Introduction to Attic Greek Answer Key

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Introduction to Attic Greek
Second Edition

Answer Key

Donald J. Mastronarde

University of California Press

Berkeley Los Angeles
• • London
Introduction to Attic Greek

Answer Key
This page intentionally left blank
Introduction to Attic Greek
Second Edition

Answer Key

Donald J. Mastronarde

University of California Press

Berkeley Los Angeles
• • London
University of California Press, one of the most distinguished university presses
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Preface

This booklet provides the answers to the exercises appearing in the second edition of
Introduction to Attic Greek by Donald J. Mastronarde (University of California Press,
2013). The Answer Key has been revised to match all the changes and additions made
in the second edition.
Please note that in many of the exercises the answers given are not exhaustive
of the possible correct answers. For instance, when an exercise asks the student to
give one definition of the word, any one of the definitions supplied in the book is
correct, but only one possible answer is indicated here. Similarly, sentences and pas-
sages to be translated from Greek to English may be correctly rendered with slightly
different phrasing from what is given here. For Greek sentences composed by the
student, there are of course many variations possible in word order and in treatment
of details such as choice of conjunction for and or but, choice of synonym, and choice
of equivalent constructions.
For most of the Greek-to-English sentences that were inspired by sentences in
actual texts or taken unchanged or almost unchanged from an ancient text, a citation
is provided.
When the first version of the Answer Key was prepared, Benjamin Acosta-Hughes
checked the answers with great care. This time I have been assisted by Jeremy Sim-
mons and copy editor Paul Psoinos. I alone am responsible for any errors or unclear
answers that remain.
This page intentionally left blank
unit two

I. [note: The references to §6 are optional parts of the answers.]

1. acute on P, U is long, §8 (short accented P has acute); §6 (acute may appear on
A, P, or U)
2. circumflex on P, U is short, §8 (long accented P before short U has circumflex);
§6 (circumflex may appear on P or U)
3. acute on P, U is long, §8 (long accented P before long U has acute); §6 (acute
may appear on A, P, or U)
4. circumflex on U, U is long, §7 (long U may have circumflex); §6 (circumflex
may appear on P or U)
5. circumflex on U, U is long, §7 (long U may have circumflex); §6 (circumflex
may appear on P or U)
6. acute on U, U is long, §7; §6 (acute may appear on A, P, or U)
7. circumflex on P, U is short, §8 (long accented P before short U has circumflex);
§6 (circumflex may appear on P or U); (second accent due to enclitic) addi-
tional acute on U, §12c
8. acute on A, U is short, §9 (accented A has acute, U must be short); §6 (acute
may appear on A, P, or U); (second accent due to enclitic) additional acute on
U, §12c
9. acute on A, U is short, §9 (accented A has acute, U must be short); §6 (acute
may appear on A, P, or U)
10. acute on U, U is short, §7 (short accented U has acute in isolation); §6 (acute
may appear on A, P, or U)
11. (first word) grave on U, U is short, §7 (short accented U has grave before
another word); §6 (grave may appear only on U); (second word) acute on U, U
is short, §7 (short accented U has acute in isolation); §6 (acute may appear on
A, P, or U)
12. acute on A, U is short, §9 (accented A has acute, U must be short); §6 (acute
may appear on A, P, or U)

1
2 Answer Key to Introduction to Attic Greek

13. (first word) grave on U, U is long, §7 (long accented U may have grave before
another word); §6 (grave may appear only on U); (second word) acute on A, U
is short, §9 (accented A has acute, U must be short); §6 (acute may appear on A,
P, or U)
14. acute on U, U is short, §7 (short accented U has acute in isolation); §6 (acute
may appear on A, P, or U)
15. circumflex on U, U is long, §7 (long U may have circumflex); §6 (circumflex
may appear on P or U)

II.
1. δῶρᾰ 5. γλῶττᾰν 9. παιδείᾳ
2. ἄνθρωπε 6. γλώττης 10. ἄνεμος
3. λαμβάνει 7. λόγον 11. ἀγαθόν
4. βούλεται 8. λόγους 12. καλὸν δῶρον

unit three

I.
1. acc. sing. of ἥλιος, ἡλίου, m., sun
2. nom. or voc. pl. of πόλεμος, πολέμου, m., war
3. dat. pl. of βιβλίον, βιβλίου, n., book
4. gen. sing. of παιδίον, παιδίου, n., child
5. dat. sing. of θεός, θεοῦ, m. (or f.), god (or goddess)
6. nom. or voc. pl. of νόσος, νόσου, f., sickness
7. dat. sing. of ψῆφος, ψήφου, f., pebble
8. acc. pl. of θάνατος, θανάτου, m., death
9. acc. sing. of νόμος, νόμου, m., law
10. dat. pl. of ἄγγελος, ἀγγέλου, m., messenger
11. nom. or acc. or voc. pl. of μέτρον, μέτρου, n., measure
12. nom. or acc. or voc. pl. of δῶρον, δώρου, n., gift
13. gen. pl. of βίος, βίου, m., life
14. gen. pl. of ὁδός, ὁδοῦ, f., road
15. gen. sing. of ἵππος, ἵππου, m. (or f.), horse (or mare)
16. dat. sing. of ἄνθρωπος, ἀνθρώπου, m. or f., human being
17. acc. pl. of νόσος, νόσου, f., sickness
18. voc. sing. of ἄνεμος, ἀνέμου, m., wind
19. acc. sing. of λόγος, λόγου, m., word
20. dat. pl. of ἔργον, ἔργου, n., work
 units 2–3 3

21. voc. sing. of ἀδελφός, ἀδελφοῦ, m., brother

22. gen. pl. of στρατηγός, στρατηγοῦ, m., general
23. dat. sing. of οἶκος, οἴκου, m., house
24. acc. sing. of στρατός, στρατοῦ, m., army

II.
1. ψῆφοι, f. 11. ἔργοις, n. 21. ἀδελφοῖς, m.
2. πολέμου, m. 12. ἀνθρώπων, m. or f. 22. στρατηγοί, m.
3. παιδία, n. 13. ἵπποις, m. or f. 23. ἄνεμοι, m.
4. νόσος, f. 14. ὁδῷ, f. 24. στρατοῦ, m.
5. μέτρον, n. 15. λόγων, m. 25. οἴκους, m.
6. παιδία, n. 16. ἀγγέλους, m. 26. ἀγγέλοις, m.
7. δῶρον, n. 17. βίε, m. 27. παιδίῳ, n.
8. ἥλιος, m. 18. νόμον, m. 28. διδάσκαλον, m.
9. θεοί, m. or f. 19. λόγος, m.
10. θανάτῳ, m. 20. ἔργου, n.

III.
1. even or also among men 8. out of war and death
2. to or into or with respect to sickness 9. in an army
3. in speech or word but not in deed 10. to or for laws and votes
4. to or for a god and a human 11. into a road but not into a house
5. from a horse 12. with a wind
6. a general and not a messenger 13. of life and death
(subject) 14. out of fear or as a result of fear
7. even or also with teachers 15. of children and teachers

IV.
1. οὐ στρατηγοῖς ἀλλὰ στρατοῖς 6. ἀπ’ ἀνθρώπων
2. εἰς φόβον καὶ θάνατον 7. ἐξ οἴκων
3. καὶ σὺν ἀγγέλῳ 8. διδάσκαλοι καὶ νόμοι
4. ἐν λόγοις καὶ (ἐν) νόμοις 9. καὶ ἐν ὁδῷ
5. οὐ δῶρον ἀλλὰ νόσον 10. εἰς ἀδελφούς

V.
1. πλοῦτον 5. στρατοπέδοις 9. λίθοι
2. χρόνοις 6. ἑταίρους 10. στάδια
3. στρατηγέ 7. ποταμῷ 11. υἱῶν
4. διδασκάλου 8. τρόπων 12. οὐρανοῦ
4 Answer Key to Introduction to Attic Greek

unit four

I.
1. τὴν φιλίαν 12. τῇ νόσῳ 23. ταῖς ἀδελφαῖς
2. αἱ ἡδοναί 13. ἄνθρωπε 24. τῆς στρατιᾶς or τοῦ
3. τῆς παιδείας 14. ταῖς ὁδοῖς στρατοῦ
4. τῶν φυγῶν 15. τῶν γνωμῶν 25. θεαί (or θεοί)
5. τῆς τιμῆς 16. τῇ φωνῇ 26. τὴν τιμήν
6. τὰς γνώμας 17. τὰς ἡμέρας 27. οἱ λόγοι
7. τῶν πολέμων 18. τὸ παιδίον 28. τῇ νίκῃ
8. ταῖς δίκαις 19. τὴν δίκην 29. τοὺς ἀνέμους
9. τὰς σκηνάς 20. αἱ ἡμέραι 30. τῶν θυρῶν
10. αἱ θύραι 21. τῆς ὁδοῦ
11. ἀδελφαί 22. ψυχή

II.
ἡ νόσος τὰ δῶρα ἡ νίκη αἱ νῖκαι
τῆς νόσου τῶν δώρων τῆς νίκης τῶν νικῶν
τῇ νόσῳ τοῖς δώροις τῇ νίκῃ ταῖς νίκαις
τὴν νόσον τὰ δῶρα τὴν νίκην τὰς νίκας
(νόσε) (δῶρα) (νίκη) (νῖκαι)

III.
1. dat. sing. of ψυχή, ψυχῆς, f., soul
2. acc. sing. of στρατιά, στρατιᾶς, f., army
3. nom. or voc. sing. of νίκη, νίκης, f., victory
4. dat. pl. of ἀγορά, ἀγορᾶς, f., marketplace
5. gen. pl. of τιμή, τιμῆς, f., honor
6. acc. pl. of ἀρετή, ἀρετῆς, f. virtue
7. nom. or voc. pl. of συμφορά, συμφορᾶς, f., event
8. gen. sing. or acc. pl. of θύρα, θύρας, f., door
9. acc. sing. of ἀρχή, ἀρχῆς, f., beginning
10. acc. pl. of θεά, θεᾶς, f., goddess
11. dat. pl. of δῶρον, δώρου, n., gift
12. dat. sing. of παιδεία, παιδείας, f., education
13. acc. pl. of λόγος, λόγου, m., word
14. nom. or acc. or voc. pl. of βιβλίον, βιβλίου, n., book
15. dat. sing. of τιμή, τιμῆς, f., honor
 unit 4 5

16. dat. pl. of συμφορά, συμφορᾶς, f., event

17. voc. sing. of ἄγγελος, ἀγγέλου, m., messenger
18. gen. pl. of ἀγορά, ἀγορᾶς, f., marketplace
19. acc. sing. of θεός, θεοῦ, m. (or f.), god (or goddess)
20. gen. sing. of σκηνή, σκηνῆς, f., tent
21. dat. sing. of φωνή, φωνῆς, f., voice
22. nom. or voc. pl. of δίκη, δίκης, f., justice
23. acc. pl. of φυγή, φυγῆς, f., flight
24. dat. pl. of νίκη, νίκης, f., victory
25. acc. sing. of ἀδελφή, ἀδελφῆς, f., sister
26. gen. sing. of ἀρετή, ἀρετῆς, f., virtue
27. nom. or voc. pl. of ἡδονή, ἡδονῆς, f., pleasure
28. gen. pl. of ἀρχή, ἀρχῆς, f., beginning
29. nom. or voc. pl. of τιμή, τιμῆς, f., honor
30. dat. pl. of ἡμέρα, ἡμέρας, f., day

IV.
1. The general brings the books too to Aspasia.
2. She or he takes the pebbles or votes.
3. The teacher leads the children out of the tent.
4. Children do not have judgment and virtue.
5. Xanthippe remains in the house with her sister or the sister, but her brother or
the brother drives the horses into the road.
6. The army flees from the country.
7. War brings death and disease to or for mankind.
8. She or he has honor as a result of the victory.
9. She or he dissolves the democracy.
10. The messenger entrusts the children to the teachers.

