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Industrial Applications
of Marine Biopolymers
Industrial Applications
of Marine Biopolymers

Edited by
P.N. Sudha
CRC Press
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© 2017 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Sudha, P.N. (Parappurath Narayanan)

Title: Industrial applications of marine biopolymers / [edited by]
P.N. Sudha.
Description: Boca Raton : CRC Press, [2017] | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016055788 | ISBN 9781498731485 (hardback : alk. paper) |
ISBN 9781315313535 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Biopolymers--Industrial applications. | Marine resources.
Classification: LCC TP248.65.P62 I5275 2017 | DDC 333.91/64--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016055788

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

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 Dedication

Dedicated to my guides Dr. Manley Backyavathy and

Dr. V.R. Vijayaraghavan, and my dear family members.
Contents
Editor ........................................................................................................................xi
Contributors ........................................................................................................... xiii

Section i isolation and Physicochemical

characterization of Marine Biopolymers

Chapter 1 Introduction to Marine Biopolymers .................................................... 3

P.N. Sudha, K. Sangeetha, and T. Gomathi

Chapter 2 Extraction, Isolation, and Characterization of Alginate .................... 19

K. Arunkumar

Chapter 3 Extraction, Characterization, and Use of Carrageenans .................... 37

Leonel Pereira, Fabiana Soares, Ana Cristina Freitas,
Armando C. Duarte, and Paulo Ribeiro-Claro

Chapter 4 Influence of Physico-Chemical Properties on the Potential

Application of Marine Biopolymers................................................... 91
K. Sangeetha, P. Supriya Prasad, K. Vijayalakshmi,
and P.N. Sudha

Chapter 5 Chemical Modification of Chitin and Chitosan for Their

Potential Applications ...................................................................... 117
Mohamed E.I. Badawy and Entsar I. Rabea

Section ii Biological and Agriculture

Application of the Marine Biopolymers

Chapter 6 Biological Activities of Marine Biopolymers................................... 179

K. Kamala and P. Sivaperumal

vii
viii Contents

Chapter 7 Sulfated Chitosan as a Modified Marine Polysaccharides:

From Synthesis to Applications ....................................................... 193
Nazma Inamdar and V.K. Mourya

Chapter 8 Recent Advantages of Biopolymer Preparation and Applications

in Bio-Industry ................................................................................. 229
Bakrudeen Ali Ahmed Abdul, Mohaddeseh Adel, Pegah Karimi,
Masoud Abbaszadeh, A. Kamaludeen, and A. Meera Moydeen

Chapter 9 Biological Applications of Marine Biopolymers.............................. 243

T. Rajeshwari, M. Saranya, Govindasamy Rajakumar,
and Ill-Min Chung

Chapter 10 Role of Chitosan in Enhancing Crop Production ............................. 271

Apiradee Uthairatanakij and Pongphen Jitareerat

Section iii Biomedical Applications

of the Marine Biopolymers

Chapter 11 Marine Biopolymers for Anticancer Drugs...................................... 289

T. Gomathi, P.N. Sudha, Jayachandran Venkatesan,
and Sukumaran Anil

Chapter 12 Drug Delivery Applications of Chitosan.......................................... 305

Sougata Jana, Kalyan Kumar Sen, Arijit Gandhi,
Subrata Jana, and Chandrani Roy

Chapter 13 Chitosan-Based Delivery of Gene Therapeutics for Cancer ............ 351

Anish Babu and Rajagopal Ramesh

Chapter 14 Role of Alginate in Drug Delivery Applications ................................ 369

Sougata Jana, Kalyan Kumar Sen, Arijit Gandhi,
Subrata Jana, and Chandrani Roy

Chapter 15 Marine Biopolymers in Bone Tissue Repair and Regeneration ....... 401
Jayachandran Venkatesan, Baboucarr Lowe, Sukumaran Anil,
Kranti Kiran Reddy Ealla, and Se-Kwon Kim
Contents ix

Chapter 16 Marine Microbial Biopolymers and Biomedical Applications .........415

Busi Siddhardha and Sairengpuii Hnamte

Chapter 17 Electrospinning of Marine-Origin Biopolymers toward Tissue

Regeneration ..................................................................................... 435
Ana L.P. Marques, Tiago H. Silva, and Rui L. Reis

Chapter 18 Biomedical Applications of Alginate Biopolymer ........................... 453

J. Annie Kamala Florence, Govindasamy Rajakumar,
Ill-Min Chung, and Barur R. Rajeshkumar

Section iV industrial Wastewater treatment

Applications of the Biopolymers

Chapter 19 Biocomposites and Polymer Blends for Wastewater Treatment ....... 473
R. Nithya, P. Angelin Vinodhini, P.N. Sudha, and J. Vinoth

Chapter 20 Application of Marine Polymers in Membrane Technology ............ 501

P. Angelin Vinodhini, R. Nithya, P.N. Sudha,
and Srinivasan Latha

Chapter 21 Chitin and Its Derivatives in the Remediation of Industrial

Effluent ............................................................................................523
M. Saranya, T. Gomathi, G. Saraswathi, and P.N. Sudha

Chapter 22 Industrial Applications of Alginate .................................................. 545

K. Vijayalakshmi, Srinivasan Latha, Maximas H. Rose,
and P.N. Sudha

Chapter 23 Application of Marine Polymers in Dye and Textile Industries....... 577

P. Sivaperumal, K. Kamala, and R. Rajaram

Index ...................................................................................................................... 591

Editor
Dr. P.N. Sudha is presently working as a Principal at DKM College for Women
(Autonomus), affiliated to Thiruvalluvar University, Vellore, Tamilnadu, India. She
obtained her Doctoral degree in Chemistry–Biology Interdisciplinary Science
from Madras University. She is a fellow of International Congress of Chemistry
and Environment, and National Environmentalists Association. Her name was
included in Marquis Who’s Who in the World (2011). Her research interests are
polymer chemistry, environmental chemistry, bioremediation, and photochemistry.
She has authored 11 books and 13 book chapters. She is a life member of Asian
Chitin Chitosan Society. She is a coeditor and reviewer of international journals.
Her immense experience in research is the key asset for the development of research
among the young women researchers under the rural area. She expanded her research
fields up to the use to biomaterials such as chitin and chitosan for biomedical appli-
cation. She has undertaken projects funded by University Grants Commission, New
Delhi, India, Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi, India, Tamil Nadu
State Council for Science and Technology, Chennai, India, and Ministry of Human
Resource Development, Government of India, New Delhi, India. She has guided
40 PhD scholars and 50 MPhil scholars. She has published 160 research articles in
journals mainly on the wastewater treatment and biomedical applications of chitin
and chitosan.

