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432 Topics in graph automorphisms and reconstruction (2nd Edition), J. LAURI & R. SCAPELLATO
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London Mathematical Society Lecture Note Series: 431

Harmonic and Subharmonic

Function Theory on the
Hyperbolic Ball

M A N F R E D S TO L L
University of South Carolina
 University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of
education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781107541481
© Manfred Stoll 2016
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2016
Printed in the United Kingdom by Clays, St Ives plc
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data
Names: Stoll, Manfred.
Title: Harmonic and subharmonic function theory on the hyperbolic ball /
Manfred Stoll, University of South Carolina.
Description: Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 2016. | Series: London
Mathematical Society lecture note series ; 431 | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2015049530 | ISBN 9781107541481 (pbk.)
Subjects: LCSH: Harmonic functions. | Subharmonic functions. |
Hyperbolic spaces.
Classification: LCC QA405 .S76 2016 | DDC 515/.53–dc23
LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015049530
ISBN 978-1-107-54148-1 Paperback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy
of URLs for external or third-party Internet Web sites referred to in this publication
and does not guarantee that any content on such Web sites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
To Mary Lee
 Contents

Preface page xi

1 Möbius Transformations 1
1.1 Notation 1
1.2 Inversion in Spheres and Planes 2
1.3 Möbius Transformations 4
2 Möbius Self-Maps of the Unit Ball 6
2.1 Möbius Transformations of B 6
2.2 The Hyperbolic Metric on B 9
2.3 Hyperbolic Half-Space H 12
2.4 Exercises 15
3 The Invariant Laplacian, Gradient, and Measure 17
3.1 The Invariant Laplacian and Gradient 17
3.2 The Fundamental Solution of Δh 19
3.3 The Invariant Measure on B 21
3.4 The Invariant Convolution on B 24
3.5 Exercises 27
4 H-Harmonic and H-Subharmonic Functions 31
4.1 The Invariant Mean-Value Property 31
4.2 The Special Case n = 2 35
4.3 H-Subharmonic Functions 37
4.4 Properties of H-Subharmonic Functions 41
4.5 Approximation by C∞ H-Subharmonic Functions 45
4.6 The Weak Laplacian and Riesz Measure 48
4.7 Quasi-Nearly H-Subharmonic Functions 51
4.8 Exercises 56

vii
viii Contents

5 The Poisson Kernel and Poisson Integrals 59

5.1 The Poisson Kernel for Δh 59
5.2 Relationship between the Euclidean and Hyperbolic Poisson
Kernel 62
5.3 The Dirichlet Problem for B 64
5.4 The Dirichlet Problem for Br 68
5.5 Eigenfunctions of Δh 70
5.6 The Poisson Kernel on H 76
5.7 Exercises 78
6 Spherical Harmonic Expansions 82
6.1 Dirichlet Problem for Spherical Harmonics 83
6.2 Zonal Harmonic Expansion of the Poisson Kernel 86
6.3 Spherical Harmonic Expansion of H-Harmonic Functions 90
6.4 Exercises 94
7 Hardy-Type Spaces of H-Subharmonic Functions 96
7.1 A Poisson Integral Formula for Functions in Hp , 1 ≤ p ≤ ∞ 97
7.2 Completeness of Hp , 0 < p ≤ ∞ 101
7.3 H-Harmonic Majorants for H-Subharmonic Functions 103
7.4 Hardy–Orlicz Spaces of H-Subharmonic Functions 109
7.5 Exercises 112
8 Boundary Behavior of Poisson Integrals 114
8.1 Maximal Functions 114
8.2 Non-tangential and Radial Maximal Function 120
8.3 Fatou’s Theorem 125
8.4 A Local Fatou Theorem for H-Harmonic Functions 127
8.5 An L p Inequality for Mα f for 0 < p ≤ 1 131
8.6 Example 134
8.7 Exercises 137
9 The Riesz Decomposition Theorem for H-Subharmonic
Functions 139
9.1 The Riesz Decomposition Theorem 140
9.2 Applications of the Riesz Decomposition Theorem 143
9.3 Integrability of H-Superharmonic Functions 149
9.4 Boundary Limits of Green Potentials 155
9.5 Non-tangential Limits of H-Subharmonic Functions 162
9.6 Exercises 169
 Contents ix

10 Bergman and Dirichlet Spaces of H-Harmonic Functions 173

p p
10.1 Properties of Dγ and Bγ 174
10.2 Möbius Invariant Spaces 178
p p
10.3 Equivalence of Bγ and Dγ for γ > (n − 1) 180
p p
10.4 Integrability of Functions in Bγ and Dγ 186
10.5 Integrability of Eigenfunctions of Δh 193
10.6 Three Theorems of Hardy and Littlewood 198
10.7 Littlewood–Paley Inequalities 205
10.8 Exercises 211