V.
1. σὺν (τῇ) ἡδονῇ
2. οὐ (τῆς) παιδείας ἀλλὰ (τῆς) φιλίας
3. νόμους γράφει καὶ τὴν δίκην εἰς τὴν χώραν φέρει.
4. καὶ εἰς τὴν ψυχήν
5. ὁ στρατηγὸς τοὺς θεοὺς καὶ τὰς θεὰς πείθει.
6. ἡ Ἀσπασία τὰ δῶρα τῷ ἀγγέλῳ ἐπιτρέπει.
7. ὀ στρατὸς or ἡ στρατιὰ οὐκ ἔχει φόβον καὶ ἐν τῇ ἀγορᾷ μένει.
6 Answer Key to Introduction to Attic Greek

VI.
1. ἀνάγκην 5. εὐχῆς 9. ἡσυχίᾳ
2. μάχαις 6. σοφίαν 10. κεφαλῇ
3. ἐπιθυμίᾳ 7. πληγαί 11. δικαιοσύνην
4. εἰρηνῶν 8. ἐλευθερίας 12. σπουδῶν

unit five

I.
1. πείθουσι(ν) 11. ἐθέλω 21. ἄρχετε
2. πέμπει 12. ἐθέλουσι(ν) 22. ἐπιτρέπει
3. λέγετε 13. ἐλαύνομεν 23. ἔχει
4. ἄρχουσι(ν) 14. γράφει 24. οὐ λαμβάνω
5. ἐπιτρέπω 15. ἄγουσι(ν) 25. λείπουσι(ν)
6. ἔχεις 16. ἐπιτρέπετε 26. λείπει
7. μένομεν 17. ἀποθνῄσκεις 27. ἐλαύνετε
8. λύει 18. οὐ πείθει 28. φεύγεις
9. ἄγει or φέρει 19. πέμπω 29. οὐ φέρομεν
10. λείπεις 20. λέγομεν 30. λέγει

II.
1. you (s.) are driving or marching 17. they are leaving
2. we bear 18. I receive
3. I write 19. you (s.) rule
4. he or she or it receives 20. he or she or it says
5. they remain 21. we release
6. you (s.) have 22. I do not remain
7. I urge or persuade 23. you (pl.) are willing
8. we are fleeing 24. they have
9. he or she or it sends 25. you (pl.) are driving or marching
10. we lead 26. I abandon
11. I do not have 27. we begin
12. they are in exile or flee 28. they are willing
13. you (s.) release 29. you (pl.) hold office or begin
14. he or she or it bears 30. you (s.) say
15. we entrust 31. he or she or it is abandoning
16. you (pl.) do not send 32. you (pl.) entrust
 units 4–6 7

33. you (s.) remain 37. we have

34. he or she or it is driving or marching 38. he or she or it is not leading
35. they are dying 39. you (pl.) do not receive
36. I lead 40. you (s.) bear

III.
1. Peisistratus and Isaeus are persuading the generals but not the army.
2. We do not tell the story to the tyrant.
3. The goddess drives the sisters away from the house.
4. Are you dissolving or overthrowing the democracy?
5. From deeds and from speeches men have honor.
6. I am leading the horses out of the tent into the sun.
7. The general begins the war, and we have not victory but misfortunes.
8. Not justly or in justice do (the) tyrants write the laws.
9. The army leaves the marketplace and marches out of the country.

IV.
1. τὴν ἑταίραν εἰς τὴν οἶκον ἄγεις.
2. οἱ ἄνεμοι τοὺς ἑταίρους ἀπὸ τῆς χώρας φέρουσι(ν).
3. ἐκ τῆς νόσου οἱ ἵπποι ἀποθνῄσκουσι(ν).
4. (ἡ) Ἀσπασία φεύγει, ἀλλὰ δῶρα τοὶς παιδίοις πέμπει.
5. (ὁ) Ἰσαῖος καὶ (ἡ) Ξανθίππη πείθουσιν, ἀλλ’ οὐκ ἐθελομεν.
6. τὸν διδάσκαλον λαμβάνετε, ἀλλὰ τὰ βιβλία μένει.

unit six

I.
1. πολίταις, m. 11. δίκας, f. 21. γεφύρας, f.
2. τραπεζῶν, f. 12. ἑταίρων, m. 22. δεσπόται, m.
3. ἀλήθειαν, f. 13. γνώμαις, f. 23. τραπέζαις, f.
4. μοῖραι, f. 14. ὑγιείᾳ, f. 24. ὑγιείας, f.
5. δικαστοῦ, m. 15. ναύτου, m. 25. ἀλήθεια, f.
6. κριτάς, m. 16. τύραννον, m. 26. νεανίαν, m.
7. νεανίας, m. 17. χῶραι, f. 27. ἱέρειαι, f.
8. δόξῃ, f. 18. βιβλία, n. 28. πολίτῃ, m.
9. ποιητά, m. 19. ὁπλῖτα, m. 29. στρατιώτας, m.
10. ναύτην, m. 20. θεαί, f. 30. γλωττῶν, f.
8 Answer Key to Introduction to Attic Greek

II.
1. nom. sing. of ὁπλίτης, ὁπλίτου, m., hoplite
2. acc. sing of ὑγίεια, ὑγιείας, f., health
3. dat. sing. of θάλαττα, θαλάττης, f., sea
4. acc. pl. of στρατιώτης, στρατιώτου, m., soldier
5. dat. pl. of χώρα, χώρας, f., country
6. gen. pl. of γλῶττα, γλώττης, f., tongue
7. nom. or voc. pl. of πεῖρα, πείρας, f., attempt
8. gen. sing. of ἀρχή, ἀρχῆς, f., beginning
9. dat. sing. of φωνή, φωνῆς, f., voice
10. acc. pl. of δόξα, δόξης, f., reputation
11. dat. sing. of γέφυρα, γεφύρας, f., bridge
12. nom. or voc. pl. of πολίτης, πολίτου, m., citizen
13. gen. sing. of δεσπότης, δεσπότου, m., master
14. gen. pl. of ναύτης, ναύτου, m., sailor
15. nom. or voc. pl. of φυγή, φυγῆς, f., flight
16. nom. or voc. pl. of στρατιώτης, στρατιώτου, m., soldier
17. voc. sing. of πολίτης, πολίτου, m., citizen
18. dat. sing. of ὑγίεια, ὑγιείας, f., health
19. acc. sing. of ἱέρεια, ἱερείας, f., priestess
20. acc. pl. of δεσπότης, δεσπότου, m., master
21. gen. sing. of δόξα, δόξης, f., reputation
22. dat. pl. of γλῶττα, γλώττης, f., tongue
23. acc. sing of ὁπλίτης, ὁπλίτου, m., hoplite
24. acc. sing of πεῖρα, πείρας, f., attempt
25. nom. or voc. pl. of ναύτης, ναύτου, m., sailor
26. gen. pl. of ἡδονή, ἡδονῆς, f., pleasure
27. acc. pl. of θάλαττα, θαλάττης, f., sea
28. gen. sing. of νόσος, νόσου, f., sickness
29. dat. pl. of τράπεζα, τραπέζης, f., table
30. gen. sing. of κριτής, κριτοῦ, m., judge
31. dat. sing. of ἀλήθεια, ἀληθείας, f., truth
32. gen. pl. of ἑταίρα, ἑταίρας, f., courtesan

III.
1. on account of the misfortunes 4. (ranking) after the young man
2. with fear 5. instead of the sun
3. on behalf of the priestess or in front 6. in front of the tent or stage building
of the priestess 7. with (the) voice
 units 6–7 9

8. throughout the day 14. with the gifts

9. thanks to or because of the 15. among the jurymen
courtesans 16. with Callias
10. away from the sea 17. among the brothers
11. with the hoplites 18. because of the sickness
12. after the attempt 19. with Xanthippe
13. as a result of (the) friendship 20. into or in respect to the war

IV.
1. The gods do not persuade the Fates.
2. The comrades tell the truth to the umpire.
3. Because of the deeds we are releasing the messenger.
4. You (s.) are leading the sailors toward the sea.
5. The generals together with the or their soldiers are abandoning the tents and
the mares.
6. The jurymen do not take gifts or bribes.
7. The master is entrusting the tables to the priestesses.
8. In the marketplace Callias is telling the citizens the victories.

