Introduction to Electronic Defense

Systems Filippo Neri

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 Introduction to
Electronic Defense Systems
Third Edition

6819_Book.indb 1 7/25/18 8:14 AM

 For a listing of recent titles in the
Artech House Electronic Warfare Library,
turn to the back of this book.

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 Introduction to
Electronic Defense Systems
Third Edition

Filippo Neri

artechhouse.com

6819_Book.indb 3 7/25/18 8:14 AM

 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the U.S. Library of Congress

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN 13: 978-1-63081-534-9

Cover design by John Gomes

© 2018 Artech House

685 Canton Street
Norwood, MA

All rights reserved. Printed and bound in the United States of America. No part of
this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

All terms mentioned in this book that are known to be trademarks or service marks
have been appropriately capitalized. Artech House cannot attest to the accuracy of this
information. Use of a term in this book should not be regarded as affecting the validity
of any trademark or service mark.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

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 To my wife Lidia, with love

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6819_Book.indb 6 7/25/18 8:14 AM
 Contents

Foreword xiii
Preface xv
Acknowledgments xvii

CHAPTER 1
Electronic Defense 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Systems in Use in the Armed Forces 2
1.2.1 Air Force Assets and Operations 3
1.2.2 Navy Assets and Operations 10
1.2.3 Army Assets and Operations 16
1.2.4 UAVs 17
1.3 Main Weapon Systems 21
1.4 Objectives of Electronic Defense 22
1.4.1 Organization of Electronic Defense 22
1.5 Electronic Defense Systems and Their Operational Objective 23
1.5.1 SIGINT 23
1.5.2 ELINT 24
1.5.3 COMINT 24
1.5.4 Electronic Support 25
1.5.5 ESM-COM 26
1.5.6 Infrared Warning 26
1.5.7 Laser Warning Receivers 27
1.5.8 ECMs 27
1.5.9 ECM-COM 29
1.5.10 Infrared Countermeasures 29
1.5.11 ECM-Lasers 29
1.5.12 ECCMs 30
1.5.13 Command, Control, Communication, Computer and
Surveillance, and Reconnaissance 30
1.6 Information and Cyberspace 30
1.6.1 Information Operation 30
1.6.2 Information Warfare 31
1.6.3 Cyberspace and Cyber Warfare 31
1.6.4 Cyber Intelligence 33
1.6.5 Cyberattacks 34
vii

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 viiiContents

1.6.6 Cyber Protection 35

1.6.7 Cyber Electromagnetic Activities 35
1.7 Need for the Study of Weapon Systems 36
References 36

CHAPTER 2
Sensors 37
2.1 Introduction 37
2.2 Radar Sensors 38
2.2.1 Review of Electromagnetic Signal Transmission 38
2.2.2 Main Radar Components and the Radar Equation 43
2.2.3 Radar Equation in the Operational Environment 66
2.2.4 Radar Techniques 81
2.2.5 Search Radar 104
2.2.6 SAR 118
2.2.7 Tracking Radars 125
2.2.8 Airborne Radars (Interceptors) 152
2.2.9 Multifunction Radars 172
2.3 Infrared Sensors 185
2.3.1 Review of Radiant Energy 185
2.3.2 Infrared Radiation Produced by Targets of Interest 191
2.3.3 IR Range Equation 196
2.3.4 Suppression of Background Effects 201
2.3.5 IR Systems 201
References 203

CHAPTER 3
Weapon Systems 207
3.1 Introduction 207
3.2 Artillery Systems 208
3.2.1 Firing Accuracy 209
3.2.2 Susceptibility to Jamming of an Artillery System 212
3.3 Missile Systems 212
3.3.1 Command Missiles 214
3.3.2 Beam-Riding Missiles 215
3.3.3 Semiactive Homing Missiles 216
3.3.4 Active Homing Missiles 220
3.3.5 Track-Via-Missile Systems 221
3.3.6 Passive IR-Guided Missiles 221
3.3.7 Sea-Skimming Missiles 227
3.4 Passive Antiradiation Missiles 228
3.5 Laser Weapon Systems 231
3.5.1 The Laser 231
3.5.2 The Laser Equation 233
3.5.3 Laser Applications 233
3.6 Stealth Aircraft 234

