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Indian Ocean Resources
and Technology
Indian Ocean Resources
and Technology

G. S. Roonwal
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Roonwal, G. S. (Ganpat Singh), 1940- author.

Title: Indian Ocean resources and technology / Ganpat Singh Roonwal.
Description: Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, CRC Press, 2018. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017023686| ISBN 9781138095342 (hardback : alk. paper) |
ISBN 9781315105697 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Marine mineral resources--Indian Ocean.
Classification: LCC TN264 .R665 2018 | DDC 333.8/509165--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017023686

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

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To my parents and family who gave me this wonderful world, affectionate

upbringing, discipline, hard work, and sense of humor

To my teachers who gave me a desire to learn

Contents

List of Figures............................................................................................................................... xiii

List of Tables................................................................................................................................ xvii
Preface............................................................................................................................................ xix
Acknowledgments....................................................................................................................... xxi
Author.......................................................................................................................................... xxiii
Acronyms..................................................................................................................................... xxv
Conversion Factors..................................................................................................................... xxix
Introduction................................................................................................................................ xxxi

1 The Indian Ocean and Its Associates.................................................................................. 1

1.1 Uniqueness of Indian Ocean........................................................................................ 1
1.2 The Indian Ocean and Subseas.................................................................................... 3
1.3 Offshore Bed Rock Mineral Deposits..........................................................................8
1.3.1 Geological Regime and Structure and Relief of the Indian Ocean...........8
1.4 Sediment Pattern.......................................................................................................... 10
1.5 Exclusive Economic Zone........................................................................................... 12
1.6 Shallow Oceanic Mineral Deposits........................................................................... 13
1.7 Deep Oceanic Mineral Deposits................................................................................ 13
References................................................................................................................................ 14

2 Ores in the Deep Sea: Manganese Nodules..................................................................... 17

2.1 General.......................................................................................................................... 17
2.2 What are Mn-Nodules?............................................................................................... 18
2.3 Distribution of Manganese Nodules......................................................................... 19
2.4 Deep-Sea Mineral Resources...................................................................................... 19
2.5 Growth Pattern, Mineralogy, and Geochemistry.................................................... 20
2.6 Genesis of Manganese Nodules and Manganese Crusts....................................... 21
2.7 Mining Claims and Exploration................................................................................ 24
2.8 Indian Ocean Nodules................................................................................................ 25
References................................................................................................................................ 28

3 Ores in the Deep Sea: Cobalt- and Platinum-Rich Ferromanganese Crusts............ 31

3.1 The Cobalt-Rich Crusts............................................................................................... 31
3.2 Mineralogy and Geochemistry.................................................................................. 31
3.3 Processes of Accretion and Formation...................................................................... 32
3.4 Crust Texture: Thickness, Rates of Growth, and Substrate Characteristics........ 35
3.5 Indian Ocean Occurrences......................................................................................... 36
References................................................................................................................................ 36

4 Ores in the Deep Sea: Seafloor Massive Sulfides and Metalliferous Mud............... 39
4.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................. 39
4.2 Nature, Distribution, and Origin of SMS Deposits and Metalliferous Mud....... 40
4.2.1 The Red Sea.....................................................................................................43
4.3 Seafloor Sulfides in the Indian Ocean.......................................................................44

vii
viii Contents

4.4 Volcanogenic Massive Sulfides (SMS)/SMS Deposits on the Mid-Indian

Ocean Ridge.................................................................................................................. 46
4.4.1 SMS Deposits on the Mid-Indian Ocean Ridge.......................................... 46
4.5 Hydrothermal Mineralization in the Andaman Sea.............................................. 49
4.5.1 The Geology and Tectonics of the Andaman Sea...................................... 52
4.5.2 The Nature of the Sediments........................................................................ 53
4.5.3 Seafloor Spreading and Implication for Volcanogenic Massive
Sulfides (SMS).................................................................................................. 53
4.6 Industrial Interest in SMS........................................................................................... 55
4.7 The Scientific Significance of SMS Research............................................................ 57
4.8 Future Trend................................................................................................................. 59
References................................................................................................................................ 60

5 Shallow Oceanic and Coastal Mineral Deposits............................................................63

5.1 General..........................................................................................................................63
5.2 Phosphorite...................................................................................................................63
5.3 Construction Material.................................................................................................64
5.4 Heavy Mineral Placers................................................................................................65
5.4.1 Distribution of Heavy Mineral Sand along the Indian Coast.................. 66
5.4.1.1 West Coast of India......................................................................... 69
5.4.1.2 East Coast of India.......................................................................... 69
5.5 Economic Consideration and Application of Rare Earths in High Technology........... 71
5.6 Factors Controlling Formation of Beach Placers..................................................... 74
5.7 Exploration and Evaluation of Heavy Mineral Placer Deposits............................ 75
5.7.1 Reconnaissance Survey.................................................................................. 75
5.7.2 Scout Drilling.................................................................................................. 75
5.7.3 Close-space Drilling: Detailed Investigations............................................ 76
5.7.4 Computation of Mineral Reserves................................................................ 76
5.7.5 Sampling and Drilling Equipments.............................................................77
5.8 Important Coastal Placer Deposits of India.............................................................77
5.8.1 Ratnagiri Deposits, Maharashtra.................................................................77
5.8.2 Neendakara–Kayamkulam Deposit, Kerala...............................................77
5.8.3 Manavalakurichi Deposit, Kanyakumari District, Tamil Nadu.............. 78
5.8.4 Bhimunipatnam Deposit, Vishakapatnam and Vizianagaram
District, Andhra Pradesh............................................................................... 79
5.8.5 Chhatrapur Deposit, Ganjam District, Odisha........................................... 81
5.9 Heavy Mineral Placer of the East African Coast..................................................... 81
5.10 Tin Placers of Southeast Asia.....................................................................................83
5.11 Resource Position.........................................................................................................83
References................................................................................................................................ 85