References 216
Index of Symbols 221
Index 223
 Preface

The intent of these notes is to provide a detailed and comprehensive treatment

of harmonic and subharmonic function theory on hyperbolic space in Rn .
Although our primary emphasis will be in the setting of the unit ball B with
hyperbolic metric ds given by
2|dx|
ds = , (1)
1 − |x|2
we will also consider the analogue of many of the results in the hyperbolic
half-space H. Undoubtedly some of the results are known, either in the setting
of rank one noncompact symmetric spaces (e.g. [38]), or more generally, in
Riemannian spaces (e.g. [13]). An excellent introduction to harmonic function
theory on noncompact symmetric spaces can be found in the survey article [47]
by A. Koranyi. The 1973 paper by K. Minemura [57] provides an introduction
to harmonic function theory on real hyperbolic space considered as a rank one
noncompact symmetric space. Other contributions to the subject area in this
setting will be indicated in the text.
With the goal of making these notes accessible to a broad audience,
our approach does not require any knowledge of Lie groups and only a
limited knowledge of differential geometry. The development of the theory
is analogous to the approach taken by W. Rudin [72] and by the author [84]
in their development of Möbius invariant harmonic function theory on the
hermitian ball in Cn . Although our primary emphasis is on harmonic function
theory on the ball, we do include many relevant results for the hyperbolic
upper half-space H, both in the text and in the exercises. With only one or
two exceptions, the notes are self-contained with the only prerequisites being
a standard beginning graduate course in real analysis.
In Chapter 1 we provide a brief review of Möbius transformation in Rn .
This is followed in Chapter 2 by a characterization of the group M(B) of

xi
xii Preface

Möbius self-maps of the unit ball B in Rn . As in [72] we define a family {ϕa :

a ∈ B} of Möbius transformations of B satisfying ϕa (0) = a, ϕa (a) = 0,
and ϕa (ϕa (x)) = x for all x ∈ B. Furthermore, for every ψ ∈ M(B), it is
proved that there exists a ∈ B and an orthogonal transformation A such that
ψ = Aϕa . When n = 2, the mappings ϕa correspond to the usual analytic
Möbius transformations of the unit disc D given by
a−z
ϕa (z) = . (2)
1 − az
Some of the properties of the mappings {ϕa } and of functions in M(B) are
developed in Section 2.1. In this chapter we also introduce the hyperbolic
metric in B and in the hyperbolic half-space H. Most of the results of these
two sections are contained in the works of L. V. Ahlfors [4], [5] , and the text
by A. F. Beardon [11].
In Chapter 3 we derive the Laplacian, gradient, and measure on B that are
invariant under M(B). Even though the formula for the Laplacian can be
derived from the hyperbolic metric, we will follow the approach of W. Rudin
[72, Chapter 4]. For f ∈ C2 (B) we define Δh f by
Δh f (a) = Δ( f ◦ ϕa )(0),
where Δ is the usual Laplacian in Rn . The operator Δh is shown to satisfy
Δh ( f ◦ ψ)(x) = (Δh f )(ψ(x)) for all ψ ∈ M(B). Furthermore, an explicit
computation gives
Δh f (x) = (1 − |x|2 )2 Δf (x) + 2(n − 2)(1 − |x|2 )x, ∇f (x),
where ∇f is the Euclidean gradient of the function f . In this chapter it is also
proved that the Green’s function for Δh is given by Gh (x, y) = g(|ϕx (y)|),
where g is the radial function on B defined by

1 1 (1 − s2 )n−2
g(r) = ds.
n r sn−1
In Theorem 3.3.1 we prove that for ψ ∈ M(B), the Jacobian Jψ of the
mapping ψ satisfies
(1 − |ψ(x)|2 )n
|Jψ (x)| = .
(1 − |x|2 )n
From this it now follows that the Möbius invariant measure τ on B is given by
dτ (x) = (1 − |x|2 )−n dν(x),
where ν is the normalized volume measure on B. In the exercises we develop
the invariant Laplacian, Green’s function, and invariant measure on H.
 Preface xiii

