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Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics

Giampaolo Cicogna

Exercises and
Problems in
Mathematical
Methods of Physics
Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics
Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics (ULNP) publishes authoritative texts covering
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More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8917

Giampaolo Cicogna

Exercises and Problems

in Mathematical Methods
of Physics

123
Giampaolo Cicogna
Dipartimento di Fisica “Enrico Fermi”
Università di Pisa
Pisa
Italy

ISSN 2192-4791 ISSN 2192-4805 (electronic)

Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics
ISBN 978-3-319-76164-0 ISBN 978-3-319-76165-7 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76165-7
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018932991

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018

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Preface

This book is a collection of 350 exercises and problems in Mathematical Methods

of Physics: its peculiarity is that exercises and problems are proposed not in a
“random” order, but having in mind a precise didactic scope. Each section and
subsection starts with exercises based on first definitions, elementary notions and
properties, followed by a group of problems devoted to some intermediate situa-
tions, and finally by problems which propose gradually more elaborate develop-
ments and require some more refined reasoning.
Part of the problems is unavoidably “routine”, but several problems point out
interesting nontrivial properties, which are often omitted or only marginally men-
tioned in the textbooks. There are also some problems in which the reader is guided
to obtain some important results which are usually stated in textbooks without
complete proofs: for instance, the classical “uncertainty principle” Dt Dx
1=2, an
introduction to Kramers–Kronig dispersion rules and their relation with causality
principles, the symmetry properties of the hydrogen atom, and the harmonic
oscillator in Quantum Mechanics.
In this sense, this book may be used as (or perhaps, to some extent, better than) a
textbook. Avoiding unnecessary difficulties and excessive formalism, it offers
indeed an alternative way to understand the mathematical notions on which Physics
is based, proceeding in a carefully structured sequence of exercises and problems.
I believe that there is no need to emphasize that the best (or perhaps the unique)
way to understand correctly Mathematics is that of facing and solving exercises and
problems. This holds a fortiori for the present case, where mathematical notions and
procedures become a fundamental tool for Physics. An example can illustrate
perfectly the point. The definition of eigenvectors and eigenvalues of a linear
operator needs just two or three lines in a textbook, and the notion is relatively
simple and intuitive. But only when one tries to find explicitly eigenvectors and
eigenvalues in concrete cases, then one realizes that a lot of different procedures are
required and extremely various situations occur. This book offers a fairly exhaustive
description of possible cases.

v
vi Preface

This book covers a wide range of topics useful to Physics: Chap. 1 deals with
Hilbert spaces and linear operators. Starting from the crucial concept of complete
system of vectors, many exercises are devoted to the fundamental tool provided by
Fourier expansions, with several examples and applications, including some typical
Dirichlet and Neumann Problems. The second part of the chapter is devoted to
studying the different properties of linear operators between Hilbert spaces: their
domains, ranges, norms, boundedness, and closedness, and to examining special
classes of operators: adjoint and self-adjoint operators, projections, isometric and
unitary operators, functionals, and time-evolution operators. Great attention is paid
to the notion of eigenvalues and eigenvectors, with the various procedures and
results encountered in their determination. Another frequently raised question
concerns the different notions of convergence of given sequences of operators.
Chapter 2 starts with a survey of the basic properties of analytic functions of a
complex variable, of their power series expansions (Taylor–Laurent series), and
of their singularities, including branch points and cut lines. The evaluation of many
types of integrals by complex variable methods is proposed. Some examples of
conformal mappings are finally studied, in order to solve Dirichlet Problems; the
results are compared with those obtained in other chapters with different methods,
with a discussion about the uniqueness of the solutions.
The problems in Chap. 3 concern Fourier and Laplace transforms with their
different applications. The physical meaning of the Fourier transform as “frequency
analysis” is carefully presented. The Fourier transform is extended to the space of
tempered distributions S0 , which include the Dirac delta, the Cauchy principal part,
and other related distributions. Applications concern ordinary and partial differen-
tial equations (in particular the heat, d’Alembert, and Laplace equations, including a
discussion about the uniqueness of solutions), and general linear systems. The
important notion of Green function is considered in many details, together with the
notion of causality. Various examples and applications of Laplace transform are
proposed, also in comparison with Fourier transform.
The first problems in Chap. 4 deal with basic properties of groups and of group
representations. Fundamental results following from Schur lemma are introduced
since the beginning in the case of finite groups, with a simple application of character
theory, in the study of vibrational levels of symmetric systems. Other problems
concern the notion and the properties of Lie groups and Lie algebras, mainly oriented
to physical examples: rotation groups SO2 ; SO3 ; SU2 , translations, Euclidean group,
Lorentz transformations, dilations, Heisenberg group, and SU3 , with their physically
relevant representations. The last section starts with some examples and applications
of symmetry properties of differential equations, and then provides a group-
theoretical description of some problems in quantum mechanics: the Zeeman and
Stark effects, the Schrödinger equation of the hydrogen atom (the group SO4 ), and
the three-dimensional harmonic oscillator (the group U3 ).
Preface vii

At the end of the book, there are the solutions to almost all problems. In par-
ticular, there is a complete solution of the more significant or difficult problems.
This book is the result of my lectures during several decades at the Department
of Physics of the University of Pisa. I would like to acknowledge all my colleagues
who helped me in the organization of the didactic activity, in the preparation of the
problems and for their assistance in the examinations of my students. Special thanks
are due to Prof. Giovanni Morchio, for his constant invaluable support: many of the
problems, specially in Sect. 2 of Chap. 1, have been written with his precious
collaboration. I am also grateful to Prof. Giuseppe Gaeta for his encouragement to
write this book, which follows my previous lecture notes (in Italian) Metodi
Matematici della Fisica, published by Springer-Verlag Italia in 2008 (second edi-
tion in 2015).
Finally, I would thank in advance the readers for their comments, and in particular
those readers who will suggest improvements and amendments to all possible
misprints, inaccuracies, and inadvertent mistakes (hopefully, not too serious) in this
book, including also errors and imperfections in my English.

Pisa, Italy Giampaolo Cicogna

January 2018
Contents

1 Hilbert Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Complete Sets, Fourier Expansions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Preliminary Notions, Subspaces, and Complete Sets . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Fourier Expansions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.1.3 Harmonic Functions: Dirichlet and Neumann
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 14
1.2 Linear Operators in Hilbert Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 16
1.2.1 Linear Operators Defined Giving T en ¼ vn ,
and Related Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 18
1.2.2 Operators of Pthe Form T x ¼ vðw; xÞ
and T x ¼ n Vn ðwn ; xÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.2.3 Operators of the Form T f ðxÞ ¼ uðxÞ f ðxÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.2.4 Problems Involving Differential Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.2.5 Functionals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.2.6 Time-Evolution Problems: Heat Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1.2.7 Miscellaneous Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2 Functions of a Complex Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.1 Basic Properties of Analytic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.2 Evaluation of Integrals by Complex Variable Methods . . . . . . . . . 62
2.3 Harmonic Functions and Conformal Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3 Fourier and Laplace Transforms. Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.1 Fourier Transform in L1 ðRÞ and L2 ðRÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.1.1 Basic Properties and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.1.2 Fourier Transform and Linear Operators in L2 ðRÞ . . . . . . . 82
3.2 Tempered Distributions and Fourier Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.2.1 General Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.2.2 Fourier Transform, Distributions, and Linear
Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 99

ix
x Contents

3.2.3 Applications to ODEs and Related Green Functions . . . . . 102

3.2.4 Applications to General Linear Systems and Green
Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.2.5 Applications to PDE’s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
3.3 Laplace Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4 Groups, Lie Algebras, Symmetries in Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.1 Basic Properties of Groups and of Group Representations . . . . . . . 127
4.2 Lie Groups and Lie Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4.3 The Groups SO3 ; SU2 ; SU3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
4.4 Other Relevant Applications of Symmetries to Physics . . . . . . . . . 138
Answers and Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Chapter 1
Hilbert Spaces

1.1 Complete Sets, Fourier Expansions

The argument of this section is the study of basic properties of Hilbert spaces,
without involving the presence of linear operators.
Among other facts, the first problems in Sect. 1.1.1 emphasize the notion of
dense subspaces, and the difference between linear subspaces and closed (i.e.,
Hilbert) subspaces. The fundamental concept of complete system (or complete
set) of vectors is then pointed out, clearly distinguishing between complete sets
and orthonormal (or orthogonal) complete sets (to avoid confusion, the term
“basis” is never used).
The next subsection is devoted to the Fourier expansion, which is, as well
known, a fundamental tool in calculations and applications. Many exercises are
proposed in the context of “abstract” Hilbert spaces, in the space of sequences
2 , and in the “concrete” space of square-integrable functions L 2 as well.
A special application of Fourier expansion concerns some examples of Dirich-
let and Neumann Problems (Sect. 1.1.3).

1.1.1 Preliminary Notions, Subspaces, and Complete Sets

(1.1)
(1) Consider the sequence of functions defined in [0, π ]

n sin nx for 0 ≤ x ≤ π/n
f n (x) = , n = 1, 2, . . .
0 for π/n ≤ x ≤ π

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1

G. Cicogna, Exercises and Problems in Mathematical Methods
of Physics, Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76165-7_1
2 1 Hilbert Spaces
π
Show that f n (x) → 0 pointwise for all x ∈ [0, π ] as n → ∞, but 0 f n (x) d x does
not tend to zero.
(2) Consider a sequence of functions of the form, with x ∈ R,

cn for 0 < x < n
f n (x) = , n = 1, 2, . . .
0 elsewhere

where
 +∞ cn are constants. Choose cn in such a way that f n (x) → 0 uniformly ∀x ∈ R,
but −∞ f n (x) d x does not tend to zero.1
(3) Consider sequences of functions of the same form as in (2). Choose (if possible)
the constants cn in such a way that
(a) f n (x) → 0 in the norm L 2 (R) but not in the norm L 1 (R);
(b) f n (x) → 0 in the norm L 1 (R) but not in the norm L 2 (R).
(4) Now consider a sequence of functions of the form, with x ∈ R,

cn for 0 < x < 1/n
f n (x) = , n = 1, 2, . . .
0 elsewhere

where cn are constants:

(a) verify that f n (x) → 0 pointwise almost everywhere;
(b) the same questions (a), (b) as in (3).