6 Shallow Oceanic Nonliving Resource: Petroleum and Hydrocarbon........................ 87

6.1 General.......................................................................................................................... 87
6.2 Potential Hydrocarbon Basins in the West Coast of India: Arabian Sea............. 89
6.3 Hydrocarbon Potential along the Eastern Offshore in the Bay of Bengal........... 91
6.4 Hydrocarbon Potential in the Andaman Sea........................................................... 93
6.5 Gas Hydrates Resources in the Bay of Bengal......................................................... 94
6.6 Significance of the Andaman Sea.............................................................................. 95
6.7 Hydrocarbon Potential in the East African Coast................................................... 96
Contents ix

6.7.1Sedimentary Basins in Somalia and their Hydrocarbon Resource

Potential............................................................................................................ 96
6.7.2 Hydrocarbon Potential in Western Indian Ocean...................................... 97
6.7.2.1 Mozambique.................................................................................... 98
6.7.2.2 Tanzania/Kenya.............................................................................. 98
6.7.2.3 Persian Gulf...................................................................................... 98
References................................................................................................................................ 98

7 Living Resources: Fish and Fishery................................................................................. 101

7.1 Biomass for Fishery.................................................................................................... 101
7.2 Tuna Fishing in the Indian Ocean........................................................................... 101
7.3 Fish Catch Status........................................................................................................ 102
7.3.1 Tuna Production and Fishery Type............................................................ 102
7.3.2 Purse-seine Fishery...................................................................................... 103
7.3.3 Longline Fishery........................................................................................... 104
7.3.4 Pole and Line Fishery................................................................................... 104
7.3.5 Gillnet Fishery............................................................................................... 104
7.3.6 Troll Line and Handline Fisheries.............................................................. 104
7.4 Tuna Fish in the Indian Ocean................................................................................. 105
7.5 Some Challenges of Fishing in the Indian Ocean................................................. 105
7.6 Fishing in the Southern Indian Ocean.................................................................... 107
7.7 Fishery in the Mangroves of Indian Ocean............................................................ 108
7.8 Fishing in the Indian EEZ......................................................................................... 108
7.9 Fisheries Management and Best Practices in the Indian Ocean......................... 109
References.............................................................................................................................. 112

8 Energy and Fresh Water from the Ocean........................................................................ 115

8.1 Ocean Energy and Types.......................................................................................... 115
8.2 The Monsoon Pattern and Thermal Structure...................................................... 116
8.3 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion........................................................................ 116
8.4 Ocean Wave Energy................................................................................................... 119
8.5 Tidal Energy................................................................................................................ 121
8.5.1 Tidal Energy Site Selection and Fabrication of Plant............................... 123
8.6 Sweet Water from the Sea: Low-Temperature Thermal Desalination
Applications for Drinking Water............................................................................. 124
8.6.1 Water Requirement of Coastal Power Plant.............................................. 125
8.6.2 Self-Powered Desalination Plant at Islands.............................................. 125
8.6.3 Benefit to the People of Lakshadweep....................................................... 127
References.............................................................................................................................. 128

9 Remotely Operated Vehicle and Autonomous Underwater Vehicles....................... 129

9.1 General........................................................................................................................ 129
9.2 Development Perspective.......................................................................................... 130
9.3 Tasks and Applications............................................................................................. 131
9.4 Developmental Trends in ROV and AUV Technology......................................... 135
9.4.1 Trends in ROV and AUV Systems.............................................................. 136
9.4.2 Autonomous Underwater Vehicles............................................................ 137
9.4.3 Support Vessels............................................................................................. 137
9.4.4 Launching Gear............................................................................................ 138
x Contents

9.5 Nonhydrocarbon-related ROV and AUV: Uses and Technology Transfer........ 138
9.5.1 Mine Countermeasures................................................................................ 138
9.6 Future Trends............................................................................................................. 139
9.6.1 Cable Laying.................................................................................................. 140
9.6.2 Deep-Sea Mining Operations..................................................................... 140
9.6.3 Fisheries.......................................................................................................... 140
9.6.4 Environmental Monitoring......................................................................... 141
9.6.5 Other Uses of ROVs and AUVs................................................................... 142
References.............................................................................................................................. 144

10 Seabed Mineral Exploration and Deep-Sea Mining Technology............................. 145

10.1 General........................................................................................................................ 145
10.2 Exploration Methods for Manganese Nodules...................................................... 146
10.3 Exploration for Massive Sulfides on the Midoceanic Ridges.............................. 148
10.3.1 The East Pacific Rise and Other Promising Areas................................... 149
10.4 Extent and Grade of SMS Deposits.......................................................................... 150
10.5 Technology Needs for Exploration and Mining.................................................... 151
10.5.1 Continuous Line Bucket............................................................................... 156
10.5.2 Hydraulic/Airlift Methods.......................................................................... 157
10.5.3 Chantier Sous-Marin (CSM)........................................................................ 158
10.5.4 Other Options................................................................................................ 159
10.6 Mineral Processing and Refining............................................................................ 162
10.7 Other Factors.............................................................................................................. 162
10.7.1 Mining within National Jurisdiction......................................................... 163
10.7.2 Mining in International Waters.................................................................. 164
References.............................................................................................................................. 165
Useful Websites..................................................................................................................... 166

11 Ocean Environment and Pollution.................................................................................. 167

11.1 Environmental Issues................................................................................................ 167
11.2 Environment and Tectonics and Eustatic Sea-Level Changes............................. 170
11.3 Environmental Effects Due to Mining.................................................................... 171
11.3.1 Potential Effect of Nodule Mining............................................................. 172
11.3.2 Potential Effects of Cobalt-Rich Crust Mining......................................... 173
11.3.3 Potential Environmental Effect of Metalliferous Muds of
Sediments: A Case Study of Red Sea......................................................... 174
11.3.4 Potential Environment Impact Related to Seafloor Massive
Sulfide Mining............................................................................................... 174
11.4 Potential Environment Impact Related to Phosphorite Mining.......................... 178
11.5 Wastes in the Deep Sea............................................................................................. 178
11.6 Indian Ocean and Climate Change......................................................................... 179
References.............................................................................................................................. 180