V.
1. οἱ πολῖται νόμους ἔχουσιν ἀλλ’ οὐ δίκην.
2. ἐν τῷ πολέμῳ ἡ νόσος ἄρχει, καὶ οἱ ὁπλῖται φεύγουσι(ν).
3. οἱ ποιηταὶ διὰ τῆς γλώττης τοὺς πολίτας πείθουσι(ν).
4. οἱ στρατιῶται τὴν γέφυραν λαμβάνουσιν, ἀλλ’ ὁ στρατηγὸς ἀποθνῄσκει ἐν
τῇ πείρᾳ.
5. δόξαν ἔχεις, ἀλλ’ οὐ λέγεις τὴν ἀλήθειαν.

unit seven

I.
1. (τοῖς) αἰσχροῖς ἔργοις 6. τοὺς πλουσίους κριτάς
2. τὴν χαλεπὴν συμφοράν 7. γεφύρας καλῆς
3. οἱ πονηροί 8. ἀγαθῇ μοίρᾳ
4. μέτρου δήλου 9. τῶν ἱερῶν ὁδῶν
5. τῷ φιλίῳ ἀγγέλῳ 10. τὸν δίκαιον νόμον
10 Answer Key to Introduction to Attic Greek

II.
1. (a) in respect to the just account; (b) δίκαιον is acc. sing. masc. of δίκαιος, -α,
-ον; (c) attributive modifying λόγον.
2. (a) through the large doors; (b) μακρῶν is gen. pl. fem. of μακρός, -ά, -όν; (c)
attributive modifying θυρῶν.
3. (a) with the noble (or handsome or beautiful) gods (or goddesses); (b) καλῶν is
gen. pl. masc. or fem. [depending on what the gender of θεῶν is taken to be] of
καλός, -ή, -όν; (c) attributive modifying θεῶν.
4. (a) into the tent of the general; (b, c) no adjective form to identify.
5. (a) away from the enemy army; (b) πολεμίας is gen. sing. fem. of πολέμιος, -α,
-ον; (c) attributive modifying στρατιᾶς.
6. (a) with the good (or well-born) men; (b) ἀγαθοῖς is dat. pl. masc. of ἀγαθός, -ή,
-όν; (c) attributive modifying ἀνθρώποις.
7. (a) on account of the shamefulness (or ugliness); (b) αἰσχρόν is acc. sing. neuter
of αἰσχρός, -ά, -όν; (c) used as a substantive.
8. (a) The children of Isaeus are small. (b) μικρὰ is nom. pl. neuter of μικρός, -ά,
-όν; (c) predicative modifying παιδία.
9. (a) The just man is worthy of the office. (b) δίκαιος is nom. sing. masc. of
δίκαιος, -α, -ον; (c) used as a substantive; (b) ἄξιος is nom. sing. masc. of ἄξιος,
-α, -ον; (c) predicative modifying ὁ δίκαιος.
10. (a) Wicked men are deserving of evils or sufferings. (b) ἄξιοι is nom. pl. masc.
of ἄξιος, -α, -ον; (c) predicative modifying οἱ πονηροί; (b) κακῶν is gen. pl.
neuter of κακός, -ή, -όν; (c) used as a substantive; (b) πονηροί is nom. pl. masc.
of πονηρός, -ά, -όν; (c) used as a substantive.
11. (a) Wise men speak the truth. (b) σοφοί is nom. pl. masc. of σοφός, -ή, -όν; (c)
used as a substantive.
12. (a) The fate from the gods (or goddesses) is clear. (b) δήλη is nom. sing. fem. of
δῆλος, -η, -ον; (c) predicative modifying μοῖρα.
13. (a) The books of the umpires are sacred. (b) ἱερὰ is nom. pl. neuter of ἱερός, -ά,
-όν; (c) predicative modifying βιβλία.
14. (a) Because of the good deed the juror releases the bad man. (b) ἀγαθόν is acc.
sing. neut. of ἀγαθός, -ή, -όν; (c) attributive modifying ἔργον; (b) κακόν is acc.
sing. masc. of κακός, -ή, -όν; (c) used as substantive.
15. (a) The citizens are writing the laws with wise judgment. (b) σοφῆς is gen. sing.
fem. of σοφός, -ή, -όν; (c) attributive with γνώμης.
16. (a) The sister is enduring the misfortunes of her brother with friendship (or
loyalty) and pleasure. (b, c) no adjective form to identify.
 units 7–8 11

III.
1. εἰς τὴν μικρὰν γέφυραν
2. διὰ τὴν τῶν πεζῶν ἀρετήν
3. ἐν τοῖς ἱεροῖς βιβλίοις
4. διὰ τοῦ μακροῦ βίου
5. σὺν τοῖς μικροῖς παιδίοις τοῖς τοῦ ἀγγέλου or μετὰ τῶν μικρῶν παιδίων τῶν
τοῦ ἀγγέλου
6. ἡ τοῦ ποιητοῦ φυγὴ αἰσχρά.
7. τιμῆς ἄξια τὰ τῶν σοφῶν ἔργα.
8. τὰ ἀγαθὰ βιβλία φίλοι ἄξιοι.
9. οἱ ἐν τῇ ἀγορᾷ στρατιῶται καλοί.
10. οὐκ ἄγετε τὰ τοῦ ποιητοῦ παιδία ἐκ τῆς μακρᾶς σκηνῆς.
11. τοὺς πλουσίους λαμβάνομεν καὶ οὐ τοὺς δικαίους πολίτας.

unit Eight

I.
1. away from the sea (that lies) beside 10. in addition to the gifts
the country 11. toward the sun
2. in charge of the slave women 12. from the friends
3. against the soldiers in the house 13. in the river
4. after the slaves’ attempt 14. toward the road
5. because of the noble habits 15. upon the tables
6. from the jurymen 16. alongside the road to the shrine
7. in the time of Peisistratus 17. in addition to wealth
8. from (the presence or the side) of the 18. out of sleep
general of the enemies 19. at the side of (or in the house of) the
9. on account of the envy against the bad teacher
wise men

II.
1. διὰ τὸν πόνον 7. πρὸς (or ἐπὶ) τῇ τραπέζῃ
2. παρὰ τοῖς παιδίοις 8. ἐπὶ τῶν μικρῶν ἵππων
3. πρὸς (or ἐπὶ) ταῖς τῆς ἐταίρας θύραις 9. παρὰ τὴν τοῦ ἀγγέλου δόξαν
4. παρὰ (or πρὸς or ἀπὸ) τῶν πολιτῶν 10. ἐκ τοῦ καλοῦ ποταμοῦ
5. μετὰ τὴν νίκην 11. ἐπὶ Ἰσαίου
6. πρὸς τὰς Μοίρας 12. πρὸς (or ἐπὶ) τοὺς ἀγαθοὺς νεανίας
12 Answer Key to Introduction to Attic Greek

ΙΙΙ.
1. The god sends a panic and drives the soldiers out of the shrine.
2. Mankind has its sufferings from the gods. [In a particular context, θεῶν could
be “goddesses” from θεά; but in a generic statement without context the generic
masculine would be idiomatically assumed.]
3. Young men, carry the gifts to or for the worthy men.
4. Leave [sing. addressee] the enemies’ horses next to the bridge.
5. The messengers are telling the misfortunes of the army to the citizens (who
are) in the marketplace.
6. The brother, who is in exile from his land for a long time, receives his liveli-
hood (or sustenance) from his friends.
7. The slave woman to whom you (pl.) are entrusting the health of the children is
wise and friendly.
8. The hoplite, who endures difficult things and avoids shameful things, does not
abandon his comrades.
9. Citizens, do not begin a war, but in war do not have fear.

IV.
1. αἰσχροὶ οἱ λόγοι δι’ ὧν τοὺς πολίτας πείθεις.
2. ὁ δεσπότης τοὺς δούλους εἰς τὴν ἱέρειαν πέμπει, καὶ τὰ παιδία τὰ ἱερὰ ἐκ τῆς
σκηνῆς φέρει.
3. ποιητά, μὴ φθόνον ἔχε.
4. Ἰσαῖε, γράφε δικαίους νόμους τοῖς τῆς χώρας πολίταις.
5. μὴ λέγε (τὰ) αἰσχρά, ἀλλ’ ἃ εἰς ἀρετὴν ἄγει τοὺς ἀνθρώπους.
6. ἡ ὁδὸς ἡ ἀπὸ τοῦ ἱεροῦ εἰς (or πρὸς) τὸν ποταμὸν μακρὰ καὶ χαλεπή.

unit nine

I.
1. ἄγειν 5. ἐκ τοῦ λέγειν 9. ἄρχει
2. κελεύετε 6. ἀκούουσι(ν) 10. ἐλαύνω
3. οὐ βλάπτομεν 7. λύειν 11. ἀκούετε
4. τάττειν 8. πείθειν 12. τάττε

II.
1. Urge the army to remain. or You (pl.) are urging the army to remain.
2. The sailor orders the soldiers to abandon their mares.
3. He or she is willing to entrust the difficult tasks to the handsome young men.
4. I do not wish to die in the sea.
 units 8–10 13

5. You (s.) are ordering the hoplites not to harm the rich citizens. [This could also
mean: “You are ordering the rich citizens not to harm the hoplites.” There is
no way to decide which meaning is preferable except by the context, and in the
absence of context, as here, by general likelihood.]
6. The god is unwilling to listen to the goddess who says bad things.
7. It seems best to the wise to speak the truth. [Not impossible: “It seems best to
speak the truth to the wise.”]
8. It is necessary (or one ought or we ought) to drive the impious ones away from
the tent of the children. [Not impossible: “It is necessary for the impious ones
to march or ride away from the children’s tent.”]
9. The allies are commanding the foreigners to take the marketplace.
10. The immortals urge human beings not so say impious things.
11. Because of the fact that the enemy are remaining in the country the citizens
are fleeing toward the sea.
12. It is easy for good men to write laws. [Not impossible: “It is easy to write laws
for good people.”]
13. It is necessary for the sailors to await a fair wind. or The sailors ought to await
a fair wind.
14. It is possible for or permitted to the generals to harm the enemy.

III.
1. μετὰ τῶν φίλων ῥᾴδιον κακὰ φέρειν.
2. ὁ τῆς πολεμίας στρατιᾶς στρατηγὸς τοὺς ὁπλίτας τάττει.
3. τὰ παιδία τὸν τύραννον τὴν μοῖραν τοῖς θεοῖς ἐπιτρέπειν πείθει.
4. τοῖς ἀθανάτοις θεοῖς οὐκ ἔξεστι φθόνον ἔχειν.
5. ἔξεστι τῷ πονηρῷ (or κακῷ) μὴ κακὴν δόξαν ἔχειν (or κακὴν δόξαν μὴ ἔχειν).
6. οὐ σοφὸν τὴν ὑγίειαν βλάπτειν.
7. διὰ τὸν πλοῦτον ἔξεστι τοῖς πλουσίοις τὰ χαλεπὰ (ἔργα) φεύγειν.
8. τὸν ποιητὴν χρὴ μὴ ἐθέλειν κακὰ λέγειν.
9. πρὸς τῇ τιμῇ τὸ ἄρχειν (τὸν) φθόνον φέρει.
10. ὦ δικασταί, ἀκούετε τοῦ δικαίου καὶ μὴ τοῦ ἀδίκου.

unit ten

I.
1. They are immortal. 3. It is unjust.
2. You (pl. [masc. or generic]) are not 4. I am a friend.
brave or good. 5. It is clear.
14 Answer Key to Introduction to Attic Greek

6. You (s. [masc.]) are wicked. 10. Be pious (pl. fem. addressees).
7. We are not wise. 11. It is not a stone.
8. She is wise. 12. The beautiful exists.
9. It is difficult.