(1.2)

(1) Show
 that if a function f (x) ∈ L 2 (I ), where I is an interval of finite length
μ(I ) , then also f (x) ∈ L 1 (I ). Is the converse true? What is the relationship between
the norms  f  L 1 (I ) and  f  L 2 (I ) ?
(2) What changes if I = R?
(3) Is it possible to find a function f (x) ∈ L 2 (I ), where e.g., I = (−1, 1), such that
supx∈I | f (x)| = ε (where ε  1) but  f  L 2 (I ) = 1? Or such that  f  L 2 (I ) = ε but
supx∈I | f (x)| = 1?
(4) The same questions as in (3) if I = R.

(1.3)
(1) Let f (x) ∈ L 2 (R) and let f n (x) be the “truncated” functions

f (x) for |x| < n
f n (x) = , n = 1, 2, . . .
0 for |x| > n

1 See the Introduction to Sect. 1.2 for the statement of the fundamental Lebesgue theorem about the

convergence of the integrals of sequences of functions.

1.1 Complete Sets, Fourier Expansions 3

Show that f n ∈ L 1 (R) ∩ L 2 (R) and  f − f n  → 0 as n → ∞. Conclude: is the

subspace of the functions f ∈ L 1 (R) ∩ L 2 (R) dense in L 2 (R)? The same question
for the subspace of functions f ∈ L 2 (R) having compact support. Are they Hilbert
subspaces in L 2 (R)?
(2) Is the subspace S of test functions for the tempered distributions (i.e., the sub-
space of the C ∞ functions rapidly going to zero with their derivatives as |x| → +∞)
dense in L 2 (R)?

(1.4)
(1) Let g(x) ∈ L 1 (R) ∩ L 2 (R) be such that
 +∞
g(x) d x = M = 0
−∞

introduce then the functions


M/n for 0 < x < n
wn (x) = , n = 1, 2, . . .
0 elsewhere
 +∞
and let z n (x) = g(x) − wn (x). Show that −∞ z n (x) d x = 0 and g − z n  → 0 as
n → ∞.
(2) Conclude: is the set of functions f (x) ∈ L 1 (R) ∩ L 2 (R) with zero mean value a
dense subspace in L 2 (R)? (for an alternative proof, see Problem 3.8).

(1.5)
(1) In L 2 (−a, a) (a = ∞), consider the subset of the functions such that
 a
f (x) d x = 0
−a

Is this a Hilbert subspace? What is its orthogonal complement, and what are their
respective dimensions? Choose an orthonormal complete system in each one of these
subspaces.
(2) What changes if a = ∞? (see previous problem).
(3)
a
The same questions as in (1) and (2) for the subset of the even functions such that
−a f (x) d x = 0.

(1.6)
(1) Consider in the space L 2 (−1, 1) the function u = u(x) = 1 and consider the
sequence of functions

n|x| for |x| ≤ 1/n
gn (x) = , n = 1, 2, . . .
1 for 1/n ≤ |x| ≤ 1
4 1 Hilbert Spaces

Show that gn − u L 2 → 0.

(2) Show that the subspace of the functions g(x) ∈ L 2 (I ) which are continuous in a
neighborhood of a point x0 ∈ I and satisfy g(x0 ) = 0 is dense in H . Show that the
same is also true for the subspace of the functions which are C ∞ in a neighborhood
of x0 ∈ I and satisfy g (n) (x0 ) = 0 for all n ≥ 0.

(1.7)
(1) Consider the limit  N
1
lim f (x) d x
N →∞ 2N −N

Does it exist (and is the same) for all f (x) ∈ L 2 (R)?

(2) Consider now the limit
 N
1
lim x f (x) d x
N →∞ 2N −N

Is there a dense set of functions ∈ L 2 (R) such that this limit is zero? Find a function
∈ L 2 (R) such that this limit is equal to 1, a function ∈ L 2 (R) such that is +∞; show
finally that if f (x) = sin(x 1/3 )/x 2/3 this limit does not exist.

(1.8)
(1) Construct a function f (x) ∈ L 1 (R) which does not vanish as |x| → ∞. Hint: a
simple construction is the following: consider a function which is equal to 1 on all
intervals (n, n + δn ), n ∈ Z, 0 < δn < 1, and equal to zero elsewhere; it is enough
to choose suitably δn …. With a different choice of δn , it is also possible to construct
a function ∈ L 1 (R) which is unbounded as |x| → ∞.
(2) The same questions for functions f (x) ∈ L 2 (R). It should be clear that the above
constructions can be modified in order to have continuous (or even C ∞ ) functions.
(3) Show that if both f (x) and its derivative f (x) belong to L 1 (R), then lim
|x|→∞
f (x) = 0. Hint: it is clearly enough to show that f (x) admits limit at |x| → ∞; to
this aim, apply Cauchy criterion: the limit exists if for any ε > 0 one has | f (x2 ) −
f (x1 )| < ε for any x1 , x2 large enough. But
 x2
f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) = f (y) dy
x1

then, …
(4) Show that if both f (x) and its derivative f (x) belong to L 2 (R), then lim
|x|→∞
 
f (x) = 0. Hint: use the same criterion assume for simplicity f (x) real :
 x2
d 2
f 2 (x2 ) − f 2 (x1 )| = f (y) dy = . . .
x1 dy
1.1 Complete Sets, Fourier Expansions 5

(1.9)
(1) Show that any sequence of orthonormal elements {xn , n = 1, 2, . . .}, in a Hilbert
space, is not norm-convergent (check the Cauchy property) as n → ∞, but weakly
convergent (to what vector?).
(2) Let {xn , n = 1, 2, . . .} be any sequence of vectors:
(a) show that if there is some x ∈ H such that xn  → x and xn weakly converges
to x, then xn is norm-convergent to x, i.e., xn − x → 0;
(b) show that if xn is norm-convergent to x, then the sequence xn is bounded, i.e.,
there is a positive constant M such that xn  < M, ∀n.

(1.10)
Consider the following linear subspaces of the Hilbert space L 2 (−1, 1):

N
V1 = {the even polynomials, i.e., the polynomials of the form an x 2n } ;
n=0
V2 = {the even C∞ functions} ;
 1
V3 = {the functions g(x) such that g(x) d x = 0} ;
0

V4 = {the functions g(x) ∈ C 0 such that g(0) = 0} .

What of these subspaces is a Hilbert subspace? and what are their orthogonal com-
plementary subspaces?

(1.11)
Recalling that {x n , n = 0, 1, 2, . . .} is a complete set in L 2 (−1, 1):
(1) Deduce: is the set of polynomials a dense subspace in L 2 (−1, 1)? Is a Hilbert
subspace?
(2) Show that {x 2n } is a complete set in L 2 (0, 1). And {x 2n+1 } ?
(3) Show that also {x N , x N +1 , x N +2 , . . .}, where N is any fixed integer > 0, is a
complete set in L 2 (−1, 1).

(1.12)
Let {en , n = 1, 2, . . .} be an orthonormal complete system in a Hilbert space H .
(1) Is the set vn = en − e1 , n = 2, 3, . . . a complete set in H ?
(2) Fixed any w ∈ H , is the set vn = en − w a complete set in H ?
(3) Let w be any nonzero vector: for what sequences of complex numbers αn is the
set vn = en − αn w not a complete set in H ?
(4) Under what condition on α, β ∈ C is the set vn = αen − βen+1 a complete set
in H ?
6 1 Hilbert Spaces

(1.13)
Let {en , n ∈ Z} be an orthonormal complete system in a Hilbert space H .
(1) Is the set vn = en − en+1 a complete set in H ? And the set wn = αen − βen+1
where α, β ∈ C?
√
(2) Let now H = L 2 (0, 2π ) and en = exp(inx)/ 2π : the sets vn , wn acquire a
“concrete” form. Confirm the results obtained above.

(1.14)
(1) Specify what among the following sets, with n = 1, 2, . . ., are complete in
L 2 (−π, π ):

(a) {x, x cos nx, x sin nx} ; (b) {P(x), P(x) cos nx, P(x) sin nx}
 
where P(x) is a polynomial does the answer depend on the form of P(x) ? ;

(c) {1, x cos nx, sin nx} ; (d) {x, cos nx, sin nx} ; (e) {x 2 , cos nx, sin nx} ;

(f ) {x, x cos nx, sin n|x|} ; (g) {x cos nx, x sin nx} ; (h) {x 1/3 cos nx, x 1/3 sin nx}

(2) If {en (x)} is a complete set in H = L 2 (I ), under what conditions for the function
h(x) is the set {h(x)en (x)} complete in H ?

(1.15)
(1) Let {an , n = 1, 2, . . .} be a sequence of complex
 ∞ numbers ∈ 1 , i.e., such that
∞
n=1 |an | < ∞. Show that also {an } ∈  , i.e., n=1 |an | < ∞. Is the converse
2 2

true?
(2) Show that the space 1 is a dense subspace in the Hilbert space 2 .

(1.16)
In the space 2 consider the set, with n = 1, 2, . . . ,
√ √
w1 = (1, −1, 0, 0, . . .)/ 2 , w2 = (1, 1, −2, 0, 0, . . .)/ 6 , . . . ,

wn = (1, 1, . . . , 1, −n, 0, 0, . . .)/ n(n + 1 , . . .

n

(1) Show that this is an orthonormal complete system in 2 .