A real-valued C2 function f on B is defined to be either H-harmonic or

H-subharmonic on B depending on whether Δh f = 0 or Δh f ≥ 0. It is well
known that a continuous function f is harmonic in the unit disc D if and only
if for all r, 0 < r < 1, and w ∈ D,
 2π
1
f (w) = f (ϕw (reit )) dt, (3)
2π 0
where ϕw is the Möbius transformation of D given by (2). The above is called
the invariant mean-value property. One of the first results proved in Chapter
4 is the following analogue of the invariant mean-value property: A real-valued
C2 function f is H-subharmonic on B if and only if for all a ∈ B and 0 < r < 1,

f (a) ≤ f (ϕa (rt))dσ (t), (4)
S

with equality if and only if f is H-harmonic on B. In the above, S is the unit

sphere in Rn , σ is normalized surface measure on S, and ϕa is the Möbius
transformation of B mapping 0 to a with ϕa (ϕa (x)) = x. The integral in (4) is
an average of f over the hyperbolic or non-Euclidean sphere {ϕa (rt) : t ∈ S}
whose hyperbolic center is a. Inequality (4) is then used in Section 4.3 to
extend the definition of H-subharmonic to the class of upper semicontinu-
ous functions on B. The remainder of the chapter is devoted to extending
some of the standard results about subharmonic functions to H-subharmonic
functions on B. We conclude the chapter with a discussion of quasi-nearly
H-subharmonic functions and prove several inequalities involving these func-
tions that will prove useful later in the text.
The Poisson kernel Ph for Δh is introduced in Chapter 5. In Section 5.1 we
prove using Green’s formula that for (a, t) ∈ B × S,

Ph (a, t) = − lim nrn−1 (1 − r2 )2−n ∇Ga (rt), t,

r→1

where Ga (rt) = Gh (a, rt) is the Green’s function for Δh . This immediately
gives
 n−1
1 − |x|2
Ph (x, t) = , (x, t) ∈ B × S.
|x − t|2
The standard results for Poisson integrals of continuous functions are included
in Section 5.3, and in Section 5.2 we prove a result of P. Jaming [43] that
provides an integral representation of the Euclidean Poisson kernel in terms of
the hyperbolic Poisson kernel. In Section 5.5 we investigate the eigenfunctions
of Δh . We close the section with a brief discussion of the Poisson kernel
on H.
xiv Preface

In Chapter 6 we consider the spherical harmonic expansions of H-harmonic

functions. One of the key results of this section is that if pα is a spherical
harmonic of degree α on S, then the Poisson integral Ph [pα ] of pα is given by
 
Ph [pα ](x) = |x|α Sn,α (|x|)pα |x|
x
,

where Sn,α is given by a hypergeometric function. Interestingly, when n is

even, Sn,α (r) is simply a polynomial in r of degree n − 2. These results are
then used to show how the Poisson integral Ph [q] can be computed for any
polynomial q on S. As an example, in R4 , the H-harmonic function with
boundary values t12 is given by Ph [t12 ](x) = 14 + (2 − |x|2 )(x12 − 14 |x|2 ). In
contrast, the Euclidean harmonic function h with boundary values t12 is given
by h(x) = 14 (1 − |x|2 ) + x12 . Finally, in Section 6.3 we follow the methods of
P. Ahern, J. Bruna, and C. Cascante [2] to derive the spherical harmonic
expansion of H-harmonic functions on B.
Chapter 7 is devoted to the study of Hardy and Hardy–Orlicz type spaces of
H-harmonic and H-subharmonic functions on B. In Chapter 8, we study the
boundary behavior of Poisson integrals on B. This chapter contains many of
the standard results concerning non-tangential and radial maximal functions.
In addition to proving the usual Fatou theorem (Theorem 8.3.3) concerning
non-tangential limits of Poisson integrals of measures, we also include a proof
of a local Fatou theorem of I. Privalov [68] for H-harmonic functions on B.
The Riesz decomposition theorem for H-subharmonic functions is proved
in Chapter 9. The main result of this chapter (Corollary 9.1.3) proves that if
f is H-subharmonic on B and f has an H-harmonic majorant, then

f (x) = Ff (x) − Gh (x, y)dμf (y),
B
where μf is the Riesz measure of f and Ff is the least H-harmonic majorant
of f . In Section 9.2 we include several applications of the Riesz decomposition
theorem, including a Hardy–Stein identity for non-negative H-subharmonic
functions for which f p , p ≥ 1, has an H-harmonic majorant on B. In Section
9.3 we extend a result of D. H. Armitage [8] concerning the integrability of
non-negative superharmonic functions. We conclude the chapter by proving
that invariant Green potentials of measures have radial limit zero almost
everywhere on S, and provide an example of a measure μ for which the Green
potential of μ has non-tangential limit +∞ almost everywhere on S.
Finally, in Chapter 10 we introduce and investigate basic properties of
weighted Bergman- and Dirichlet-type spaces of H-harmonic functions
p p
on B, denoted respectively by Bγ and Dγ . These spaces consist of the set
of H-harmonic functions f on B for which f , respectively |∇ h f |, are in
 Preface xv