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 Contents ix

3.7 Communications Systems 236

3.7.1 Networks 237
3.7.2 Types of Transmission (Links) 238
3.7.3 The Message 242
3.7.4 Examples of Communications Systems 244
3.7.5 Software Radio 248
3.7.6 Civilian Communication Networks 250
3.8 Information Operations 250
3.8.1 Information Cycle: The OODA Loop 251
3.8.2 Information Processes and Tools 252
3.8.3 Information Contents (on Subjects or Events) 254
3.8.4 Parameters Defining Information Value 254
3.8.5 Information in War Operations 255
3.8.6 Network Centric Warfare 256
References 257

CHAPTER 4
Electronic Intercept Systems 259
4.1 Introduction 259
4.2 RF Passive Systems 260
4.2.1 The Equation of RF Passive Systems 260
4.2.2 Radar Warning Receivers 262
4.2.3 ESM Systems 268
4.2.4 ELINT 301
4.2.5 Digital Receiver for Modern Intercept Systems 304
4.2.6 RWR/ESM Architectures with DRX 336
4.2.7 Typical Performances of a Modern Naval ESM System 347
4.2.8 Airborne Advanced Intercept Systems and Location
Techniques 351
4.2.9 Passive Surveillance System Networks 357
4.3 Infrared Intercept Systems 360
4.3.1 MLW/Missile Approach Warner 362
4.3.2 FLIRs 362
4.4 Communication ESM and COMINT 362
4.4.1 Communication ESM 363
4.4.2 COMINT 366
References 366

CHAPTER 5
Electronic Countermeasure Systems 369
5.1 Introduction 369
5.2 Onboard ECM Systems 369
5.2.1 Passive Systems 369
5.2.2 Active Onboard Systems 373
5.2.3 Jammer Equations 388
5.2.4 Digital Radio-Frequency Memory 394

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 xContents

5.2.5 Transmitters 403

5.2.6 ECM Antennas 404
5.2.7 The Pod 411
5.3 Onboard Modern ECM Systems 413
5.4 ECM Techniques 416
5.4.1 Spot Noise 417
5.4.2 Barrage Noise 418
5.4.3 Swept Noise/CW 420
5.4.4 Gated Noise 420
5.4.5 Amplitude-Modulated Noise/CW 420
5.4.6 Multiple False-Target Generation 425
5.4.7 Multiple Doppler False Targets 427
5.4.8 Range Gate Pull-Off /Pull-In 428
5.4.9 Velocity Gate Pull-Off/Pull-In 433
5.4.10 Range/Velocity Gate Pull-Off/Pull-In 433
5.4.11 Dual Mode 435
5.4.12 Inverse Gain 435
5.4.13 Countdown 435
5.4.14 Cooperative Jamming 437
5.4.15 Cross-Polarization 438
5.4.16 Cross-Eye (Virtual Off-Board Decoy) 441
5.4.17 Terrain Bounce 445
5.4.18 Illuminated Chaff 446
5.4.19 High-Resolution Radar Jamming 446
5.4.20 Jamming Effectiveness Evaluation: Cognitive Jamming and
Hardware Simulators 449
5.5 IRCMs 450
5.5.1 Modulated Sources 450
5.5.2 DIRCM 450
5.6 Off-Board ECM Systems 451
5.6.1 Passive Systems 451
5.6.2 Active Off-Board Systems 460
5.7 Communications Countermeasures 472
5.8 Information Warfare 473
5.8.1 Information Countermeasures (Counter Information) 474
5.8.2 Information Counter-Countermeasure 475
References 475

CHAPTER 6
Electronic Counter-Countermeasures Systems 477
6.1 Introduction 477
6.2 Search Radar Counter-Countermeasures 477
6.2.1 Induced Counter-Countermeasures 478
6.2.2 Dedicated Counter-Countermeasures 486
6.3 Tracking Radar Counter-Countermeasures 491
6.3.1 Induced Counter-Countermeasures 491