(2) Deduce that the subspace (0) ⊂ 2 of the sequences such that ∞ n=1 an = 0 is
dense in 2 .
(3) Show that
z n = (1, −1/n, . . . , −1/n , 0, 0, . . .) ∈ (0)
n

and that z n → e1 as n → ∞.
1.1 Complete Sets, Fourier Expansions 7

(1.17)
(1) In the space H = L 2 (0, +∞) consider the set of orthonormal functions

1 for n − 1 < x < n
u n (x) = , n = 1, 2, . . .
0 elsewhere

Here are three possible answers to the question: Is this set a complete set in H ? What
is the correct answer?
n
(α) the condition (u n , f ) = 0, ∀n is n−1 f d x = 0, ∀n, and this happens only if
f = 0, then the set is complete.
(β) the function f (x) = sin 2π x if x ≥ 0 satisfies (u n , f ) = 0, ∀n, then the set is
not complete.

sin 2π x for 0 < x < 1
(γ ) the function (e.g.,) f (x) = satisfies (u n , f ) = 0,
0 for x > 1
∀n, then the set is not complete.
(2) In the same space, consider the set of orthogonal functions

sin x for (n − 1)π ≤ x ≤ nπ
vn (x) = , n = 1, 2, . . .
0 elsewhere

Is this set complete in H ?

(3) In the same space consider the set of functions

sin nx for 0 ≤ x ≤ nπ
wn (x) = , n = 1, 2, . . .
0 for x ≥ nπ

(a) Are the functions wn (x) orthogonal?

(b) Is the set {wn (x)} a complete set ?
(1.18)
(1) Is the set {x sin nx, n = 1, 2, . . .} a complete set in L 2 (0, π )? And the subset
{x sin nx} with n = 2, 3, . . .?
(2) The same questions for the set {x 2 sin nx, n = 1, 2, . . .} and respectively for the
subset {x 2 sin nx} with n = 2, 3, . . .
(1.19)
(a) Is the set {exp(−nx) , n = 1, 2, . . .} a complete set in L 2 (0, +∞)? Hint: put
y = exp(−x).
(b) The same for the set {exp(inx), n ∈ Z} in L 2 (−2π, 2π ).
(c) The same for the set {exp(inx), n ∈ Z} in L 2 (0, π ).
(d) The same for the set {sin nx sin ny}, n = 1, 2, . . . in L 2 (Q), where Q is the
square 0 ≤ x ≤ π, 0 ≤ y ≤ π .
8 1 Hilbert Spaces

(e) The same for the set {exp(−nx) sin ny}, n = 1, 2, . . . in L 2 (Ω), where Ω is the
semi-infinite strip 0 ≤ x ≤ π , y ≥ 0.
(f) The same for the set {exp(−x 2 ) exp(inx), n ∈ Z} in L 2 (R).

Another example of a complete set in L 2 (0, +∞) will be
 proposed in Problem 3.131:
the proof is based on properties of Laplace transform.

1.1.2 Fourier Expansions

(1.20)
(1) Evaluate the Fourier expansion in terms of the orthonormal complete system in
L 2 (−π, π )
1 1 1
√ , √ sin nx, √ cos nx , n = 1, 2, . . .
2π π π

of the following functions:


−1 for − π < x < 0
f 1 (x) = ; f 2 (x) = |x|
1 for 0 < x < π

and discuss the convergence of the series.

(2) The same questions for the function in L 2 (0, π )

f (x) = 1

in terms of the orthonormal complete system


2
sin nx , n = 1, 2, . . .
π

Notice that the series is automatically defined ∀x ∈ R, also out of the interval 0, π :
to what function does this series converge? Does it converge at the point x = π ? to
what value? and at the point x = 3π/2? to what value?

(1.21)
(1) Find the Fourier expansion in terms of the complete set {1, cos nx, sin nx , n =
1, 2, . . .} in L 2 (−π, π ) of the function f 1 (x) = x (with −π < x < π ) and discuss
the convergence of the series.
(2) The same for the function

x + π for −π < x <0
f 2 (x) =
x − π for 0<x <π
1.1 Complete Sets, Fourier Expansions 9

Recognize that the two functions f 1 (x) and f 2 (x) (or better, their periodic prolon-
gations with period 2π ) are actually the same function apart from a translation;
accordingly, verify that their Fourier coefficients are related by a simple rule.

(1.22)
In the space L 2 (0, a) the following three sets are, as well known, orthogonal complete
sets:  2nπ   2nπ 
(i) 1, cos x , sin x , n = 1, 2, . . . ;
a a
 nπ   nπ 
(ii) 1, cos x ; (iii) sin x , n = 1, 2, . . .
a a

The series obtained as Fourier expansion of a function f (x) ∈ L 2 (0, a) with respect
to the set i) is automatically extended to all x ∈ R and converges to a function  f 1 (x)
with period a, whereas the series obtained as Fourier expansion with respect to the
sets ii) and iii) converge to functions  f 2 (x) and  f 3 (x) with period . . .. Consider,
for instance, the function f (x) = x ∈ L 2 (0, a): without evaluating the Fourier
expansions, specify what are the functions  f 1 (x), 
f 2 (x), 
f 3 (x).

(1.23)
Consider the space L 2 (Q), where Q is the square 0 ≤ x ≤ π, 0 ≤ y ≤ π .
(1) Evaluate the double Fourier expansion of the function

f (x, y) = 1

in terms of the orthonormal complete system

2
en,m = sin nx sin my , n, m = 1, 2, . . .
π

The series is automatically defined ∀x, y ∈ R2 : to what function 

f (x, y) does this
series converge?
(2) The same questions for the function

f (x, y) = sin x

(1.24)
(1) Show that if the coefficients an of a Fourier series in L 2 (0, 2π ) of the form
+∞

f (x) = an exp(inx)
n=−∞


satisfy n |an | < ∞, i.e., {an } ∈ 1 , then f (x) is continuous.
10 1 Hilbert Spaces

(2) Generalize: assume that for some integer h one has

+∞

|n h an | < ∞
n=−∞

How many times (at least) is the function f (x) continuously differentiable ?
(3) Assume that for some real α one has

c 1
|an | ≤ with α > k +
|n|α 2

at least for |n| > n 0 where n 0 and k are given integers and c a constant. Show that
f (x) ∈ C k−1 , i.e., f (x) is k − 1 times continuously differentiable, and that f (k) (x)
is possibly not continuous but ∈ L 2 (0, 2π ).
(4) Assume that the coefficients an satisfy a condition of the form, if |n| > n 0 ,
c
|an | ≤
2|n|
what property of differentiability can be expected for the function f (x)? (Clearly,
all the above results also hold for similar Fourier expansions where exp(inx) are
replaced, e.g., by cos nx and/or sin nx).
(1.25)
(1) Specify what properties can be deduced for the function f (x) ∈ L 2 (−π, π ) if
its Fourier series is
∞
1
f (x) = cos nx
n=1
n (n + 1)1/4
2 3

(2) Show that any function f (x) admitting a Fourier series of the following form
∞
 an
f (x) = sin nx
n=1
n

where an ∈ 2 , is a continuous function (extensions to series of similar form are

obvious).
(1.26)
In all the questions of this problem, do not try to evaluate the Fourier coefficients of
the proposed functions. No calculations needed!
(1) In H = L 2 (−π, π ), consider the function

0 for − π ≤ x ≤ 0
f (x) = √
x x for 0 ≤ x ≤ π
1.1 Complete Sets, Fourier Expansions 11

(a) Is the Fourier expansion of f (x) with respect to the complete set {exp(inx), n ∈ Z}
convergent at the point x = π ? To what value? and at the point x = 4 ?
(b) Is it true that the Fourier coefficients cn of the above expansion satisfy cn ∈ 1 ?
√
(2) In the same space H ,  let f (x) = |x|. Is it true that the Fourier coefficients an
of the expansion f (x) = n an cos nx satisfy nan ∈ 2 ?
(3) In the same space H , let  f (x) = exp(x 2 ). Is it true that the Fourier coefficients
an of the expansion f (x) = n an cos nx satisfy nan ∈ 2 ? and nan ∈ 1 ?

(1.27)
Let vn be the orthonormal complete system in L 2 (0, π )

vn (x) = 2/π sin nx , n = 1, 2, . . .

(1) Consider the Fourier expansion of the function

 
 
f 1 (x) = x − (π/2)

with respect to the subset v1 , v3 , . . . , v2m+1 , . . .: is this expansion convergent (with

respect to the L 2 norm, of course)? to what function? (No calculation needed!)
(2) The same questions for the function f 2 (x) = x − (π/2).
(3) The same questions for the function f 3 (x) = x.
(4) Is the subset v1 , v3 , . . . , v2m+1 , . . . a complete system in the space L 2 (0, π/2)?

(1.28)
Consider in the space L 2 (−π, π ) the orthonormal not complete set

1 1
√ , √ sin nx , n = 1, 2, . . .
2π π

Find the functions which are obtained performing the Fourier expansion (no calcu-
lation needed !) of the following functions with respect to this set:

1 for |x| < π/2
f 1 (x) = 2 + exp(2i x) , f 2 (x) = x log |x| , f 3 (x) =
0 for π/2 < |x| < π

(1.29)
Consider in the space L 2 (0, 4π ) the orthogonal not complete set {exp(inx), n ∈ Z}.
Find the functions which are obtained performing the Fourier expansion (no calcu-
lation needed !) of the following functions with respect to this set:

1 for 0 < x < 2π
f 1 (x) = ; f 2 (x) = | sin(x/2)|
0 for 2π < x < 4π
12 1 Hilbert Spaces

(1.30)
Consider in L 2 (0, ∞) the set

sin nx for 0 ≤ x ≤ nπ
vn (x) = , n = 1, 2, . . .
0 for x ≥ nπ

See Problem 1.17, q.(3) for the orthogonality and the non-completeness of this set.
Find the functions which are obtained performing the Fourier expansion of the fol-
lowing functions with respect to this set:
 
1 for 0 < x < π 1 for 0 < x < 2π
f 1 (x) = ; f 2 (x) =
0 for x > π 0 for x > 2π

(1.31)
In the space H = L 2 (0, +∞), consider the set of orthonormal functions u n (x)

1 for n − 1 < x < n
u n (x) = , n = 1, 2, . . .
0 elsewhere

given in Problem 1.17, q.(1).