Lp ((1 − |x|2 )γ dτ (x)), 0 < p < ∞, γ > 0, where τ is the invariant measure
on B and ∇ h is the invariant gradient on B. One of the main results of this
p p
chapter is that if γ > (n − 1), then f ∈ Bγ if and only if f ∈ Dγ for all
p, 0 < p < ∞. In Section 10.4 we investigate the integrability of functions in
p p
Bγ and Dγ for γ ≤ (n − 1). This chapter also contains a discussion of Möbius
invariant spaces of H-harmonic functions and the Berezin transform on B.
We conclude the chapter with three theorems of Hardy and Littlewood for H-
harmonic functions, and the Littlewood–Paley inequalities for H-subharmonic
functions.
At the end of each chapter, I have included a set of exercises dealing with
the topics discussed. Many of these problems involve routine computations
and inequalities not included in the text. They also provide examples relevant
to the topics of the chapter. Also included are problems whose solutions may
be suitable for possible publication. The latter are marked with an asterisk.

Acknowledgments
The preliminary draft of these notes comprising most of Chapters 1–3 and parts
of Chapters 5 and 6 was written while the author was on sabbatical leave at the
CRM at the University of Montreal during fall 1999. Since 1999 there has been
considerable research activity on hyperbolic function theory on B. Included in
this has been the work of P. Jaming [41], [42], [43], S. Grellier and P. Jaming
[31], M. Jevtić [44], and the author [89], among others.
I would like to thank my good friend Paul Gauthier at the University of
Montreal for providing the motivation for this project. His many questions
about harmonic functions on real hyperbolic space, to which I did not know
the answers, encouraged me to learn more about this interesting subject. I am
also indebted to Paul for using the preliminary draft of these notes in one
of his courses and for pointing out a number of errors. I would also like to
express my appreciation to John Taylor at McGill for providing me with a
copy of his notes on rank one symmetric spaces, and to thank the Director and
Staff at the CRM for their hospitality during my visit. Finally, I would like to
thank Wolfgang Woess Universität Graz, for bringing my original manuscript
to the attention of Sam Harrison, Editor at Cambridge University Press, and
the staff at Cambridge University Press and SPi Global for their assistance in
the completion of the project.
Manfred Stoll
Columbia, SC
stoll@math.sc.edu
 1

Möbius Transformations

In this chapter we provide a brief review of Möbius transformations on

n-dimensional Euclidean space Rn (n ≥ 2). A good reference for these topics
is the monograph by A. F. Beardon [11]. First, however, we begin with a review
of notation that will be used throughout these notes.

1.1 Notation
n
For x, y ∈ Rn we let x, y = j=1 xj yj denote the usual inner product on Rn
√
and |x| = x, x the length of the vector x. For a ∈ Rn and r > 0, the ball
B(a, r) and sphere S(a, r) are given respectively by
B(a, r) = {x ∈ Rn : |x − a| < r},
S(a, r) = {x ∈ Rn : |x − a| = r}.
The unit ball and unit sphere with center at the origin will simply be denoted
by B and S respectively.1 The one-point compactification of Rn , denoted R̂n ,
is obtained by appending the point ∞ to Rn . A subset U of R̂n = Rn ∪ {∞} is
open if it is an open subset of Rn , or if U is the complement in R̂n of a compact
subset C of Rn . With this topology R̂n is compact.
For a subset D of Rn , D denotes the closure of D, Int (D) the interior of D,
∂D the boundary of D, and  D the complement of D in Rn . Also if E and F are
sets, E \ F denotes the complement of F in E, that is, E \ F = E ∩  F.
The study of functions of n-variables is simplified with the use of multi-index
notation. For an ordered n-tuple α = (α1 , . . . , αn ), where each αj is a non-
negative integer, the following notational conventions will be used throughout:
1 If we wish to emphasize the dimension n, we will use the notation B and S to denote the unit
n n
ball and sphere in Rn .

1
2 Möbius Transformations

|α| = α1 + · · · + αn , α! = α1 ! · · · αn !, xα = x1α1 · · · xnαn ,

and
∂ |α| f
Dα f = .
∂x1α1 · · · ∂xnαn

If is an open subset of Rn , we denote by Ck ( ), k = 0, 1, 2, . . . the set of

real-valued (or complex-valued) functions f on for which Dα f exists and is
continuous for all multi-indices α with |α| ≤ k. Thus C0 ( ), or simply C( ),
denotes the set of real-valued (or complex-valued) continuous functions on ,
and C∞ ( ) the set of infinitely differentiable functions on . Also, the set of
functions f ∈ Ck ( ) for which Dα f , |α| ≤ k, has a continuous extension to
will be denoted by Ck ( ). If f : → R, then the support of f , denoted
supp f , is defined as
supp f = {x ∈ : f (x) = 0}.
The set of continuous functions on with compact support will be denoted by
Cc ( ). The notations Cck ( ) and Cc∞ ( ) have the obvious meanings.
A linear transformation A : Rn → Rn is said to be orthogonal if |Ax| = |x|
for all x ∈ Rn . The set of orthogonal transformations of Rn will be denoted by
O(n). If A is represented by the n × n matrix (ai, j ), then A is orthogonal if and
only if
n
1 i = j,
ai,k aj,k = δi, j =
k=1
0, i = j.