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 Contents xi

6.3.2 Dedicated Counter-Countermeasures 494

6.4 Infrared Counter-Countermeasures 499
6.5 COM-ECCM 500
6.5.1 Frequency Hopping 500
6.5.2 Burst Transmission 501
6.5.3 Null Steering 501
6.5.4 Direct Sequence 501
6.5.5 Uniformity of Format 502
6.5.6 Encryption 502
References 502

CHAPTER 7
New Electronic Defense Techniques and Technologies 505
7.1 Introduction 505
7.2 ED Basic Technology Advances 506
7.2.1 MMIC Technology 506
7.2.2 Fast Digital Processing 510
7.3 New Electronic Defense and Radar Architectures 512
7.3.1 ESM Antennas 513
7.3.2 Wideband Front End and Digital Receiver 514
7.3.3 Deinterleaving and Processing 515
7.3.4 Artificial Intelligence and Machine-Learning Approaches 515
7.3.5 Display 519
7.3.6 Generation of Jamming Programs 520
7.3.7 ELINT from Space 520
7.3.8 Progress in Infrared Sensors and Systems 521
7.3.9 Improvements in Radar Technologies 523
7.4 Shared Apertures and Sensors Fusion 527
7.4.1 Shared Apertures 527
7.4.2 Sensor Fusion 531
7.5 HPM Weapons (RFDEW) 532
7.5.1 Introduction 532
7.5.2 Susceptibility of Electronic Systems 532
7.5.3 HPM Weapons 533
7.6 Anti-Antiradiation Missile Techniques 536
7.7 Antistealth Techniques 536
7.8 ED State of the Art and Perspectives 538
References 539

CHAPTER 8
Design and Evaluation Criteria 541
8.1 Introduction 541
8.2 Design Criteria 541
8.2.1 Generalities 541
8.2.2 System Objective 542
8.2.3 Analysis of the Operational Environment 542

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 xiiContents

8.2.4 Possible Architectures 543

8.2.5 Verification by Simulation 544
8.2.6 Cost-Effectiveness Analysis 544
8.2.7 Risk Analysis 545
8.3 Evaluation Criteria for the Choice of a System 546
8.3.1 Generalities and Objectives 546
8.3.2 Definition of the Reference Operational Environment 548
8.3.3 Effectiveness of Electronic Defense 550
8.3.4 Cost-Effectiveness Ratio 552
8.4 Operational Effectiveness 558
8.5 Electronic Defense and Conventional Defense 559
References 560

About the Author 561

Index 563

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 Foreword

In my long career as a radar expert, and for many years responsible for equipment
installation onboard Italian Navy ships, always I regarded electronic warfare with
a lot of skepticism—to a point where I became famous, at least in Italy, for my say-
ing, “EW systems deceive only the buyers . . .”
While reading the proof of this third edition of Introduction to Electronic
Defense Systems, by Filippo Neri, I had to admit that the technology advances in
both weapon sensors and EW systems changed my previous view: weapon sensors
are becoming more and more capable, but at the expense of higher complexity.
Therefore, weapon sensors are opening the way to be vulnerable to the sophisticated
jamming actions of advanced electronic defense systems.
Surely the passive section of electronic defense systems, the ESMs, can provide
real assistance in operations by providing a better scenario understanding (or situ-
ation awareness) of the battle between weapon sensors and intelligent jamming of
advanced electronic defense systems, which can be considered open.
Technological advances aside, my recommendation to weapon sensor and elec-
tronic defense designers is to consider the importance of achieving good perfor-
mances not only in laboratories, but essentially, once the equipment has been installed
onboard the relevant platform.