(1) What function is obtained performing the Fourier expansion of a function f (x) ∈
L 2 (0, ∞) with respect to the set u n (x)?
(2) Is the sequence of the functions u n (x) pointwise convergent as n → ∞? Is
the convergence uniform? Is this sequence a Cauchy
 sequence (with respect to the
L 2 (0, ∞) norm)? Is it weakly L 2-convergent i.e., does the numerical sequence
(u n , g) admit limit ∀g ∈ L 2 (0, ∞) ?

In the three following problems, we will introduce as independent variable

the time t —just to help the physical interpretation—instead of the “position”
variable x. Accordingly, we will write, e.g., u = u(t), u̇ = du/dt, etc.

(1.32)
(1) Consider the equation of the periodically forced harmonic oscillator

ü + u = g(t) , u = u(t)
1.1 Complete Sets, Fourier Expansions 13

where g(t) is a 2π -periodic given function ∈ L 2 (0, 2π ), and look for 2π -periodic
solutions u(t). Write g(t) as Fourier series with respect to the orthogonal complete
system {exp(int), n ∈ Z} in L 2 (0, 2π ): g(t)  = n gn exp(int), and obtain the
solution in the form of a Fourier series: u(t) = n u n exp(int). Under what condition
on g(t) (or on its Fourier coefficients gn ) does this equation admit solution? and, when
the solution exists, is it unique?
(2) The same questions for the equation

ü + 2u = g(t)

(1.33)
(1) The same questions as in q. (1) of the above problem for the equation

u̇ + u = g(t) , u = u(t)

this is, e.g., the equation of an electric series circuit of a resistance R and an induc-
tance L (with R = L = 1), submitted to a periodic potential g(t) where u(t) is
the electric current . As before, assume that g(t) is a 2π -periodic given function
∈ L 2 (0, 2π ) and look for 2π -periodic solutions u(t). Introducing the orthogonal
complete system {exp(int), n ∈ Z} in L 2 (0, 2π ), write in the form of a Fourier
series the solution of this equation.
(2) Show that the solution u(t) is a continuous function.

(1.34)
A doubt concerning the existence and uniqueness of solutions of the equations given in
the two above problems. In Problem 1.32, q.(1) the conclusion was that the equation
ü + u = g has no solution if the Fourier coefficients g±1 of g(t) with respect the
orthogonal complete set {exp(int), n ∈ Z} are not zero. However, it is well known
from elementary analysis that, e.g., the equation ü + u = sin t admits the solution
u(t) = −(t/2) cos t (this is the case of “resonance”). Explain why this solution does
not appear in the present context of Fourier expansions. A related difficulty appears
in Problems 1.32, q.(2) and 1.33, q.(1): the conclusion was that the solution is unique,
but it is well known that the differential equations considered in these problems admit
respectively ∞2 and ∞1 solutions: explain why these solutions do not appear in the
above calculations. Similar apparent difficulties appear in many other cases: see e.g.,
Problems 1.84–1.90.
14 1 Hilbert Spaces

1.1.3 Harmonic Functions: Dirichlet and Neumann

Problems

In this subsection, simple examples of Dirichlet and Neumann Problems will

be proposed. The Dirichlet Problem amounts of finding a harmonic function
U = U (x, y) in some region Ω ⊂ R 2 satisfying a given condition on the
boundary of Ω, i.e.,

∂ 2U ∂ 2U 

Δ2 U ≡ + = 0 in Ω, with U  = F(x, y)
∂x2 ∂ y2 ∂Ω

Neumann Problem amounts of finding a harmonic function in Ω when a con-


dition is given on its normal derivative on the boundary, i.e., ∂U/∂n  =
∂Ω
G(x, y).
The Dirichlet Problem will be also reconsidered, with different methods, in
Chap. 2, Sect. 2.3, and in Chap. 3, Problems 3.110, 3.111, 3.112, 3.115.
In the four following exercises, recall that the most general form of a harmonic
function U = U (r, ϕ) in the interior of the circle centered at the origin of radius
R, in polar coordinates r, ϕ, is given by
∞

U (r, ϕ) = a0 + r n (an cos nϕ + bn sin nϕ)
n=1

(1.35)
(1) Assume for simplicity R = 1. Solve the Dirichlet Problem for the circle, i.e., find
U (r, ϕ) for r < 1 if the boundary value U (1, ϕ) = F(ϕ) ∈ L 2 (0, 2π ) is given:
(a) if F(ϕ) = 1 (trivial !);
(b) if F(ϕ) = cos2 ϕ (nearly trivial !);

1 for 0 < ϕ < π
(c) obtain as a Fourier series U (r, ϕ) if F(r, ϕ) = .
−1 for π < ϕ < 2π
(2) Show that U (r, ϕ) is a C ∞ function if r < 1.

(1.36)
Consider the case of a semicircle 0 ≤ ϕ ≤ π (radius R = 1) with the boundary
conditions

U (r, 0) = U (r, π ) = 0, U (1, ϕ) = F(ϕ) ∈ L 2 (0, π )

(1) Show that in this case the Dirichlet Problem can be solved with a0 = an = 0 for
all n.
1.1 Complete Sets, Fourier Expansions 15

(2) Let F(ϕ) = 1: the solution U (r, ϕ) (written as a Fourier series) can be also
extended to the semicircle with π < ϕ < 2π . What is the value of U (1, 3π/2)?
(3) Solve the Dirichlet Problem with the boundary conditions

U (r, 0) = U (r, π ) = a = 0, U (1, ϕ) = F(ϕ) ∈ L 2 (0, π )

where a = const. Hint: solve first the problem with U (1, ϕ) = F(ϕ) − a and
U (r, 0) = U (r, π ) = 0, then ….

(1.37)
Consider the case of a quarter-circle 0 ≤ ϕ ≤ π/2 (radius R = 1) with the boundary
conditions

U (r, 0) = U (r, π/2) = 0, U (1, ϕ) = F(ϕ) ∈ L 2 (0, π/2)

(1) Show that in this case the Dirichlet Problem can be solved with a0 = an = 0 for
all n, and bn = 0 if n is odd.
(2) Let F(ϕ) = 1: the solution U (r, ϕ) (written as a Fourier series) can be also
extended to the whole circle. What is the value of U (1, 3π/4)? and U (1, 5π/4)? and
U (1, 7π/4)?

(1.38)
(1) Show that the Neumann Problem for the circle, i.e., the problem of finding U (r, ϕ)
in the interior of the circle if the normal derivative at the boundary ∂U/∂r |r =R =
G(ϕ) ∈ L 2 (0, 2π ) is given, can be solved if (and only if) G(ϕ) satisfies
 2π
1
g0 = G(ϕ) dϕ = 0
2π 0

Show also that the solution (when existing) is not unique.

(2) If U (r, ϕ) is a two-dimensional electric potential, explain why the results obtained
in (1) admit a clear physical interpretation.

(1.39)
(1) Consider the case of a rectangle in the (x, y) plane, say 0 ≤ x ≤ π , 0 ≤ y ≤ h,
with boundary conditions

U (0, y) = U (π, y) = 0, U (x, 0) = F1 (x), U (x, h) = F2 (x)

Using the separation of variables U (x, y) = X (x)Y (y), show that the solution of
the Dirichlet Problem can be written in the form
∞
  
U (x, y) = sin nx an exp(ny) + bn exp(−ny)
n=1
16 1 Hilbert Spaces

where the coefficients an , bn are uniquely determined by F1 (x), F2 (x).

(2) Find U (x, y) in the case F1 (x) = sin x, F2 (x) = sin 2x.
(3) What changes if h = ∞ (imposing that the solution belongs to L 2 )?

(1.40)
Consider the Dirichlet Problem in a rectangle with nonzero boundary conditions
on all the four sides of the rectangle. Show how the problem can be solved by a
superposition of two problems similar to the previous one, q. (1).

(1.41)
(1) Consider the Dirichlet Problem in the annular region between the two circles
centered at the origin with radius R1 < R2 . Recalling that the most general form of
the harmonic function in the region R1 < r < R2 can be written in polar coordinates
r, ϕ as 
U (r, ϕ) = a0 + b0 log r + exp(inϕ)(an r n + bn r −n )
n=±1,±2,...

show that the Dirichlet Problem admits unique solution if the two boundary condi-
tions
U (R1 , ϕ) = F1 (ϕ), U (R2 , ϕ) = F2 (ϕ)

are given.
(2) Solve the problem in the (rather simple) cases
(a) F1 (ϕ) = c1 , F2 (ϕ) = c2 = c1 , where c1 , c2 are constants;
(b) F1 (ϕ) = cos ϕ with R1 = 1/2 and F2 (ϕ) = cos ϕ with R2 = 2;
(c) F1 (ϕ) = cos ϕ with R1 = 1 and F2 (ϕ) = cos 2ϕ with R2 = 2.