12 The Future Options: The Growing Ocean Economy................................................... 183

12.1 General........................................................................................................................ 183
12.2 Exclusive Economic Zone in the Indian Ocean..................................................... 185
12.3 Implications of EEZ in the Indian Ocean............................................................... 185
12.4 Economics of Deep Sea Mining............................................................................... 186
12.5 Estimates of Demand................................................................................................ 187
Contents xi

12.5.1 Zinc................................................................................................................. 188

12.5.2 Copper............................................................................................................ 188
12.5.3 Silver............................................................................................................... 189
12.5.4 Cobalt.............................................................................................................. 190
12.5.5 Nickel.............................................................................................................. 190
12.5.6 Manganese..................................................................................................... 191
12.6 Future Demand and Ocean Economy of Deep-Sea Mining................................ 191
12.6.1 Economic Impact of Deep-Sea Mining...................................................... 193
12.6.2 Possible Mining Technology....................................................................... 194
12.6.3 Factors Influencing Mining......................................................................... 195
12.6.3.1 Mining within National Jurisdiction......................................... 195
12.6.3.2 Mining in International Waters.................................................. 196
12.7 Research Ships and Ship Building in India........................................................... 198
12.8 Techno-Business Opportunity in the Indian Ocean............................................. 199
12.8.1 Short-Term Opportunity.............................................................................. 201
12.8.2 Long-Term Opportunity.............................................................................. 202
References.............................................................................................................................. 203

Glossary........................................................................................................................................ 205
Index.............................................................................................................................................. 207
List of Figures

Figure 1.1 Oceanic resources......................................................................................................3

Figure 1.2 Law of the sea and resources................................................................................... 4
Figure 1.3 Indian Ocean showing different basins................................................................. 4
Figure 1.4 Map of world oceans showing major tectonic zones and mineral
occurrences.................................................................................................................5
Figure 1.5 Indian Ocean showing main sediments types.................................................... 11
Figure 2.1 A close look of manganese nodules (nodules supplied by National
Institute of Ocean Technology, Chennai). (a) Assortment of manganese
nodules from the Central Indian Ocean Basin, and (b) Close look at
manganese nodules from the Central Indian Ocean Basin............................... 18
Figure 2.2 Location of Marine Minerals According to Topography of the
Seafloor; (1) Heavy mineral placers; (2) Phosphorite; (3) Hydrothermal
metalliferous impregnation and deposits; (4) Manganese nodules.................22
Figure 2.3 Shows the regional metal contents of the manganese nodule in the
Indian Ocean............................................................................................................ 26
Figure 2.4 Indian Ocean showing claims for nodules and sulfide exploration................ 27
Figure 2.5 Area allocated to India as a Pioneer Investor in the Indian Ocean.................. 28
Figure 3.1 Cobalt-rich ferromanganese crust on an altered host rock............................... 32
Figure 3.2 Major mineral occurrences in the northern part of the Indian Ocean............ 33
Figure 4.1 Major plate boundaries...........................................................................................42
Figure 4.2 Showing concept of diverging and conversing plate boundary.
(a) Divergent plate, and (b) conversion plate........................................................42
Figure 4.3 Ridge systems in the Indian Ocean...................................................................... 47
Figure 4.4 Concept showing hydrothermal system on the Mid-Indian Ocean Ridge..... 50
Figure 4.5 Generalized tectonic evolution of back-arc basin in the Andaman Sea.......... 50
Figure 4.6 (a) and (b) shows location of Andaman Sea in the northeast Indian Ocean......51
Figure 4.7 The formation of hydrothermal chimneys and precipitation of SMS.............. 52
Figure 4.8 Hand specimen of seafloor massive sulfide showing clearly
mineralization and micro channels...................................................................... 52
Figure 4.9 The initiation of hydrothermal system on the midocean ridges......................54
Figure 4.10 (a) Red sea showing location of deeps and (b) concept of red sea rifting
in the deeps...............................................................................................................54

xiii
xiv List of Figures

Figure 4.11 Core sections of metalliferous sediments from Atlantis II Deep

showing layers sulfides........................................................................................... 55
Figure 4.12 The potential areas for volcanogenic massive sulfide: (1) Unsedimented
spreading axis, (2) sedimented spreading axis................................................... 56
Figure 5.1 Major distribution of heavy minerals in the Indian Ocean.............................. 67
Figure 5.2 Beach heavy mineral sand deposits in India....................................................... 71
Figure 5.3 (a) Rutile rich heavy mineral sands on Odisha coast and (b) sillimanite
rich heavy mineral sands on Odisha coast.......................................................... 71
Figure 5.4 Purified fraction of heavy mineral sand from the Indian Coast...................... 78
Figure 5.5 Simultaneous backfilling activity at Chhatrapur Beach.................................... 79
Figure 5.6 Garnet rich red sands at Sattankulam, Tamilnadu, India................................. 79
Figure 5.7 Common example of applications of rare earth’s in high technology.............80
Figure 5.8 Dredge and West Upgradation Plant on Chhatrapur/Gopalpur Coast at
Chhatrapur Beach.................................................................................................... 81
Figure 5.9 Dredging operation at Chhatrapur Beach........................................................... 81
Figure 5.10 Showing different layers of heavy minerals in the beach sands in west
coast of India............................................................................................................ 82
Figure 5.11 Sillimanite rich beach placer in Chhaterpur, Gopalpur, Odisha, India.......... 82
Figure 6.1 Showing off-shore sedimentary basins in the Arabian Sea and Bay of
Bengal........................................................................................................................ 89
Figure 6.2 Tectonic map of west coast of India showing the Kutch Basin.........................90
Figure 6.3 Offshore hydrocarbon potential along Krishna–Godavari Basin.................... 92
Figure 6.4 Offshore platform operating in the Arabian Sea................................................ 92
Figure 6.5 Offshore hydrocarbon potential zone along east African coast....................... 97
Figure 7.1 Fishing zones in the southern Indian Ocean..................................................... 103
Figure 7.2 Assemblage of different types of fishes in the Indian Ocean. Maxi size
attained by many of these fishes 1–1.2 m........................................................... 110
Figure 8.1 (a) Principle of simple Rankine cycle based OTEC, (b) OTEC concept
explained—the operating temperatures regime of the ocean. The power
thus produces transmitted in a cable to the Island/mainland (consumer)
territory, and (c) fabrication of simple Rankine cycle-based OTEC................. 117
Figure 8.2 Concept behind an OTEC plant. A working fluid (e.g., liquid ammonia)
is pumped through the heat exchangers (evaporator and condenser)
and its junctions are regulated by the warm seawater (25–27°C) taken
from the surface and cold sea-water (8°C) pumped from deeper layers....... 119
Figure 8.3 (a) Wave energy convertor (falling water column), and (b) wave energy
convertor (rising water column).......................................................................... 120
List of Figures xv

