party must conclude its arguments, and to
arrange all the formalities required for dealing with the
evidence.