II.
1. ἄξιόν ἐστι(ν). 8. ἡ ἐπιορκία οὐ δικαία ἐστίν. or
2. αἴτιοί εἰσιν οἱ Ἀθηναῖοι. or οὐκ ἔστι δικαία ἡ ἐπιορκία. or
οἱ Ἀθηναῖοι αἴτιοί εἰσιν, or ἡ ἐπιορκία ἐστὶν οὐ δικαία. or
οἱ Ἀθηναῖοί εἰσιν αἴτιοι. or οὐ δικαία ἡ ἐπιορκία ἐστίν. or
αἴτιοι οἱ Ἀθηναῖοί εἰσιν. οὐ δικαία ἐστὶν ἡ ἐπιορκία. or
3. ἡ μάχη ἐστὶ μακρά. or ἡ ἐπιορκία οὐκ ἔστι δικαία.
ἡ μάχη μακρά ἐστι. or 9. αἰτία ἐστίν.
μακρά ἐστιν ἡ μάχη. or 10. μικρά ἐστιν ἡ ψῆφος. or
μακρὰ ἡ μάχη ἐστίν. ἡ ψῆφός ἐστι μικρά. or
4. ἀθάνατοί ἐσμεν. μικρά ἡ ψῆφός ἐστιν. or
5. ναύτης εἰμί. ἡ ψῆφος μικρά ἐστιν.
6. ὅσιος εἶ. or ὁσία εἶ. or εἶ ὅσιος. or εἶ 11. ὁ τύραννός ἐστιν ὀ στρατηγός. or
ὁσία. ὁ τύραννος ὁ στρατηγός ἐστιν.
7. δίκαιοί ἐστε. or δίκαιαί ἐστε.

III.
1. (a) The majority of the citizens are just. (b) genitive, partitive
2. (a) For (or in the eyes of) the wicked man the laws are not fine. (b) dative of
reference
3. (a) The desire for wealth persuades human beings to suffer evils. (b) genitive,
objective
4. (a) On the following day they write a peace treaty. (b) dative of time when
5. (a) The immortals are responsible for good things for mankind. (b) genitive,
objective with αἴτιος
6. (a) The victory belongs to the Athenians. (b) genitive of possession
7. (a) The impious men are taking small stones from the river with which they are
pelting the shrine. (b) dative of means or instrument
8. (a) There is no need to mention the enemy’s fear. (b) genitive, subjective
9. (a) Do fine things and avoid unjust deeds. (b) accusative, direct object
10. (a) In the previous battle most of the hoplites do not flee. (b) nominative,
subject
 units 10–11 15

IV.
1. χαλεποῖς πόνοις οἱ σύμμαχοι τὴν ἀγορὰν λαμβάνουσιν.
2. χρὴ (or δεῖ) τοὺς ἀνθρώπους (τὰ) δίκαια πράττειν.
3. μετὰ τὴν μάχην οἱ στρατιῶται εἰς τὴν τῶν Ἀθηναίων χώραν φεύγουσιν.
4. ἡ ἐπιθυμία τῆς εἰρήνης τοὺς πολίτας πείθει μὴ βλάπτειν τοὺς τῶν πολεμίων
ἀγγέλους.
5. οἱ δικασταὶ τὰ πλεῖστα τῶν ἀδίκων ἔργων εὑρίσκουσιν, ἀνθ’ ὧν τοὺς αἰτίους
βλάπτουσιν.
6. τῶν σοφῶν ἐστι τὰς καλὰς ἡδονὰς εὑρίσκειν.
7. τοὺς πολίτας ἀνάγκη (or δεῖ or χρὴ) πάσχειν διὰ τὸν πρὸς τοὺς βαρβάρους
πόλεμον.
8. τῷ ἀγαθῷ οὐ πρέπει ἀδίκῳ εἶναι.
9. τοῖς πλείστοις ἡ ἡδονὴ οὐκ ἔστι τὸ μέτρον τῆς ἀρετῆς.

unit eleven

I.
1. 1 pl. pres. act. ind. of σπένδω, we are pouring libations
2. 2 s. pres. m./p. ind. of μάχομαι, you (s.) are fighting
3. 2 pl. pres. m./p. ind. of κόπτω, you (pl.) are beating your breast [i.e., in mourn-
ing] OR you are being beaten; OR 2 pl. pres. m./p. impt. of κόπτω, beat your
breast [i.e., in mourning] (pl.) OR be beaten (pl.)
4. 3 pl. pres. m./p. ind. of γράφω, they are indicting or they are being drawn or
written
5. 2 s. pres. act. ind. of λαμβάνω, you (s.) are taking
6. 3 s. pres. m./p. ind. of γίγνομαι, she or he is being born or it is happening
7. pres. act. inf. of πράττω, to do
8. 1 s. pres. m./p. ind. of βουλεύω, I am deliberating
9. 3 pl. pres. m./p. ind. of ἔρχομαι, they are going
10. 2 s. pres. m./p. ind. of ἔχω, you (s.) cling to or you (s.) are being held
11. 3 s. pres. m./p. ind. of λέγω, it is being said or it is said
12. 2 pl. pres. m./p. ind. of οἴομαι, you (pl.) believe OR 2 pl. pres. m./p. impt. of
οἴομαι, believe (pl.)
13. 2 pl. pres. act. ind. of πάσχω, you (pl.) suffer OR 2 pl. pres. act. impt. of πάσχω,
suffer (pl.)
14. 3 pl. pres. act. ind. of εἰμί, they are
15. pres. m./p. inf. of πολιτεύω, to participate in politics
16. 3 s. pres. m./p. ind. of βούλομαι, she or he wants
16 Answer Key to Introduction to Attic Greek

17. 3 pl. pres. act. ind. of δικάζω, they serve as jurors

18. 1 pl. pres. m./p. ind. of σπένδω, we are making a truce
19. 2 s. pres. act. impt. of ἀποκτείνω, kill (s.)
20. 2 s. pres. m./p. ind. of αἰσθάνομαι, you (s.) perceive
21. 2 s. pres. m./p. impt. of ἔχω, cling to (s.)
22. 2 pl. pres. act. ind. of βλάπτω, you (pl.) are harming OR 2 pl. pres. act. impt. of
βλάπτω, harm (pl.)
23. 3 s. pres. m./p. ind. of βάλλω, it is being thrown or she or he or it is being pelted
24. 2 s. pres. m./p. ind. of ἄγω, you (s.) are being led
25. 2 pl. pres. m./p. ind. of παρακελεύομαι, you (pl.) are exhorting OR 2 pl. pres.
m./p. impt. of παρακελεύομαι, exhort (pl.)
26. 3 pl. pres. m./p. ind. of πυνθάνομαι, they are inquiring
27. 3 s. pres. m./p. ind. of δικάζω, she or he pleads a case
28. 1 pl. pres. act. ind. of ἀκούω, we hear
29. 3 s. pres. m./p. ind. of λείπω, she or he or it is being left
30. 2 s. pres. m./p. impt. of γίγνομαι, become (s.)

II.
1. ἐρχόμεθα 12. πυνθάνονται or 22. πυνθάνεσθαι
2. δικάζει ἀκούουσι(ν) 23. οὐκ ἐθέλω
3. ἔχεσθε 13. τάττεσθε 24. παρασκευάζειν
4. βούλονται 14. γυμνάζεσθαι 25. οἴεται
5. παρασκευάζου 15. πολιτεύομαι 26. ἐσμέν
6. δικάζεται 16. μάχονται 27. εἶναι
7. σπένδουσι(ν) 17. οἴῃ 28. κόπτεται
8. βουλεύεσθε 18. ἄγεται 29. φέρεσθαι or ἄγεσθαι
9. παρακελεύῃ 19. γραφόμεθα 30. εὑρίσκεσθε
10. πυνθανόμεθα 20. γίγνονται
11. λύεται 21. ἀρχόμεθα

III.
1. In the war against the foreigners (or the Persians) the Athenians are fighting
against brave enemies.
2. Generals must deliberate.
3. They command the hoplites to position themselves (or be positioned) alongside
the river.
4. Do not make a truce, but desire to fight.
5. By means of difficult toils victory comes about for the Athenians. or By means
of difficult toils the Athenians get a victory.
 units 11–12 17

6. They make a truce on the following day.

7. One must cling to one’s honor.
8. You are being harmed not by the enemy but by the soldiers who exhort (you) to
flee.
9. It is not possible for (the) children to pour libations to the gods.
10. The sailors are being driven by the winds toward the land of the foreigners.
11. Hear the arguments or speeches, Athenians, and deliberate.
12. Fight, young man, beside your comrades, and win victory for yourself.
13. Most of the soldiers are unwilling to flee.
14. The children are being led into or toward the shrine by their teacher.
15. Be worthy of the office that the citizen entrust (to you).
16. It seems best to Isaeus to marry the sister of the poet.

unit twelve

I.
1. in front of the tents 8. throughout the previous day
2. under the power (or control) of the 9. in return for her toils
impious master 10. across (or over) the sea
3. in accordance with the judgment of 11. under (or into) the tent
the judge 12. around the marketplace
4. concerning the honor of the 13. against the umpires
Athenians 14. before the battle itself
5. on behalf of the same friends 15. toward or against the foreigners
6. under the power (or control) of the 16. about (or over) victory
enemy 17. in accordance with the just account
7. (up) along the road 18. by those in the shrine

II.
1. The wise fare well; the bad do not.
2. We want to have not war but peace.
3. The citizens pour libations to the gods who fight on behalf of the country. For
they are responsible for (its or their) faring well.
4. The land across the river into which his children are going is beautiful.
5. By both the Athenians themselves and their allies the foreigners are now justly
being harmed.
6. To do just things is difficult for most people but easy for the wise.
7. She or he exhorts the citizens to be pious both now and in the future.
18 Answer Key to Introduction to Attic Greek

8. Good men always want to have honor instead of wealth.

9. Peisistratus is now arranging the foot soldiers here beside the sea, while Isaeus
and the sailors are easily going up the river. For it seems best to them to leave
the army now or immediately.
10. The priestess is entrusting the majority of the slaves to her brother; but they
immediately want to flee, for they are in a bad way.
11. The teacher orders the young men to bear their toils well, but they are not will-
ing to obey him.