xi
Contributors
Masoud Abbaszadeh
Institute of Biological Sciences
Faculty of Science
University of Malaya
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Mohaddeseh Adel
Institute for Biological Sciences
Faculty of Science
University of Malaya
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Bakrudeen Ali Ahmed Abdul
Institute for Biological Sciences
Faculty of Science
University of Malaya
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
P. Angelin Vinodhini
PG and Research Department of
Chemistry
D.K.M. College for Women
Thiruvalluvar University
Vellore, India
Sukumaran Anil
Dental Biomaterials Research Chair
King Saud University
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
K. Arunkumar
Department of Plant Science
School of Biological Sciences
Central University of Kerala
Kerala, India
Anish Babu
Department of Pathology
Stephenson Cancer Center
University of Oklahoma Health
Sciences Center
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
Mohamed E.I. Badawy
Department of Pesticide Chemistry and
Technology
Faculty of Agriculture
Alexandria University
Alexandria, Egypt
Ill-Min Chung
Department of Applied Bioscience
College of Life and Environmental
Science
Konkuk University
Seoul, South Korea
Armando C. Duarte
Department of Chemistry
Centre for Environmental and Marine
Studies
University of Aveiro
Aveiro, Portugal
Kranti Kiran Reddy Ealla
Department of Oral Pathology
MNR Dental College and Hospital
Sangareddy, India
Ana Cristina Freitas
Department of Chemistry
Centre for Environmental and Marine
Studies
University of Aveiro
Aveiro, Portugal
and
ISEIT/Viseu
Instituto Piaget
Viseu, Portugal
Arijit Gandhi
Department of Quality Assurance
Albert David Limited
Mumbai, India

xiii
xiv
T. Gomathi
PG and Research Department of
Chemistry
DKM College for Women
Thiruvalluvar University
Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
Sairengpuii Hnamte
Department of Microbiology
School of Life Sciences
Pondicherry University
Pondicherry, India
Nazma Inamdar
Government College of Pharmacy
Aurangabad, Maharashtra, India
Sougata Jana
Department of Pharmaceutics
Gupta College of Technological
Sciences
Asansol, West Bengal, India
Subrata Jana
Department of Chemistry
Vishwavidyalaya Engineering
College
Sarguja University
Ambikapur, Chhattisgarh, India
Pongphen Jitareerat
Postharvest Technology Division
School of Bioresources and
Technology
King Mongkut’s University of
Technology
Bangkok, Thailand
K. Kamala
Center for Environmental Nuclear
Research
SRM University
Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
Contributors
J. Annie Kamala Florence
Department of Chemistry
Voorhees College
Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
A. Kamaludeen
Department of Chemistry
College of Science
King Saud University
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Pegah Karimi
Institute for Biological Sciences
Faculty of Science
University of Malaya
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Se-Kwon Kim
Department of Marine-Bio
Convergence Science
Marine Bioprocess Research Center
Pukyong National University
Busan, South Korea
Kalyan Kumar Sen
Department of Pharmaceutics
Gupta College of Technological
Sciences
Asansol, West Bengal, India
Srinivasan Latha
PG and Research Department of
Chemistry
DKM College for Women
Thiruvalluvar University
Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
Baboucarr Lowe
Department of Marine-Bio
Convergence Science
Marine Bioprocess Research Center
Pukyong National University
Busan, South Korea
Contributors
Ana L.P. Marques
3B’s Research Group—Biomaterials,
Biodegradables, and Biomimetics
The University of Minho
European Institute of Excellence
on Tissue Engineering and
Regenerative Medicine
Barco, Portugal
and
ICVS/3B’s- PT Government
Associated Laboratory
Braga, Portugal
A. Meera Moydeen
Department of Chemistry
College of Science
King Saud University
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
V.K. Mourya
Government College of Pharmacy
Aurangabad, Maharashtra, India
R. Nithya
PG and Research Department of
Chemistry
DKM College for Women
Thiruvalluvar University
Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
Leonel Pereira
Marine and Environmental Sciences
Center/Institute of Marine Research
Department of Life Sciences
Faculty of Sciences and Technology
University of Coimbra
Coimbra, Portugal
P. Supriya Prasad
PG and Research Department of
Chemistry
DKM College for Women
Thiruvalluvar University
Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
xv
Entsar I. Rabea
Department of Plant Protection
Faculty of Agriculture
Damanhour University
Damanhur, Egypt
Paulo Ribeiro-Claro
Department of Chemistry
CICECO—Aveiro Institute of Materials
University of Aveiro
Aveiro, Portugal
Govindasamy Rajakumar
Department of Applied Bioscience
College of Life and Environmental
Science
Konkuk University
Seoul, South Korea
R. Rajaram
Department of Marine Science
Bharathidasan University
Tiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu, India
Barur R. Rajeshkumar
Division of Cardiovascular Medicine
Department of Medicine
University of Massachusetts Medical
School
Worcester, Massachusetts
T. Rajeshwari
Department of Biotechnology
DKM College for Women
Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
Rajagopal Ramesh
Department of Pathology
Stephenson Cancer Center
and
Graduate Program in Biomedical Sciences
University of Oklahoma Health
Sciences Center
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
xvi
Rui L. Reis
3B’s Research
Group—Biomaterials,
Biodegradables, and Biomimetics
University of Minho
European Institute of Excellence on
Tissue Engineering and Regenerative
Medicine
Barco, Portugal
and
ICVS/3B’s- PT Government Associated
Laboratory
Braga, Portugal
Maximas H. Rose
Department of Chemistry
Manonmaniam Sundaranar
University
Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu, India
Chandrani Roy
Department of Pharmaceutics
Gupta College of Technological
Sciences
Asansol, West Bengal, India
K. Sangeetha
PG and Research Department of
Chemistry
DKM College for Women
Thiruvalluvar University
Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
M. Saranya
Department of Chemistry
DKM College for Women
Thiruvalluvar University
Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
G. Saraswathi
Department of Chemistry
Government College of Engineering,
Bargur
Bargur, Tamil Nadu, India
Contributors
Busi Siddhardha
Department of Microbiology
School of Life Sciences
Pondicherry University
Pondicherry, India
Tiago H. Silva
3B’s Research Group—Biomaterials,
Biodegradables, and Biomimetics
University of Minho
Department of Polymer Engineering
Braga, Portugal
P. Sivaperumal
Center for Environmental Nuclear
Research
SRM University
Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
Fabiana Soares
Department of Life Sciences
Faculty of Sciences and Technology
Marine and Environmental Sciences
Center/Institute of Marine Research
University of Coimbra
Coimbra, Portugal
P.N. Sudha
PG and Research Department of
Chemistry
DKM College for Women
Thiruvalluvar University
Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
Apiradee Uthairatanakij
Postharvest Technology Division
School of Bioresources and Technology
King Mongkut’s University of Technology
Bangkok, Thailand
Jayachandran Venkatesan
Department of Marine-Bio
Convergence Science
Marine Bioprocess Research Center
Pukyong National University
Busan, South Korea
Contributors
K. Vijayalakshmi
PG and Research Department of
Chemistry
DKM College for Women
Thiruvalluvar University
Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
xvii
J. Vinoth
PG and Research Department of
Chemistry
DKM College for Women
Thiruvalluvar University
Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
Section I
Isolation and Physicochemical
Characterization of
Marine Biopolymers
 1 Introduction to Marine
Biopolymers
P.N. Sudha, K. Sangeetha, and T. Gomathi

CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 4
1.2 Chitin ..............................................................................................................4
1.3 Sources of Chitin ............................................................................................4
1.4 Properties of Chitin.........................................................................................5
1.4.1 Color and Appearance .......................................................................5
1.4.2 Solubility ...........................................................................................5
1.4.3 Molecular Weight ..............................................................................5
1.4.4 Degree of Deacetylation ....................................................................5
1.4.5 Processability .................................................................................... 5
1.5 Application of Chitin ...................................................................................... 6
1.5.1 Paper and Textile Industry................................................................. 6
1.5.2 Agriculture ........................................................................................6
1.6 Chitosan ..........................................................................................................6
1.7 Properties of Chitosan .................................................................................... 6
1.7.1 Color and Appearance .......................................................................6
1.7.2 Water Binding Capacity and Fat Binding Capacity ..........................6
1.7.3 Molecular Weight ..............................................................................7
1.7.4 Viscosity ............................................................................................7
1.7.5 Solubility ...........................................................................................7
1.7.6 Antimicrobial Properties ...................................................................7
1.8 Applications of Chitosan................................................................................. 8
1.8.1 Biomedicine....................................................................................... 8
1.8.2 Wastewater Treatment ....................................................................... 8
1.8.3 Cosmetics .......................................................................................... 9
1.8.4 Food Industry .................................................................................... 9
1.8.5 Paper Industry ................................................................................... 9
1.9 Alginates ......................................................................................................... 9
1.10 Properties of Alginate ................................................................................... 11
1.10.1 Molecular Weight and Polydispersity.............................................. 11
1.10.2 Viscosity .......................................................................................... 11
1.10.3 Solubility ......................................................................................... 11
1.10.4 Gel Formation.................................................................................. 11
1.10.5 Film Formation................................................................................ 11

3
4 Industrial Applications of Marine Biopolymers

1.11 Applications of Alginates ............................................................................. 12

1.11.1 Medicine and Pharmacy .................................................................. 12
1.11.2 Textile Printing ................................................................................ 13
1.11.3 Foods ............................................................................................... 13
1.12 Agar............................................................................................................... 13
1.12.1 Properties of Agar ........................................................................... 14
1.12.2 Applications of Agar ....................................................................... 14
1.12.2.1 Medicine ......................................................................... 14
1.12.2.2 Food ................................................................................ 14
1.13 Conclusion..................................................................................................... 15
References ................................................................................................................ 15

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Biopolymers are a diverse and versatile class of materials that have potential
applications in virtually all sectors of the economy. Marine biopolymers are polymers
that are produced by biological systems such as microorganisms, insects, cramps,
and shrimps in the marine environment. Some biopolymers can directly replace
synthetically derived materials in traditional applications, whereas others possess
unique properties that could open up a range of new commercial opportunities.
Marine biopolymers are being developed for use as medical materials, packaging,
cosmetics, food additives, clothing fabrics, water treatment chemicals, industrial
plastics, absorbents, biosensors, and even data storage elements.
In this chapter, some of the important marine biopolymers are discussed with
their properties and applications.

1.2 CHITIN
Chitin, a polysaccharide, is one of the most ubiquitous polymers found in nature.
Chitin or poly-β-(1→4)-N-acetyl-D-glucosamine is a natural marine biopolymer
synthesized by an enormous number of living organisms (Rinaudo 2006), and it
belongs to the most abundant natural polymers after cellulose (Singla and Chawla
2001; Tangpasuthadol et al. 2003).
Chitin occurs naturally in three polymeric forms known as α-, β-, and γ-chitin
(Blackwell 1973; Rudall and Kenchington 1973). Chitin and its most important deriv-
ative, chitosan, have a number of useful physical and chemical properties, including
high strength, biodegradability, and nontoxicity (Khan et al. 2002).

1.3 SOURCES OF CHITIN

Chitin is widely available from a variety of sources, among which the principal
source is shellfish waste such as shrimps, crabs, and crawfish (Allan and Hadwiger
1979). It is also present naturally in a few species of fungi. Studies of Ashford and
coworkers (1977) demonstrated that chitin represents 14%–27% and 13%–15% of
the dry weight of shrimp and crab processing wastes, respectively.
Introduction to Marine Biopolymers 5

1.4 PROPERTIES OF CHITIN

1.4.1 Color and appearanCe
Chitin is a nitrogenous polysaccharide (Figure 1.1), which is colorless to half white,
hard, and inelastic (Kurita 2001).

1.4.2 Solubility
Chitin is insoluble in water and most organic solvents. The hydrogen bonding in
chitin is responsible for its poor solubility nature. To overcome the problem of solu-
bility, the derivatives of chitin are generally prepared and used. Chitin is soluble in
dimethylacetamide containing 5% lithium chloride (LiCl) (Rutherford and Austin
1978) and fluorinated solvents such as hexafluoroisopropanol and hexafluoroacetone
(Capozza 1975).

1.4.3 MoleCular Weight

The molecular weight of native chitin is usually >1,000,000 Da (Li et al. 1992). The
general methods used to determine the molecular weight of chitin are viscometry,
light scattering, or gel permeation chromatography (Hasegawa et al. 1993).

1.4.4 degree of deaCetylation

The degrees of deacetylation in chitin usually range from 5% to 15%. Chitin is gener-
ally crystalline in nature, and the degree of crystallinity is a function of the degree
of deacetylation (Rathke 1993). The degree of deacetylation affects the chemical,
physical, and biological properties of chitosan, such as adsorption, covalent linking,
and encapsulation (Puvvada et al. 2012).

1.4.5 proCeSSability
Chitin can easily be processed into gels, beads, powders, fibers, membranes, cotton,
flakes, sponges, colloids, films, and spins.

NH COCH3
NH COCH3 HOH2C HO
HO
O O
O
O O O
HO
HOH2C
HOH2C H3COC HN
n

FIGURE 1.1 Structure of chitin.

6 Industrial Applications of Marine Biopolymers

1.5 APPLICATION OF CHITIN

1.5.1 paper and textile induStry
In paper manufacturing, the addition of 1% chitin by weight greatly increases the
strength of paper fibers, particularly when wet. Thus, chitin has been incorporated
into diapers, shopping bags, and paper towels. Derivatives of chitin impart antistatic
and soil repellent characteristics to the textile. Chitin can be used in printing and
finishing processes.

1.5.2 agriCulture
Chitin and its derivatives are used in agriculture to regulate the plant growth and
development. It is used as an inducer for various crops such as rice (Hernández et al.
2007), tomato (Jin et al. 2005), peanut, and apple (Backman et al. 1994).