1.2 Linear Operators in Hilbert Spaces

This section is devoted to studying the different properties of linear operators

between Hilbert spaces: their domains, ranges, norms, boundedness, closed-
ness, and to examining special classes of operators: adjoint and self-adjoint
operators, projections, isometric and unitary operators, functionals, and time-
evolution operators.
Great attention is paid to the notion of eigenvalues and eigenvectors, due to
its relevance in physical problems. Many exercises propose the different pro-
cedures needed for finding eigenvectors and the extremely various situations
which can occur. According to the physicists use, the term “eigenvector” is used
instead of the more correct “eigenspace”, and “degeneracy” instead of “geo-
metrical multiplicity” of the eigenvalue (i.e., the dimension of the eigenspace).
The term “not degenerate” is also used instead of “degeneracy equal to 1”. The
notion of spectrum is only occasionally mentioned.
1.2 Linear Operators in Hilbert Spaces 17

Another frequent question concerns the convergence of given sequences of

operators in a Hilbert space H . Let us recall that the convergence of a sequence
Tn to T as n → ∞ is said to be
(i) “in norm” if Tn − T  → 0
(ii)“strong” if(Tn − T )x → 0 , ∀x ∈ H
(iii)“weak” if y, (Tn − T )x → 0 , ∀x, y ∈ H
Clearly, norm convergence implies strong and strong implies weak conver-
gence, but the converse is not true. Many of the exercises proposed provide
several examples of this. Similar definitions hold for families of operators Ta
depending on some continuous parameter a.
Questions as “Study the convergence” or “Find the limit” of the given sequence
Tn (or family Ta ) of operators are actually “cumulative” questions, which
indeed include and summarize several aspects. A first aspect is to emphasize
the fact that “convergence” (and the related notions of “approximation” and
“neighborhood”) is a “relative” notion, being strictly dependent on the defini-
tion of convergence which has been chosen. The next “operative” aspects are
that, given the sequence of operators, one has to
(a) conjecture the possible limit T (this is usually rather easy)
(b) evaluate some norms of operators Tn − T  and/or of vectors (Tn − T )x
and so on, to decide what type of convergence is involved.
Frequent use will be done in this section, and also in Chap. 3, of the Lebesgue-
dominated convergence theorem (briefly: Lebesgue theorem) concerning the
convergence of integrals of sequences of functions. The statement of the the-
orem in a form convenient for our purposes is the following:
Assume that a sequence of real functions { f n (x)} ∈ L 1 (R) satisfies the fol-
lowing hypotheses:
(i) f n (x) converges pointwise almost everywhere to a function f (x),
(ii)there is a function g(x) ∈ L 1 (R) such that
| f n (x)| ≤ g(x)
then
(a) f (x)∈ L 1 (R) 
+∞ +∞
(b) lim f n (x) d x = f (x) d x
n→∞ −∞ −∞
The theorem is clearly also true if, instead of a sequence of functions depending
on a integer index n, one deals with family of functions { f a (x)} depending on
a continuous parameter a, and–typically–one considers the limit as a → 0.
See Problem 1.1 for simple examples of sequences of functions not satisfying
the assumptions of this theorem.
Other examples of linear operators will be proposed in Sects. 3.1.2 and 3.2.2
in the context of Fourier transforms.
18 1 Hilbert Spaces

1.2.1 Linear Operators Defined Giving T en = vn ,

and Related Problems

A common and convenient way to define a linear operator is that of assigning

its values when applied to an orthonormal complete system {en } in a Hilbert
space, i.e., of giving vn = T en . Some significant cases are proposed in this
subsection; other examples can also be found in the following subsections.
The first problem is to check if the domain of these linear operators can be
extended to the whole Hilbert space in such a way to obtain (whenever possible)
a continuous operator. Let us start with the simplest cases in the two following
problems, where the {en } are eigenvectors of T .

(1.42)
Let {en , n = 1, 2, . . .} be an orthonormal complete system in a Hilbert space H , and

T en = cn en , cn ∈ C; no sum over n

In each one of the following cases

cn = n ; cn = 1/n , n = 1, 2, . . . ;

n−i n2
cn = exp(inπ/7) ; cn = exp(in) ; cn = ; cn = 2 , n∈Z
n+i n +1

(a) find the degeneracy of the eigenvalues, find T  (and specify if there is some
x0 ∈ H such that T x0  = T x0 ), or show that T is unbounded;
(b) find domain and range of T (check in particular if they coincide with the whole
space H or—at least—if they are dense in it).
(1.43)
Let {en , n ∈ Z} and let TN (where N is a fixed integer) be defined by

TN en = en for |n| ≤ N and TN en = 0 for |n| > N

(1) Show that TN is a projection.2 Is it compact?

(2) Study the convergence as N → ∞ of the sequence of operators TN to the operator
T∞ = the identity.
(1.44)
Let {en , n ∈ Z} and let S N (where N is a fixed integer) be defined by

2 Inthis book, only orthogonal projections P will be considered, i.e., operators satisfying the prop-
erties P 2 = P (idempotency) and P + = P (Hermiticity).
1.2 Linear Operators in Hilbert Spaces 19

S N en = e−n for 1 ≤ |n| ≤ N , S N e0 = e0 and S N en = 0 for |n| > N

(1) Find the eigenvectors and eigenvalues (with their degeneracy) of S N . Is it com-
pact?
(2) Consider the operator S∞ defined by S∞ en = e−n for all nonzero n ∈ Z and with
S∞ e0 = e0 . Study the convergence as N → ∞ of the sequence of operators TN to
the operator S∞ .
√
(3) If en = exp(inx)/ 2π in H = L 2 (−π, π ), show that the operator S∞ takes a
very simple form!

(1.45)
In a Hilbert space H with orthonormal complete system {en , n = 1, 2, . . .} consider
the set of vectors
e1 + e2 e3 + e4 e2n−1 + e2n
v1 = √ , v2 = √ , . . . , vn = √ , . . ., n = 1, 2, . . .
2 2 2

(1) Is {vn } a orthonormal set? a complete set?

(2) Let T be the linear operator defined by

T en = vn

(a) Does T preserve scalar products? is it unitary?

(b) Show that Ran T is a Hilbert subspace of H ; what is its orthogonal complementary
subspace and the dimension of this subspace?
(c) Does T admit eigenvectors ? What is its kernel?

(1.46)
In a Hilbert space H with orthonormal complete system {en , n = 1, 2, . . .}, consider
the linear operators defined by