III.
1. σοφῶς, αἰσχρῶς, κακῶς, χαλεπῶς, ἀδίκως
2. ὑπὲρ or πρὸ αὐτῶν τῶν τυράννων (or τῶν τυράννων αὐτῶν)
3. κατὰ τοὺς τῶν βαρβάρων νόμους
4. περὶ τῆς δημοκρατίας or περὶ τὴν δημοκρατίαν
5. οἱ ὁπλῖται οἷς τὰ παιδία ἐπιτρέπομεν καὶ δίκαιοί εἰσι καὶ ὅσιοι (or καὶ δίκαιοι
καὶ ὅσιοι).
6. ὁ μὲν τὴν ἀλήθειαν λέγει, ὁ δὲ οὔ.
7. ἀνὰ τὸν ποταμὸν χαλεπῶς ἔρχονται οἱ ναῦται· λίθοις γὰρ ὑπὸ τῶν πολεμίων
βάλλονται.
8. αἱ ἵπποι περὶ ὧν λέγετε οὐκ αὐτῶν τῶν ἱερειῶν εἰσιν ἀλλὰ τῶν θεῶν.
9. ἀεὶ χρὴ μάλα σοφῶς βουλεύεσθαι ὑπὲρ τῶν πολιτῶν.
10. οὐ ῥᾴδιον (or οὐ ῥᾴδιόν ἐστιν) αὐτοῖς χαλεπῷ νόμῳ πείθεσθαι.
11. τοὺς περὶ τῶν συμμάχων λόγους αὖθις or αὖ ἀκούομεν. ἔπειτα or εἶτα τοῦ
πολέμου ἄρχομεν.

unit thirteen

I.
1. δοκοῦμεν 12. φοβοῦσι(ν) 22. ἄγονται
2. φοβοῦνται 13. ποιεῖται 23. ἀφικνοῦνται
3. ὠφελεῖς 14. δοκεῖν 24. δεῖσθαι
4. ἀφικνεῖται 15. ὠφελούμεθα 25. ποιοῦμεν
5. φιλεῖ 16. κελεύουσι(ν) 26. γράφῃ
6. φίλει 17. κρατῶ 27. αἱρῇ
7. οἰκεῖται 18. βλάπτεσθαι or 28. δοκεῖ
8. βουλόμεθα ἀδικεῖσθαι 29. ὠφελῶ
9. νοσοῦσι(ν) 19. γίγνῃ 30. φοβούμεθα
10. σπένδεσθε 20. αἱρεῖτε
11. φοβεῖσθαι 21. ἀδικεῖται
 units 12–13 19

II.
1. you (pl.) are ill or [unlikely] be ill (pl.) 2 pl. pres. act. ind. [or impt.] of νοσέω
2. they ask for 3 pl. pres. m./p. ind. of δέομαι
3. to seem pres. act. inf. of δοκέω
4. I am liked 1 s. pres. m./p. ind. of φιλέω
5. we seize 1 pl. pres. act. ind. of αἱρέω
6. she or he or it helps 3 s. pres. act. ind. of ὠφελέω
7. to arrive pres. m./p. inf. of ἀφικνέομαι
8. you (s.) are being conquered 2 s. pres. m./p. ind. of κρατέω
9. they seem 3 pl. pres. act. ind. of δοκέω
10. I dwell 1 s. pres. act. ind. of οἰκέω
11. you (pl.) are being wronged 2 pl. pres. m./p. ind. of ἀδικέω
or [unlikely] be wronged (pl.) 2 pl. pres. m./p. impt. of ἀδικέω
12. she or he arrives 3 s. pres. m./p. ind. of ἀφικνέομαι
13. to terrify pres. act. inf. of φοβέω
14. you (s.) make 2 s. pres. act. ind. of ποιέω
15. we are afraid 1 pl. pres. m./p. ind. of φοβέω
16. she or he inquires 3 s. pres. m./p. ind. of πυνθάνομαι
17. you (s.) hear 2 s. pres. act. ind. of ἀκούω
18. you (s.) find for yourself or you (s.) 2 s. pres. m./p. ind. of εὑρίσκω
are being discovered
19. to do wrong pres. act. inf. of ἀδικέω
20. it is necessary 3 s. pres. act. ind. of δέω or δεῖ
21. they conquer 3 pl. pres. act. ind. of κρατέω
22. they are being inhabited 3 pl. pres. m./p. ind. of οἰκέω
23. we choose or we are being seized 1 pl. pres. m./p. ind. of αἱρέω
24. you (pl.) love or love (pl.) 2 pl. pres. act. ind. or impt. of φιλέω
25. you (s.) engage in politics 2 s. pres. m./p. ind. of πολιτεύω
26. help (s.) 2 s. pres. act. impt. of ὠφελέω
27. it is being made or she or he makes 3 s. pres. m./p. ind. of ποιέω
for herself or himself
28. you (s.) seem 2 s. pres. act. ind. of δοκέω
29. I am being aided 1 s. pres. m./p. ind. of ὠφελέω
30. we are becoming 1 pl. pres. m./p. ind. of γίγνομαι
20 Answer Key to Introduction to Attic Greek

III.
1. τούσδε τοὺς ἀγαθοὺς Ἀθηναίους
2. ἐκείνῳ τῷ πονηρῷ συμμάχῳ
3. ἥδε (or αὕτη) ἡ καλὴ νίκη
4. τούτων (or τῶνδε) τῶν χαλεπῶν
πόνων
5. ἐκεῖνα τὰ φίλα παιδία
6. ἐκείνη ἡ κακὴ δόξα
7. τούτους (or τούσδε) τοὺς πλουσίους
8. ταύτῃ (or τῇδε) τῇ πολεμίᾳ στρατιᾷ
or τούτῳ (or τῷδε) τῷ πολεμίῳ
στρατῷ
9. ἐκείνων τῶν κακῶν συμφορῶν
10. ἐκεῖνο τὸ σοφὸν ἔργον

IV.
1. The foreigners whom those men are conquering dwell by the sea.
2. These women terrify the children; those are afraid of them.
3. On this day it seems best to the citizens to make peace with the enemy, for
most of the soldiers are sick.
4. Those people do wrong to the good but help the bad.
5. The wise general has need of the following, I suppose: deliberating well before
the battle and faring well in the battle.
6. This man easily wins honor for himself; so just and wise does he seem to the
citizens because of the fine laws that he writes.
7. The sailors who arrive here always seem to aid the foreigners or the Persians.
8. While these brothers dwell in the same house, their sisters dwell in the shrine
with the priestesses.
9. Do not choose in life the easy (things) but the noble. or Choose in life not the
easy but the noble.
10. We beseech also the Athenians not shamefully to desert the Greeks there.

V.
1. καὶ αὕτη ἡ χώρα ὑπό τε τῶν βαρβάρων καὶ ὑπὸ τῶν Ἀθηναίων οἰκεῖται.
2. διὰ τὴν προτέραν εἰρήνην οὐκ ἔξεστι τῷ στρατηγῷ τοὺς ἐν τῷ τῆς θεᾶς ἱερῷ
ὠφελεῖν.
3. οἱ κακοὶ τῶν πλείστων ἄρχουσιν· οἱ γὰρ ἀγαθοὶ νῦν ἄρχειν οὐκ ἐθέλουσιν.
4. ἐκ τοῦ ἀδικεῖν ἀλλὰ ἀγαθὸς δοκεῖν (εἶναι), ὁ ἄδικος τὸν πλοῦτον καὶ τὴν τιμὴν
φέρεται· οἱ γὰρ πολῖται αὐτὸν μάλα φιλοῦσιν.
5. τῶν νεανιῶν οἱ μὲν νῦν ἀφικνοῦνται, οἱ δὲ ἤδη γυμνάζονται.
6. μὴ οὕτω or ὧδε φοβοῦ or φοβεῖσθε τοὺς ἀνέμους καὶ τὴν θάλατταν.
 units 13–14 21

unit fourteen

I.
1. χάρι 11. γιγάντων 21. θώρακι
2. γέρουσι(ν) 12. κλῶπες 22. ὄρνιν
3. ὕδωρ 13. πρᾶγμα 23. γίγαν
4. ποιημάτων 14. Ἑλλάδι 24. γράμμασι(ν)
5. λέοντες 15. φύλαξι(ν) 25. φῶς
6. ὀδόντι 16. ἀσπίδος 26. ὑδάτων
7. ἐλπίδες 17. πατρίδας 27. ὄρνιθες
8. φάλαγγος 18. τέρατα 28. χάριτι
9. ὄρνιθι 19. γράμμα 29. φύλακες
10. ἔριδας 20. βουλευμάτων 30. φυγάδος

II.
1. gen. pl. of θώραξ, θώρακος, f. 13. nom. or voc. pl. of κλώψ, κλωπός,
2. dat. pl. of λέων, λέοντος, m. m.
3. dat. sing. of φῶς, φωτός, n. 14. dat. pl. of ποίημα, ποιήματος, n.
4. acc. pl. of ὀδούς, ὀδόντος, m. 15. nom. or acc. or voc. sing. of πρᾶγμα,
5. nom. or acc. or voc. pl. of βούλευμα, πράγματος, n.
βουλεύματος, n. 16. acc. sing. of χάρις, χάριτος, f.
6. gen. sing. of φάλαγξ, φάλαγγος, f. 17. acc. sing. of Ἑλλάς, Ἑλλάδος, f.
7. acc. sing. of ἐλπίς, ἐλπίδος, f. 18. dat. pl. of φυγάς, φυγάδος, m. or f.
8. nom. or voc. pl. of ὄρνις, ὄρνιθος, 19. gen. pl. of ὕδωρ, ὕδατος, n.
m. or f. 20. acc. pl. of γίγας, γίγαντος, m.
9. dat. sing. of φύλαξ, φύλακος, m. 21. gen. pl. of γέρων, γέροντος, m.
10. gen. sing. of ἔρις, ἔριδος, f. 22. dat. pl. of ὀδούς, ὀδόντος, m.
11. nom. sing. of πατρίς, πατρίδος, f. 23. gen. sing. of φῶς, φωτός, n.
12. dat. pl. of ἀσπίς, ἀσπίδος, f. 24. dat. sing. of ὕδωρ, ὕδατος, n.

III.
1. Because of the good omens we are not afraid of the war against those people.
2. It is bad to abandon one’s shield but good to save one’s life.
3. After this [literally, these things] the old men carry water to the young men
who are fighting on behalf of the fatherland.
4. The sentinels whom the enemy capture are put to death.
5. Heracles must defeat both the lion in Nemea and the giants and the monsters
throughout Greece.
22 Answer Key to Introduction to Attic Greek

6. Health is a good thing for human beings, but it is bad to feel ill or be in bad
shape.
7. Worthy poems are not written by bad or wretched poets.
8. In wartime we want to hear the portents that the gods seem to send, but in
peacetime we do not.
9. The sister of the exile does not remain in the house but is always beside the
doors. And then the tyrant seizes her but is afraid to put her to death.