Figure 8.4 Cross-sectional plan of the wave energy device and its connection with
the breakwater by a steel foot bridge.................................................................. 121
Figure 8.5 Diagram showing the principle of low-temperature thermal desalination........126
Figure 8.6 Showing NIOT’s first installed low-temperature desalination plant............. 126
Figure 8.7 Showing distant view of NIOT’s plant............................................................... 127
Figure 8.8 Barge-mounted desalination plant of NIOT...................................................... 127
Figure 9.1 Breakdown of underwater unmanned work systems and indicates
those systems forming bulk of ROV and AUV................................................. 131
Figure 10.1 The concept of nodule mining (1—Ocean slope, 2—Main ship,
3—Mother ship, 4—Intermediate state, 5—Module collection)..................... 146
Figure 10.2 Showing the different seabed resources............................................................ 147
Figure 10.3 TV-controlled pneumatic graph unit very useful for exploration for SMS........153
Figure 10.4 Continuous line bucket and other concepts for manganese nodule
mining (a) continuous line bucket, (b) nodule sweeping trawler with
hydraulic lift system, and (c) nodule trawler with intermediate station....... 157
Figure 11.1 The set mechanism and some of the potential “feedback.”............................ 168
Figure 11.2 Schematic arrangement for disturber towing................................................... 172
Figure 11.3 Sediment sampling was conducted to evaluate the effect of
resedimentation on the benthic community by comparing
predisturbance samples with those collected after disturber towing........... 173
Figure 12.1 EEZ in the Indian Ocean (a) The Ocean without EEZ; (b) The Ocean
with EEZ................................................................................................................. 184
Figure 12.2 NIOT’s ORV Sagar Nidhi........................................................................................ 198
List of Tables

Table 1.1 Marine Environment and Associated Minerals.................................................... 2

Table 1.2 Depth Zones of the Indian Ocean (km2)................................................................ 5
Table 1.3 Continental Shelf Areas of the Indian Ocean (Seabed <200 m/656 ft)..............6
Table 1.4 Distribution of Sediments in the Indian Ocean.................................................. 11
Table 1.5 Nonliving Resources of the Ocean....................................................................... 14
Table 2.1 Schematic Representation of the Possible Origins of the Elements, and
the Potential Areas of Formation of Manganese Nodule Deposits.................. 21
Table 2.2 The Most Important Mineral Phases of Manganese Nodules and Their
Correlation with the Elements Mn, Ni, Cu, Zn or Fe, Co...................................22
Table 2.3 Average Metal Concentration on Weight % of Nodules from the Indian
Ocean......................................................................................................................... 26
Table 3.1 Average Chemical Composition of Various Elements in Crusts for
Pacific Ocean Areas.................................................................................................34
Table 4.1 Resources of the Atlantis II Deep..........................................................................44
Table 4.2 Typical Contents (wt.%) of Elected Metals from the Seabed: Sulfide
Samples and Related Ancient Massive Sulfide Ores.......................................... 48
Table 4.3 Metal Values of Selected Sulfide from Sonne Field from Central Indian
Ocean Ridge............................................................................................................. 48
Table 4.4 Licenses Overview for Seafloor Mineral Exploration in the Indian
Ocean (ISA site)........................................................................................................ 49
Table 4.5 Tectonic Setting with Example of SMS on the Modern Seafloor...................... 56
Table 5.1 Distribution of Placers and Exploration Status along Indian Coasts............... 66
Table 5.2 Total Indian Reserves of Beach Sand Placer Resources..................................... 67
Table 5.3 Total Heavy Mineral Wise Placer Concentration as wt.% in Chhatrapur
(Gopalpur), Odisha.................................................................................................. 70
Table 5.4 Use of REE in High Technology: An Industry-Wise Breakup.......................... 73
Table 5.5 Production of Rare Earth Minerals (t REO Content).......................................... 73
Table 5.6 Operational Marine Metallic Heavy Mineral Deposits.....................................84
Table 6.1 Classification of Indian Offshore Sedimentary Basins...................................... 88
Table 7.1 Fish Type and Catch.............................................................................................. 103
Table 7.2 Depth-wise Fishery Resources in the Indian Ocean........................................ 105
Table 7.3 Profile of Indian Marine Fisheries....................................................................... 109

xvii
xviii List of Tables

Table 8.1 Estimates of Indian Ocean Energy Resources................................................... 116

Table 8.2 Potential Indian Tidal Power............................................................................... 122
Table 8.3 Tidal Power Plants in India.................................................................................. 123
Table 8.4 Organizations Working on Ocean/Tidal Energy in India.............................. 123
Table 10.1 Exploration Strategy of Sulfide Mineral Deposit.............................................. 148
Table 10.2 Manned Submersible Used in SMS Exploration............................................... 154
Table 10.3 Technological Requirements for Deep Sea Mineral Mining........................... 156
Table 11.1 Marine Mining Impact Evaluation..................................................................... 169
Table 12.1 World Reserves of Copper.................................................................................... 189
Table 12.2 World Cobalt Reserves (Metal Content)............................................................. 189
Table 12.3 World Reserves of Nickel Ore.............................................................................. 191
Table 12.4 World Reserves of Manganese Ore..................................................................... 191
Table 12.5 Predicted Growth of Shipping Industry in India............................................. 199
Table 12.6 Public Sector Ship Building in India................................................................... 199
Table 12.7 Private Sector Ship Building in India................................................................. 200
Preface