Ammiraglio Ispettore Capo (Ret)

Giuseppe Ilacqua
August 2018

xiii

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 Preface

In my work as a designer of electronic defense equipment, I have often realized

that there is no book readily available to the designer that explains the principal
functions of the different electronic warfare systems, what the vulnerable parts of
radars are, what the limitations of weapon systems are, and what makes an elec-
tronic defense system effective.
Taking advantage of my experience as a designer of radar and weapon systems,
I thought that a single volume describing the operating principles of both weapon
systems and electronic defense systems might be useful to those wishing or need-
ing to enter the field.
The book is addressed to those who are about to start working as designers
of these systems, to those who are or will become their users, and to those who
administer their procurement in the 2020 era.
The formulas and the mathematical theory have been reduced to a minimum,
and readers are frequently invited to consult the appropriate references for in-depth
analyses. The book can therefore be read and understood by anyone with a second-
ary education and interest in the systems used by the armed forces.
This third edition was necessary to keep pace with the impressive evolution
of technologies of weapon systems and electronic defense systems that have taken
place in the last few years .
Therefore, all aspects of defense systems are covered from cyberelectromagnetic
activities (CEMA) to weapon systems and to advanced digital ESM and ECM systems.
Even if the basic radar-IR-EW theory remains the same, the new technologies
allow reaching new performance levels and new objectives that cannot be ignored.
Therefore in each chapter these important new benefits achieved with modern
technologies are detailed.
The book is divided into eight chapters. Chapter 1 explains briefly the usefulness
of electronic defense, how it is organized, and what systems it includes. In addition,
it describes the operational objectives of electronic defense.
Chapter 2 analyzes the sensors of weapon systems in order to highlight their
merits, and above all, their limits. The objective is to help the designer exploit
their weaknesses.
Chapter 3 gives examples of artillery and missile systems that use the electronic
sensors described in Chapter 2, again with the objective of emphasizing how their
effectiveness may be reduced.
Chapter 4 describes and analyzes electronic systems dedicated to passive inter-
ception, generally known as electronic support measures (ESM). Both those using
radio-frequency emissions and those using infrared are described.
xv

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 xviPreface

Chapter 5 is devoted to the more striking part of electronic defense: electronic

countermeasures (ECM); that is, the generation of signals which, by interfering
with the receivers of victim systems, cause a degradation in the performance of the
associated weapon systems.
Since weapon systems can undergo intentional jamming aimed at reducing
their capabilities, they have been equipped with electronic counter-countermeasure
(ECCM) systems. These systems and their applications are described in Chapter 6,
which gives an account of their effectiveness.
The thrust and parry of countermeasures and counter-countermeasures seem
to have no end, and new technologies ensure that it is now possible to attack the
very operating principles of weapon systems, which makes the development of
effective counter-countermeasures very difficult. Chapter 7 describes this techno-
logical advance.
Finally, to assist designers in achieving the optimum solution of the design
problems described in Chapters 4 and 5, Chapter 8 lists the criteria that should
be followed during the design stage of electronic defense systems. Chapter 8 also
discusses the methods of evaluation and simulation that can determine whether a
system is really effective. This should be particularly helpful to those who have to
decide on the choice of an electronic defense system.
I hope that this book will be found useful. It is best seen as a simple reference
book for the rapid evaluation and organization of material. In the end, the qual-
ity of a system and the achievement of its operational objectives will depend, as
always, on the ability, the preparation, and the dedication of those who have to
perform the work.

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 Acknowledgments

While I have to thank once again my friends at Elettronica, Chemring and FIAR
for their contributions provided in the second edition, for this third edition I need
to thank the managers and colleagues of Virtualabs, Candidoro Giannicchi, Lucio
Biccolini, Sandro Carnevale, Gianfranco Pelaggi, Gianfranco Broli, Giuseppe
Pinto, Julien Marini, and Francesco Macro for their support and assistance in the
book revision.
Special thanks to Luca Tripodi for his contribution on cyber war, Prof. Silvello
Betti on quantum radar, Isaia Tripodi for his contribution on artificial intelligence,
Marco Di Battista, Mauro Caruso, Virginia Marongiu, Emanuele Nanni, Bruno
Buccinnà, Arcangelo Lubrano, Federico Ricci, Emiliano Gabrielli, Valerio Bar-
chiesi, Gabriele Mariotti, and Micaela Contu for the many simulations and trials
performed for new radars and EW systems, and Giovanni Viglialoro for assistance
with this new edition.
In particular I have to thank Dr. Franco Lazzari and Dr. Eugenio Po of Rivista
Italiana Difesa (RID) for supplying most of the new photos.