IV.
1. τοῖς πολίταις δοκεῖ τοῦτον τὸν ποιητὴν αἱρεῖσθαι· οὐ γὰρ φιλοῦσι τοὺς
πλείστους αὐτῶν.
2. ἐκείνου δεῖται ὑπὲρ τῆς εἰρήνης λέγειν.
3. ταῦτα οὐχ οὕτως or ὧδε ἔχει, ἀλλ’ ἀεὶ εὖ or καλῶς πράττετε.
4. χάριν οὐκ ἔχουσι τῷ Πεισιστράτῳ τῶν ἀγαθῶν ἃ ποιεῖ or πράττει;

unit Fifteen

I.
1. dat. sing. of ἔτος, ἔτους, n.
2. gen. sing. of Σωκράτης,
Σωκράτους, m.
3. nom. or acc. or voc. pl. of τεῖχος,
τείχους, n.
4. gen. sing. of πατήρ, πατρός, m.
5. dat. sing. of Ἕλλην,
Ἕλληνος, m.
6. gen. pl. of δαίμων, δαίμονος,
m. or f.
7. dat. pl. of ῥήτωρ, ῥήτορος, m.
8. acc. pl. of μήτηρ, μητρός, f.
9. voc. sing. of θυγάτηρ, θυγατρός, f.
10. nom. or acc. or voc. pl. of κράτος,
κράτους, n.
11. gen. pl. of μέρος, μέρους, n.
12. dat. sing. of γῆρας, γήρως, n.
13. dat. pl. of τριήρης, τριήρους, f.
14. dat. sing. of ἀνήρ, ἀνδρός, m.
15. acc. sing. of ἅλς, ἁλός, m. or f.
16. acc. sing. of ἀγών, ἀγῶνος, m.
17. voc. sing. of Δημοσθένης,
Δημοσθένους, m.
18. nom. or acc. or voc. pl. of γέρας,
γέρως, n.
19. gen. sing. of πλῆθος, πλήθους, n.
20. nom. or acc. or voc. sing. of τέλος,
τέλους, n.
21. gen. pl. masc. or fem. or neuter of
τίς, τί
22. acc. pl. of ἀνήρ, ἀνδρός, m.
23. voc. sing. of πατήρ, πατρός, m.
24. acc. sing. of τριήρης, τριήρους, f.
25. gen. sing. of γῆρας, γήρως, n.
26. acc. sing. masc. or fem. or nom. or
acc. pl. neuter of τίς, τί
27. dat. sing. of κράτος, κράτους, n.
28. nom. or voc. pl. of δαίμων, δαίμονος,
m. or f.
29. dat. pl. of ἀγών, ἀγῶνος, m.
30. dat. pl. masc. or fem. or neuter of
τίς, τί
Another random document with
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thickened triradiate rod of specialised cuticle (Fig. 62); these fins,
however, do not run far down the body. As a rule the cuticle is quite
smooth, but it may be ringed, as in Filaria laticaudata and in F.
denticulata; and the rings may bear backwardly-projecting teeth.

The skin of Nematodes consists of three layers—(i.) the above-

mentioned cuticle, which is presumably secreted by (ii.) the sub-
cuticle or epidermis which underlies it; the latter surrounds in its turn
(iii.) the muscular layer.

The nature of the sub-cuticle is one of the debateable points in the

morphology of the Nematoda. No cell outlines have been detected in
it, although nuclei are scattered through it; it is in fact a syncytium, or
protoplasmic mass in which cell limits cannot be distinguished. Many
of the cells forming it have broken down into fibrils, and these form a
close meshwork, which is occasionally specialised, as, for instance,
round the nerve-cords. Along the median dorsal and ventral lines,
and along the lateral lines, this tissue is heaped up in such a way as
to divide the enclosed muscle-cells into four quadrants. These
thickenings surround dorsally and ventrally a specialised nerve-cord,
and laterally the excretory canals.

According to Jammes[155] this lack of differentiation in the sub-

cuticular layer is caused by the early appearance of the cuticle,
which he thinks is necessitated, at any rate in many of the parasitic
forms, by the action which the digestive juices of the host would
have on the otherwise unprotected body-wall.
 Fig. 62.—A transverse section through the body of Ascaris transfuga
Rud., in the region of the oesophagus: a, the muscular
oesophagus with its triradiate lumen; b, the cuticle; c, the sub-
cuticle; d, the muscular layer; e, the lateral nerves running in the
lateral line; f, the excretory canal; g, the dorsal, and h, the ventral
nerve; i, the triradiate rod in the fin.

The nervous system, according to the same writer, is of the same

nature as this sub-cuticular tissue, only it is more differentiated, or
perhaps we should say it has retained more of the primitive cellular
character of the embryonic tissue. The fibres of the sub-cuticular
tissue are closely connected with the fibrils which compose the
spongioplasm (Fig. 64, d) of the muscles,[156] and form also the
sheaths of the various nerves; in fact the passage of these fibrils into
the nerves is so gradual that it is impossible to make any separation
between them.

The Nervous System.—The central organ of the nervous system is

the circumoesophageal ring which surrounds the pharynx, close to
the anterior end of the body, in A. megalocephala 1½ to 2 mm.
behind the mouth.[157] Ganglion cells are found in the ring, but they
are not numerous, and are chiefly aggregated round the points of
origin of the nerves.

Six short nerves, three on each side of the median line, run forward
from the ring, a pair of these ending in each of the three papillae
which surround the mouth.

Behind, the nerve-ring gives off six main nerve trunks, of which the
dorsal and ventral nerves are usually the largest. These run in the
median dorsal and ventral thickenings of the sub-cuticular tissue,
and are connected one with another by numerous fine lateral
branches running through the sub-cuticle.
 Fig. 63.—Diagram of the nervous system at the two ends of the body in
Ascaris megalocephala Cloq., ♂ . (After Hesse.) a,
Circumoesophageal nerve-ring; b, opening of excretory ducts; c,
dorsal nerve; d, dorso-lateral nerve; e, ventro-lateral nerve
becoming the bursal nerve posteriorly; f, the ventral nerve; g,
cloacal opening; h, sub-cuticular nerves running from c to f; k,
spicules.

The lateral nerves, which consist of two or four bundles, one or two
lying dorsal and one or two ventral to each excretory canal, have a
double origin. The dorsal branches arise directly from the nerve-ring,
and at their point of origin there is a considerable accumulation of
ganglion cells, from which two commissures on each side run into
the ventral nerve (Fig. 63, f). The ventral branches arise from the
ventral nerve-cord immediately in front of the excretory pore. At the
posterior end the lateral nerves pass into the two branches into
which the ventral nerve divides. Just before the point where the
ventral nerve splits it swells out into an anal ganglion situated just in
front of the anus. In the male[158] this anal ganglion gives off two
lateral nerves which pass round the cloaca and form a ring, and in
this sex the ventro-lateral nerve, which is much strengthened by
fibres from the ventral nerve, and has received, owing to the
mistaken impression that it was a special nervus recurrens, the
name of the "bursal nerve," gives off numerous branches to the
sense papillae which are found in this region of the body and on the
tail. The arrangement of these parts is shown in Fig. 63.

Sense organs are but poorly developed in the Nematoda, as is usual

in animals which are, as a rule, either parasitic or live underground.
Eyes, consisting of masses of dark pigment with or without a lens,
occur in the neighbourhood of the circumoesophageal nerve-ring in
some free-living forms. Leuckart described as possible auditory
organs certain giant-cells lying near the orifice of the excretory ducts.
Later research has shown these cells to have some phagocytic
action on the contents of the body-cavity. The chief sense organs are
the papillae, of which in A. megalocephala there are two kinds, the
lip papillae being distinguished from the genital papillae by the fact
that the nerve supplying them ends in a fine point and pierces the
cuticle in the former case, whilst in the latter it swells out into an
"end-organ," which is always covered by a layer of cuticle, though
sometimes by a very thin one.

Muscular System.—The muscular system is one of the most

characteristic features of the Nematoda, both as regards the
histology of the muscle-cells and the way in which the cells are
arranged.

Each muscle-cell is of considerable size, and is of the shape of a

somewhat flattened spindle produced into a process near the middle.
Each end of the spindle cell is said to be continuous with the fibrils of
the sub-cuticular layer.[159] The muscle-cell consists of two portions,
a contractile part which lies next the sub-cuticle, and which usually,
to some extent, wraps round the second or medullary half. The latter
consists of a fibrillar spongioplasm, in the meshes of which lies a
clear structureless hyaloplasm. The nucleus always lies in the
medullary half.

The contractile portion consists of a number of columns, very

regularly arranged in two rows and close together, but allowing
sufficient space between adjacent columns for fibrils of the
spongioplasm to penetrate; and these become continuous with the
fibrils of the sub-cuticle, which is thus intimately connected with both
nervous and muscular systems.

The medullary portion of the cell varies greatly in size; it may stretch
far into the body-cavity, which may be thereby almost occluded, or it
may be flattened out, leaving a large space around the alimentary
canal. At one point, usually about its middle, it is produced into a
process, which bends inwards towards the dorsal or ventral nerve-
cord, and by means of this process the muscle receives its nerve
supply.

In most Nematodes there are numerous muscle-cells to be seen in

any transverse section, forming a layer within the sub-cuticle, and
broken up into four quadrants (Fig. 62) by the projection of the
dorsal, ventral, and lateral thickenings of the sub-cuticular tissue. In
some genera, however, such as Oxyuris, Strongylus, Pelodera,
Leptodera, etc., there are but eight muscle-cells in a row, two in each
quadrant. Such genera are classed together by Schneider,[160] and
termed Meromyarii (vide p. 137).

Fig. 64.—A, transverse section through the centre of a muscle-cell; B,

the same through a nerve fibre showing the sub-cuticular fibres
running into the sheath. (After Rohde.) a, Cuticle; b, sub-cuticular
fibres continuous with d; c, contractile columns; d, network of
spongioplasm; e, nucleus.

In addition to the characteristic muscles of the body-wall there are

others, such as those which move the spicules in the male, which
cross the body-cavity obliquely near the anus, and such as sphincter
muscles near the latter orifice, which have not the characteristic
arrangement of contractile and medullary parts described above.
The Body-Cavity.—The skin of a Nematode, as described above,
contains most of the important organs of the body within its
thickness. The chief muscular system, the nervous system with its
sense organs, and the excretory organs are all embedded in or form
part of the skin, which in its turn encloses a cavity—the body-cavity
—in which the other two systems of organs which are found in
Nematodes lie. These are the digestive system and the reproductive
system.

The body-cavity is continuous from one end of the animal to the

other, and is in no case divided up into compartments by the
presence of septa or mesenteries. It contains a coagulable fluid with
numerous corpuscles; this is, as a rule, colourless, but in Syngamus
trachealis Sieb. (Fig. 70), which lives on blood, the haemoglobin of
its host tinges it red, though the colour is said to disappear if the
parasite be isolated and starved.

The morphological nature of this body-cavity affords an interesting

problem. It is not a true coelom, such as exists in the earthworm,
since it is not surrounded by mesoderm, nor do the excretory organs,
with the possible exception of one or two genera, open into it, nor do
the generative cells arise from its walls. Essentially it is a space
between the mesodermic muscle-cells which line the skin and the
endodermic cells of the alimentary canal, and although in many of its
functions it resembles the coelom of other animals, its morphological
character is quite different.