1.6 CHITOSAN
Chitosan is a modified natural carbohydrate polymer prepared by the partial
N-deacetylation of the crustacean-derived natural biopolymer chitin (Sanford 1992).
It is a heteropolymer consisting of β (1-4) 2-acetamido-2-deoxy-β-d-glucopyranose
N-acetylglucosamine) and 2-amino-2-deoxy-β-d-glucopyranose (d-glucosamine)
units, randomly or block distributed throughout the biopolymer. It is inexpensive and
possesses the important physiological properties such as biocompatible, biodegrad-
able, nonallergenic, and nontoxic for mammals (Sugimoto et al. 1988) (Figure 1.2).

1.7 PROPERTIES OF CHITOSAN

1.7.1 Color and appearanCe
Chitosan powder is quite flabby in nature and its color varies from pale yellow
to white.

1.7.2 Water binding CapaCity and fat binding CapaCity

The water uptake capacity of chitosan was significantly greater than that of cellulose
and chitin (Knorr 1982). The water binding capacity of chitosan ranges between

NH2
NH2 HOH2C HO
HO O
O O
O O O
HO HOH2C
HOH2C H2N
n

FIGURE 1.2 Structure of chitosan.

Introduction to Marine Biopolymers 7

581% and 1150% with an average of 702% (Rout 2001). The process of decoloration
also causes a decrease in the water binding capacity of chitosan.

1.7.3 MoleCular Weight

The physicochemical properties, which include viscosity, solubility, adsorption on
solids, elasticity, and tear strength, are dependent on the molecular weight of the
polymer concerned (Khan et al. 2002). The molecular weight of chitosan can also
influence the crystal size and morphological character of the film prepared using
chitosan. It was also evident that the crystallinity of membrane increased with a
decrease in chitosan molecular weight (Khan et al. 2002).
Depending on the source and preparation procedure, the average molecular
weight of chitosan may range from 50 to 1000 kDa (Francis and Matthew 2000), 3.8
to 2000 kDa (Sinha et al. 2004), or 50 to 2000 kDa (Chenite et al. 2001). The low-
molecular-weight chitosan has a greater inhibitory effect on phytopathogens than the
high-molecular-weight chitosan (Hirano and Nagao 1989).

1.7.4 ViSCoSity
Viscosity is an important factor to influence the molecular weight of chitosan.
Higher molecular-weight chitosan generally renders highly viscous solutions, which
was undesirable for handling in industrial applications. Lower viscosity chitosan
facilitates easy handling and is generally preferable. Viscosity of chitosan is con-
siderably affected by physical (grinding, heating, autoclaving, and ultrasonication)
and chemical (ozone) treatments, thereby decreasing its viscosity with an increase in
treatment time and temperature (No et al. 1999).
The smaller size of particles (1 mm) generally produces highly viscous chitosan
solution (Bough et al. 1978). However, in contrast, Lusena and Rose (1953) reported
that the size of chitin particle within the range of 0.841–0.177 mm had no effect on
the viscosity of the chitosan solutions.

1.7.5 Solubility
Chitosan is normally insoluble in water and most common organic solvents (e.g.,
dimethyl sulfoxide [DMSO], dimethylformamide [DMF], N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone
[NMP], organic alcohols, and pyridine). The insolubility of chitosan in aqueous and
organic solvents is a result of its crystalline structure, which is attributed to exten-
sive intramolecular and intermolecular hydrogen bonding between the chains and the
sheets, respectively (Yui et al. 1994). Chitosan solubility is enhanced by changing the
pH value. Chitosan is soluble in dilute organic acidic solutions where the pH is <6.5
(e.g., formic, acetic, pyruvic, 10% citric and lactic acid) (Hayes et al. 1977; Kumar 2000).

1.7.6 antiMiCrobial propertieS

The antimicrobial properties of chitosan depend on its molecular weight and the type
of bacterium. Many recent studies revealed that chitosan is effective in inhibiting the
8 Industrial Applications of Marine Biopolymers

growth of bacteria. Chitosan shows stronger bactericidal effects for gram-positive

bacteria than for gram-negative bacteria in the presence of 0.1% chitosan (No et al.
2002). Higher antibacterial activity of chitosan at lower pH suggests that the addition
of chitosan to acidic foods will enhance its effectiveness as a natural preservative.

1.8 APPLICATIONS OF CHITOSAN

Chitosan is a versatile biopolymer, and therefore, its derivatives have shown vari-
ous functional properties, which make them possible to be used in novel applica-
tions including food, cosmetics, biomedicine, agriculture, environmental protection,
wastewater management, and fiber industries (Bhavani and Dutta 1999; Sridhari and
Dutta 2000; Dutta et al. 2002).

1.8.1 bioMediCine
Due to their high tensile strength and suitable permeability, chitosan membranes are
widely used as artificial kidneys (Domard 2003; Dutta et al. 2002). Chitosans are
used to prepare microspheres for oral and intranasal delivery. They possess antacid
and antiulcer activities, which prevent drug irritation in the stomach (Muzzarelli
1996). Chitosan is a hemostatic agent, and due to its hemostatic property, it is used in
the treatment of wounds in the form of sponges and bandages.
The high N-amino content in chitosan increases its attracting ability, which helps
to reduce cholesterol and triglyceride blood plasma levels, which contribute to con-
trol obesity and cardiovascular disease (Muzzarelli 1983).
Chitosan has been used as an antibacterial and antifungal agent. The cationic amino
groups of chitosan probably bind to the anionic group of microorganisms and fungi,
such as Escherichia coli, Fusarium oxysporum, Alternaria arbusti, Helminthosporium
papulosum, and Aspergillus nidulans resulting in growth inhibition (Leuba and
Stossel 1985; Sudarshan et al. 1992). Chitosan and its derivatives act as antioxidants by
scavenging oxygen radicals such as hydroxyl, superoxide, and alkyl and highly stable
2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radicals tested in vitro (Park et al. 2003).

1.8.2 WaSteWater treatMent

Chitosan has been used for about three decades in water purification process. When
chitosan is spread over oil spills, it holds the oil mass together making it easier to
clean up the spill. Water purification plants throughout the world use chitosan to
remove oils, grease, heavy metals, and fine particulate matter that cause turbidity in
wastewater streams (Sridhari and Dutta 2000). Chitosan also undergoes chelation
with metal ions (Kurita et al. 1979; Sashiwa et al. 2002) and radioisotopes for the
prevention of water pollution (Muzzarelli 1977). The removal of heavy metal ions by
chitosan through chelation has received much attention (Ge and Huang 2010).
Chitosan is an important additive in the filtration process. Sand filtration appar-
ently can remove up to 50% of the turbidity alone, whereas the chitosan with sand
filtration removes up to 99% of the turbidity. Chitosan has been used to precipitate
caseins from bovine milk and cheese making (Woodmansey 2002).
Introduction to Marine Biopolymers 9

1.8.3 CoSMetiCS
A cosmetic is defined as any substance to be placed in contact with various surface
parts of the human body (e.g., epidermis, hair systems, nails, lips, and external geni-
tal organs), or with teeth and the mucous membranes of the oral cavity with a view
exclusively or principally to perfume them, protect them, and keep them in good
condition, to change their appearance, or to correct body odors (Duke et al. 2012).
The high moisture retention and film-forming characteristics of chitosan have
resulted in a number of applications in the cosmetics and personal care area.
Chitosan has different molecular weights and degrees of deacetylation, which is
tailored for use in different cosmetic fields such as skin care, deodorants, and hair
care (Dutta et al. 2002). The film-forming ability of chitosan assists in imparting a
pleasant feeling of smoothness to the skin and in protecting it from adverse envi-
ronmental conditions. Chitosan is used in sunscreen formulations as it significantly
increases the water resistance. The chitosan film improves the adhesion of the ultra-
violet filters and thus protected them against washing off.