In 1981 Daniel Behrman, summarizing the achievements of the International Ocean

Expedition (1959–65), called the Indian Ocean “the largest unknown.” From this, after
six decades, the Indian Ocean today has become an ocean of competition, especially the
seabed resources (Roonwal 2015). It is, therefore, timely to have an assessment of the
resources of the Indian Ocean and the technology needed for good utilization of these for
the benefit of the people around the Indian Ocean. Clearly, India could play a major role
in initiating such an activity. To both utilize a 73,426,500 sq km of water mass, one-sev-
enth of the surface of the earth. The population of more than 2 billion would be benefited
from this approach. That is the spirit of UN Conference on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
that the oceans could be the “common heritage of mankind.” This would be a tribute to
the visionaries like Paul Tchernia, Lloyd Berkner, Roger Revelle, George Deacon, Robert
G. Snider, Gunter Dietrich, Maurice Ewing, Anton Brunn, and many others for initiating
the International Indian Ocean Expedition (IIOE).
In view of India’s rapid progress in all area of science and technology, and in particular
in utilizing and managing its marine resources under the new ocean regime, it is timely
that an assessment is done. It is the aim of this book to provide an overview of the area
and to highlight the potential market opportunities represented by this vast and rapidly
developing nation. In doing so the following aspects have been covered.

• Mineral resources (hard minerals oil and gas), deep sea. The shallow sea and the
coastal zone minerals
• Living resources (fish and aquaculture)
• Energy resources (OTEC, wave, tidal) and freshwater from the sea
• Technology and economics of deep-sea mining
• Environment, pollution, and waste disposal

India has long viewed its path of development as indicated by advances in science and
technology. Therefore, its market potential has aroused interest in many industrialized
advanced nations. As a result of open market policy of the government, opportunity has
opened for great potential and possibility. In doing so, India has undergone a rapid expan-
sion of marine science and technology, which resulted in the establishment of research
institutions such as the NIO, NCAOR, NIOT, and an expansion of marine science activ-
ity by GSI, ONGC, and others. Several research ships are available both for deep sea and
shallow survey and research as we witness science grow more diverse and an inevitable
increase in the degree to which specialization isolates the practitioners to often ever large
number of subfields. This may lead to barriers, often impenetrable. Therefore, an attempt
to bring an overview assessment of both the deep sea the shallow sea, the EEZ, and the
coastal zone all in a single place shall be of immense utility to all—the active researchers,
policymakers, the technology and engineering consortia, and students. In fact, this book
will not only fill the gap and provide useful reference work but it will also generate future
discussion concerning the most appropriate strategy for further development in the tech-
nology and role of India in utilizing the Indian Ocean for the benefit of the people.

xix
xx Preface

From the time when sustainable development goals (SDG) are being recognized, more
and more attention is focused on an inclusive use of ocean—the body itself and the
resources both living and nonliving the ocean offers. In addition, ocean currents, salinity
variation, temperature variants, and even the tidal waves are being considered for utiliza-
tion as a source of renewable energy. I realized early the significance of the Indian Ocean, an
ocean that was not so well studied as the Pacific and the Atlantic Oceans. The International
Indian Ocean Expedition (1959–65) gave a big push to the science of ocean in this region.
It led to creation of ocean research institutes in the region. In India, the National Institute
of Oceanography (NIO) was established, an extension and result of the IIOE, to continue
work on huge observation data, and samples collected during the IIOE. Mero’s (1965) book
Mineral Resources of the Sea created added interest in the seafloor minerals. Therefore, it
was appropriate for me to write The Indian Ocean Exploitable Mineral and Petroleum Resources
(1986). The access to resources in the Indian Ocean has created a delicate situation. There
is now great interest in seabed minerals. Here in addition to India, others who have signed
contracts for exploration include South Korea, China, and Germany. It is resulting in a
sort of competition (Roonwal, 2015). The prospect of ocean economy for a holistic develop-
ment of the Indian Ocean and all its resource potential needs to be understood. Hopefully
a good synthesis and scientific data interpretation shall prevent the Indian Ocean from
degradation.
This book is an attempt in this direction. There may be several other aspects that could
have been included, but we have to wait for more data and synthesis. After all it’s the
beginning of the journey, a long journey of humanity and welfare. It is in a way the “first
step” in this journey, and I look forward to support and suggestions in this attempt.
Acknowledgments

My sincere thanks to Dr. K. Kanjilal, director, and Dr. Sundeep Chopra, head of AMS
Group, Inter-University Accelerator Centre (IUAC), New Delhi, for faculties and support.
I also thank Narender Kumar who brought my text in the computer format and Amerjeet
Roop Rai for drafting of the line diagrams and figures. I thank Dr. Pankaj Kumar, Rajeev
Sharma, and Pryamboda Nayak, librarian of IUAC, for various kinds of help.
I am grateful to Prashant, Geetu, Kabir, and Kanav Behki’s for family support to com-
plete this work.
Manju Bala Narender Kumar was always a support as we spent long hours at work on
computers.
My sincere thanks to Professor David J. Sanderson, University of Southampton, UK, and
Professor John Wiltshire of University of Hawaii for their suggestions in the final evolution
of the theme. I thank Dr. G. A. Ramadass, Dr. K. Gopakumar, and Dr. Purnima Jalihal of
the National Institute of Ocean Technology, Chennai, for discussions on offshore technol-
ogy regarding freshwater and energy from the sea; Dr. Sanjay Kali of IMMT Bhubaneswar
for the photograph of cobalt-rich crust; and Prashant Dubey of ONGC for discussions.
I also received the benefit of discussions with several distinguished participants during
the eight Deep-sea Mining Summits in Singapore and London in 2015–16, especially Dr.
Frank Lim (2H). Paul Holthus of World Ocean Council, Honolulu, United States, Engineer
Henk van Muijen of IHC Mining, the Netherlands, Ray Wood, Chatham Rock Phosphate,
New Zealand, and Phil Lotto Marine Space.
I was inspired and introduced to marine minerals by Professor G. H. W. Friedrich (since
deceased) of the Institute of Mineralogy and Economic Geology RWTH Aachen, Germany.
I had the privilege of sailing with him for manganese nodule exploration. I sailed together
with Dr. Vesna Machig, Hanover, Germany, in the exploration campaign for seafloor sul-
fide and several visits to Hanover and Delhi for collaboration. Professor P. A. Rona (since
deceased), and Dr. J. D. Hein of the USGS engaged me in a discussion on cobalt-rich crust.
I am grateful to Professor S. D. Scott, Toronto, Canada, for discussion, support, and sail-
ing together for exploration of seafloor sulfide; Professor P. Halbach, Berlin, for discus-
sion on seabed minerals in Germany and Delhi; Professor D. S. Cronan, Imperial College,
London, for several discussions in London and Delhi and sailing together; Dr. G. P. Glasby,
Sheffield and John Yates, Manchester, for exciting discussions on marine minerals during
their visits to Delhi; and Dr. J. S. Chung of ISOPE, United States, for useful discussions
during ISOPE meetings.
I thank the different publishing houses and authors for supply of information and per-
mission to reproduce or modify requested figures for this book. Centre for Marine Living
Resources and Ecology (MoES), and Dr. M. P. Wakdikar of MoES for photographs of fishes
of the Indian Ocean; Dr. Rajiv Nigam of the National Institute of Oceanography of Goa
for discussions and photographs of fishes of the Indian Ocean; D. Singh, CMD, IRE Ltd.;
A. K. Mohapatra, and Dr. B. Mishra, Indian Rare Earths (OSCOM, Chhatrapur) for samples
of mining operations for heavy mineral sand on Gopalpur coast; and Oil and Natural Gas
Corporation (ONGC), India, for the photograph of offshore platforms.
The preparation of this book has been facilitated by a grant given by the Hindustan Zinc
Ltd. (a unit of Vedanta Group). My sincere thanks are to the chief executive officer, Sunil