Filippo Neri
Rome, Italy
September 2018

xvii

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6819_Book.indb 18 7/25/18 8:14 AM
 Chapter 1

Electronic Defense

1.1 Introduction

With the passing of time, electronic technology has come to play an increasingly
important role in military operations. The electronic era, and with it the first steps
in the introduction of electronics into weapons, goes back to the time when radio
and the radio direction finder were first used to give the platform position. The
second step was the introduction of radar for the detection and location in angle
and in range of hostile platforms, and its subsequent use to increase the accuracy
of artillery. The last step, and probably the most lethal one, has been the use of
electronic devices for precision guidance of missiles (Figure 1.1).
The effectiveness of electronically guided weapon systems, expressed in terms
of kill probability, has risen to values very close to unity, thus leaving undefended
targets little hope of escape. Consequently, almost all effective weapons now employ
electronic guidance devices. However, the sophistication of today’s weapon systems
is such that they are rendered worthless should their electronic circuits not operate
correctly. As a result, it has become essential to develop counterelectronic systems
capable of reducing the effectiveness of weapon guidance devices.
The fruitfulness of these countermeasure techniques has quickly become appar-
ent. They have been developed to the point where they can seriously degrade the
performance of nearly all weapon systems (Figure 1.2).
The inevitable next step has been the development of counter-countermeasures
to try to restore the original effectiveness of the weapon sensors.
The techniques and technologies that lead to the construction of devices capable
of electronically countering a weapon system and to the development of counter-
countermeasures go under the name electronic warfare (EW). However, given the
basic harmlessness of these electronic systems—electrons don’t make holes, at least
as long as no directed-energy weapons are available—the name electronic defense
seems more appropriate. In conjunction with EW, the aspect of information, meant
as the domain of awkward communications between units with units and with the
main operation center, became a critical point in the complex analysis and evalu-
ation on the battlefield.
As we will see in Section 1.3, the act of managing information during an opera-
tion could be a large advantage in term of fast military response and coordination
of the different forces involved. On the other hand, it is also possible to image that
operations oriented to disturb or spy on an enemy’s information domain could affect
the entire mission result. With the advent of networking, the information domain

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 2 Electronic Defense

Figure 1.1 A missile system exploits radar signals to hit its targets with precision.

has traduced cyberspace, a more broad domain that permitted faster information
exchange but is also more likely to be intercepted or disturbed.

1.2 Systems in Use in the Armed Forces

In every country, the armed forces have at their disposal a number of weapons sys-
tems, each with a different function. The following brief survey of the missions of

Figure 1.2 The aim of an electronic defense system is to incapacitate the enemy’s weapons
systems by generating electromagnetic jamming signals.

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 1.2 Systems in Use in the Armed Forces3

the navy, army, and air force will help to identify the main weapons systems against
which electronic defense must operate.
It should be emphasized that the aim of this survey is the identification of elec-
tronically guided weapon systems without reference to any specific military organi-
zation. Moreover, systems pertaining specifically to nuclear warfare are outside the
scope of this book; only systems used with conventional armaments will be discussed.
Generally speaking, the mission of an air force is the surveillance and defense
of the sky above national territory, the mission of a navy is the surveillance of the
seas surrounding national territory and protection of important sea routes, and the
mission of an army is the protection of the national territory itself.

1.2.1 Air Force Assets and Operations

An air force has to provide air defense of the national territory, coordinating its own
systems with those of the other armed forces. That is, the air force must

• Contribute to the survival of important centers;

• Inflict losses and give attrition when attacked by an air enemy;
• Ensure the neutralization of important military objectives in enemy territory;
• Give air support to land and sea action;
• Ensure air transport;
• Execute reconnaissance as necessary.