1.8.4 food induStry

In the food industry, it is used as a conservant, an emulsifier, a viscosity regula-
tor, and a biologically active additive (Pillai et al. 2009). It is also used as a food
packaging material because of its antimicrobial action (Ghaouth et al. 1991) and
dietary fiber and a potential medicine against hypertension (Furda and Brine 1990).
Chitosan and chitosan glutamate are used as a natural preservative for foods prone
to fungal spoilage (Roller and Covill 1999).

1.8.5 paper induStry

In the paper industry, it is used for the production of high-quality paper that is stable
for the external action and moisture (Pillai et al. 2009).

1.9 ALGINATES
Alginate is extracted mainly from brown seaweed and bacteria (Figure 1.3). It
is a linear polysaccharide consisting of (1,4)-linked β-d-mannuronate (M) and
its C-5 epimer α-l-guluronate (G). By partial acid hydrolysis, alginate was sepa-
rated into three fractions (Haug 1964; Haug et al. 1966). Two of these contained
almost homopolymeric blocks of consecutive G-residues (G-blocks) and consecu-
tive M-residues (M-blocks), whereas the third fraction consisted of nearly equal
proportions of both monomers of alternating M- and G-residues (MG-blocks) or
randomly organized blocks (Grasdalen 1983) (Figure 1.4). Divalent cations such
as Ca 2+ and Mg2+ can bind the guluronic residues in adjacent alginate chains to
form an egg-box structure (Grant et al. 1973; Smidsrod and Skjak-Braek 1990) and
cause the gelation of aqueous alginate solutions. Monovalent ions such as Na+ can
also compete with calcium ions, thereby weakening the alginate gel (Le Roux et al.
1999) (Table 1.1).
10 Industrial Applications of Marine Biopolymers

Add Ca2+/Mg2+

Egg box structure

Mannuronic acid

Guluronic acid

FIGURE 1.3 Structure of alginate.

COO−
O O
OH OH
COO−
OH OH OH HO
HO HO

(a) D-Mannuronate (M) L-Guluronate (G)

OH
COO− −OOC
COO− OH O HO
O O O O
HO O OH
OH O
COO− O
O OH
OH O
O
COO− OH
OH
(b) G G M M G

FIGURE 1.4 (a) Monomers of alginate. (b) Chemical structure of alginate.

TABLE 1.1
Some Potential Biomedical Application of Alginate-Encapsulated Cells
Cell Type Treatment of Reference
Adrenal chromaffin cells Parkinson’s disease Aebischer et al. (1993)
Hepatocytes Liver failure Aebischer et al. (1993)
Parathyroid cells Hypocalcemia Aebischer et al. (1993)
Langerhans islets Diabetes Soon-shiong et al. (1993, 1994)
Genetically altered cells Cancer Read et al. (2000)
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 PLATE LIII

Wordaman youth playing on the “drone pipe” or “bamboo trumpet.”

“When using the ‘trumpet,’ the operator blows into the end having the smaller
diameter, with a vibratory motion of the lips....”

In the course of conversation, an aboriginal aids his speech by

gesticulation. When inclined to be cheerful, he smiles and laughs in
a decidedly refreshing sort of way, and often smacks his lips out of
sheer pleasure, but when his feelings have been ruffled and he is
angry, he pouts out his lips and does not hesitate to let you know
how he feels. He betrays his feelings by most apparent tone
inflections in his voice. He frequently nods his head to indicate
assent, but rarely shakes his head to betoken dissent. When in
doubt over any matter, especially in answer to a question, he shrugs
his shoulders. His hands are used a great deal during conversation.
If he wishes to give one an idea of nearness, the finger is directed to
the ground a short way off, and if distance is implied the finger points
to the horizon.
In reply to a question concerned with the location of a thing, he
does not point, as a European would, but turns his face in the
direction he wants to indicate and thrusts out his lips. When
beckoning with his hand, an aboriginal does not move his hand
upwards towards his face as we do, but passes it downwards with a
scooping action. The course a traveller has taken, or an animal
decamped in, is indicated by extending an arm in the direction and
snapping the fingers.
A native has a very good idea of time. The hour at which a past
event has happened, or at which a coming event is to happen, is
indicated by pointing at the assumed altitude of the sun. To fix a time
definitely for a contemplated or proposed action, a stone is placed
upon a cliff, or in the fork of a tree, at the hour decided upon, a day
or two in advance, in such a position that a sunbeam just strikes it at
the moment. When the correct day arrives, the stone is watched until
it is again illumined in the same way; and the natives then know that
it is time to act. This method is employed when, say, the men have
left camp early, and they order the women to follow them at a later
hour.
Days are reckoned by the number of sleeps they have had, and
the biggest measurement of time goes by so many moons.
When he comes to computing numbers, his fingers are of the
greatest service to him, and at times his toes as well. An aboriginal is
not a mathematician, and his vocabulary does not contain running
series of numerals. The usual method of counting low figures is after
the following pattern of the King Sound natives:

“arra” (one).
“kwiarra” (two).
“kwiarra arra” (three).
 “kwiarra kwiarra” (four).

Beyond four, counting either goes by “hands” or “feet,” or for

ordinary purposes there are two comprehensive words in use which
signify a “small-large number” and a “large-small number.” In some
cases, such as the Aluridja, “one” (“goitarada”) appears as the
diminutive form of “two” (“goitara”). In the same sense, a shorter
distance is expressed by the Wongapitcha as the diminutive of a
great distance by qualifying the word “wurnma,” meaning “far,” by
affixing “wimuggitta,” which means “young.” Hence “wimuggitta
wurnma” reads the “young (one) of far,” i.e. “close up.” This is really
the same way of expressing a fraction of space as the same tribe
has adopted for expressing minority in age; a youth or young man is
known as “wimuggitta wardi,” the second word “wardi” standing for
an adult man.
 PLATE LIV

1. Making “vegetable down” by pounding grass between two

stones. Humbert River, Northern Territory.

2. Worora native making a stone spear-head, Northern Kimberleys,

Western Australia.
 The Dieri of the Lake Eyre region have one of the most elaborate
systems of numeration, which includes, at any rate, an expression
for every number up to eleven.