There are no respiratory or circulatory organs in the Nematoda;

possibly the fluid in the body-cavity acts, to some extent, as a carrier
of oxygen, but from the inert and almost vegetative life of these
animals it seems probable that their respiratory processes are slow,
and in fact Bunge[161] has shown that Ascaris mystax, found in the
intestine of the cat, will live for four or five days in media quite free
from oxygen, and that A. acus from the pike will live and exhibit
movements in the same media for from four to six days.
The Digestive System.—The mouth of the Nematoda is usually
anterior and terminal, and is surrounded by from two to six projecting
lips, the most common number being three. These lips are well
provided with sense papillae. The mouth leads into an alimentary
canal, which with hardly an exception runs straight through the body
to the anus without twists or loops. The anus is usually placed
ventrally and is not terminal, but in Trichina and Trichocephalus it is
at the end of the body, and in Mermis, where the several parts of the
alimentary canal are said not to communicate, it is absent altogether.
Ichthyonema, Dracunculus, Allantonema, Atractonema, and other
Filariae are also aproctous.

The alimentary canal is divisible into three parts—(i.) the

oesophagus, (ii.) the intestine, and (iii.) the rectum. The suctorial
oesophagus is a very muscular, thick-walled tube, lined with cuticle
continuous with that which covers the body, and like it cast from time
to time. Its lumen is usually much reduced, and is almost invariably
triangular or triradiate in section (Fig. 62). In many genera the hinder
end of the oesophagus is swollen into a muscular bulb, which is
armed with teeth in Heterakis, Oxyuris, Pelodera, Leptodera, etc.
Other species, such as Tylenchus, Aphelenchus, Dorylaimus, are
armed with a spear, which in Onyx,[162] a genus recently described
and allied to the last named, is borne on a special bulb. The use of
the spear is to pierce the tissue upon the juices of which the animal
lives. A gland lies embedded in the thick walls of the oesophagus,
and opens into its lumen by a fine tube. This was first described by
Schneider[163] in A. megalocephala, and more recently it has been
found by Hamann[164] in a number of Ascaridae and Strongylidae
from the Adriatic, and also in Lecanocephalus.

With a few exceptions, such as Mermis, where it is blind, the

oesophagus opens posteriorly into the intestine. This is a somewhat
flattened tube, whose shape and position are often altered by the
development of the generative organs. Its wall consists of a single
layer of columnar cells, with large nuclei coated internally and
externally by a layer of cuticle. The inner layer of cuticle is usually
perforated by very numerous minute pores. In some species the
intestine is degenerate, in Mermis it is a closed tube opening neither
into the oesophagus nor into the rectum; in Trichina spiralis and in
the larva of Tylenchus tritici it consists of a single row of cells
perforated by a duct, but in the adult of the last named there are
many cells in a transverse section.

Fig. 65.—A longitudinal section through the body of Strongylus filaria

Rud. (From O. Augstein.[165]) A portion of the body, on each side
of the excretory pore, is seen in optical section. a, Mouth; b,
oesophagus; c, intestine; d, excretory canal; e, excretory pore,
and the opening of the poison glands, i; f, circumoesophageal
nerve-ring; g, ventral nerve; h, dorsal nerve; i, unicellular poison
glands; k, ovary, with the ova separate; l, oviduct; m, uterus, the
first egg in the uterus is surrounded by spermatozoa; n, opening
of uterus; o, inner end of ovary with the ova undifferentiated.

In some genera, Leptodera and Pelodera, the lumen of the intestine

at any one level is bounded by two horseshoe-shaped cells, but by
far the commonest arrangement is a tube formed of fairly numerous
columnar cells crowded with granules and with large nuclei.

The rectum is usually short; its cuticular lining, like that of the
oesophagus, is cast at intervals. At its anterior end there is usually a
sphincter muscle, and its walls are divaricated by muscular strands
which run from it to the body-wall. The anus is a transverse slit,
which in the male Strongylidae is surrounded by a funnel-shaped
membrane.

The food of Nematodes seems to be almost entirely fluid, and

consists, at any rate in the parasitic forms, of the elaborated juices of
their hosts. Little is known about the nutriment of the free-living
forms.

The Excretory System.—The excretory organs are peculiar, and,

like many other Nematode structures, do not fall readily into line with
what is known of similar organs in other animals. They consist of two
canals embedded in the lateral thickenings of the sub-cuticular
tissue. The canals end blindly behind, but near the anterior end of
the body they bend inwards, and after uniting, open by a common
pore situated in the middle ventral line, a little way behind the mouth.
The lateral canals are in some cases continued in front of the
transverse branch, and they then end blindly in the head. The walls
of these canals consist of an internal, structureless, refractive layer
surrounded by a granular layer with nuclei. They contain a fluid, but
nothing is known of its composition.

An interesting divergence from the usual form of excretory organ has

been described by Hamann[166] in the genus Lecanocephalus. Here
there is only one canal, the right; anteriorly this bends towards the
ventral surface and opens by a small median pore close behind the
nerve-ring. Posteriorly the canal does not extend much beyond the
middle of the body, where it forms a coiled mass, and diminishing in
size, opens into the body-cavity. The same author also states that
both canals in Dochmius have a similar internal opening; these
observations, if confirmed,[167] show a conformity to the ordinary
structure of excretory organs which was not supposed to exist in the
lateral canals of the Nematoda.

The Reproductive Organs.—With the exception of the genera

Angiostomum, Pelodytes, and of Rhabdonema nigrovenosum, which
are physiologically hermaphrodite and self-impregnating, the
Nematodes have separate sexes. The males are, as a rule, smaller
than the females, and may usually be distinguished by the posterior
end of the body being curved towards the ventral surface; a genital
bursa, and one or more spicules are often found in this sex. Further,
the position of the genital opening differs; in the male the vas
deferens opens on the ventral surface of the rectum close to the
anus, but the oviduct in the female opens in the ventral middle line,
usually near the middle of the body, but sometimes close behind the
excretory pore, or in some Strongylidae just in front of the anus. The
tail of the male bears very numerous papillae, which are of
considerable systematic importance.

Fig. 66.—Ascaris lumbricoides Cloq. ♂, natural size, cut open along the
dorsal middle line. a, Oesophagus; b, intestine; c, testis; d, vas
deferens; h, lateral excretory canals.

With rare exceptions, e.g. Filaria attenuata, where it is double, the

male reproductive organ consists of a single tube divisible into a
testis proper, a vas deferens, a vesicula seminalis, where the
spermatozoa are stored up, and a ductus ejaculatorius. The tube
stretches through the body in a straight line in the small free-living
forms, but is thrown into loops and coils in the larger parasitic
Nematodes. Within the testis the mother-cells of the spermatozoa
are attached to a rhachis or axial cord; the mother-cells divide, and
their products ultimately form spermatozoa. The latter have a very
peculiar shape; in accordance with the universal absence of cilia in
the Nematoda the spermatozoon has no flagellum, and at first
consists of a spherical nucleated cell, on one side of which a cap or
covering of some refractive substance appears. The cap elongates
and becomes conical, whilst the protoplasmic portion of the
spermatozoon throws out pseudopodia and becomes amoeboid, but
ultimately rounds itself off again. The spermatozoa do not attain
maturity until they reach the uterus of the female.

The internal female reproductive organs are, with few exceptions

(Trichina, etc.), double, but the vagina, which is lined with cuticle
continuous with that covering the body, is always single. They are
usually much coiled, and may be divided into ovary, oviduct, and
uterus. The ova arise from a polynucleated mass of protoplasm or
syncytium (Fig. 65, o) at the upper end, and acquire distinctness as
they approach the oviduct. Fertilisation takes place in the uterus, but
the segmentation may not begin until some time after the eggs are
laid; in Dochmius, however, it is well advanced at this period, and in
many genera, e.g. Pseudalius, Trichina, Dracunculus, etc., the whole
development of the larva takes place in the body of the mother.
 Fig. 67.—Ascaris lumbricoides Cloq. ♀, natural size, cut open along the
median dorsal line to show the internal organs. a, The muscular
oesophagus; b, the intestine; c, the ovary; d, the uterus; e, the
vagina; f, the external opening; h, the excretory canals; i, their
opening.

Embryology.—The eggs of many of the parasitic forms require a

considerable degree of warmth to develop. Those of Ascaris
lumbricoides require a temperature of 20° C., those of
Trichocephalus 22.5° C., and those of Oxyuris vermicularis, 40° C.
The latter develop in a few hours, the eggs of Dochmius in a few
days, whilst those of A. lumbricoides take weeks or even months,
and the young of Trichocephalus seldom develop within a year.[168]
The ova only develop in a damp atmosphere, and they can be
arrested at almost any stage, and for considerable periods, by
desiccation.

Our knowledge of the processes by which the fertilised egg-cell

develops into the larva is very imperfect. As a rule the segmentation
is complete and equal; it results in the formation of a blastula, which
may take the form of a hollow sphere of cells—A. megalocephala—
or the cavity may be reduced, and the blastula may consist of a
double-layered plate, as in Cucullanus.[169] The distinction into cells
which will form the three embryonic layers, the ectoderm, mesoderm,
and endoderm, is very early evident,—in the eight-cell stage. By the
growth of one side of the blastula and the tucking in of the other the
blastula becomes converted into a gastrula, which is a two-layered
stage with a cavity opening to the exterior by a pore termed the
blastopore. In Nematodes the blastopore is elongated and slit-like; it
either forms the mouth (Cucullanus) or closes from behind forwards,
the mouth ultimately arising at the point where the blastopore finally
closed (Rhabdonema nigrovenosum). The mesodermal cells lie
between the ectoderm and the endoderm; they ultimately develop
into the muscles of the body-wall, the lateral excretory canals, and
the reproductive organs; the last-named two systems arise each[170]
from a single cell. The nervous system arises from the ectoderm,
which also forms the sub-cuticle, and is turned in slightly at the
mouth and anus; the remainder of the alimentary canal develops
from the endoderm.

The post-embryonic development, which is very variable, and in

many cases very extraordinary, will be dealt with under the several
families.

Classification.—The classification of the Nematodes is a matter of

very considerable difficulty; their structure is unusually monotonous,
and, owing perhaps to their largely parasitic mode of life, they show
practically none of those external features which are so useful to the
systematist in other groups. Schneider in his Monograph divides the
group into three subdivisions—(i.) the Polymyarii, in which
numerous muscle cells are seen in a transverse section; (ii.) the
Meromyarii, in which only eight are seen, two in each quadrant; and
(iii.) the Holomyarii, in which the muscles are either not divided, or
only divided by longitudinal lines. This grouping has, however, to
some extent broken down, since Bütschli[171] and others have
shown that the third subdivision is founded on insufficient
observation, whilst the first two include, in different subdivisions,
Nematodes which are closely allied in all respects except as regards
their muscle cells.

The details of the life-history have been used by other writers as a

basis of classification. Linstow[172] enumerates fourteen distinct
modifications of the post-embryonic development (vide p. 159), and
Örley[173] has grouped these under three headings. The animals
which fall under each group to some extent resemble one another in
structure. Örley's groups are:—

(i.) Nematozoa.—Thread-worms with free larval life, the mature

forms being parasitic in animals. Enormous numbers of eggs are
produced, and the development is indirect. The genital organs are
complicated by many convolutions.