Under hostile air attack, survival of important centers and attrition of the enemy
are achieved by combining the use of a surveillance (or search) radar network with
the deployment of air forces in the area where an incursion has been detected.
Such a combination is called an air defense network. Air defense search radars are
characterized by high sensitivity and can detect, giving early warning, the approach
of targets at long ranges. They are sometimes called early warning radars (EWRs)
and are characterized by high sophistication and reliability, as they must operate
continuously in different environments (e.g., in clear or natural clutter conditions).
Because of their sensitivity, they can give broad coverage of the national airspace.
Coordination of the data they provide and the correlation with other information
(data fusion) takes place in special command and control centers where operational
decisions are made. Here it is possible to demonstrate the importance of exchanging
the information acquired in a short time period during operations; the protection
of information is part of what today is called cyber operations (see Section 1.6).
In time of peace, upon the detection of a suspect aircraft (i.e., one that has not
spontaneously revealed its identity), the search centers warn an air unit, usually
consisting of two very fast and maneuverable fighter aircraft, and (with the help of
an appropriate communications system) guide it toward the position of the aircraft
that has to be identified. The interceptor fighters approach the target, identify it,
and either let it pass or force it to retrace its steps or to land (Figure 1.3).
In time of war, the procedure is different. As soon as the presence of an alien
aircraft has been discovered, the fighters (Figure 1.4) take to the air with quite dif-
ferent intentions. They are still guided from the coordination center and try to locate
the target as soon as possible with their own onboard radar. Identification is made

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 4 Electronic Defense

Figure 1.3 The air defense network detects and locates all aircraft penetrating into national air
space.

with the help of identification of friend or foe (IFF) equipment, devices for automatic
recognition of friendly and hostile platforms. If the result warrants it, they lock onto
the target and fire at it with their onboard weapons (usually air-to-air missiles). They
then try to make a kill assessment to determine the amount of damage suffered by
the target and finally make their way back to base. If the target is not immediately

Figure 1.4 The task of fighter aircraft is to ensure airspace superiority. The photograph shows
the European Fighter Aircraft (EFA). (Courtesy of RID.)

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 1.2 Systems in Use in the Armed Forces5

hit by a long- or medium-range missile, the fighters will have to approach closer to
the intruding aircraft, starting a series of dogfights either by launching short-range
missiles, usually infrared-guided, or by firing their onboard cannon.
Surveillance of airspace can be conducted directly by air patrols or by a network
of air defense radars.
The neutralization of military objectives of special importance on enemy terri-
tory is achieved by sending special strike aircraft (Figure 1.5) and bombers. Strike
aircraft make covert surprise attacks with a few units approaching the target at
very low altitude. Bomber tactics entail a powerful attack by many aircraft, aided
by fighters, with radar and electro-optic sensors employed to locate and identify
their ground targets.
In its air support role, the air force cooperates with ground forces to stop the
advance of enemy forces. It launches air raids against advancing enemy columns and
bombs their tanks and support services (the ground attack function). This function
is carried out by fighter-bombers (Figure 1.6), which are extremely maneuverable
aircraft fitted with a variety of air-to-surface weapons systems.
In addition, the air force will usually have to provide for the defense of its own
bases, airfields, and services.
To sum up, in order to be able to carry out the functions detailed above, the air
force will require the following systems:

• Surveillance and search systems, consisting of land-based search radars (Fig-

ure 1.7) positioned on high ground (i.e., mountains, high hills) to offset the
limitations of radar range at low altitude, as explained in Chapter 2.

Figure 1.5 Strike aircraft are entrusted with the task of hitting important military objectives on
enemy ground. The photograph shows a Tornado multirole aircraft. (Courtesy of RID.)

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 6 Electronic Defense

Figure 1.6 While in the past special fighter-bomber aircraft were required for ground attack,
modern multirole aircrafts allow for quick raids even against enemy ground forces. The
photographs show (a)the old AMX and (b)the F-35. (Courtesy of RID.)

• Airborne surveillance and search systems (Figure 1.8), which are similar to
the preceding ones but weigh less and can therefore be carried on board air-
craft having long-range capabilities without refueling. Such systems help to
solve the problem of intercepting low-level targets at adequate ranges. A very

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 1.2 Systems in Use in the Armed Forces7

Figure 1.7 Early detection of targets is ensured by search radars. The photograph shows the
AN/FPS-117 search radar for land-based installation. (Courtesy of RID.)