“kulno,” one.
“mandru,” two.
“parkulu” or “parkulintja,” three.
“mandru mandru,” four.
“mandru ja parkulintja,” five.
or “marra warra kulno,” five, i.e. hand part one (one hand).
“marra pirri kulno,” six.
“marra pirri mandru,” seven.
“marra pirri parkulintja,” eight.
“marra pirri mandru mandru,” nine.
“marra warra mandru” ten, i.e. hand parts two (two hands).
“tjinna pirri kulno,” eleven.
“marrapu,” many.
“mörla marrapu,” very many.

In the above table the following explanations will be found useful:

“ja” = and.
“marra” = hand.
“tjinna” = foot.
“warra” = part.
“pirri” = nail (toe or finger).

Thus the reading of the numerals runs: One, two, three, two-two
(four), two and three (five), or one hand part (five), hand finger-nails
one (six), hand finger-nails two (seven), hand finger-nails three
(eight), hand finger-nails four (nine), two hand parts (ten), foot toe-
nails one (eleven).
To imply a repetition or continuance of action, the frequent use of
the same verb is avoided by the Sunday Islanders, but the same
effect is achieved by reiterating the word “garra” indefinitely. The
expression of continued action is usually in the present tense and is
mostly applied to words like “running,” “walking,” “jumping,”
“sleeping,” “raining,” “blowing,” “bleeding,” etc., etc. For example, a
man from a tree or other look-out might be describing to his
companions below, the doings of their hunting party out on the plain;
while the latter keep moving, he conveys the fact to his hearers by
ejaculating “garra, garra, garra, ...” The direction of the hunters’
movements is indicated by the swing of his hand. The moment the
observer in the tree stops saying “garra,” the people below know that
the hunters have ducked or have temporarily ceased the pursuit.
The terminal syllable of a word is never uttered very clearly by an
aboriginal; and it is consequently difficult to distinguish between a
short e, a, o, or u. This is particularly true of the language used by
the old men, the defectiveness being often increased by the gaps
between the incisors resulting from the initiation ceremonies.
There are occasions, however, when the last syllable receives
especial emphasis. The Wongapitcha word for plenty is “ura”; when
the idea of plenty is great the word becomes “ura-ku,” with an
intentional intonation upon the “ku”; and when the plenty is
extraordinary, the word receives yet another syllable and becomes
the superlative “ura-ku-pu.”
The simple affirmative of the Aluridja, which has also been
adopted by the Arunndta, is “o,” less commonly “u”; but when strong
affirmation is intended the word is changed to “owa,” or “owau.”
The ordinary negative of the Arunndta is “itja”; but forcibly
expressed this may become “itjama” or “itjingalai.”
Any sudden exclamation or accidental noise, like a cough or
sneeze, might be exaggerated by the addition of a syllable at the
end. When a Sunday Islander sneezes he makes a word out of the
natural noise sounding like “Tish-e!”
An exclamation which is common practically to all Australian
tribes, and may express surprise, fear, pain, or disgust, is a very
liquid “irr.” The Arunndta have strengthened this monosyllabic cry by
giving it the suffix “ai”; nowadays the word is, however, mostly
pronounced “Yerrai!” A variety of the last-named, but not quite so
forceful, is “Yakai!” A sudden fright or the anticipation of harm might
produce a very short “i,” without any indication of the presence of the
liquid consonant.
Appreciation is indicated by “Aha!” or “Hm-hm!” practically
throughout the central and northern districts of Australia; in both
cases special emphasis is applied to the second syllable.
A central Australian exclamation calling one to order or attention in
a somewhat harsh manner is “Wai!” When one person is being
irritated by another, such as a parent by a whining child, the offender
is thus rebuked. This word may also become a suffix; it may be
combined, for instance, with the radical “irr” and produce a word
“Yirrawai,” which is perhaps the strongest in a sense of disgust and
reproach available in the Arunndta tongue.
Standing at the end of an adjective, the expression “’n-dora” in the
same dialect signifies a great or superlative degree; e.g. “marra”
means “nice,” but “marr’n-dora” a conception more like “excellent.” In
the opposite sense, “kurrina” (bad) becomes “kurrina’n-dora” (worst).
The same suffix can be attached to an adverb. When, say, an
emphatic denial is needed, “itja” (no) takes the form of “itja’n-dora.”
There are numerous other syllables, which, when fixed to the end
of a word, convey a special significance. When, in the Arunndta, the
syllable “tu” is added to a person’s name in address, it really stands
in place of a sentence like “Is it not so?” For instance, “Nani knulia
atoa utnuriraka, Endola-tu?” when literally translated reads: “This
dog man bit Endola, is it not so?” Endola is the name of a woman
who is being addressed. In place of “tu,” the longer form of “ditjekwi”
might be used.
 Again, the suffix “lo” is found in daily use in the same dialect; it
stands for the phrase: “Where is?” Hence the completed sentence,
“Kwatche-lo?” stands for “Where is the water?”
When one finds “jara” added to a word, plurality is indicated, the
sense conveyed being that many of the kind specified by the noun
are assumed. The word for girl in the Arunndta is “kware,”
consequently “kwarenjara” means that a number of girls are being
considered, the “n” being simply interposed for the sake of euphony.
Any proper noun, like the name of a person, may be modified by
adding “ia” to it, and, by so doing, one makes it a term of
endearment in the vocative case. “Ware” ordinarily means “boy,” but
by altering it to “waria” (i.e. “ware-ia”), the meaning becomes “dear
boy” or “O boy.”
If the terminal “a” of a substantive is found to be changed to “inna,”
the diminutive of the original is implied. A somewhat common name
for a woman in the Arunndta is “Unnruba,” but during the years of
childhood of a bearer of this name, the appellation is always in the
form of “Unnrubinna”; in later years this changes to “Unnruba” more
or less automatically.
A diminutive sense is also conveyed by duplicating an original
word. In the eastern Aluridja dialect “kaitji” means an ordinary spear,
whereas “kaitji-kaitji” is an expression applied to a toy spear. The
Dieri recognize a Supreme Being whom they call “Mura”; any one of
their numerous demi-gods, however, from whom they trace their
descent is referred to as a “Mura-Mura.”
 PLATE LV

1. Wongapitcha man shaping a spear-thrower with an adze.

2. Aluridja man scraping a boomerang with a sharp stone flake.

Alterations in the ending of a verb indicate different moods and

tenses. The verb “to come” in the Arunndta is “pitchima”; its
inflections and their meanings will become apparent from the
following short sentences:

“Pitchai arrekutcha!” Come here, old woman!