S e1 = 0
T en = en+1 and
S en = en−1 for n > 1

(1) Writing a generic vector x ∈ H in the form x = n an en ≡ (a1 , a2 , . . .), obtain
T x and Sx (equivalently: choose H = 2 ). Show that the domain of these operators
is the whole Hilbert space.
(2) Is T injective? surjective? the same questions for S.
(3) Calculate T  and S.
(4) Show that S = T + .
(5) Show that T is “isometric”, i.e., preserves scalar products: (x, y) = (T x, T y),
∀x, y ∈ H but is not unitary. Study the operators T T + and T + T . Show that T T + is
a projection: on what subspace?
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
majorities for the Democratic Presidential electors, the Whigs drew
off. In 1845, at the April election in New York, the natives were
defeated, and the new party disappeared there. As a result of the
autumn election of 1844, the 29th Congress, which organized in
December, 1845, had six Native Representatives; four from New
York and two from Pennsylvania. In the 30th Congress, Pennsylvania
had one. Thereafter for some years, with the exception of a small
vote in Pennsylvania and New York, Nativism disappeared. An able
writer of that day—Hon. A. H. H. Stuart, of Virginia—published
under the nom-de-plume of “Madison” several letters in vindication
of the American party (revived in 1852,) in which he said: “The vital
principle of the American party is Americanism—developing itself in
a deep-rooted attachment to our own country—its constitution, its
union, and its laws—to American men, and American measures, and
American interests—or, in other words, a fervent patriotism—which,
rejecting the transcendental philanthropy of abolitionists, and that
kindred batch of wild enthusiasts, who would seek to embroil us with
foreign countries, in righting the wrongs of Ireland, or Hungary, or
Cuba—would guard with vestal vigilance American institutions and
American interests against the baneful effects of foreign influence.”
About 1852, when the question of slavery in the territories, and its
extension or its abolition in the States, was agitated and causing
sectional differences in the country, many Whigs and Democrats
forsook their parties, and took sides on the questions of the day. This
was aggravated by the large number of alien naturalized citizens
constantly added to the ranks of voters, who took sides with the
Democrats and against the Whigs. Nativism then re-appeared, but in
a new form—that of a secret fraternity. Its real name and objects
were not revealed—even to its members, until they reached a high
degree in the order; and the answer of members on being questioned
on these subjects was, “I don’t know”—which gave it the popular
name, by which it is yet known, of “Know-nothing.” Its moving
causes were the growing power and designs of the Roman Catholic
Church in America; the sudden influx of aliens; and the greed and
incapacity of naturalized citizens for office. Its cardinal principle
was: “Americans must rule America”; and its countersign was the
order of General Washington on a critical occasion during the war:
“Put none but Americans on guard to-night.” Its early nominations
were not made public, but were made by select committees and
conventions of delegates. At first these nominations were confined to
selections of the best Whig or best Democrat on the respective
tickets; and the choice not being made known, but quietly voted for
by all the members of the order, the effect was only visible after
election, and threw all calculation into chaos. For a while it was really
the arbiter of elections.
On February 8, 1853, a bill passed the House of Representatives
providing a territorial government for Nebraska, embracing all of
what is now Kansas and Nebraska. It was silent on the subject of the
repeal of the Missouri Compromise. The bill was tabled in the
Senate; to be revived at the following session. In the Senate it was
amended, on motion of Mr. Douglas, to read: “That so much of the
8th section of an act approved March 6, 1820, (the Missouri
compromise) *** which, being inconsistent with the principles of
non-intervention by Congress with slavery in the States and
Territories, as recognized by the legislature of 1850, commonly called
the Compromise measures, is hereby declared inoperative and void;
it being the true intent and meaning of this act not to legislate slavery
into any Territory or State, nor to exclude it therefrom, but to leave
the people thereof perfectly free to form and regulate their domestic
institutions in their own way, subject only to the Constitution of the
United States.” It was further amended, on motion of Senator
Clayton, to prohibit “alien suffrage.” In the House this amendment
was not agreed to; and the bill finally passed without it, on the 25th
May, 1854.
So far as Nebraska was concerned, no excitement of any kind
marked the initiation of her territorial existence. The persons who
emigrated there seemed to regard the pursuits of business as of more
interest than the discussion of slavery. Kansas was less fortunate.
Her territory became at once the battle-field of a fierce political
conflict between the advocates of slavery, and the free soil men from
the North who went there to resist the establishment of that
institution in the territory. Differences arose between the Legislature
and the Governor, brought about by antagonisms between the Pro-
slavery party and the Free State party; and the condition of affairs in
Kansas assumed so frightful a mien in January, 1856, that the
President sent a special message to Congress on the subject, January
24, 1856; followed by a Proclamation, February 11, 1856, “warning all
unlawful combinations (in the territory) to retire peaceably to their
respective abodes, or he would use the power of the local militia, and
the available forces of the United States to disperse them.”
Several applications were made to Congress for several successive
years, for the admission of Kansas as a state in the Union; upon the
basis of three separate and distinct constitutions, all differing as to
the main questions at issue between the contending factions. The
name of Kansas was for some years synonymous with all that is
lawless and anarchical. Elections became mere farces, and the
officers thus fraudulently placed in power, used their authority only
for their own or their party’s interest. The party opposed to slavery at
length triumphed; a constitution excluding slavery was adopted in
1859, and Kansas was admitted into the Union January 29, 1861.
Under the fugitive slave law, which was passed by Congress at the
session of 1850, as one of the Compromise measures, introduced by
Mr. Clay, a long and exciting litigation occurred to test the validity
and constitutionality of the act, and the several laws on which it
depended. The suit was instituted by Dred Scott, a negro slave, in the
Circuit Court of the United States for the District of Missouri, in
April Term, 1854, against John F. A. Sanford, his alleged owner, for
trespass vi et armis, in holding the plaintiff and his wife and
daughters in slavery in said District of Missouri, where by law slavery
was prohibited; they having been previously lawfully held in slavery
by a former owner—Dr. Emerson—in the State of Illinois, from
whence they were taken by him to Missouri, and sold to the
defendant, Sanford. The case went up on appeal to the Supreme
Court of the United States, and was clearly and elaborately argued.
The majority opinion, delivered by Chief Justice Taney, as also the
dissenting opinions, are reported in full in Howard’s U. S. Supreme
Court Reports, Volume 19, page 393. In respect to the territories the
Constitution grants to Congress the power “to make all needful rules
and regulations concerning the territory and other property
belonging to the United States.” The Court was of opinion that the
clause of the Constitution applies only to the territory within the
original States at the time the Constitution was adopted, and that it
did not apply to future territory acquired by treaty or conquest from
foreign nations. They were also of opinion that the power of Congress
over such future territorial acquisitions was not unlimited, that the
citizens of the States migrating to a territory were not to be regarded
as colonists, subject to absolute power in Congress, but as citizens of
the United States, with all the rights of citizenship guarantied by the
Constitution, and that no legislation was constitutional which
attempted to deprive a citizen of his property on his becoming a
resident of a territory. This question in the case arose under the act
of Congress prohibiting slavery in the territory of upper Louisiana,
(acquired from France, afterwards the State), and of which the
territory of Missouri was formed. Any obscurity as to what
constitutes citizenship, will be removed by attending to the
distinction between local rights of citizenship of the United States
according to the Constitution. Citizenship at large in the sense of the
Constitution can be conferred on a foreigner only by the
naturalization laws of Congress. But each State, in the exercise of its
local and reserved sovereignty, may place foreigners or other persons
on a footing with its own citizens, as to political rights and privileges
to be enjoyed within its own dominion. But State regulations of this
character do not make the persons on whom such rights are
conferred citizens of the United States or entitle them to the
privileges and immunities of citizens in another State. See 5
Wheaton, (U. S. Supreme Court Reports), page 49.
The Court said in The Dred Scott case, above referred to, that:
—“The right of property in a slave is distinctly and expressly affirmed
in the Constitution. The right to traffic in it like the ordinary article
of merchandise and property was guarantied to the citizens of the
United States, in every State that might desire it for twenty years,
and the government in express terms is pledged to protect it in all
future time if the slave escapes from his owner. This is done in plain
words—too plain to be misunderstood, and no word can be found in
the Constitution which gives Congress a greater power over slave
property, or which entitles property of that kind to less protection
than the property of any other description. The only power conferred
is the power coupled with the duty of guarding and protecting the
owner in his rights. Upon these considerations, it is the opinion of
the Court that the Act of Congress which prohibited a citizen from
holding and owning property of this kind in the territory of the
United States north of the line therein mentioned, is not warranted
by the Constitution and is therefore void; and that neither Dred Scott
himself, nor any of his family were made free by being carried into
this territory; even if they had been carried there by the owner with
the intention of becoming a permanent resident.” The abolition of
slavery by the 13th amendment to the Constitution of the United
States ratified and adopted December 18, 1865, has put an end to
these discussions formerly so numerous.
As early as 1854, the Kansas-Nebraska controversy on the
territorial government bill, resulted in a division of the Whig party in
the North. Those not sufficiently opposed to slavery to enter the new
Republican party, then in its incipiency, allied themselves with the
Know-Nothing order, which now accepting the name of American
party established a separate and independent political existence. The
party had no hold in the West; it was entirely Middle State at this
time, and polled a large vote in Massachusetts, Delaware and New
York. In the State elections of 1855 the American party made a stride
Southward. In 1855, the absence of naturalized citizens was universal
in the South, and even so late as 1881 the proportion of foreign born
population in the Southern States, with the exception of Florida,
Louisiana, and Texas was under two per cent. At the early date—1855
—the nativist feeling among the Whigs of that section, made it easy
to transfer them to the American party, which thus secured in both
the Eastern and Southern States, the election of Governor and
Legislature in the States of New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode
Island, Connecticut, New York, California and Kentucky; and also
elected part of its State ticket in Maryland, and Texas; and only lost
the States of Virginia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas, by
small majorities against it.
The order began preparations for a campaign as a National party,
in 1856. It aimed to introduce opposition to aliens and Roman
Catholicism as a national question. On the 21st of February, 1856,
the National Council held a session at Philadelphia, and proceeded to
formulate a declaration of principles, and make a platform, which
were as follows:
“An humble acknowledgement to the Supreme Being, for his
protecting care vouchsafed to our fathers in their successful
Revolutionary struggle, and hitherto manifested to us, their
descendants, in the preservation of the liberties, the independence,
and the union of these States.
 2d. The perpetuation of the Federal Union, as the palladium of our
civil and religious liberties, and the only sure Bulwark of American
independence.
3d. Americans must rule America, and to this end, native-born
citizens should be selected for all state, federal, and municipal offices
or government employment, in preference to all others; nevertheless,
4th. Persons born of American parents residing temporarily
abroad, should be entitled to all the rights of native-born citizens;
but,
5th. No person shall be selected for political station (whether of
native or foreign birth), who recognizes any allegiance or obligation,
of any description, to any foreign prince, potentate, or power, or who
refuses to recognize the Federal and State constitutions (each within
its sphere) as paramount to all other laws, as rules of political action.
6th. The unqualified recognition and maintenance of the reserved
rights of the several States, and the cultivation of harmony and
fraternal good will, between the citizens of the several States, and to
this end, non-interference by congress with questions appertaining
solely to the individual States, and non-intervention by each State
with the affairs of any other State.
7th. The recognition of the right of the native-born and naturalized
citizens of the United States, permanently residing in any territory
thereof, to frame their constitution and laws, and to regulate their
domestic and social affairs in their own mode, subject only to the
provisions of the Federal Constitution, with the privilege of
admission into the Union, whenever they have the requisite
population for one representative in Congress.—Provided always,
that none but those who are citizens of the United States, under the
Constitution and laws thereof, and who have a fixed residence in any
such territory, ought to participate in the formation of the
Constitution, or in the enactment of laws for said Territory or State.
8th. An enforcement of the principle that no State or Territory
ought to admit others than citizens of the United States to the right
of suffrage, or of holding political office.
9th. A change in the laws of naturalization, making a continued
residence of twenty-one years, of all not hereinbefore provided for,
an indispensable requisite for citizenship hereafter, and excluding all
paupers, and persons convicted of crime, from landing upon our
shores; but no interference with the vested rights of foreigners.
10th. Opposition to any union between Church and State; no
interference with religious faith, or worship, and no test oaths for
office.
11th. Free and thorough investigation into any and all alleged
abuses of public functionaries, and a strict economy in public
expenditures.
12th. The maintenance and enforcement of all laws
constitutionally enacted, until said laws shall be repealed, or shall be
declared null and void by competent judicial authority.
The American Ritual, or Constitution, rules, regulations, and
ordinances of the Order were as follows:—