If ψ(x) = (ψ1 (x), . . . , ψn (x)) is a C1 mapping of an open subset of Rn into

Rn , then the derivative ψ  (x) is the n × n matrix given by
 
∂ψi n
ψ  (x) = ,
∂xj i,j=1

and the Jacobian Jψ of the transformation ψ is given by Jψ (x) = det ψ  (x).

1.2 Inversion in Spheres and Planes

Definition 1.2.1 The inversion2 (or reflection) in the sphere S(a, r) is the
function φ(x) defined by

2 Although we will mainly be interested in the case n ≥ 2, the formulas for inversions in spheres
and planes are still meaningful when n = 1.
 1.2 Inversion in Spheres and Planes 3

 2
r
φ(x) = a + (x − a). (1.2.1)
|x − a|
The inversion in the unit sphere S is the mapping φ(x) = x∗ where
⎧ x
⎪
⎪ x = 0, ∞,
⎨ |x|2
∗
x = 0 x = ∞,
⎪
⎪
⎩
∞ x = 0.
Thus (1.2.1) can now be rewritten as
φ(x) = a + r2 (x − a)∗ .
The reflection φ(x) is not defined at x = a. Since |φ(x)| → ∞ as x → a we
set φ(a) = ∞. Also, since lim|x|→∞ |φ(x) − a| = 0, we set φ(∞) = a. Thus
φ is defined on all of R̂n , and it is easily shown that φ is continuous in the
topology of R̂n . A straightforward computation also shows that φ(φ(x)) = x
for all x ∈ R̂n . Thus φ is a one-to-one continuous map of R̂n onto R̂n satisfying
φ(x) = x if and only x ∈ S(a, r).
In addition to reflection in a sphere we also have reflection in a plane. For
a ∈ Rn , a = 0, and t ∈ R, the plane P(a, t) is defined by
P(a, t) = {x ∈ Rn : x, a = t}.
By convention ∞ belongs to every plane P(a, t).
Definition 1.2.2 The inversion (or reflection) in the plane P(a, t) is the
function ψ(x) defined by
ψ(x) = x + λa,
where λ ∈ R is chosen so that 12 (x + ψ(x)) ∈ P(a, t).
Solving for λ gives
ψ(x) = x − 2[x, a − t]a∗ , x ∈ Rn . (1.2.2)
For the mapping ψ we have
|ψ(x)|2 = |x|2 + O(|x|),
and as a consequence lim|x|→∞ |ψ(x)| = ∞. Thus as above we define
ψ(∞) = ∞. With this definition the mapping ψ again satisfies ψ(ψ(x)) = x
for all x ∈ R̂n . Thus ψ is a one-to-one continuous map of R̂n onto itself with
ψ(x) = x if and only if x ∈ P(a, t). It is well known that each inversion (in
a sphere or a plane) is orientation-reversing and conformal (see [11, Theorem
3.1.6]).
4 Möbius Transformations

1.3 Möbius Transformations

Definition 1.3.1 A Möbius transformation of R̂n is a finite composition of
inversions in spheres or planes.

Clearly the composition of two Möbius transformations is again a Möbius

transformation, as is the inverse of a Möbius transformation. The group of
Möbius transformations on R̂n is called the general Möbius group and is
denoted by GM (R̂n ). Although not immediately obvious, both translation
and magnification by a constant are Möbius transformations. The translation
x → x + a, a ∈ Rn , is the composition of inversion in the plane x, a = 0
followed by inversion in the plane x, a = 12 |a|2 . Likewise, the magnification
or scalar multiplication x → kx, k > 0, is also a Möbius√transformation in
that it is the inversion in S followed by the inversion in S(0, k). Furthermore,
every Euclidean isometry of Rn is a composition of at most n + 1 reflections
in planes ([11, Theorem 3.1.3]).
We conclude this section by showing that every Möbius transformation
maps a sphere or plane onto a sphere or plane. We will use the term “sphere”
to denote either a sphere of the form S(a, r) or a plane P(a, t). Since every
inversion ψ in a plane P(a, t) can be written as