xxi
xxii Acknowledgments

Duggal, and the chief operating officer (Mines), L. S. Sekhawat for understanding and
support.
The editorial group at the New Delhi office of Taylor & Francis Group/CRC Press, has
been helpful at all stages. Special thanks to Dr. Gagandeep Singh and Mouli Sharma for
their support.
Author

G. S. Roonwal is an honorary visiting professor at the Inter-University Accelerator Centre,

New Delhi. Earlier, he was a professor of geology and head of the Department of Geology,
University of Delhi. He has participated in the exploration of seafloor manganese nodules
and the seabed massive sulfides. He has authored The Indian Ocean Exploitable Mineral and
Petroleum Resources (Springer, Heidelberg) and Competition for Seabed Resources in the Indian
Ocean. Additionally, he is a coeditor of India’s Exclusive Economic Zone and Living Resources
of India’s Exclusive Economic Zone. Professor Roonwal is a reputed geologist, a recipient of
the National Mineral Award by the Government of India, and several other awards. He
has worked with distinguished marine geologists overseas and traveled to several coun-
tries adjacent to the oceans. He is listed in Marques Who’s Who in the World and Marques
Who’s Who in Asia for several years.

xxiii
Acronyms

2D/3D/4D two dimensional/three dimensional/four dimensional (time-lapsed)

3D-3C three dimension–three component
AFERNOD Association Francais pour L’Etude et Recherche des Nodules
AMR ArbeitsgemeinschaftmeerestechnischgewinnbareRohstoffe
BCM billion cubic meters
BGR Bundesanstalt fur Geowissenschaft und Rohstoffe
BIO Bedford Institute of Oceanography
BMFT Bundesministerium-fur Forschung und Technologie
BOPD barrels of oil per day
BRGM Bureau de Recherches Geologiques et Minieres
BTOE billion tonnes oil equivalent
CAAGR compounded average annual growth rate
CBM coalbed methane
CLB continuous line bucket
COGLA Canada Oil and Gas Lands Administration
CRAM common reflection angle migration
CSEM controlled source electro magnetic
CSM Chantiers sous-Marin
CTD conductivity, temperature, depth
CZMA Coastal Zone Management Act
DEIS draft environmental impact statement
DFN discreet fraction network
DGH Directorate General of Hydrocarbons
E&P exploration and production
EEZ exclusive economic zone
EOB Eastern Ocean Basin
EPR East Pacific Rise
FRM fluid replacement model
GARIMAS Galapagos rift massive sulfide
GEMONOD Groupement D’interet Public pour la Mise au Point des Moyens
Necessaires a l’Exploitation des Nodules Polymetalliques
GEOMETEP Geothermal Metallogenesis East Pacific
GH gas hydrates
GLORIA Geological Long-Range Inclined Asdic
GOI Government of India
GPS global positioning system
GSI Geological Survey of India
HELP Hydrocarbon Exploration Licencing Policy
HOEC Hindustan Oil Exploration Company

xxv
xxvi Acronyms

HPB Heera-Panna-Bassein
HPHT high pressure–high temperature
IFREMER Institut Francais de Recherche pour l’Exploitation de la Mer
IOS Institute of Oceanographic Sciences
JAMSTEC Japan Marine Science and Technology Centre
KG Krishna–Godavari
LWD logging while drilling
MAR Mid-Atlantic Ridge
MBPD million barrels per day
MMS Minerals Management Service
MMSCD/ million metric standard cubic meters per day
MMSCMD
MoES Ministry of Earth Sciences
MOSES Magnetometric Offshore Electrical Sounding
MPD managed pressure drilling
MPL Marine Physical Laboratory
MPS Marine Polymetallic Sulphides
MRES Ministre Delegue Charge de la Recherche et de l’Enseignment
Superieur
NANG nonassociated natural gas
NEC Northern East Coast
NELP New Exploration Licensing Policy
NIO National Institute of Oceanography, Goa, India
NIOT National Institute of Ocean Technology
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
NOC national oil companies
NSF National Science Foundation
OCSLA Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act
OIL Oil India Ltd.
ONGC Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Ltd.
OOMA Deep Ocean Minerals Association
OORD Deep Ocean Resources Development Co. Ltd.
ORI Ocean Research Institute
OSU Oregon State University
PNEHO Programme National de l’Etude de l’Hydrothermalisme
Oceanologique
PST passive seismic tomography
PSU public sector undertaking
RIL Reliance Industries Limited
ROV remotely operated vehicle
RSA Reciprocating States Agreement
RSC Red Sea Commission
RSS rotary steerable system
SBL seabed logging
Acronyms xxvii