AMERICAN RITUAL.
 Constitution of the National Council of the United States of North
America.
Art. 1st. This organization shall be known by the name and title of
The National Council of the United States of North America,
and its jurisdiction and power shall extend to all the states, districts,
and territories of the United States of North America.
Art. 2d. The object of this organization shall be to protect every
American citizen in the legal and proper exercise of all his civil and
religious rights and privileges; to resist the insidious policy of the
Church of Rome, and all other foreign influence against our
republican institutions in all lawful ways; to place in all offices of
honor, trust, or profit, in the gift of the people, or by appointment,
none but native-born Protestant citizens, and to protect, preserve,
and uphold the union of these states and the constitution of the
same.
Art. 3d. Sec. 1.—A person to become a member of any subordinate
council must be twenty-one years of age; he must believe in the
existence of a Supreme Being as the Creator and preserver of the
universe. He must be a native-born citizen; a Protestant, either born
of Protestant parents, or reared under Protestant influence; and not
united in marriage with a Roman Catholic; provided, nevertheless,
that in this last respect, the state, district, or territorial councils shall
be authorized to so construct their respective constitutions as shall
best promote the interests of the American cause in their several
jurisdictions; and provided, moreover, that no member who may
have a Roman Catholic wife shall be eligible to office in this order;
and provided, further, should any state, district, or territorial council
prefer the words “Roman Catholic” as a disqualification to
membership, in place of “Protestant” as a qualification, they may so
consider this constitution and govern their action accordingly.
Sec. 2.—There shall be an interval of three weeks between the
conferring of the first and second degrees; and of three months
between the conferring of the second and third degrees—provided,
that this restriction shall not apply to those who may have received
the second degree previous to the first day of December next; and
provided, further, that the presidents of state, district, and territorial
councils may grant dispensations for initiating in all the degrees,
officers of new councils.
Sec. 3.—The national council shall hold its annual meetings on the
first Tuesday in the month of June, at such place as may be
designated by the national council at the previous annual meeting,
and it may adjourn from time to time. Special meetings may be
called by the President, on the written request of five delegations
representing five state councils; provided, that sixty days’ notice shall
be given to the state councils previous to said meeting.
Sec. 4.—The national council shall be composed of seven delegates
from each state, to be chosen by the state councils; and each district
or territory where a district or territorial council shall exist, shall be
entitled to send two delegates, to be chosen from said council—
provided that in the nomination of candidates for President and
Vice-President of the United States, and each state shall be entitled
to cast the same number of votes as they shall have members in both
houses of Congress. In all sessions of the national council, thirty-two
delegates, representing thirteen states, territories, or districts, shall
constitute a quorum for the transaction of business.
Sec. 5.—The national council shall be vested with the following
powers and privileges:
It shall be the head of the organization for the United States of
North America, and shall fix and establish all signs, grips, pass-
words, and such other secret work, as may seem to it necessary.
It shall have the power to decide all matters appertaining to
national politics.
It shall have the power to exact from the state councils, quarterly
or annual statements as to the number of members under their
jurisdictions, and in relation to all other matters necessary for its
information.
It shall have the power to form state, territorial, or district
councils, and to grant dispensations for the formation of such bodies,
when five subordinate councils shall have been put in operation in
any state, territory, or district, and application made.
It shall have the power to determine upon a mode of punishment
in case of any dereliction of duty on the part of its members or
officers.
 It shall have the power to adopt cabalistic characters for the
purpose of writing or telegraphing. Said characters to be
communicated to the presidents of the state councils, and by them to
the presidents of the subordinate councils.
It shall have the power to adopt any and every measure it may
deem necessary to secure the success of the organization; provided
that nothing shall be done by the said national council in violation of
the constitution; and provided further, that in all political matters,
its members may be instructed by the state councils, and if so
instructed, shall carry out such instructions of the state councils
which they represent until overruled by a majority of the national
council.
Art. 4. The President shall always preside over the national council
when present, and in his absence the Vice-President shall preside,
and in the absence of both the national council shall appoint a
president pro tempore; and the presiding officers may at all times
call a member to the chair, but such appointment shall not extend
beyond one sitting of the national council.
Art. 5. Sec. 1.—The officers of the National Council shall be a
President, Vice-President, Chaplain, Corresponding Secretary,
Recording Secretary, Treasurer, and two Sentinels, with such other
officers as the national council may see fit to appoint from time to
time; and the secretaries and sentinels may receive such
compensation as the national council shall determine.
Sec. 2.—The duties of the several officers created by this
constitution shall be such as the work of this organization prescribes.
Art. 6. Sec. 1.—All officers provided for by this constitution, except
the sentinels, shall be elected annually by ballot. The president may
appoint sentinels from time to time.
Sec. 2.—A majority of all the votes cast shall be requisite to an
election for an office.
Sec. 3.—All officers and delegates of this council, and of all state,
district, territorial, and subordinate councils, must be invested with
all the degrees of this order.
Sec. 4.—All vacancies in the elective offices shall be filled by a vote
of the national council, and only for the unexpired term of the said
vacancy.
 Art. 7. Sec. 1.—The national council shall entertain and decide all
cases of appeal, and it shall establish a form of appeal.
Sec. 2.—The national council shall levy a tax upon the state,
district, or territorial councils, for the support of the national council,
to be paid in such manner and at such times as the national council
shall determine.
Art. 8.—This national council may alter and amend this
constitution at its regular annual meeting in June next, by a vote of
the majority of the whole number of the members present.
(Cincinnati, Nov. 24, 1854.)

RULES AND REGULATIONS.

Rule 1.—Each State, District, or Territory, in which there may exist

five or more subordinate councils working under dispensations from
the National Council of the United States of North America, or under
regular dispensations from some State, District, or Territory, are
duly empowered to establish themselves into a State, District, or
Territorial council, and when so established, to form for themselves
constitutions and by-laws for their government, in pursuance of, and
in consonance with the Constitution of the National Council of the
United States; provided, however, that all State, District, or
Territorial constitutions shall be subject to the approval of the
National Council of the United States. (June, 1854.)
Rule 2.—All State, District, or Territorial councils, when
established, shall have full power and authority to establish all
subordinate councils within their respective limits; and the
constitutions and by-laws of all such subordinate councils must be
approved by their respective State, District, or Territorial councils.
(June, 1854.)
Rule 3.—All State, District, or Territorial councils, when
established and until the formation of constitutions, shall work
under the constitution of the National Council of the United States.
(June, 1854.)
Rule 4.—In all cases where, for the convenience of the
organization, two State or Territorial councils may be established,
the two councils together shall be entitled to but thirteen delegates[3]
in the National Council of the United States—the proportioned
number of delegates to depend on the number of members in the
organizations; provided, that no State shall be allowed to have more
than one State council, without the consent of the National Council
of the United States. (June, 1854.)
Rule 5.—In any State, District, or Territory, where there may be
more than one organization working on the same basis, (to wit, the
lodges and “councils,”) the same shall be required to combine; the
officers of each organization shall resign and new officers be elected;
and thereafter these bodies shall be known as State councils, and
subordinate councils, and new charters shall be granted to them by
the national council. (June, 1854.)
Rule 6.—It shall be considered a penal offence for any brother not
an officer of a subordinate council, to make use of the sign or
summons adopted for public notification, except by direction of the
President; or for officers of a council to post the same at any other
time than from midnight to one hour before daybreak, and this rule
shall be incorporated into the by-laws of the State, District, and
Territorial councils. (June, 1854.)
Rule 7.—The determination of the necessity and mode of issuing
the posters for public notification shall be intrusted to the State,
District, or Territorial councils. (June, 1854.)
Rule 8.—The respective State, District, or Territorial councils shall
be required to make statements of the number of members within
their respective limits, at the next meeting of this national council,
and annually thereafter, at the regular annual meeting. (June, 1854.)
Rule 9.—The delegates to the National Council of the United States
of North America shall be entitled to three dollars per day for their
attendance upon the national council, and for each day that may be
necessary in going and returning from the same; and five cents per
mile for every mile they may necessarily travel in going to, and
returning from the place of meeting of the national council; to be
computed by the nearest mail route: which shall be paid out of the
treasury of the national council. (November, 1854.)
Rule 10.—Each State, District, or Territorial council shall be taxed
four cents per annum for every member in good standing belonging
to each subordinate council under its jurisdiction on the first day of
April, which shall be reported to the national council, and paid into
the national treasury, on or before the first day of the annual session,
to be held in June; and on the same day in each succeeding year. And
the first fiscal year shall be considered as commencing on the first
day of December, 1854, and ending on the fifteenth day of May, 1855.
(November, 1854.)
Rule 11.—The following shall be the key to determine and ascertain
the purport of any communication that may be addressed to the
President of a State, District, or Territorial council by the President
of the national council, who is hereby instructed to communicate a
knowledge of the same to said officers:

A B C D E F G H I J K L M
1 7 13 19 25 2 8 14 20 26 3 9 15
N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
21 4 10 16 22 5 11 17 23 6 12 18 24

Rule 12.—The clause of the article of the constitution relative to

belief in the Supreme Being is obligatory upon every State and
subordinate council, as well as upon each individual member. (June,
1854.)
Rule 13.—The following shall be the compensation of the officers of
this council:
1st. The Corresponding Secretary shall be paid two thousand
dollars per annum, from the 17th day of June, 1854.
2d. The Treasurer shall be paid five hundred dollars per annum,
from the 17th day of June, 1854.
3d. The Sentinels shall be paid five dollars for every day they may
be in attendance on the sittings of the national council.
4th. The Chaplain shall be paid one hundred dollars per annum,
from the 17th day of June, 1854.
5th. The Recording Secretary shall be paid five hundred dollars per
annum, from the 17th day of June, 1854.
6th. The Assistant Secretary shall be paid five dollars per day, for
every day he may be in attendance on the sitting of the national
council. All of which is to be paid out of the national treasury, on the
draft of the President. (November, 1854.)

SPECIAL VOTING.