ψ(x) = x + λa,

the mapping ψ clearly maps a “sphere” onto a “sphere.” To show that an

inversion φ in a sphere S(a, r) preserves “spheres,” it suffices to show that
the mapping x∗ preserves “spheres.”
For any set E ⊂ Rn , we let E∗ = {x∗ : x ∈ E}. A set E ⊂ Rn is a sphere or a
plane if and only if

E = {x ∈ Rn : b|x|2 − 2x, a + c = 0},

where b and c are real and a ∈ Rn . By convention, ∞ satisfies this equation

if and only if b = 0, that is, E is a plane. Now it is easily seen that E∗ has the
same form with the roles of b and c reversed. Finally, it is an easy exercise to
show that for a ∈ Rn and r > 0,
⎧  
⎨S a r
, if 0 ∈ S(a, r),
S∗ (a, r) = (|a|2 − r2 ) ||a|2 − r2 | (1.3.1)
⎩
P(a, 12 ) if 0 ∈ S(a, r).
 1.3 Möbius Transformations 5

We conclude this section with one more useful formula that will be required
later. If φ is inversion in the sphere S(a, r), then a straightforward computation
gives
r2 |y − x|
|φ(y) − φ(x)| = . (1.3.2)
|x − a||y − a|
For details on the above the reader is referred to [11].
 2

Möbius Self-Maps of the Unit Ball

In this chapter we will provide a characterization of the Möbius

transformations of R̂n mapping the unit ball B onto B that is similar to
the characterization of the Möbius mappings of the unit disc in C onto itself.
In the complex plane C, every analytic Möbius transformation ψ mapping
the unit disc D onto itself can be written as ψ(z) = eiθ ϕw (z), where for w ∈ D,
w−z
ϕw (z) = .
1 − wz
The mappings ϕw (z) satisfy ϕw (0) = w, ϕw (w) = 0, and ϕw (ϕw (z)) = z for all
z ∈ D. Furthermore, the mapping ϕw (z) also satisfies

(1 − |z|2 )(1 − |w|2 )

1 − |ϕw (z)|2 = .
|1 − wz|2

2.1 Möbius Transformations of B

In this section we define an analogous family of Möbius transformations
{ϕa : a ∈ B} mapping B onto B having the property that every Möbius
transformation ψ mapping B onto itself can be written as ψ = A ◦ ϕa , where
a ∈ B and A ∈ O(n). For a ∈ B, we first set

ψa (x) = a + (1 − |a|2 )(a − x)∗ . (2.1.1)

Since the mapping ψa is a composition of Möbius transformations, ψa is a

Möbius transformation of R̂n mapping 0 to a∗ and a to ∞. By a straightforward
computation we have

|a − x|2 + (1 − |a|2 )(1 − |x|2 )

|ψa (x)|2 = , (2.1.2)
|a − x|2

6
 2.1 Möbius Transformations of B 7

and as a consequence
(1 − |a|2 )(1 − |x|2 )
|ψa (x)|2 − 1 = . (2.1.3)
|x − a|2
From the above it follows immediately that ψa maps B onto R̂n \ B.
We now define the mapping ϕa by
ψa (x)
ϕa (x) = ψa (x)∗ = . (2.1.4)
|ψa (x)|2
If we set1
ρ(x, a) = |x − a|2 + (1 − |a|2 )(1 − |x|2 ) = |a|2 |a∗ − x|2 , (2.1.5)
then the mapping ϕa can be expressed as
a|x − a|2 + (1 − |a|2 )(a − x)
ϕa (x) = . (2.1.6)
ρ(x, a)
As a consequence of (2.1.3)
(1 − |x|2 )(1 − |a|2 )
1 − |ϕa (x)|2 = . (2.1.7)
ρ(x, a)
Thus ϕa is a Möbius transformation mapping B onto B with ϕa (0) = a and
ϕa (a) = 0. That ϕa maps B onto B follows immediately from the fact that ψa
maps B onto R̂n \ B and that x∗ maps R̂n \ B onto B. We will shortly prove that
ϕa also satisfies ϕa (ϕa (x)) = x for all x ∈ B. In the unit disk D, for z, w ∈ D,
ρ(z, w) = |1 − wz|2 and the mappings ϕw (z) as defined by (2.1.6) are precisely
the functions (w − z) (1 − wz).
One of the advantages of the mappings ϕa is that the function (a, x) → ϕa (x)
is not only continuous on B × B but also differentiable in each of the variables.
At this point we will include several computations involving derivatives of the
mappings ϕa that will be required in the proof of Theorem 2.1.2 and also later
in the sequel. Let yj (x) denote the jth coordinate of y(x) = ϕa (x). Then by
straightforward computations we have
∂yj ∂yj −δi,j
(0) = −δi, j (1 − |a|2 ), (a) = , (2.1.8)
∂xi ∂xi (1 − |a|2 )
∂ 2 yj
(0) = (1 − |a|2 )[2aj − 4ai δi,j ]. (2.1.9)
∂xi2
Hence
ϕa (0) = −(1 − |a|2 ) I and ϕa (a) = −(1 − |a|2 )−1 I,
where I is the n × n identity matrix.
1 In [11] the function √ρ(x, a) is denoted by [x, a].
8 Möbius Self-Maps of the Unit Ball

Since the following theorem is well known, we state it without proof.