SIO Scripps Institute of Oceanography

SP self-potential
TOM total dissolvable manganese
UNCLS United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
USBM United States Bureau of Mines
USGS United States Geological Survey
WHOI Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 6, 19, 172
mizlāgōth,
184
mizrāḳōth,
184
Moab,
116 f.
Moabites, invasion by,
249 f.
Molech (Malcam, Milcom),
125, 293
Mount Gerizim,
Samaritan Temple on, xxi, xxxviii
Mount Moriah,
176
Mount Seir,
32, 251, 281
Mount Zion,
xxxviii f.
Mulberry trees,
100
Music, the Levitical service of,
lii, 305 f.
Musical guilds,
xxiii, 145, 333
Muski,
5
Muṣri,
19, 172
Nabonidus (Nabu-na’id),
344, 351
Nabopolassar,
344, 350
Nabulus,
49
nāgīd,
33, 92, 295
naḥal,
252
Names,
significant, 24, 145 f.;
lists of, in oriental Histories, 1 f., 79
Nathan the prophet,
113, 168, 207, 305
Navy,
206
nēbhel,
96 f.
Nebuchadnezzar (Nebuchadrezzar),
347 f., 351
Neco I and II,
327, 336, 343 f.
nēr (nīr),
259
Neriglissar (Nergalšar-uṣur),
351
Nethinim,
65, 137
New Testament (passages of) referred to:
Matthew i. 3‒6, 15
Matthew i. 7, 23
Matthew v. 22, 293
Matthew v. 39, 244
Matthew xxiii. 35, lviii, 277
Matthew xxv. 15, 290
Mark ii. 26, 102
Mark ix. 43, 293
Mark xi. 2, 7, 96
Mark xvi. 1, 235
Luke i. 5, 143
Luke i. 7, 266
Luke ii. 36, 335
Luke iii. 31, 22
Luke vii. 44‒46, 297
Luke xi. 51, 277
Luke xii. 55, 192
Luke xv. 18, 21, 296, 321
Luke xix. 4, 172
John i. 45, 16
John iii. 27, 296
John xi. 54, 222
John xii. 3, 7, 235
John xviii. 1, 303
John xix. 39, 40, 235
Acts vii. 60, 278
Acts viii. 40, 287
Acts ix. 32, 27
Acts xii. 1, 228
Acts xii. 21, 159
Acts xii. 23, 222
Acts xiii. 2, 138
Acts xxi. 37, 163
Acts xxii. 24, 163
Romans i. 1, 138
Romans xi. 2, xxxii
Galatians i. 15, 138
2 Thessalonians ii. 11, 243
 1 Timothy iii. 15, 114
Hebrew ii. 16, 297
1 John i. 9, 215
Revelation ii. 20, 335
Revelation xxi, 12‒16, 182
Nimrod,
7
Nineveh,
327
Nisan, the first month,
89, 301, 310, 339
Nobles, the,
273
Numbering of the people, see David
Numbers high in Chronicles,
xlix, 92, 133, 135 ff., 164 f., 178, 195, 204, 210, 218 f.,
221 f., 225 f., 239, 281, 294

ōb,
325
Obelisk of Shalmaneser II,
122, 206
Oblations (tᵉrūmāh)
314
Obsolete English words:
At (after verbs of asking), 241
Grave (verb = carve), 174
Magnifical, 134
Play (= dance), 96, 106
Polls (= heads), 137
Skill (verb), 174, 333
Oded,
 229, 295 f.
ōhel,
197, 274
Omar, the Mosque of,
181
‘ōnēn,
325
Onyx,
164
Ophel,
291, 328
Ophir,
164, 202, 257
Oracle, the,
180, 185, 187
Ornan,
131, 177
Osorkon,
226
Overseers,
173, 176, 333

P, or “Priestly” narrative,
xx, 2 f.
paḥōth,
205
Palace, the,
163, 166
Palmyra,
199
Paphos, the temple of,
180
Parbar,
151
Parvaim,
178
Passover, the,
of Hezekiah, 308 ff.;
of Josiah, 310, 320, 339 ff.
Pelethites,
120, 167
Pentateuch, the,
xiv, xx, 238, 337 ff.
Perfect heart, a,
93, 160, 165 f., 231, 248
Pestilence,
130 f.
Petrie, W. M. Flinders,
History of Egypt, 226, 344
Philistines,
the original seats of the, 7;
war with the, 74, 99 ff., 126, 286 f., 297;
invasion by, 262 f.
Phinehas,
69
Phœnician language,
173
Physicians,
235
Pillar,
271
Pillars (Jachin and Boaz),
179 f., 184
Plague,
193
Play on words,
15, 57, 254, 282
Poll-tax,
274, 347
Porch of the Temple,
177
Porters, see Doorkeepers
Posts (= runners),
309
Precious stones,
178
Priesthood, the double,
102, 167
Priests,
51 f., 303, 307, 312 ff.;
courses of, 66;
sons of the, 71;
David’s organisation of the, 141 ff.
Princes of the sanctuary,
142
Princes of the tribes of Israel,
155
Prophetess,
335
Psaltery,
96, 103, 146, 188, 204
Psalms xcvi, cv, cvi,
 107
Pul,
34, 37
Punt (Put),
6

Rabbah,
121, 125
Ramoth-gilead,
51, 240, 245
Rechabites, the,
21
Recorder (= chronicler),
120, 332
Rehoboam,
211 ff.
Rephaim,
126 f.;
valley of, 81, 99
Rhodians,
5
River, the (= the Euphrates),
13, 206
Robertson Smith, W.,
Old Testament in the Jewish Church, 16;
Religion of the Semites, 83, 180, 213, 219, 224
Robinson’s Arch,
150
Ruler of the house of God, the,
66, 315, 340
Ryle,
 Genesis, referred to, 2 f., 6;
(on Ezra and Nehemiah), 143, 163, 273, 296, 334 f.;
Prayer of Manasses, 328