Vote 1st.—This national council hereby grants to the State of

Virginia two State councils, the one to be located in Eastern and the
other in Western Virginia, the Blue Ridge Mountains being the
geographical line between the two jurisdictions. (June, 1854.)
Vote 2d.—The President shall have power, till the next session of
the national council, to grant dispensations for the formation of
State, District, or Territorial councils, in form most agreeable to his
own discretion, upon proper application being made. (June, 1854.)
Vote 3d.—The seats of all delegates to and members of the present
national council shall be vacated on the first Tuesday in June, 1855,
at the hour of six o’clock in the forenoon; and the national council
convening in annual session upon that day, shall be composed
exclusively of delegates elected under and in accordance with the
provisions of the constitution, as amended at the present session of
this national council; provided, that this resolution shall not apply to
the officers of the national council. (November, 1854.)
Vote 4th.—The Corresponding Secretary of this council is
authorized to have printed the names of the delegates to this national
council; also, those of the Presidents of the several State, District,
and Territorial councils, together with their address, and to forward
a copy of the same to each person named; and further, the
Corresponding Secretaries of each State, District, and Territory are
requested to forward a copy of their several constitutions to each
other. (November, 1854.)
Vote 5th.—In the publication of the constitution and the ritual,
under the direction of the committee—brothers Deshler, Damrell,
and Stephens—the name, signs, grips, and pass-words of the order
shall be indicated by [* * *], and a copy of the same shall be
furnished to each State, District, and Territorial council, and to each
member of that body. (November, 1854.)
Vote 6th.—A copy of the constitution of each State, District, and
Territorial council, shall be submitted to this council for
examination. (November, 1854.)
Vote 7th.—It shall be the duty of the Treasurer, at each annual
meeting of this body, to make a report of all moneys received or
expended in the interval. (November, 1854.)
Vote 8th.—Messrs. Gifford of Pa., Barker of N. Y., Deshler of N. J.,
Williamson of Va., and Stephens of Md., are appointed a committee
to confer with similar committees that have been appointed for the
purpose of consolidating the various American orders, with power to
make the necessary arrangement for such consolidation—subject to
the approval of this national council, at its next session. (November,
1854.)
Vote 9th.—On receipt of the new ritual by the members of this
national council who have received the third degree, they or any of
them may, and they are hereby empowered to, confer the third
degree upon members of this body in their respective states,
districts, and territories, and upon the presidents and other officers
of their state, district, and territorial councils. And further, the
presidents of the state, district, and territorial councils shall in the
first instance confer the third degree upon as many of the presidents
and officers of their subordinate councils as can be assembled
together in their respective localities; and afterwards the same may
be conferred upon officers of other subordinate councils, by any
presiding officer of a council who shall have previously received it
under the provisions of the constitution. (November, 1854.)
Vote 10th.—To entitle any delegate to a seat in this national
council, at its annual session in June next, he must present a
properly authenticated certificate that he was duly elected as a
delegate to the same, or appointed a substitute in accordance with
the requirements of the constitutions of state, territorial, or district
councils. And no delegate shall be received from any state, district, or
territorial council which has not adopted the constitution and ritual
of this national council. (November, 1854.)
Vote 11th.—The committee on printing the constitution and ritual
is authorized to have a sufficient number of the same printed for the
use of the order. And no state, district, or territorial council shall be
allowed to reprint the same. (November, 1854.)
 Vote 12th.—The right to establish all subordinate councils in any of
the states, districts, and territories represented in this national
council, shall be confined to the state, district, and territorial
councils which they represent. (November, 1854.)

Constitution for the Government of Subordinate Councils.

Art. I. Sec. 1.—Each subordinate council shall be composed of not

less than thirteen members, all of whom shall have received all the
degrees of the order, and shall be known and recognised as ——
Council, No. ——, of the —— of the county of ——, and State of North
Carolina.
Sec. 2.—No person shall be a member of any subordinate council
in this state, unless he possesses all the qualifications, and comes up
to all the requirements laid down in the constitution of the national
council, and whose wife (if he has one), is not a Roman Catholic.
Sec. 3. No application for membership shall be received and acted
on from a person residing out of the state, or resides in a county
where there is a council in existence, unless upon special cause to be
stated to the council, to be judged of by the same; and such person, if
the reasons be considered sufficient, may be initiated the same night
he is proposed, provided he resides five miles or more from the place
where the council is located. But no person can vote in any council,
except the one of which he is a member.
Sec. 4. Every person applying for membership, shall be voted for
by ballot, in open council, if a ballot is requested by a single member.
If one-third of the votes cast be against the applicant, he shall be
rejected. If any applicant be rejected, he shall not be again proposed
within six months thereafter. Nothing herein contained shall be
construed to prevent the initiation of applicants privately, by those
empowered to do so, in localities where there are no councils within
a convenient distance.
Sec. 5. Any member of one subordinate council wishing to change
his membership to another council, shall apply to the council to
which he belongs, either in writing or orally through another
member, and the question shall be decided by the council. If a
majority are in favor of granting him an honorable dismission, he
shall receive the same in writing, to be signed by the president and
countersigned by the secretary. But until a member thus receiving an
honorable dismission has actually been admitted to membership in
another council, he shall be held subject to the discipline of the
council from which he has received the dismission, to be dealt with
by the same, for any violation of the requirements of the order.
Before being received in the council to which he wishes to transfer
his membership, he shall present said certificate of honorable
dismission, and shall be received as new members are.
Sec. 6. Applications for the second degree shall not be received
except in second degree councils, and voted on by second and third
degree members only, and applications for the third degree shall be
received in third degree councils, and voted on by third degree
members only.
Art. II.—Each subordinate council shall fix on its own time and
place for meeting: and shall meet at least once a month, but where
not very inconvenient, it is recommended that they meet once a
week. Thirteen members shall form a quorum for the transaction of
business. Special meetings may be called by the president at any
time, at the request of four members of the order.
Art. III.—Sec. 1. The members of each subordinate council shall
consist of a president, vice-president, instructor, secretary, treasurer,
marshal, inside and outside sentinel, and shall hold their offices for
the term of six months, or until their successors are elected and
installed.
Sec. 2. The officers of each subordinate council (except the
sentinels, who shall be appointed by the president), shall be elected
at the first regular meetings in January and July, separately, and by
ballot; and each shall receive a majority of all the votes cast to entitle
him to an election. No member shall be elected to any office, unless
he be present and signify his assent thereto at the time of his
election. Any vacancy which may occur by death, resignation, or
otherwise, shall be filled at the next meeting thereafter, in the
manner and form above described.
Sec. 3. The President.—It shall be the duty of the president of each
subordinate council, to preside in the council, and enforce a due
observance of the constitution and rules of the order, and a proper
respect for the state council and the national council; to have sole
and exclusive charge of the charter and the constitution and ritual of
the order, which he must always have with him when his council is in
session, to see that all officers perform their respective duties; to
announce all ballotings to the council; to decide all questions of
order; to give the casting vote in all cases of a tie; to convene special
meetings when deemed expedient; to draw warrants on the treasurer
for all sums, the payment of which is ordered by the council; and to
perform such other duties as are demanded of him by the
Constitutions and ritual of the order.
Sec. 4. The vice-president of each subordinate council shall assist
the president in the discharge of his duties, whilst his council is in
session; and, in his absence, shall perform all the duties of the
president.
Sec. 5. The instructor shall perform the duties of the president in
the absence of the president and vice-president, and shall, under the
direction of the president, perform such duties as may be assigned to
him by the ritual.
Sec. 6. The secretary shall keep an accurate record of the
proceedings of the council. He shall write all communications, fill all
notices, attest all warrants drawn by the president for the payment of
money; he shall keep a correct roll of all the members of the council,
together with their age, residence, and occupation, in the order in
which they have been admitted; he shall, at the expiration of every
three months, make out a report of all work done during that time,
which report he shall forward to the secretary of the state council;
and when superseded in his office shall deliver all books, papers, &c.,
in his hands to his successor.
Sec. 7. The treasurer shall hold all moneys raised exclusively for
the use of the state council, which he shall pay over to the secretary
of the state council at its regular sessions, or whenever called upon
by the president of the state council. He shall receive all moneys for
the use of the subordinate council, and pay all amounts drawn for on
him, by the president of the subordinate council, if attested by the
secretary.
Sec. 8. The marshal shall perform such duties, under the direction
of the president, as may be required of him by the ritual.
 Sec. 9. The inside sentinel shall have charge of the inner door, and
act under the directions of the president. He shall admit no person,
unless he can prove himself a member of this order, and of the same
degree in which the council is opened, or by order of the president,
or is satisfactorily vouched for.
Sec. 10. The outside sentinel shall have charge of the outer door,
and act in accordance with the orders of the president. He shall
permit no person to enter the outer door unless he give the pass-
word of the degree in which the council is at work, or is properly
vouched for.
Sec. 11. The secretary, treasurer, and sentinels, shall receive such
compensation as the subordinate councils may each conclude to
allow.
Sec. 12. Each subordinate council may levy its own fees for
initiation, to raise a fund to pay its dues to the state council, and to
defray its own expenses. Each council may, also, at its discretion,
initiate without charging the usual fee, those it considers unable to
pay the same.
Sec. 13. The president shall keep in his possession the constitution
and ritual of the order. He shall not suffer the same to go out of his
possession under any pretence whatever, unless in case of absence,
when he may put them in the hands of the vice-president or
instructor, or whilst the council is in session, for the information of a
member wishing to see it, for the purpose of initiation, or conferring
of degrees.
Art. IV. Each subordinate council shall have power to adopt such
by-laws, rules, and regulations, for its own government, as it may
think proper, not inconsistent with the constitutions of the national
and state councils.

Form of Application for a Charter to Organize a new Council.

Post Office —— county,

Date ——.

To ——
 President of the State Council of North Carolina:—
We, the undersigned, members of the Third Degree, being
desirous of extending the influence and usefulness of our
organization, do hereby ask for a warrant of dispensation, instituting
and organizing us as a subordinate branch of the order, under the
jurisdiction of the State Council of the State of North Carolina, to be
known and hailed as Council No. ——, and to be located at ——, in
the county of ——, State of North Carolina.
And we do hereby pledge ourselves to be governed by the
Constitution of the State Council of the State of North Carolina, and
of the Grand Council of the U. S. N. A., and that we will in all things
conform to the rules and usages of the order.
Names. Residences.

FORM OF DISMISSION FROM ONE COUNCIL TO

ANOTHER.

This is to certify that Brother ——, a member of —— Council, No.

——, having made an application to change his membership from
this council to that of —— Council, No. ——, at ——, in the county of
——, I do hereby declare, that said brother has received an honorable
dismission from this council, and is hereby recommended for
membership in —— Council, No. ——, in the county of ——, N. C.;
provided, however, that until Brother —— has been admitted to
membership in said council, he is to be considered subject to the
discipline of this council, to be dealt with by the same for any
violation of the requirements of the order. This the —— day of ——,
185—, and the —— year of American Independence.

—— President, —— Council,
No. ——.

—— Secretary.

FORM OF CERTIFICATE FOR DELEGATES TO THE STATE

COUNCIL.