Figure 1.8 Airborne search radars permit detection of targets flying at low altitude. The
photograph shows an airborne warning and control system (AWACS). (Courtesy of RID.)

6819_Book.indb 7 7/25/18 8:14 AM

 8 Electronic Defense

detailed control of a territory can be achieved by airborne side-looking aperture

(or antenna) radars (SLARs) that exploit the synthetic aperture radar (SAR)
technique. These radars are able to provide detailed images of the controlled
territory even at night or in the presence of clouds.
• Fighters, characterized by very high speed and maneuverability, fitted with:
–– Radar systems for target acquisition and tracking (airborne interceptors)
(Figure 1.9). An onboard radar of this type is set in the front of the fuselage
and is protected with a tapering shell, which is transparent to electromag-
netic waves, called a radome (radar dome).
–– Long-, medium-, and short-range air-to-air missile (AAM) systems (Figure
1.10).
–– Airborne weapon delivery systems for combat at very dose range.
• Strike aircraft, for raids into hostile territory. These must be equipped with (1)
avionic radar for target acquisition and tracking, (2) AAM and air-to-surface
missile (ASM) systems, (3) bomb control and guidance systems (often this type
of aircraft is fitted with terrain-following radar for blind navigation at very
low altitude), and (4) fighter-bombers for ground attack.

Besides all these, mention must be made of other aircraft assigned to the follow-
ing missions:

• Transportation;
• Patrolling;
• Training.

Figure 1.9 Military aircraft exploit sophisticated radars for accurate target detection and
weapon guidance. The photograph shows the AN/APG-81 AESA radar of an F-35. (Courtesy of
RID.)

6819_Book.indb 8 7/25/18 8:14 AM

 1.2 Systems in Use in the Armed Forces9

Figure 1.10 Medium-range and short-range air-to-air missiles installed at the wing edges of an
F-16. (Courtesy of RID.)

The defense of important assets like airports or other important assets against
air attacks is generally performed by using surface-to-air missile (SAM) system or
antiaircraft artillery (AAA) systems:

• A SAM system can be long-range, for the defense of a zone or an area (area
defense) (Figure 1.11), or medium- to short-range for the defense of a site or a

Figure 1.11 Long-range SAM systems are frequently employed to defend huge areas of
territory. The photograph shows the SAM Patriot system. (Courtesy of RID.)

6819_Book.indb 9 7/25/18 8:14 AM

 10 Electronic Defense

point (point defense) (Figure 1.12). A missile defense system usually consists
of a local search radar (sometimes called acquisition radar), which detects
incoming threats and points them out (a process known as target indication
(TI)), to the different sensors capable of tracking them one by one, to provide
guidance to different missiles against threatening platforms. A very much used
SAM system is the Russian S-300 that evolved into the S-400 (see Figure 1.13).
• Firing systems or artillery AAA systems equipped, as for point defense, with
search (acquisition) radar and with various tracking radars capable of direct-
ing the fire of the associated cannon and machine guns to designated targets
with great precision.

1.2.2 Navy Assets and Operations

In brief, the main tasks of a navy are the following:

• Protection of sea traffic (e.g., convoys);

• Coastal protection against potential attacks by inflicting heavy losses on the
enemy in the open sea.

Convoy protection is carried out by well-armed naval vessels that specialize in

conflict with various potential attack systems such as submarines, aircraft, and other
large ships. When some of a nation’s interests lie far from its own territorial waters,
it will be necessary to deploy aircraft carriers (Figure 1.14) to ensure adequate air
cover for the fleet. For the navy, too, the system requirements will be on a par with
those for air defense. In fact, what is needed is the organization of the defense of
the very wide area covered by the whole fleet.

Figure 1.12 The defense of important sites is ensured by short- to medium-range SAM systems.
The photograph shows the SPADA missile system deployment. (Courtesy of RID.)

6819_Book.indb 10 7/25/18 8:14 AM

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