A proof may be found in [11, Theorem 3.4.1].

Theorem 2.1.1 Let ψ be a Möbius transformation of R̂n satisfying ψ(0) = 0

and ψ(B) = B. Then ψ(x) = Ax for some orthogonal transformation A.

We denote by M(B) the set of all Möbius transformations of B onto B.

It is an immediate consequence of the following theorem that the set M(B)
forms a group called the Möbius group of B.

Theorem 2.1.2 For a ∈ B, let ϕa be defined by (2.1.6). Then

(a) ϕa is a one-to-one Möbius mapping of B onto B satisfying

ϕa (0) = a, ϕa (a) = 0, and ϕa (ϕa (x)) = x

for all x ∈ B.
(b) If ψ ∈ M(B), then there exists an orthogonal transformation A and
a ∈ B such that ψ(x) = Aϕa (x).

Proof. To prove (a) it only remains to be shown that ϕa (ϕa (x)) = x for all
x ∈ B. Set ψ(x) = (ϕa ◦ ϕa )(x). Then ψ is a Möbius transformation of R̂n
mapping B onto B satisfying ψ(0) = 0. Thus ψ(x) = Ax for some orthogonal
transformation A. But then A = ψ  (0). On the other hand, by the chain rule
and Equations (2.1.8)

ψ  (0) = ϕa (a)ϕa (0) = I.

Hence A = I and thus ϕa (ϕa (x)) = x for all x ∈ B.

(b) Let ψ ∈ M(B) and let a = ψ −1 (0). Then ψ ◦ ϕa is a Möbius
transformation of B that fixes the origin. Thus ψ ◦ ϕa (x) = Ax for some
orthogonal transformation A. But then by (a) we have ψ(x) = Aϕa (x). 

Prior to introducing the hyperbolic metric on B we prove an identity for

mappings ψ ∈ M(B).

Theorem 2.1.3 If ψ ∈ M(B), then for all x, y ∈ B,

|ψ(x) − ψ(y)|2 |x − y|2

= .
(1 − |ψ(x)|2 )(1 − |ψ(y)|2 ) (1 − |x|2 )(1 − |y|2 )
Proof. Although this identity could be proved using the mappings ϕa , it
appears to be easier to use the mappings σa definedas follows: for a ∈ B,
a = 0, let σa denote the inversion in the sphere S(a∗ , |a∗ |2 − 1), that is,

σa (x) = a∗ + (|a∗ |2 − 1)(x − a∗ )∗ . (2.1.10)

 2.2 The Hyperbolic Metric on B 9

Then σa (0) = a, σa (a) = 0, and since σa is an inversion, σa (σa (x)) = x for all
x ∈ R̂n . Also, by identity (1.3.2),
(|a∗ |2 − 1)2 |x − a|2
|σa (x)|2 = |σa (x) − σa (a)|2 = ,
|x − a∗ |2 |a − a∗ |2
which upon simplification gives
|x − a|2
|σa (x)|2 = .
ρ(x, a)
Thus
(1 − |x|2 )(1 − |a|2 )
1 − |σa (x)|2 = . (2.1.11)
ρ(x, a)
Hence σa ∈ M(B).2 Again by (1.3.2) we obtain
(1 − |a|2 )2 |x − y|2
|σa (x) − σa (y)|2 = .
ρ(x, a)ρ(y, a)
Combining this with (2.1.11) now gives
|σa (x) − σa (y)|2 |x − y|2
= .
(1 − |σa (x)|2 )(1 − |σa (y)|2 ) (1 − |x|2 )(1 − |y|2 )
Finally, as in the proof of Theorem 2.1.2(b), every ψ ∈ M(B) can be expressed
as ψ(x) = Aσa (x) for some A ∈ O(n) and a ∈ B. From this the result now
follows. 
As a consequence of the identity in Theorem 2.1.3, for ψ ∈ M(B),
|ψ(y) − ψ(x)| 1 − |ψ(x)|2
lim = . (2.1.12)
y→x |y − x| 1 − |x|2
This result will be required in proving the M-invariance of the hyperbolic
metric on B.