Sabbath,
351
Sackcloth,
131
Sacrifice,
consumed by fire from heaven, 195;
daily morning and evening, 141, 276;
sevenfold, made by Hezekiah, 304;
of thank offerings and burnt offerings, 306 f.;
of peace offerings, 106, 132, 307, 328
St Mary’s Well,
323 f., 327
Salt,
covenant of, 219;
the valley of, 119, 281
Samaria,
266, 309
Samaritan schism, the,
xxi, xxxviii
Samuel,
the descent of, 41;
the seer, 70, 168, 234
Sargon,
309, 317
Satan (= the Adversary),
128
Saul,
genealogy of, 62 f., 72;
 defeat, death and burial of, 73 ff.
Saws,
126
Scorpion,
209
Scribe,
120, 142, 157
Sea of the Temple, the,
119, 181 f., 184, 300
Seer,
70, 168, 234
Sennacherib, threatened invasion by,
316 ff.
sēpher hattōrah,
338
Septuagint, the, version of Chronicles,
lviii f.
Shalmaneser,
122, 206, 309
Sharon,
35;
the great maritime plain, 156
Sheba,
6 f.;
Queen of, 202 ff.
shēbhet,
83
Shechem,
48, 56, 207
shelaḥ,
270, 319
shĕlāṭīm,
118, 270
Shemaiah,
210, 215
Sheminith,
set to the, 104
Shephēlāh,
156, 172, 207, 288, 298
Shewbread,
71 f., 139, 141, 162, 174, 221, 304
Shields of gold,
118, 205, 270, 323
Shihor, brook of,
96
Shishak, invasion by,
214 ff.
Siloam, the Lower Pool of,
318
Singers, the families of the,
xvi, xlii, 38, 42, 104, 145 ff., 341
ṣinnah,
205
sippim,
269
Slings,
288
Smith, G. A.,
Historical Geography of the Holy Land, 74 f., 81, 83,
171, 184, 192, 207, 212, 226, 249 f., 255, 294,
297;
Jerusalem, 78 f., 163, 288, 291, 318 f., 324, 327;
 (in Encyclopedia Biblia), 118;
Early Poetry of Israel, 294
Sojourners,
165 f.
Solomon,
133 ff., 160 ff.;
twice crowned, 167;
great sacrifice of, 169 f.;
vision of, 170 f.;
horses and chariots of, 171 f.;
makes preparations for building the Temple, 173 ff.;
begins to build the Temple, 176 ff.;
brings the Ark into the sanctuary, 186 f.;
blessing and prayer of, 189 ff.;
the night vision of, 197 f.;
cities of, 198 ff.;
arrangements of, for the Temple worship, 201 f.;
the fleet of, 202;
the greatness of, 204 ff.
Sorcery,
325
Spices,
204, 235
Stir up the spirit,
37, 262, 352
Store cities,
233, 238
Strangers, see Aliens
Suburbs,
47, 95, 212, 316
Sun-images,
224, 331
Sycomore,
 156, 172, 207
Syria, Syrians,
9, 17, 116, 124;
invasion by, 278
Syriac Version, the,
lix
Syro-Ephraimite war, the,
294 f.

Tabali,
5
Tabernacle,
70, 94, 133, 274 f.
Tabor,
50
Tadmor,
199
Tamar,
199
ṭaph,
252
Tarshish (= Tartessus),
5, 54, 205 f., 257 f.
Tarsus,
5
Task-work,
126, 134, 200
Tekoa,
18, 26, 254
Tell el-Amarna letters,
5, 58, 78, 121, 212
Teman,
11
Temple, the,
gates of, 68, 268 f., 272 f., 291;
David’s preparations for building, 133 ff.;
measurements of, 134, 177;
the pattern of, 161 ff.;
Solomon prepares to build, 173 ff.;
description of, 176 ff.;
dedication of, 186;
restoration of, 274 ff.;
cleansing of, 301 ff.;
repair of, 332 ff.;
Cyrus decrees the rebuilding of, 351 f.
Tenderhearted,
220
Tent,
69, 94, 101, 106, 186, 274
tĕrū‘ah,
106, 230
tĕrūmāh,
314
Testimony, the,
270 f., 274
Text of Chronicles, the,
xxii, lviii, 7, 13, 15, 16, 18, 21, 27, 28, 35, 41, 42, 46,
49, 54, 55, 56, 58, 59, 60, 68, 82, 85, 115, 182,
214, 217, 227, 248, 255, 259, 323, 336
Thistle (= thorn),
283
Threshing-floor,
97, 131 f., 242
Thucydides referred to,
xlviii
Tigris,
122
Tilgath-pilneser (Tiglath-pileser),
34, 37, 292, 297 ff., 309
Times (= changes, opportunities),
93, 168
Tisri, the seventh month,
186
Tithe,
313 f.
Titus, Arch of,
230
tōrah,
191, 228, 338
Torrey, C. C.,
Ezra Studies, xxxiii f., xlvi, lviii, lx, 38, 218, 237, 264 f.,
343, 345
Treasuries, the,
161
Trees, large,
76, 294
Tree-worship,
224
Trumpets, silver,
105, 112, 188, 196, 221, 230, 305
Tyre,
5, 8, 134
Tyrseni,
5
Uriah,
86, 120
Urim and Thummim,
99
Uzziah,
285 ff.

Valley of salt, the,

119, 281
Veil of the Temple, the,
179
Ventriloquism,
325
Vessels of gold,
185 f.
Vulgate, the,
lix

Wardrobe, keeper of the,

335
Wellhausen, J., references to,
lvi, lix, 20, 237, 271
Wilson’s Arch,
150
Wrath,
247, 249, 277, 323

Zadok,
39 f., 92, 102, 111, 142, 155, 167, 314
Zechariah, martyrdom of,
 277
Zedekiah the king,
349 f.
Zedekiah the prophet,
242, 244
Zemaraim, the battle of,
218 ff.
Zerah the Ethiopian,
225 f.
Zidon, Zidonians,
8, 134
Ziz,
252
Zobah,
116 f., 122, 124, 199

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