“Pitchikarrerai arrekutch’njara!” Come here, old women!
“Arrekutcha pitchama.” The old woman is coming.
“Arrekutcha pitchika.” The old woman came (or has come).
“Arrekutcha pitchichinna.” The old woman will come.
 If we replace the verb “pitchima” by “lama” (“to go”), the inflections,
taken in the same order as above, become: “lai,” “larrirai,” “lakama,”
“laka,” “litchinna.”
An adverb which finds considerable application in the Arunndta is
“kalla,” indicating the completion of any deed or action. Most
frequently the nearest translation would be supplied by the English
word, “already.” If, therefore, we again consider one of the above
sentences and interpose the word “kalla,” the meaning is
strengthened considerably: “Arrekutcha kalla pitchama” then means
“The old woman is already coming.” But “kalla” might further convey
the sense of repletion. “Einga knullia kalla kwatche n’ dai” would
mean, literally translated, “I dog enough water gave.” And finally
“kalla” might express the completion of an action. A native, after
losing the track of an animal, or having eaten as much as he wants,
might be heard to say “kalla,” meaning “finished.” Finally “kalla”
might even stand for “dead.” We have already noted a similar word
in the vocabulary of the Sunday Islanders, viz. “Kaleya,” meaning
“finish” or “good-bye.”
The personal pronouns are either used as separate words in a
sentence, or they appear as prefixes to the principal verbs.
In the Arunndta, the following are used:

“einga,” I; “nuka,” mine; “eingana,” me.

“unda,” thou; “unguranga,” thine; “ngana,” thee.
“era,” he; “ekurra,” his; “erinna,” him.
“nuna,” we; “nunaka,” ours; “nungana,” us.
“rankara,” you; “rakankara,” yours; “rankarana,” you.
“etna,” they; “etnaka,” theirs; “etnana,” them.

As an illustration let us translate: “I like the boy”; we should have

to transpose the words into the following order, “I boy like,” and the
Arunndta would be: “Einga ware unjinum.” On the other hand, we
might select the Sunday Island dialect as an example in which
prefixes are used for representing the personal pronouns. The first
personal prefix is “nun,” the second “min,” and the third “il” or “n’.” If,
therefore, we take a simple verb like “jakuli” to “break,” we have:

“nunjaluki,” I break.
“minjaluki,” you break.
“iljaluki” or “n’jaluki,” he breaks.

The third person plural is represented by “punjanga n’”; hence

“punjanga n’jaluki” stands for “they (altogether) break.”
Whereas we have seen that an “n” might be interposed between
two words for the sake of euphony, it no less frequently happens that
two or more words are contracted into one for similar reasons. If, to
quote a simple case, we wish to translate into Arunndta “You give (it)
me,” we have three separate words, “unda” (you), “nuka” (me), and
“dai” (give), which in the above expression are fused into one word,
“nukundai.”
Apart from the full and pure vowel sounds, the Australian
aboriginal dialects include the modified sounds expressed by the
German diphthongs, œ, äu, and ue (i.e. the French u). The pairs of
consonants, p and b, k and g, and t and d, are often interchanged
during speech. Sibilant sounds are extremely rare. My own name
was very difficult, if not impossible, for the Aluridja to pronounce; the
best they could make of it was “Battedu.” So, also, the imported pet
name of the domestic cat, “pussy-pussy,” as it is used by the settlers,
cannot be managed. The Aluridja call it “putte-putte,” and the
Arunndta “put-pudtha.”
Let us look into the construction of the Aluridja personal pronouns
a little more carefully. Every pronoun consists of a stem, which is
different for every person, and an ending, which varies with the case.
The stems are:

First person, singular, “naiu”; plural, “nganan.”

Second person, singular, “nuntu”; plural, “nurangari.”
Third person, singular, “balu”; plural, “tana.”
 And the endings are as follows:

Genitive, “-ba.”
Dative, “-lukuru.”
Accusative, “-na.”
Ablative, “-languru” (from), or “-lawana” (with).

A simple sentence embodying three pronouns would be: “Naiulu

tanalawana nuntulukura ngalierra,” which, literally translated, reads:
“I with them to you have come.”
A few of the Arunndta interrogatives are:

“Ewunna?” What? or What is it?

“Unndana?” Where?
“Nguna?” Which?
“Ngula?” Who?
“Ntakinya?” How many?

The aspirate is very occasionally met with. The local group of the
Arunndta, residing at Arltunga, which styles itself “Herrinda,” is one
of the few exceptions. Even in the settled districts, where the natives
have adopted European names, one christened “Harry” is usually
spoken of as “Yarri.” The sounds which are most commonly
aspirated are the exclamations, e.g. “Hai!” “Aha,” and “Hm-hm!”
Used in conjunction with a vowel, usually an “a,” the consonantal
combination “ng” is common to all Australian dialects. Although to
the modern tongue a little difficult to master, the sound is strikingly
fluent with the aboriginal; indeed, its frequent inclusion in words of
fundamentally simple origin suggests a primitive, natural derivation.
Along the north-western coast, the words for “water” are “ngawa”
(Wave Hill), “ngauwa” (Humbert River), “kornga” (Sunday Island).
In the Arunndta, “nga” stands for either “Here you are!” “There!” or
“Take it!” all phrases being used in the sense of offering something to
a person, such as mother to infant. “Ngaboni” is a modified form of
the last-named, having any of the following meanings: “Here!”
“Look!” or “Behold!” And “ngarai” is yet another modification of
similar significance, usually placed immediately behind the object it
is desired to draw attention to, e.g. “Arre ngarai!” (Look at the
kangaroo).
Verbal greetings, akin to our “Good-day!” are rarely, if ever, made
use of by natives when they meet; but some of the tribes recognize
an orthodox term of salutation at partings, as indicating a friendly
feeling which the speaker bears towards the person he is on the
point of leaving. The Mulluk-Mulluk and some of their neighbours on
the Daly River have adopted the word “mummuk” to express their
farewell, whilst the Sunday Islanders’ vocabulary includes a similar
expression in the word “tchorrogu.”
An alarm, such as we would raise in the form of “Look out!” or “Get
out of the way!” is rendered by the Arunndta “Par-le!”
There are numerous examples which could be mentioned of words
appearing in an aboriginal dialect which have a striking resemblance
to European words of modern and ancient languages, which at this
stage of our knowledge of primitive tongues must be recorded as
curiosities rather than linguistic analogies. One of the most
remarkable, perhaps, is the Arunndta for head, viz. “kaputa”; but to
connect this in any way with the Latin word would be as
unreasonable as calling the “patriarchal” type of aboriginal a semite.
It is, therefore, not my intention to suggest anything beyond mere
coincidence, and it lies far from my mind to attempt theorizing upon
little evidence, yet it must be admitted that similarities in points of
evolution and culture, no matter how trivial and accidental they may
be, are not without interest. Viewed entirely in this light, there is no
harm in mentioning one or two similarities which exist between
certain words of the Australian dialects and those of other tongues,
articulate or otherwise.
Affirmation is expressed in the Cambridge Gulf district by “yau,”
“yo-au,” or “yowai.” During latter years, the same expression has
found its way south, even as far as the MacDonnell Ranges, where it
has largely replaced the original form of “owa.” In the adjoining
coastal districts of the Northern Territory, a similar word is in use as
well as one which sounds more like the German “ja.” It is of more
than passing interest to note that throughout the Malay Archipelago
“yo-au” or “yowai” is the principal form of affirmation in use among
the local primitive peoples. It is not unlikely, therefore, that the early
Macassan trepang fishers, who used to visit the north coast of
Australia long before the white man arrived, brought this word along
with them.
We find, also, that the consonantal expression, “ng,” combined
with a vowel sound, is common among other primitive languages.
Professor Garner, too, has found it included in the inarticulate
“speech” of apes in the form of a note indicating satisfaction, which
can be represented by “ngkw-a.” The speculative mind naturally
wonders whether this simian cry of satisfaction is perhaps
fundamentally of similar, though independent, phonetic origin to the
northern Australian word for water, the essential of life, which we
noted above is “ngawa.”
The di-syllabic muttering of a European child-in-arms, moreover,
which the happy parents flatter themselves sounds like “pa-pa” or
“ma-ma,” is equally characteristic of the aboriginal babe, but the
parents in the latter case interpret the note to be “nga-nga.” And,
indeed, the Arunndta mother responds by handing the infant the fluid
it needs, while she caressingly soothes it with the simple little word
“Nga,” which in our own language would be equivalent to the
sentence, “Here you are!”
 INDEX
Roman numerals refer to Preface.