2.2 The Hyperbolic Metric on B

The element of arclength ds for the hyperbolic metric dh on B is given by
2|dx|
ds = . (2.2.1)
1 − |x|2
Thus if γ : [0, 1] → B is a C1 curve in B, the hyperbolic length L(γ ) of γ is
given by
2 Even though the mappings σ are easier to work with, they have the disadvantage that
a
lima→0 σa (x) does not exist.
10 Möbius Self-Maps of the Unit Ball

 1 2|γ  (t)| dt
L(γ ) = ,
0 1 − |γ (t)|2
and for a, b ∈ B, the hyperbolic distance dh (a, b) between a and b is
defined by
dh (a, b) = inf L(γ ),
γ

where the infimum is taken over all C1 curves γ : [0, 1] → B with γ (0) = a
and γ (1) = b. From this we immediately obtain that for x ∈ B,
 
1 + |x|
dh (0, x) = log . (2.2.2)
1 − |x|
Theorem 2.2.1 For all ψ ∈ M(B) and a, b ∈ B, dh (ψ(a), ψ(b)) = dh (a, b).

Proof. To prove the theorem it suffices to prove that L(ψ ◦ γ ) = L(γ ) for all
C1 curves γ and ψ ∈ M(B). If we set σ (t) = ψ(γ (t)), then σ is a C1 curve
and
 
 σ (t + h) − σ (t) 
 
|σ (t)| = lim  
h→0 h 
|ψ(γ (t + h)) − ψ(γ (t))|
= lim ,
h→0 |h|

which by (2.1.12)
 
 1 − |ψ(γ (t))|2
= |γ (t)| .
1 − |γ (t)|2
Thus
|σ  (t)| |γ  (t)|
= .
1 − |σ (t)|2 1 − |γ (t)|2
From this it now follows that L(σ ) = L(γ ), thus proving the claim. 

As a consequence of (2.2.2) and Theorem 2.2.1, for a, b ∈ B,

 
1 + |ϕa (b)|
dh (a, b) = dh (0, ϕa (b)) = log . (2.2.3)
1 − |ϕa (b)|
Some brief computations also give

|a − b|2
sinh2 12 dh (a, b) = , (2.2.4)
(1 − |a|2 )(1 − |b|2 )
 2.2 The Hyperbolic Metric on B 11

or
 
|a − b|
dh (a, b) = 2 Arcsinh 
(1 − |a|2 )(1 − |b|2 )
 
|a − b|
= 2 Arctanh √ ,
ρ(a, b)
where ρ(a, b) is defined by (2.1.5).
For 0 < r < 1 we will denote B(0, r) and S(0, r) by Br and Sr respectively.
As in [72, p. 29], for a ∈ B and 0 < r < 1, we let E(a, r) = ϕa (Br ). Since ϕa
is an involution,
  
E(a, r) = {x ∈ B : |ϕa (x)| < r} = x ∈ B : dh (a, x) < log 1+r
1−r . (2.2.5)

Thus E(a, r) is a hyperbolic ball with hyperbolic center a and hyperbolic

radius
 
1+r
ρ = log = 2 Arctanh r.
1−r
However, E(a, r) is also a Euclidean ball whose center and radius are given in
the following theorem.

Theorem 2.2.2 For a ∈ B and 0 < r < 1, E(a, r) = B(ca , ρa ) where

(1 − r2 )a r(1 − |a|2 )
ca = and ρa = .
(1 − |a|2 r2 ) (1 − |a|2 r2 )
Proof. To prove the result we first determine the image of Sr under the
mapping ϕa . Let ψa be the mapping defined by (2.1.1). If |a| = r, then by
(1.3.1)
 
(1 − r2 )a (1 − |a|2 )r
ψa (Sr ) = S , .
(|a|2 − r2 ) ||a|2 − r2 |
Since ϕa = ψa∗ , using (1.3.1) again gives
 
(1 − r2 )a (1 − |a|2 )r
ϕa (Sr ) = S , . (2.2.6)
(1 − r2 |a|2 ) (1 − r2 |a|2 )
On the other hand, if |a| = r, ψa (Sr ) = P(a, 12 (1 + |a|2 )). Taking the inversion
of ψa (Sr ) gives

ϕa (Sr ) = {x : (1 + |a|2 )|x|2 − 2a, x = 0}.

This, however, is simply the equation of the sphere given in (2.2.6) with
r = |a|. Since ϕa is continuous and a ∈ B(ca , ρa ), ϕa (Br ) ⊂ B(ca , ρa ). Finally,
since ϕa is an involution, ϕa (Br ) = B(ca , ρa ). 
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