(ii.) Rhabditiformae.—Small, as a rule microscopic, thread-worms,

usually living free, but rarely parasitic. They become sexually mature
only in decomposing organic substances, or in earth saturated with
such substances. They live gregariously and do not produce
immense numbers of ova. The metamorphosis is slight, or is
complicated by sexual metamorphosis. The oesophagus has two
dilatations. The genital tubes are simple and not coiled.

(iii.) Anguillulidae.—Small microscopic thread-worms, with a free

existence in mould or water, throughout all stages. They produce
large eggs. They are provided with a caudal sucker and bristles,
sometimes with eyes and other structures characteristic of a free life.
Genital tube simple and not coiled.

The disadvantage of such a system is, that to accurately place a

specimen in its proper class we must be acquainted with its life-
history, and this is known in but few cases.

The determination of the species to which a Nematode belongs is a

matter of considerable difficulty. Amongst the more important
features for purposes of classification are the arrangement of the
muscles, the character of the tail in the male, especially when
papillae are present, the number and the size of the spicules, and
the arrangement of the lips and mouth-parts generally.

Cobb[174] has recently devised an ingenious formula in which

measurements of different parts of the body appear as percentages
of the whole length of the body. The nature of this will be understood
by reference to Fig. 68. Such a formula should, however, be used
with caution, since it rests on the assumption that the proportions of
the various parts of the body are constant in different individuals, and
it is by no means certain that this is the case.

Fig. 68.—Diagram to explain the descriptive formula used for

Nematodes. (From Cobb.) 6, 7, 8, 10, 6 are the transverse
measurements, while 7, 14, 28, 50, 88 are the corresponding
longitudinal measurements. The formula in this case is
7 14 28 50 88
6 7 8 10 6

The unit of measurement is the one-hundredth part of the length of the

worm. The measurements are therefore percentages of the
length.
The measurements are taken with the animal viewed in profile; the first
is taken at the base of the oesophagus, the second at the nerve-
ring, the third at the cardiac constriction, the fourth at the vulva in
females and at the middle in males, the fifth at the anus.

Taking everything into consideration, it has seemed advisable in the

following systematic account of the Nematoda to abandon the larger
groups, and to deal directly with the families. Claus distinguishes
seven of these, and the diagnoses given at the head of each are
mainly taken from his Grundzüge der Zoologie.[175]
 I. Family Ascaridae.

Body rather stout. A dorsal and two ventro-lateral lips, bearing

papillae. Buccal cavity distinct, seldom provided with chitinous
armature. The oesophagus often has two dilatations. The tail of the
male is ventrally curved, and usually there are two horny spicules.
The Ascaridae are found in the intestines of their respective hosts.

Genera: Ascaris, Heterakis, Oxyuris, Nematoxys, Oxysoma, and

many others.

Von Linstow[176] enumerates over 250 species of Ascaris, of which it

will only be possible to mention here one or two. They are all
parasitic in Vertebrata.

A. lumbricoides Linn. is one of the largest known Nematodes ♂ = 4-6

in., ♀ = 10-14 in.; Figs. 66 and 67). It is a common parasite in man,
and has been found in the ox. It is now generally recognised as the
same parasite which inhabits the pig, and which Dujardin regarded
as specifically distinct, and named A. suillae. In the latter host,
however, it never attains the dimensions it does in man. It inhabits
the upper and middle parts of the small intestine, and has been
known to escape into the body-cavity and set up abscesses there, or
to make its way into the stomach, and to be voided through the
mouth. It is practically cosmopolitan in distribution, and is very
common in Japan—Baely found it in twenty-one out of twenty-three
post-mortems—and in Tonquin and tropical Africa. Heller[177] states
that no one is free from these worms in Finland, and they are
common wherever there is a plentiful water supply, as in the marshy
districts of Holland and Sweden. In Iceland alone they seem absent.
When examined alive they give off an irritating vapour which
seriously affects some observers, causing catarrhal symptoms,
which in Bastian's case lasted six weeks. The usual number found in
one host is small, one to six or eight, but cases are on record where
many hundreds occurred in one person.
The details of the life-history of this form are not yet completely
worked out. The eggs leave the body of the host with the excreta,
and formerly it was thought they re-entered the alimentary canal in
drinking-water, etc., and there developed into the adult without
change of host. This view has been combated by Leuckart, who
failed to rear the Nematodes by direct feeding, and it has been
noticed that the youngest parasites found in the intestine are already
2 to 3 mm. long. Von Linstow has recently suggested that the larval
stages may be hatched out in the body of the millipede Julus
guttulatus, whose habits might easily lead it to eat the eggs of the
parasite in manured gardens, etc., and which is itself sometimes
unconsciously eaten when hidden in fruit or vegetables. This would
account for the frequent presence of the parasite in pigs, and also for
the fact that in man it is commonest in children who are apt to eat
windfalls, and in maniacs and people with perverted tastes.

A. megalocephala, which is found in the horse, ass, zebra, ox, etc.,

attains even greater dimensions than the foregoing. The male rarely
exceeds 7 inches in length, but the female sometimes reaches 17
inches. They are found in the small intestine of their hosts.
Cobbold[178] succeeded in rearing larvae which attained a high
degree of organisation when the eggs were placed amongst moist
horse-dung, and it seems probable that the larvae pass into the body
of their hosts in drinking water; at any rate no intermediate host has
yet been found, and Davaine, who fed cows, and Leuckart, who fed
horses with the unhatched eggs, both failed to infect the animals
they experimented on. A. mystax, which lives in cats, dogs, and
other Carnivora, has also been found in man. It is provided with fin-
like extensions on the side of its head (cf. Fig. 62), and varies much
in size in different hosts. When first found in man it received the
name of A. alata. It becomes sexually mature in about three weeks.

One of the most remarkable cycles of development amongst the

many curious life-histories met with amongst Nematodes, is that
presented by Rhabdonema (Ascaris) nigrovenosum. The free form of
this, formerly known as a distinct species, Rhabditis nigrovenosa,
lives in the excrement of frogs, and attains sexual maturity in a very
short time. The sexes pair, and the fertilised ova give rise to embryos
which hatch out within the body of the mother, and then begin to
devour her internal organs. After the destruction of the mother, the
embryos escape and live in water or slime, and sometimes burrow
into water snails, but they undergo no change until swallowed by a
frog. Then they make their way into its lungs and grow enormously,
attaining a length of almost an inch. This form, parasitic in the frog, is
a protandrous hermaphrodite, which first produces spermatozoa and
afterwards ova; the latter are fertilised by the spermatozoa, and give
rise to rhabditiform embryos, which escape by the alimentary canal
and form the free-living sexual stage mentioned above. Thus in the
life-history of this form we find an alternation of generation, a sexual
free-living form alternating with a hermaphrodite parasitic form.

Of the enormous number of other species of the genus, only a very

few can be mentioned. A. transfuga Rud. inhabits bears; A.
leptoptera Rud., lions; A. ferox H. and Ehrbg., Hyracoidea; A.
depressa Rud., vultures; A. rubicunda Schn., pythons; A. sulcata
Rud., turtles; A. mucronata Schn., the cod and pike; A. incurva Rud.,
the sword-fish.
 Fig. 69.—A male and female Oxyuris diesingi Ham. in copula, × 60. a,
Anus; b, oesophagus; c, bulb; d, testis; e, intestine; f, ovary. (From
Galeb.[179])

Oxyuris is Meromyarian (see p. 137), and is characterised by the

long capillary tail of the female. It includes another human parasite,
O. vermicularis, and it is one which it is difficult to get rid of. The
female has the characteristic tail and is about 10 mm. long. The male
is smaller. They are found in the caecum and rectum of man, and
cause great irritation and sometimes serious functional disturbance.
The eggs are laid in immense numbers but perish in water. If whilst
still in the egg-shell the larvae are swallowed on fruit or raw
vegetables, etc., they are set free in the stomach and small intestine
by the action of the digestive secretions. The distribution of this
parasite is universal. Besides numerous species that inhabit the
alimentary canal of Vertebrates, such as O. ambigua Rud., found in
hares and rabbits; O. curvula Rud., in the caecum of horses; O.
megatyphlon Rud., in iguanas; several species inhabit the rectum of
insects, such as O. blattae, O. diesingi, O. blatticola, found in the
cockroach; O. spirotheca, and O. hydrophili in the water beetle
Hydrophilus.[180]

The genus Nematoxys has the most complex arrangement of

muscles of any Meromyarian, and forms a transition to the
Polymyarian type. The whole body of both sexes is covered with
numerous irregularly scattered papillae. The members of this genus
have hitherto been found in snakes, Amphibia, and eels; there are
but few species.

Oxysoma is another small genus with but three species, found in the
intestines of opossums, frogs, and turtles respectively.

II. Family Strongylidae.

Mouth surrounded by papillae; an armature of teeth or spines often
present. The chitinous lining of the intestine projects into the interior
as ridges. No oesophageal bulb. The male orifice at the posterior
end of the body is surrounded by a bell-shaped bursa.

Genera: Eustrongylus, Strongylus, Dochmius, Sclerostomum,

Cucullanus, Syngamus, Pseudalius, Ollulanus, and others.

The genus Eustrongylus includes two species, E. gigas Rud. and E.

tubifex Nitsch. The former attains in the female the gigantic length of
860 mm., with a breadth of 7 mm. and a weight of over 40 grs.[181]
The male is a quarter to a third as long as the female. This parasite
inhabits the kidney capsules of carnivorous animals, especially of
those that eat fish, such as dogs, seals, etc., and has occasionally
been found in man, the horse, and the deer. It frequently destroys
the substance of the kidney. The worms are red in colour. The eggs
die when exposed to desiccation for a few days, but have been kept
alive for fifteen months in water; it is believed by Schneider and
Leuckart that they are eaten by fish, and that the larvae form the
Filaria cystica found in the peritoneal membrane of the fishes
Galaxias scriba and Symbranchus laticaudatus, and that they pass
into their final host, where they become sexually mature, by the latter
eating raw fish. E. tubifex is found in aquatic birds, e.g. ducks,
grebes, and divers, etc.

The genus Strongylus is easily recognised by its conspicuous genital

bursa, strengthened by variously arranged ridges which are of
specific value. There are numerous species, found in man and many
other mammals, and also in birds and reptiles. Some species inhabit
the intestine, others form aneurisms in the large blood-vessels, and
cause considerable mortality amongst horses; others live in the
tracheae and lungs of cattle and sheep, their presence often causing
great loss to the farmer. No intermediate host has been satisfactorily
demonstrated; the larvae live in damp earth, and it seems almost
certain that they pass directly into their host with its food.