A
abris, 322
Acacia salicina, 157
acacia seed, 150, 151
Adelaide tribes, xii, 100, 102, 180, 195, 204, 206, 208, 212, 214,
360, 366
administration, tribal, 225 et seq.
adzes, 366, 367
Affenspalte, 38
“alangua” (native pear), Knaninja, 353
albinism, 48
“Algerrigiowumma,” sky-shying act, 238, 239
Alligator River, 197, 249
allotment of infants, 221, 222
“Altjerra,” 279, 295, 341, 342
“Altjerrajara,” Supreme Number, 271, 296
“Altjerringa,” 279, 296, 342
“Aluggurra” women, 343
Aluridja tribe, xii, 4, 47, 48, 50, 65, 78, 82, 83, 92, 95, 111, 114,
121, 147, 149, 150, 151, 153, 155, 170, 176, 178, 184, 192,
200, 205, 213, 226, 231, 236, 239, 240, 243, 255, 259, 264,
 267, 269, 271, 272, 282, 295, 296, 349, 356, 361, 362, 387,
396, 398, 400, 402
amputation of finger joints, 253, 254
ancestor worship, 257
animation, in art, 320, 336, 337, 338
animal tracks, drawn in sand, 70-73
anthill burial, 206;
of bone, 214
Anthistiria (kangaroo grass), 276, 387
anthropomorphous designs, 353-358
“Antjuarra,” tooth-rapping ceremony, 235
anvil-stone, 369
approaching a stranger, 2, 3;
a camp, 105
appreciation, expression of, 399
archer fish, ochre drawing of, 328
armistice, 188
Arnhem Land, 50, 196, 197
Arrabonna Tribe, 4, 200, 237, 269, 362
“Arrarra,” a circumcision ceremony, 239 et seq.
“arrera,” kangaroo, Knaninja, 352
“Arrolmolba” (phallus), 291
art of the aboriginal, xi, xii, 297-358
artificial colouring of body, hunting, 142;
in warfare, 184;
of emissaries at initiation, 254;
 for cosmetic and ceremonial purposes, 324-326
artificial warmth applied to infant, 66
Arunndta Tribe, xi, xii, 4, 6, 48, 50, 63, 65, 70, 76, 77, 78, 82,
83, 86, 92, 95, 103, 106, 114, 121, 125, 142, 147, 149, 150,
151, 152, 153, 155, 166, 170, 172, 175, 176, 178, 184, 192,
200, 205, 214, 218, 220, 226, 231, 237, 238, 263, 264, 271,
272, 274, 275, 282, 287, 291, 292, 295, 296, 308, 311, 321,
328, 330, 337, 338, 341, 343, 347, 349, 350, 352, 361, 362,
363, 386, 387, 390, 391, 398, 399, 400, 401, 402, 403, 404,
405
“Atoakwatje,” water-men, 264, 265
aspirate sounds, 403
attachment of parents to children, 65, 66
“aumba” (Brachysema), 153
Australoid, 58, 59;
migrations, 56, 57, 58
awl, stone, 365
Ayers Ranges, 75

B
bailers, 95
baldness, 50
ball-games, 77, 78
bandicoot, corrobboree of, 383
“banki,” prepuse, 243
bark, canoes, 160-164;
drawings, 323;
shield, 86, 87;
 water-carriers, 92, 93
barramundi vertebræ used as spear heads, 198
barter, with ochre, 113;
with women, 222
bathing, 99
Bathurst Islanders, 76, 77, 93, 95, 96, 115, 159, 161, 163, 168,
207, 238, 309, 310, 319, 323, 373, 379, 380
beard, 50, 51, 117;
of female, 46
bees’ honey, 145
bell-bird, 386
belly, 20, 21
Berringin Tribe, 4, 11, 129, 130, 201, 374
beverages, 153
biological consanguinity between Australia and other continents,
55
bird-like attitude, 107
birds’ eggs, 125, 126
birth of aboriginal, 61-68
biting the initiate’s head, 244, 245
bleeding, stanching of, after circumcision, 243
blindness, following club hit, 37
blonde, aboriginal, 48, 49, 50
blood, drinking of, 154;
stilling the flow of, 186;
thrown at opponent during a duel, 166;
revenge, 187
Bloodwood apple, 152
Bloomfield River, 48
blue eye in aboriginal, 25
Blue Mountains, 57
boabab, carved tree, 309;
carved nuts, 311, 312, 313, 331;
nuts used as rattles, 374;
trees serving as reservoirs, 97, 98
“Bobi,” tjuringa, 270
body decoration, at completion of mourning, 214, 215;
cosmetic, artistic and ceremonial, 324, 325, 326.
See also artificial colouring of body
“Böllier” ceremony, initiation, 250
bone, carving of, 313;
“pointing” the, 174-178, 209
bone-pointed spear-thrower, 201
bones of dead man collected, 214;
radius selected for “pointing bone,” 215
“boning” to death, 174-178, 209
boomerang, practice, 86;
used as a musical instrument, 374, 383;
used in duels, 168;
used in warfare, 187, 188
“boomerang-legs,” 15
boomerang-spear duel, drawing of, 330, 338
boras, 377
boys, apportioned to old men, 65, 66;
taught use of weapons, 85, 86
Brachysema Chambersii, 153
brain of aboriginal, 37, 38
breast, 18-20;
artificial lactation of, 20;
development of, 19;
enchantment of, 19;
touched with charred mulga, 65
Bremer, Sir Gordon, 144
Buccaneer Archipelago, 50, 51
buffalo, drawing of, 325, 337;
hunt, 144, 145, and Frontispiece
bull-roarer, used at circumcision, 241, 242;
at mika operation, 246;
at tooth-rapping ceremony, 232, 233
burial and mourning customs, 203-215
burial ground, signpost erected at, 207
burial in anthill, 208

C
Calamus used as paint brush, 319, 320
Caledon Bay, 115
calvarium, Tennants Creek, 53;
used as a drinking vessel, 214